Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry April 2006

ver. 2.1
www.traditionaltree.org

Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Fabaceae (legume family)

gliricidia, Mexican lilac, mother of cocoa, Nicaraguan cacao shade, quick stick, St. Vincent plum, tree of iron (Eng-
lish); immortelle, lilas étranger (French); madre de cacao (French, Spanish); rechesengel (Palau)

Craig R. Elevitch and John K. Francis

IN BRIEF

photo: C. Elevitch
Distribution Widely naturalized in the tropi­
cal Americas, Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and the
Pacific islands.
Size Medium tree to 15 m (50 ft), typically
reaches 10 m (33 ft) in height; size is usually con­
trolled by regular pruning in cultivated environ­
ments.
Habitat Grows best in warm, seasonally dry
climates with 900–1500 mm (35–60 in) annual
rainfall and elevations 0–1200 m (0–4000 ft).
Vegetation Where introduced, associated with
a wide variety of cultivated crops.
Soils Grows in sands to clays, preferring freely
draining soils with pH 5.0–8.5.
Growth rate Fast in early years, or when annu­
ally pruned back, over 2 m/yr (6.6 ft/yr).
Main agroforestry uses Living fence posts,
crop shade, improved fallow.
Main products Fuelwood, fodder, mulch/or­
ganic matter.
Yields Fuelwood from stands harvested every
2–3 years are 10–20 m3/ha (143–286 ft3/ac).
Intercropping Has been used for shade and or­
ganic matter with cacao, coffee, vanilla, tea, yam,
and other crops.
Invasive potential Moderate potential for inva­
siveness, has naturalized in many areas, but is
usually not considered to be a pest. Boundary planting of gliricidia.
INTRODUCTION Family
Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) is a medium-size, semi-de­ Fabaceae (legume family)
ciduous tree that typically grows to 10 m (33 ft) (occasion­
ally reaching 15 m [50 ft]) in height, with a broad canopy. Subfamily
Native to Central America and possibly northern South Faboideae (Papilionoideae)
America, its cultivation is now pantropical. It grows best
in tropical, seasonally dry climates. The tree thrives in deep, Tribe
well drained soils, although it tolerates shallow or skeletal Robinieae
soils that have high available calcium levels. Because of its
ability to grow in slightly saline calcareous soils, gliricidia Non-preferred scientific names
is suitable for cultivation in atoll environments. Galedupa pungam Blanco
It is a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing tree used throughout Gliricidia lambii Fernald
the tropics for the many environmental services and prod­ Gliricidia maculata var. multijuga Micheli
ucts it provides. Gliricidia is widely used to provide crop Gliricidia maculate (Kunth) Walp.
shade for cacao, coffee, and other shade-loving crops, liv­ Lonchocarpus maculates (Kunth) DC.
ing fence posts for pasture and property boundaries, and as Lonchocarpus roseus (Miller) DC.
a fallow tree to improve degraded land. The tree is also an Lonchocarpus sepium ( Jacq.) DC.
important source of green manure, fodder, and fuelwood. Millettia luzonensis A. Gray
Its ease of propagation by seed and small and large cuttings Robinia hispida L.
makes it a very easy tree for farmers to multiply quickly. Robinia maculate Kunth
It is probably the most widely cultivated multipurpose Robinia rosea Miller
agroforestry tree after Leucaena leucocephala (Simons and Robinia sepium Jacq.
Stewart 1994). Robinia variagata Schltdl.

Common names
DISTRIBUTION
Pacific islands
Native range gliricidia, Mexican lilac, mother of cocoa, Nicaraguan
cacao shade, quick stick, St. Vincent plum, tree of
Because gliricidia has been cultivated from pre-Colombi­
iron (English)
an times, the precise native range is difficult to determine.
immortelle, lilas étranger, madre de cacao (French)
It is certainly native to Mexico (from about 25°30´ N) and
rechesengel (Palau)
Central America (to 7°30´ N in Panama) and may also be
native to northern South America in Colombia, Venezuela, Other regions
and the Guianas.
almácigo extranjero, amory celos, bien vestida, desnodo
florecido, floresco, madre de cacao, madre negro, mata-
Current distribution
ratón, mataraton, palo de hierro, palo de parque, piñón
The species has been cultivated and has naturalized widely amoroso, piñón de cuba, piñón florido, varita de San José
in tropical America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia. In (Spanish)
the Pacific islands, it is found in American Samoa, Cook gamal (Indonesia)
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Poly­
nesia, Guam, Hawai‘i, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Papua Size and form
New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanu­
Gliricidia is a small, thornless, semi-deciduous tree 3–15 m
atu.
(10–50 ft) in height with a trunk up to 30 cm (12 in) in
diameter at breast height (dbh). The canopy diameter is
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION about the same as the height for most provenances if not
pruned. The tree may have single or multiple stems and
Preferred scientific name tends to have a diffuse, irregular crown. In agricultural en­
vironments, the size and shape are often greatly modified
Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Kunth ex Steud. by repeated lopping to suit the farmer’s goals.

 Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Flowers
NAME DERIVATIONS
Racemes or panicles 5–12 cm (2–5 in) long are borne at the
base of leaves. The individual flowers have a light green • Gliricidia from Latin glis, “dormouse” and caedere,
(tinged with red), five-toothed calyx and a corolla of five “to kill” and the Spanish name mata-ratón refer to
whitish-pink or light purple petals. The flower has a typi­ the tree’s rodenticidal properties.
cal pea-flower shape with a broad standard, two oblong, • The epithet sepium means “of hedges” which is the
curved wings, and two united petals. There are 10 whitish use of the tree Jacquin observed in Columbia in the
stamens and a pistil with a red ovary and a whitish style. mid-eigtheenth century.
• “Mother of cocoa” and the Spanish madre de cacao
Leaves refer to the plant’s frequent use as a shade tree for
The alternate, pinnate leaves, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long, cacao.
have a silky pubescence when young. There are 7–17 leaf­ • “Quick stick” refers to the ability of cuttings to
let pairs and a terminal leaflet. The leaflets are elliptical or quickly and easily root and grow into new trees.
lanceolate, 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) long and 1.5–3 cm (0.6–1.2
in) wide, short to long-pointed at the tip, and rounded to • “Tree of iron” and the Spanish palo de hierro refer to
short-pointed at the base. the hard, durable wood.

Fruit Rooting habit

The fruits are flattened pods, 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long, that Gliricidia propagated from cuttings produces an extensive,
contain three to eight seeds. They are yellow-green, becom­ shallow, lateral root system. Seedlings develop taproots,
ing yellow and finally brown or blackish at maturity. Flow­ but it is unclear if the taproots endure throughout the life
ering and fruiting begins between 1 and 5 years of age. of the plant. One study of trees from seedlings on coastal
sands reported poorly developed taproots and well devel­
Seeds oped lateral roots.
The seeds are circular and flat, about 10 mm (0.4 in) in
diameter, shiny, and light to dark brown. There are 4700– Similar or look-a-like species
11,000 seeds/kg (2100–5000 seeds/lb), varying consider­ Gliricidia looks superficially like several other legumi­
ably among seed sources. The seeds are dispersed when the nous tree species. The foliage can be confused with vari­
pods dry sufficiently that the two halves separate and curl ous shower trees that are frequently used as ornamentals,
explosively, propelling the seeds as far as 25 m (82 ft) away such as Cassia javanica. Shower trees have clusters of
from the mother tree. cream, pink, orange, yellow, or red flowers resembling in
shape and size large bunches of grapes hanging from small
Bark branches The flowers have five petals of similar size and
The bark is smooth to slightly fissured and gray to brown. shape. In contrast, gliricidia has pea-like flowers in clusters

Flowers and leaves. Inset flower photo by J. Parrotta, others by C. Elevitch

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 

Left: Nearly mature seedpods turn from green to yellow (shown here), then dry to brown or blackish at maturity. Right: Bark of
a 10-year-old tree. photos: C. Elevitch

in wood and foliage production. Of these, the variation

in wood production was highest. Southern provenances
(Guatemala and Nicaragua) were generally good perform­
ers, while northern provenances (Mexico) were generally
poor performers. There is genetic evidence that one prove­
nance (Masaguara) is escaped from domestication and an­
other (Pedasi) has undergone a severe genetic bottleneck,
i.e., undergone a large reduction in genetic variability.

Known varieties
There are no formally recognized varieties.

Culturally important related species in the genus

In the genus Gliricidia, three species are currently recog­
Although the leaves are similar in appearance to gliricidia, the
nized G. sepium, G. brenningii, and G. maculate. Gliricidia
large clusters of ball-shaped flowers distinguish the shower
tree (shown here). photo: C. Elevitch
brenningii has many tiny leaflets, tiny appendages at the
base of the leaflet stalks, and longer, darker pods. Gliricidia
that are much more modest in size, and whitish-pink to maculate has leathery leaves and usually white flowers in
light purple in color. pendulous inflorescences. Gliricidia sepium has somewhat
elongated, papery leaves, and pink flowers in upward-
curved to erect inflorescences. Members of the genus
GENETICS are obligate out-breeders (i.e., cross-pollination between
two individuals must take place for seeds to develop), and
Variability of species interspecific hybridization is common between G. macu-
late and G. sepium in areas where they grow in proximity.
Differences within gliricidia populations have been rec­
Gliricidia sepium is widely cultivated both within and out­
ognized in stem length, biomass production, flower color,
side of its native range. Gliricidia brenningii and G. macu-
seed size, number of racemes per tree, number of pods per
late are cultivated within their native ranges for living fence
tree, and synchrony of flowering. One study (Simmons
posts and ornamentals but are not commercially cultivated
1996) noted 2.5 times as many pods per tree in Monterrico
and are generally unknown outside of their ranges.
than in Belen Rivas provenance. A high correlation (r =
0.73) between raceme number and pod number was noted,
Genetic resources where collections exist
but without provenance or family variation. Another study
(Simons and Dunsdon 1992) noted provenance variations Germplasm collections have been made by the Internation­

 Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

al Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), Centro Agronómi­ and where there is higher rainfall, although seed produc­
co Tropical de Investigacíon y Enseñanza (CATIE, Costa tion is less reliable.
Rica), and Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI, UK). Trials
have been conducted by the OFI/Oxford and the Univer­ Elevation range
sity of Hawai‘i. 0–1200 m (0–4000 ft)

Mean annual rainfall

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES (600–) 900–1500 (–3500) mm ([24–] 35–60 [–140] in)
Gliricidia grows naturally in deciduous or semi-deciduous
Rainfall pattern
dry forests. The species is a pioneer, colonizing disturbed
areas, and so may be found in secondary forests; it is rarely The tree grows in climates with summer, winter, bimodal,
or never found in old-growth high forests. or uniform rainfall patterns.

Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40

Associated species commonly found in native mm [1.6 in] rainfall)
habitats
3–9 months
Gliricidia may be found associated with most of the spe­
cies of the deciduous dry forests of Meso-America. Some Mean annual temperature
commonly associated genera are Acacia, Bauhinia, Bursera, 20–27°C (78–81°F)
Brosimum, Caesalpinia, Calicophyllum, Combretum, Cres-
centia, Dalbergia, Enterolobium, Guazuma, Haematoxylum, Mean maximum temperature of hottest month
Juliania, Lonchocarpus, Lysiloma, Pithecellobium, Senna, Si- 27–36°C (81–97°F)
marouba, and Swietenia.
Maximum temperature tolerated
Species commonly associated as aboriginal intro- 42°C (108°F)
ductions in Pacific islands
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month
As a relatively recent introduction to Pacific islands,
gliricidia is generally found below elevations of 350 m (1150 14–23°C (57–73°F)
ft) and generally only on farms, but to a limited extent in Minimum temperature tolerated
urban areas, where it is associated with a wide range of
mainly introduced cultivated species. 8–10°C (46–50°F). It does not grow well in areas where the
night temperature drops below 5°C (41°F) and does not
Species commonly associated in modern times or tolerate frost (<0°C [32°F]).
as recent introduction
Soils
In Central and South America in disturbed habitats and
The tree does best in deep, medium-textured, well drained,
where introduced, it is commonly associated with Tabebuia
fertile soils, with near neutral acidity. It tolerates rocky
spp., Cordia spp., Albizia spp., Guazuma ulmifolia, Leucaena
(shallow or skeletal) soils that are high in available calcium,
leucocephala, and Ricinus communis. In the rest of the trop­
and soils with textures from sands to clays. Gliricidia fails
ics, it is associated with the agricultural crops cacao, vanilla,
or grows poorly on cool, wet, compacted, poorly aerated,
coffee, tea, yam, pepper, vegetables, grains, pasture grasses,
very acidic (below pH 4.2), or highly alkaline soils (above
and other crops.
pH 9.0).

Soil texture
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
It grows in light to heavy soils (sands, sandy loams, loams,
AND TOLERANCES sandy clay loams, clays, clay loams, and sandy clays).
Climate Soil drainage
Gliricidia grows best in warm, seasonally dry climates with It prefers freely draining soils and tolerates seasonally im­
moderate mean annual rainfall. It also grows well in areas peded drainage.
with precipitation distributed evenly throughout the year

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 

Soil acidity surviving. Trees grown from cuttings are more vulnerable
The tree prefers acid to neutral/mildly alkaline soils (pH to windthrow than seedlings.
5.0–8.5).
Abilities
Special soil tolerances
Fix nitrogen
Gliricidia can grow in shallow, slightly saline, slightly sodic,
and moderately infertile soils. It also tolerates calcareous Gliricidia is a good nitrogen fixer, although not as good
soils, such as those of atolls. as many other nitrogen-fixing trees (see table below).
Nodulation with Rhizobium normally occurs in the native
Tolerances and in Central and South American naturalized ranges
within 3 months of planting. For Pacific island and other
Drought habitats where the tree is newly introduced, the planting
Gliricidia tolerates seasonal droughts and climates with holes or nursery media may be sprinkled with rhizobia
mean annual rainfall as low as 600 mm (24 in). bacteria inoculant cultures. Alternatively, crude liquid
inoculant can be made by collecting soil from the root
Full sun zone under healthy gliricidia trees, mixing with water, and
It grows best in full sunlight. straining off the particulates to make it easier to sprinkle.

Shade
The tree tolerates only light shade. Seedlings that are plant­ Nitrogen fixation for some important agroforestry trees (af-
ed in heavy shade can survive but will not grow. Seedlings ter MacDicken 1994)
that have been suppressed by shade for even 3–4 years will Species kg/ha/yr lb/ac/yr
recover and grow rapidly if the sheltering overstory is re­ Casuarina equisetifolia 40–100 36–90
moved. Erythrina poeppigiana 60 54
Fire Gliricidia sepium 13 12

Gliricidia is native to areas of Central America prone to Inga jinicuil 35–40 31–36
perennial fires. It is often top-killed by fire, but young trees Leucaena leucocephala up to 274 244
readily regenerate by sprouting from the root collar.

Frost
The tree is intolerant of frost.

Waterlogging
It tolerates brief flooding, but heavily compact­
ed soils or areas prone to waterlogging should
be avoided. It can grow in areas with anaerobic
or seasonally anaerobic subsoils, although it is
not long-lived in such conditions.

Salt spray
Gliricidia can grow in light salt spray. In fact, it
is native to many plant communities along the
Pacific coasts of Mexico and Central America,
which indicates good salt tolerance.

Wind
The tree tolerates trade winds very well, even in
wet areas, where it holds its leaves year-round.
The trees are moderately resistant to hurricane-
force winds, losing leaves and branches but Gliricidia growing near coast of ‘Upolu, Samoa, where it is subject to wind
and salt spray. photo: C. Elevitch

  Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Regenerate rapidly PROPAGATION
The tree regenerates rapidly following cutting or other top Gliricidia is easily propagated by seed or large cuttings.
damage. Seedlings are produced in nurseries in pots or bags and
are ready for outplanting within 2–3 months. Direct-seed­
Self-prune
ing experiments have given good germination and early
The trunks are usually clear of side branches below the main survival, but good weed control for the first few months is
crown, although many provenances have short trunks with required. As a living fence post, this species is often propa­
large, spreading branches. gated by cuttings. Tissue culture has also been done suc­
cessfully but is rarely used in practice.
Coppice
The tree can be managed for coppice production of fire­ Propagation by seed
wood, stakes, fodder, and green manure. It regrows very (after Wilkinson and Elevitch 2003a)
well after pruning, especially if cut only during periods of
active growth (rather than during the dry or cool seasons) Seed collection
and if about 10% of the foliage is left on the tree. Gliricidia is highly variable in form and productivity, and
Pollard for this reason superior provenances (e.g., “Retalhuleu”
and “Belen Rivas”) should be sought out for propagation
Pollarding is the pruning back of all branches to a frame­ (Simons and Dunsdon 1992). Time of flowering and seed­
work on a regular basis (usually annually). Gliricidia is tol­ ing varies with climate, elevation, and dry season duration.
erant of pollarding and forms a new crown quickly; this Trees usually flower in the dry season (November–March
is common practice for gliricidia used as live fence posts in Kona, Hawai‘i; January–March in Mexico; December–
in pasture in situations where there is a use for the wood May in Puerto Rico). The time between flowering and pod
or where there is enough scarcity of fodder to justify the ripening can be very short, 5–7 weeks in some areas. Dur­
effort. ing certain years, and for certain provenances, seed produc­
tion can be very low.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT As the seedpods dry they release their seeds (dehisce) ex­
plosively, flinging them up to 25 m (82 ft) away from the
Growth rate tree. For this reason, seed collectors must observe carefully
and collect seedpods from the tree when they are ripe but
Initial growth is rapid (up to 3 m [10 ft] in the first year),
before they dehisce. Seedpods are 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long
slowing until a final height of 3–15 m (10–50 ft) is reached.
and 12–15 mm (0.5–0.6 in) wide. Each contains three to
The tree has a moderate life span of up to 50 years and of­
eight seeds. Pods are collected after they turn from yellow-
ten becomes hollow and declines before dying.
green to brown but before they are dry enough to curl and
release their seeds.
Flowering and fruiting
Pods are collected with a minimum of effort by hand from
Flowering and fruiting may begin as early as the end of the
low branches or with pruning poles from moderately sized
first growing season and almost always begins by the fifth
trees. Pruning trees back to a stump 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in
growing season. Flowering occurs during the dry season,
height during or after the seed harvest controls tree size
depending on the local climate. If rainfall is evenly dis­
and promotes flowering the next season. The highest seed-
tributed throughout the year, flowering may occur at any
producing areas (in Puerto Rico) receive around 1250 mm
time, irregularly throughout the year, but in lower quanti­
(50 in) of mean annual precipitation. Areas with 1900 mm
ties compared with seasonal climates.
(75 in) or more rainfall have produced little seed. Although
Reaction to competition usually not recommended, seeds may also be collected
from the ground, particularly in dry areas.
New plants are susceptible to competition from grasses
during the first year. Once above the grasses, gliricidia is Seed processing
a good competitor. It has been used to reclaim intractable Ripe pods are spread out in the sun on plastic tarps or a
grass swards. concrete slab. As they dry in the sun, the pods curl and ex­
plode, making a popping sound. The drying area should be
covered with a fine mesh netting to prevent seeds expelled
from dehiscing pods from escaping the area. Once the

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 

Seeds drying on a tarp in the sun. The fragments of dried seed pod will be removed along with other particulates before storage
photo: C. Elevitch Right: Same-age seedlings that are inoculated with Rhizobium (left) are much more vigorous than those that
are not inoculated (right). This holds true for the life of the tree. photo: K. Mudge

seedpods are dry and crunchy, seeds that are still attached ing area. Root-training tubes 14 cm (6 in) deep and 3.8 cm
to pods are separated by hand or with a thresher. Seeds are (1.5 in) in diameter work well, as do polyethylene plastic
further dried to 6–10% moisture. bags 10 x 15 cm (4 x 6 in), when laid flat.

Seed storage Germination

The seed is orthodox, meaning they remain viable after be­ Seeds are placed in containers filled with premoistened
ing dried. At a moisture content of 6–10%, and free of pests, potting medium and covered with about 5 mm (0.2 in) of
seeds can be stored in an airtight container at 4°C (39°F) medium and a thin layer of mulch (such as poultry grit,
for over 10 years and retain viability of up to 90% (Allison fine gravel, or finely screened volcanic cinder). Water is
and Simons 1996). Insect pests can be killed by freezing applied with a fine-headed sprayer to keep the medium
fully dried seeds at –10°C (14°F) for 48 hours prior to stor­ moist. Daily watering is usually necessary, by hand or with
age. an automated system. At seeding time or within 2 weeks of
germination, seedlings should be inoculated with rhizobia
Pre-planting treatments bacteria, either manufactured or made from nodules or soil
No scarification is necessary. Soaking seeds overnight in collected from under a compatible host. Early inoculation
cool water will cause them to swell, hastening germina­ with rhizobia ensures good nodulation and growth.
tion. For fresh seed collections free from insect infesta­
tions, germination is usually high, over 90%. Germination Media
takes 3–15 days. A standard well drained potting medium such as 50% peat
moss, 25% perlite, and 25% vermiculite, amended with a
Growing area little compost, lime, gypsum, micronutrients, rock phos­
Seedlings are best grown in full sun in an uncovered grow­ phate and potassium, can be used.

 Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Time to outplanting Propagation by cutting (after Wilkinson and Elevitch
When grown in full sun and under optimal conditions, 2003b)
seedlings are ready to plant out in 8–12 weeks. About 8 Cuttings are often used instead of seedlings, especially in
weeks after germination, seedlings are double-spaced to wet areas where seed production is usually poor and soil
allow maximum penetration of sunlight and air circulation. moisture is favorable for starting cuttings directly in the
Assuming seedlings were inoculated with rhizobia bacteria ground. Gliricidia generally roots very easily from large
at an early age, no additional nitrogen fertilization is neces­ cuttings, making this the preferred method of propagation
sary, although a very light topdressing of slow release 8-8-8 in many areas. Other advantages over seedlings are:
fertilizer will aid in growth and development. Remove any
• Large cuttings are usually taller than the weeds and
weeds that enter the seedling flat. Insect problems are usu­
can easily be seen for early weed maintenance.
ally minimal, although an occasional infestation of aphids
or scale may be treated with an approved garden soap or • Many farmers set fence-post-sized cuttings and im­
similar product. mediately nail the fence wires to them. Those that take
root are maintained as living fence posts, and those
Seedlings should never be allowed to dry out, but watering
that do not root are replaced with new cuttings af­
frequency may be reduced to cause temporary, moderate
ter they rot off, until a complete living fence system
water stress to harden seedlings before outplanting.
is established. Smaller-diameter cuttings can support
Approximate size fence wire a few months after establishment.
Seedlings are ready to plant at a height of 20–30 cm (8–12 • Cuttings are vegetative clones of the mother trees and
in) with a stem diameter at the base of about 8–10 mm therefore can be easily selected for desired qualities
(0.3–0.4 in). such as upright growth.
• Large cuttings provide crop shade within a relatively
Guidelines for outplanting short period of time.
Survival is usually very high for this hardy, nitrogen-fixing
The disadvantages of using cuttings include:
species. Controlling grasses and other competitive weed
growth around the tree until its canopy overtops the height • They are many times the size and weight of seedlings,
of the weeds is key to good growth and survival. Thereafter, so they are harder to transport and require a much
the tree will hold its own, and in fact is used in Indonesia deeper planting hole.
and West Africa to reclaim grasslands infested with blady • Cuttings are genetically identical to the parent plant
grass (Imperata sp.). On sites with adequate rainfall, trees and therefore large plantings might be more suscep­
can easily attain 2–3 m (6.6–10 ft) in height after a year of tible to disease and insect attack.
growth. A planting study on a sandy site in Puerto Rico • Parent trees are able to produce fewer cuttings than
had 72% survival and seedlings reached 3.8 m (12.5 ft) in seeds.
28 months.
• Cuttings are more vulnerable to windthrow.
Propagation by direct-seeding Root development of gliricidia from cuttings is poor com­
In direct-seeding, an area is prepared at each planting spot, pared to trees grown from seed. For live fences, the ben­
cleared of weeds, and cultivated to a depth of 50 cm (20 in) efits of quick establishment and resistance to animal attack
if the soil is compacted. Seeds are planted at a depth of 5 usually outweigh this consideration. For windbreaks or
mm (0.2 in). forestry, establishment from seedlings is recommended.
Direct-seeding is often the best method for outplanting. Collecting cuttings
It is often cheaper because it eliminates nursery container Normally, large cuttings 2–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) long and 6–15
growing and transplanting. The drawbacks of direct-seed­ cm (2.4–6 in) in diameter are used for quick establishment
ing include risk of predator damage (e.g., rats, birds, etc.), of live fence posts supporting barbed wire or hog fencing.
lack of rains to sustain the newly germinated seeds, and For growing in dense stockades, smaller woody cuttings
the mandatory frequent maintenance that must be done to 50 cm (20 in) long, 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) in diameter, and at
ensure weeds do not overcome the small seedlings. least 6 months old are used. Gliricidia is highly variable
in form and productivity; select cuttings from trees with
more upright form for best results for live fence posts.
Cuttings can be taken any time of year, although the ideal

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 

time for deciduous trees such as gliricidia is
when the new growth is appearing, usually at
the onset of the rainy season.
If cuttings are transported, they should be cov­
ered or kept in the shade and should not be al­
lowed to dry out or to be bruised. Protect cut­
tings from bruising during transport by pad­
ding with leaves or a blanket.

Harvesting cuttings
Make a clean cut with a sharp pruner or saw.
The top should be cut at an angle to preclude
water accumulation and rotting on top of the
cutting. The angled cut also indicates which side
to plant upwards. Cuttings should be pruned
clean of major side branches and leaves.

Storage of cuttings
It is ideal to outplant the cuttings immediately.
If this is not feasible, cuttings can be stood up
Barbed wire mounted on a stockade fence of gliricidia cuttings. photo: C.
in shady conditions and covered with wet sack­ Elevitch
ing or sprinkled frequently. In Central Amer­
ica, farmers often harvest cuttings during the
establishment, but not overly wet. Irrigation may be neces­
waning moon, followed by 1 week lying horizontal and 3
sary during dry spells until the cuttings are established.
weeks in the vertical position with the rooting end down,
and planting during the next waning moon (Allison and Guidelines for outplanting
Simons, 1996). In Puerto Rico, they wait for what they
Removing weeds from the base and root zone around cut­
consider to be the correct phase of the moon to harvest the
tings is important for high success rates. Placing a weed
cuttings and plant immediately.
barrier such as a sheet of cardboard or other biodegradable
Preparing cuttings material can greatly reduce the time necessary for weed
control.
At planting time, the lower 30–40 cm (12–16 in) of the cut­
tings are usually “wounded” using a sharp knife to make In areas without adequate rainfall, cuttings should be ir­
several small incisions through the bark to promote side rigated once or twice a week until they are well established
rooting. Without these cuts, roots usually only emerge (i.e., 4–6 months). Overwatering can cause rotting of
from the base of the cutting, making for a potentially weak gliricidia cuttings. Controlling grasses and other competi­
root structure and susceptibility to windthrow. tive weed growth around the tree until its canopy overtops
the height of the weeds is key to good growth and survival.
Growing area Once established, very little maintenance is required.
Cuttings are normally planted directly in the field. For cut­ Cuttings are usually planted for live fence posts, with wire
tings 2–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) tall, the lower portion is buried strung between posts. Spacing for live fence posts ranges
30–50 cm (12–20 in) deep. For smaller cuttings, generally from 0.5–3 m (1.6–10 ft) between cuttings. For pig contain­
about 20% of the cutting’s length should be underground. ment, gliricidia is also used as live fence posts to make a
Planters should make sure to plant cuttings correct side physical barrier from the tree trunks reinforced with wire
down. As described above under “Abilities,” the planting mesh, corrugated iron, or organic material; 30 cm (12 in)
hole should be inoculated with rhizobia culture or a crude apart or less is typical spacing for this purpose. Live fences
inoculant made from nodules or soil. sometimes contain a mix of other species such as Morus
After placing the cutting, ensure there is firm soil contact spp. (mulberry), Hibiscus spp., or Erythrina spp., in the
with the cutting to promote side rooting and to prevent Pacific, or with Tabebuia spp. and Bursera simaruba in the
movement in the wind. Soil should be moist during early Americas.

10 Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Top left: Cuttings prepared for planting. Right: Without wounding the lower 30–40 cm of bark, this tree only formed roots at
the very base of the cutting, and it was easily toppled in a strong wind. Bottom left: Because this horizontal cut at the top of the
cutting retained rainwater, rotting has taken place down into the center of the tree, compromising its health and strength; for
this reason, it is best to make the top cut at a 30–45% angle. photo: C. Elevitch

DISADVANTAGES registered for aphids would probably be effective. In addi­

tion to aphids, the tree is susceptible to mealybugs, scale
Potential for invasiveness insects, and some foliar diseases, in certain areas and under
Gliricidia has naturalized to a limited extent in a number of specific circumstances, but these are rarely major problems.
locations outside its native range, particularly in disturbed Entrance of heart rot fungi can be avoided by protecting
environments such as roadsides and abandoned agricul­ the trees from breaks in the bark. However, this cannot be
tural land. As a light-demanding species, it is unlikely to avoided when trees are used for living fences and lopped
invade dense plant communities. It has not been reported for firewood or fodder. It is suggested that the trees be re­
to be an aggressive invader or a serious pest and is not con­ placed as they begin to decline in health and vigor.
sidered an invasive plant in the Pacific (PIER 2003).
Host to crop pests/pathogens
Common pest problems None reported.
It is susceptible to aphids (Aphis craccivora in Puerto Rico).
The leaves of aphid-attacked trees seasonally become
blackened and fall prematurely. No data is available on
aphid control, but conventional application of insecticides

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 11

AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL ronment for certain crops, the shade it provides helps sup­
PRACTICES press light-demanding weeds. The shade trees are pruned
seasonally to maximize benefits to the understory crop,
Mulch/organic matter and to minimize competition for water and nutrients.
It is lopped for mulch and green manure in agroforestry
Alley cropping
applications and regrows very rapidly given sufficient soil
moisture and warm temperatures. It has been intercropped in alley cropping systems with
maize, cassava, taro, cucurbits, and other food crops. In such
Soil stabilization systems, pruning gliricidia back regularly provides mulch
Gliricidia is planted in contour hedgerows (alley cropping) for the crops and controls competition by the gliricidia for
on sloping lands susceptible to erosion. The hedgerows light, water, and nutrients.
hold soil together and, when properly planned and man­
Homegardens
aged, can slow erosive surface run-off.
The benefits of shade, nitrogen fixation, nutrient cycling,
Pest control mulch, and fuelwood production can be the same on a
There is some evidence that gliricidia can protect certain smaller scale as for farms.
crops from various fungal, insect, and viral pests. For exam­
Improved fallows
ple, in one experiment, intercropped gliricidia hedges were
associated with reduced rust and leafspot in groundnuts It is planted by seed or cuttings as a nitrogen-fixing fallow
(Stewart 1996). In other studies, gliricidia hedges acted as crop. It has been used to reclaim land infested with blady
a diversionary host to an aphid that spreads the rosette grass (Imperata cylindrica) by shading out the grass—it
virus in groundnut, and to a live-wood tea termite (Stewart has been shown to be superior in this respect to leucaena
1996). It has also been shown to be associated with reduced (Leucaena leucocephala) and also does not present the weed
stem-borer damage in rice (Wiersum and Nitis 1997). risk of leucaena.

Crop shade/overstory Living fences

Gliricidia is a popular shade or nurse tree for crops includ­ Gliricidia is one of the most widely used species for living
ing coffee, tea, cacao, pepper, passion fruit, and vanilla, in fence posts in the tropics.
many varied spatial arrangements. Spacing of about 10 x 10 Fence posts
m (33 x 33 ft) interspersed with crops such as coffee and
cacao is common. It addition to providing a favorable envi­ Cuttings that do not take root, often up to 50% of those
planted, serve as temporary fence posts, which hold up the
fencing material during the process of estab­
lishing living gliricidia fences.

Boundary markers
Gliricidia is sometimes planted to mark prop­
erty boundaries.

Windbreaks
Although the tree tolerates wind fairly well, it
is alone minimally efficient as a windbreak due
to its thin crown and deciduous habit in dry re­
gions. If carefully planned, gliricidia can be used
as one species in a multi-row windbreak, where
the other species offer sufficient protection dur­
ing the period when the gliricidia crown is bare.
It should usually be planted on the windward
side of taller species. In warm areas without a
dry season, gliricidia trees can be pruned two or
three times a year to maintain full, lush growth.
Gliricidia provides shade and organic matter in a cacao orchard. photo: C. By planting two rows alongside one another
Elevitch and pruning each row alternately 3–4 months

12  Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

 Host plant trellising
Gliricidia is used as support for pepper, yam, passion fruit,
and vanilla. It is very suitable as crop support due to its
upright growth after pruning and the appropriate amount
of dappled shade it provides for many crops.

Bee forage
Gliricidia attracts honeybees, carpenter bees, and a wide
range of insect pollinators, and it provides limited cover for
birds and mammals. In areas with a pronounced dry season,
it flowers profusely and is a very good honey plant for the
nectar it produces.

Coastal protection
Because of gliricidia’s ability to grow in exposed coastal
environments, and even in shifting sands (Simons 1996), it
has potential for agricultural use in near-shore agricultural
environments.

Ornamental
It is planted in residential lots, parks, and on roadsides
where small trees are required. It produces copious quanti­
ties of lilac-colored flowers when grown in environments
with a pronounced dry season.

USES AND PRODUCTS

Leaf vegetable
Living fence post supporting barbed wire, strong enough to
contain pigs. photo: C. Elevitch Cooked gliricidia leaves and flowers are said to be eaten
boiled or fried. Placed in containers with bananas, the
apart, a dense windbreak to 3–4 m (10–13 ft) in height can leaves hasten ripening of the bananas.
be achieved, while also providing a regular source of or­
Honey
ganic matter or fodder.
The flowers attract honeybees and are a good source of nec­
Silvopasture tar.
Living fence posts and field boundary trees can provide
Medicinal
fodder when periodically lopped. Animals often are al­
lowed to browse the trees in older plantations. Crushed fresh leaves are applied as a poultice. In Mexico,
the plant is used as an antihistaminic, antipyretic, expecto­
Woodlot rant, and diuretic. Extracts of gliricidia have been shown to
Gliricidia is a good producer of high-quality fuelwood, have high anti-fungal activity (Stewart 1996).
both in dedicated woodlots and incidental with other uses.
Animal fodder
Trees grown for fuelwood are either coppiced on rotations
of 1–5 years or harvested and replanted after 6–8 years. The leaves (cut branches with leaves attached or directly
browsed from low plants) are widely used as cattle and
Native animal/bird food goat fodder. There are few toxicity problems with ruminant
The foliage is consumed by browsing animals. The bark and animals. Experiments have shown similar benefit in using
seeds are not known to be eaten by any mammal or bird. gliricidia fodder and mineral mixtures as supplements to
The tree is used as nesting habitat by some species of birds. grass pasture. Yields of fodder range from 2 to 20 t/ha/
yr and can make a significant contribution to dry-season
forage. Silage preparation of gliricidia leaves mixed with

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 13

 activity. A leaf extract used in Latin America to bathe ani­
LORE mals every 7–14 days has been found to sharply reduce the
According to Caribbean folklore, planting gliricidia incidence of torsalo (tropical warble fly) in goats.
near houses and fields will control rats and mice.
Fallen seeds supposedly attract rats and mice that eat
them and die of poisoning. URBAN AND COMMUNITY
FORESTRY
a small percentage of molasses or sugarcane has shown Gliricidia is suitable for ornamental use in residential and
promise (Stewart 1996). public landscaping, parking lot islands, and along residen­
tial streets because of its moderate size, clean appearance,
Beautiful/fragrant flowers and colorful flowers. Care must be taken that trees are
The lilac-pink flowers make this a memorable ornamental. planted in soil that is at least moderately fertile and un­
However, the flowers are not fragrant. compacted.

Timber/wood Size in an urban environment

The wood is light to dark olive-brown, very hard and heavy, It is easily shaped to a desirable size and form by periodic
strong, coarse-textured, with an irregular grain. It seasons pruning. It is generally kept at 3–6 m (10–20 ft) in height
well and, although difficult to work, takes a high polish. It
is highly durable (termite- and fungus-resistant), and val­
ued for house construction and corner fence posts (CABI
2003). Gliricidia timber has been used for posts, railroad
ties, construction, furniture, tool handles, and farm imple­
ments. The small diameter of the timber and short pieces
available, usually less than 30 cm (12 in) in diameter and
2 m (6.6 ft) in length, preclude most commercial use of
gliricidia timber.

Fuelwood
Fuelwood produced from gliricidia is used locally for cook­
ing, heating, and drying tobacco. It rarely requires splitting,
is of moderately high density (47 to 75 g/cm3), and has a
caloric value of 4900 kcal/kg (2230 kcal/lb). In woodlots
the first harvest can be carried out after 3–4 years, giving
wood yields of 8–15 m3/ha (114–215 ft3/ac) (CABI 2003).
Yields may reach as high as 3.5–4.5 kg/tree/yr (1.6–2.0 lb/
tree/lb) in Central America. Annually coppiced fuelwood
in the Philippines produces fuelwood volumes of 23–40 m3/
ha (330–572 ft3/ac). The wood is also sometimes used for
charcoal production. Production of fuelwood has reached
commercial levels in only a few locations such as the Phil­
ippines.

Craft wood/tools
Stems and branches are sometimes used for tool handles.

Toxin/insecticide/fish poison
Roots, bark, and seeds are toxic due to the presence of tan­
nins, afrormosin, medicarpin, and isoflavins. The botanical
and common names and folklore suggests that the seeds
or other parts are useful as a rodenticide. Tests of leaf and With profuse flowering during the dry season, and decidu-
wood extracts have shown insecticidal and anti-microbial ous habit, gliricidia makes an interesting specimen tree. pho­
to: C. Elevitch

14  Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

and 2–4 m (6.6–13.2 ft) in crown spread, requiring annual
or biannual pruning. When regularly pruned with a frame­
work of side branches (pollarding), gliricidia has a similar
appearance to the common landscaping shower trees, e.g.,
golden shower (Cassia fistula) and pink and white shower
(C. javanica), except that gliricidia is deciduous in areas
with a pronounced dry season.

Rate of growth in a landscape

The tree generally grows rapidly at a rate of 1–2 m/yr (3.3–
6.6 ft/yr) in early years, slowing to a few cm per year af­
ter 6–8 years. Trunk diameter growth is about 2 cm/yr (0.8
in/yr).

Root system
Damage to curbs, sidewalks, and foundations is unlikely
unless the tree is both very large and planted in close prox­
imity to such features.

Products commonly used in a Pacific island

household
Gliricidia is still relatively uncommon in the Pacific but is
increasingly important in Fiji, Vanuatu, Hawai‘i, and other
regions.

Light requirements
Full sun is recommended; otherwise, with increasing shade,
growth slows and the canopy becomes sparse.
Due to its deciduous habit in seasonally dry climates,
Water/soil requirements gliricidia does not make a good year-round single-species
windbreak or privacy barrier. photos: C. Elevitch
Irrigation is generally not needed except in very dry cli­
mates (<600 mm [24 in] of mean annual precipitation). curs between November and March. Fruit development
Planting in waterlogged soils should be avoided. and maturation occurs at the end of the dry season. In ar­
eas with even rainfall throughout the year, the trees never
Life span completely defoliate, and flowering occurs irregularly, but
Good data are not available on lifespan. Gliricidia under lightly, throughout the year. Fruits often fail to develop in
favorable conditions can be expected to live up to 50 years, areas with evenly distributed and high rainfall.
but it is certain that the species is not long-lived.
Exceptional ornamental values
Varieties favored for use in a homegardens Gliricidia is a very beautiful tree when in bloom, although
Although there are no formally described varieties, indi­ flowering usually occurs during periods of leaf loss. Its
vidual trees vary in form from low and spreading to tall clean appearance and moderate size gives it character dur­
and upright (columnar). The tree is usually propagated by ing the rest of the season.
cuttings that are clones of the mother tree and grow with
the same habit. Therefore, cuttings should be taken from Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier
trees with desired qualities for a particular purpose. In addition to its use as living fence posts, when pruned
regularly to maintain lush, leafy growth, gliricidia makes a
Seasonality of leaf flush, flowering, fruiting fine hedge, especially in wetter climates where it remains
Flowering occurs at the beginning of the dry season when leafy year-round.
the trees have lost their leaves. In the native range this oc­

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 15

Maintenance requirements Yields
Pruning is generally not needed if an open crown at the Fuelwood yields from stands harvested every 2–3 years are
natural height of the tree (8–15 m [26–50 ft]) is desired. 10–20 m3/ha (143–286 ft3/ac). Wood production from a liv­
Regular pruning can be done to force trees into desired ing fence has been reported at 9 m3/km (57 ft3/mi). Yields
shapes (hedges, below view planes, etc.) and to encourage vary greatly depending on provenance (genetic source).
lush, leafy growth. On intermediate quality sites in Guatemala, Honduras,
El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, annual
Nuisance issues fuelwood increment reached a peak of 4.5 kg/tree (9.9 lb/
Aphids cause the trees to drip honeydew, which is sticky, tree) at 2 years of age, although cutting usually takes place
attracts ants, and can discolor cars, furniture, etc. on rotations of 5–8 years. Statistical analysis for site index,
mean tree height, basal area, and dry fuelwood for planta­
Hazards tions 12–60 months of age are available (Hughell 1990).
In dry areas the seedpods tend to open explosively when
Processing required
ripe, especially on hot days. The seeds are thrown up to 25
Fuelwood is often stacked and dried for a few weeks before
m (82 ft) from the tree, which can present some danger
marketing.
to people. In high winds, branches can shear off, particu­
larly from trees grown from cuttings and during periods Markets
of rapid growth. The roots, bark, and seeds are poisonous
Fuelwood markets are usually close to the point of origin.
to humans and many animals if ingested. Old trees often
become hollow, especially those that have received inju­
ries from fence staples, mowers, or by pruning, and be­ INTERPLANTING/FARM
cause of the weakness they are prone to trunk breakage
and windthrow.
APPLICATIONS

In many countries such as Indonesia, Brazil, and Costa

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS Rica, cacao is traditionally established under the shade of
Much of the value of gliricidia is not commercial but the trees such as gliricidia, Erythrina poeppigiana, Inga spp.,
farm services it provides including living fence posts, green and other species. These shade trees are used due their rap­
manure, shade, fodder, windbreak, etc. There are several id growth, ability to biologically accumulate atmospheric
areas where there is commercial potential, however. Be­ nitrogen, ease of establishment, adaptability to many dif­
cause much of the commercial seed available is inferior ferent site conditions, and ability to regrow vigorously after
germplasm (unselected for productivity) (Stewart et al. pruning. During establishment, the shade trees are planted
1996), there is a market for seeds from the better prov­ within the cacao orchard at a spacings of 2 x 2 m to 4 x
enances. Similarly, there may be local markets for cuttings 4 m (6.6 x 6.6 ft to 13 x 13 ft) for a cover of about 30–55%
from selected germplasm for use in planting living fence shade. After 2–3 years as the canopy of cacao closes, the
posts, shelterbelts, etc. In certain areas, there may also be a shade trees are usually thinned to a spacing of 6 x 6 m (20
market for gliricidia fuelwood. x 20 ft).

Fuelwood
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND
Spacing AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION
Fuelwood plantations in Central America are typically es­ Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the Pa­
tablished with 1000–5000 trees/ha (400–2000 trees/ac) for cific: <http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html>.
rotations of 5 years. In Asia, fuelwood plantations are set
out at 1 x 1 m (3.3 x 3.3 ft) to 2.5 x 2.5 m (8 x 8 ft) spacings
for pruning at 1- or 2-year intervals. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Management objectives (☛  indicates recommended reading)
Trees may be pruned at ground level in fuelwood planta­
Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology
tions or intercrop plantings or cut above the wire height in
Innovation. 1980. Firewood crops. National Academy of
living fences.

16 Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

 Sciences, Washington, DC. Simons, A.J. 1996. Ecology and reproductive biology. In:
Allison, G.E., and A.J. Simons. 1996. Propagation and hus­ Stewart, Allison, and Simons, op. cit.
bandry. In: Stewart, Allison, and Simons, op. cit. Simons, A.J., and A.J. Dunsdon. 1992. Evaluation of the
☛ CAB International. 2003. Forestry Compendium Global Potential for Genetic Improvement of Gliricidia sepium.
Module, rev. CAB International, Oxon, UK. ODA Forestry Research Project R4525, Oxford Forestry
Clarke, W.C., and R.R. Thaman (eds.). 1993. Agroforestry Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
in the Pacific Islands: Systems for Sustainability. United ☛ Stewart, J.L., G.E. Allison, and A.J. Simons (eds.). 1996.
Nations University Press, New York. Gliricidia sepium: Genetic resources for farmers. Oxford
Combellas, J., L. Ríos, P. Colombo, R. Alvarez, and L. Ga­ Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
baldón. 1996. Influence of Gliricidia sepium restricted Stewart, J.L., and A.J. Simons. 1994. Gliricidia sepium: a
grazing on live weight gain of growing cattle in star grass multipurpose forage tree legume. In: Gutteridge, R.C.
pastures. Livestock Research for Rural Development 8(4). and H.M. Shelton (eds.). Forage Tree Legumes in Tropi­
<http://www.cipav.org.co/1rrd/1rrd8/4/comb84.htm>. cal Agriculture. CAB International, Oxon, UK.
Duke, J.A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops (unpublished): Thaman, R.R., and W.A. Whistler. 1996. A Review of Uses
Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Steud. <http://www.hort.purdue. and Status of Trees and Forest in Land-Use Systems in
edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html>. Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with Recommenda­
FACT-Net Staff. 1998. Growing Gliricidia. Winrock Inter­ tions for Future Action. South Pacific Forestry Develop­
national (formerly NFTA), Morrilton, Arkansas. ment Programme, Suva, Fiji.
Glover, N. 1986. Gliricidia—Its Names Tell Its Story. NFT Thorpe, P. (ed.). 1999. Pacific Agroforestry: An Information
Highlights. Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas. Kit. Pacific Regional Agricultural Programme, Suva, Fiji.
Hensleigh, T.E., and B.K. Holoway. 1988. Agroforestry Spe­ Wiersum, K.F., and I.M. Nitis. 1997. Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.)
cies for the Philippines. U.S. Peace Corps, Washington, Kunth ex Walp. In: Faridah Hanum, I., and L.J.G. van
DC. der Maesen (eds.). Plant Resources of South-East Asia
Hughell, D. 1990. Modelos para la prediccion del crecimien­ No 11: Auxiliary plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the
to y rendimiento de Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gliricidia Netherlands. <http://www.proseanet.org>.
sepium, Guazuma ulmifolia y Leucaena leucocephala en Wilkinson, K.M., and C.R. Elevitch. 2003a. Propagation
America Central. Technical Bulletin 22. Turrialba, Cen­ protocol for production of container Gliricidia sepium
tro Agronomico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza ( Jacq.) Walp. plants. In: Native Plant Network. University
(CATIE), Costa Rica. of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research
Jøker, D. 2002. Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Steud. Seed Leaflet Nursery, Moscow, Idaho. <http://www.nativeplantnet­
51. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek, Denmark. work.org>.
Lavin, M. 1996. Taxonomy. In: Stewart, Allison, and Simons, Wilkinson, K.M., and C.R. Elevitch. 2003b. Propagation
op. cit. protocol for vegetative production of container Gliricidia
Little, E.L., Jr., and F.H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common Trees sepium ( Jacq.) Walp. plants. In: Native Plant Network.
of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Hand­ University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest
book 249. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. Research Nursery, Moscow, Idaho. <http://www.native­
MacDicken, K.G. 1994. Selection and Management of Ni­ plantnetwork.org>.
trogen-fixing Trees. Winrock International, Morrilton, Winrock International. 1998. Gliricidia sepium—the quint­
Arkansas and FAO, Bangkok. essential agroforestry species. Fact sheet 98-04. Winrock
Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). 2003. Gliricidia International, Morrilton, Arkansas. <http://www.winrock.
sepium ( Jacq.) Steud., Fabaceae. University of Hawai‘i, org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/gliricidia.htm>.
Department of Botany, Honolulu. <http://www.hear.org/
pier/scinames.htm>.
☛ Parrotta, J.A. 1992. Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Walp. Res.
Note SO-ITF-SM-50. USDA Forest Service, Interna­
tional Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras, Puerto
Rico.
Roshetko, J.M. 2001. Agroforestry Species and Technologies.
Winrock International, Taiwan.
Salim, A.S., A.J. Simons, C. Orwas, J. Chege, B. Owuor, and A.
Mutua. 2002. Agroforestree database. World Agroforestry
Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. <http://www.worldagroforestry.
org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/AFT.htm>.

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 17

 Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Authors: Craig R. Elevitch1 and John K. Francis2
1. Permanent Agriculture Resources, PO Box 428, Holualoa, Hawaii 96725, USA; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>.
2. Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Rocky Mountain Research Station, U.S.D.A. Forest Service (retired), 735 N. 500 E., Provo, Utah 84606, USA;
E-mail: [email protected]
Acknowledgments: The authors and publisher thank Keola Childs, Dale Evans, John Parrotta, Diane Ragone, and Jim Roshetko for
their input. Photo contributions by J. B. Friday, Kenneth Mudge, and John Parrotta are greatly appreciated.
Recommended citation: Elevitch, C.R., and J.K. Francis. 2006. Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia), ver. 2.1. In: C.R. Elevitch (ed.). Species
Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. <http://www.traditionaltree.
org>.
Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sus­
tainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program; SPC/GTZ Pacific-German Regional Forestry Project;
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); State of Hawai‘i Department of Land & Natural Resources Divi­
sion of Forestry & Wildlife; and the USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program. This material is based upon work
supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural
Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2002-47001-01327.
Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-
4129; E-mail: [email protected]; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>. This institution is an equal opportunity provider.
Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from <http://www.traditionaltree.org>. This publication may be repro­
duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. © 2006 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All
rights reserved.

18  Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)