2.17 strain hardening, recrystallization, and fatigue.

2.18 endurance limit and endurance strength, factors affecting endurance properties, and effect of
temperature on properties.

2.19 creep, stress rapture, dynamic loading, impact tests, rapid loading, transition temperature, factor of
safety, and selection of materials.

Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working,

is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of

dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material. Many
non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened
in this fashion. Alloys not amenable to heat treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-
hardened. Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low temperatures, such as indium, however
others can only be strengthened via work hardening, such as pure copper and aluminium.

Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending on the context. An example of

undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-
harden the workpiece surface, causing damage to the cutter during the later passes. Certain alloys are
more prone to this than others; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into
account. An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs in metalworking processes that
intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a shape change. These processes are known as cold
working or cold forming processes. They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at ambient temperature.[5] Cold forming techniques are
usually classified into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing, and shearing. Applications
include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel. In cold forming, metal
is formed at high speed and high pressure using tool steel or carbide dies. The cold working of the metal
increasing the hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength

Theory

Before work hardening, the lattice of the material exhibits a regular, nearly defect-free pattern (almost
no dislocations). The defect-free lattice can be created or restored at any time by annealing. As the
material is work hardened it becomes increasingly saturated with new dislocations, and more
dislocations are prevented from nucleating (a resistance to dislocation-formation develops). This
resistance to dislocation-formation manifests itself as a resistance to plastic deformation; hence, the
observed strengthening.

In metallic crystals, irreversible deformation is usually carried out on a microscopic scale by defects
called dislocations, which are created by fluctuations in local stress fields within the material culminating
in a lattice rearrangement as the dislocations propagate through the lattice. At normal temperatures the
dislocations are not annihilated by annealing. Instead, the dislocations accumulate, interact with one
another, and serve as pinning points or obstacles that significantly impede their motion. This leads to an
increase in the yield strength of the material and a subsequent decrease in ductility.
Such deformation increases the concentration of dislocations which may subsequently form low-angle
grain boundaries surrounding sub-grains. Cold working generally results in a higher yield strength as a
result of the increased number of dislocations and the Hall-Petch effect of the sub-grains, and a
decrease in ductility. The effects of cold working may be reversed by annealing the material at high
temperatures where recovery and recrystallization reduce the dislocation density.

A material's work hardenability can be predicted by analyzing a stress-strain curve, or studied in context
by performing hardness tests before and after a process.

Elastic and plastic deformation

Work hardening is a consequence of plastic deformation, a permanent change in shape. This is distinct
from elastic deformation, which is reversible. Most materials do not exhibit only one or the other, but
rather a combination of the two. The following discussion mostly applies to metals, especially steels,
which are well studied. Work hardening occurs most notably for ductile materials such as metals.
Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformations before fracture (for example,
bending a steel rod until it finally breaks).

The tensile test is widely used to study deformation mechanisms. This is because under compression,
most materials will experience trivial (lattice mismatch) and non-trivial (buckling) events before plastic
deformation or fracture occur. Hence the intermediate processes that occur to the material under
uniaxial compression before the incidence of plastic deformation make the compressive test fraught
with difficulties.

A material generally deforms elastically under the influence of small forces; the material returns quickly
to its original shape when the deforming force is removed. This phenomenon is called elastic
deformation. This behavior in materials is described by Hooke's Law. Materials behave elastically until
the deforming force increases beyond the elastic limit, which is also known as the yield stress. At that
point, the material is permanently deformed and fails to return to its original shape when the force is
removed. This phenomenon is called plastic deformation. For example, if one stretches a coil spring up
to a certain point, it will return to its original shape, but once it is stretched beyond the elastic limit, it
will remain deformed and won't return to its original state.

Elastic deformation stretches the bonds between atoms away from their equilibrium radius of
separation, without applying enough energy to break the inter-atomic bonds. Plastic deformation, on
the other hand, breaks inter-atomic bonds, and therefore involves the rearrangement of atoms in a solid
material.

Dislocations and lattice strain fields

In materials science parlance, dislocations are defined as line defects in a material's crystal structure.
The bonds surrounding the dislocation are already elastically strained by the defect compared to the
bonds between the constituents of the regular crystal lattice. Therefore, these bonds break at relatively
lower stresses, leading to plastic deformation.

The strained bonds around a dislocation are characterized by lattice strain fields. For example, there are
compressively strained bonds directly next to an edge dislocation and tensilely strained bonds beyond
the end of an edge dislocation. These form compressive strain fields and tensile strain fields,
respectively. Strain fields are analogous to electric fields in certain ways. Specifically, the strain fields of
dislocations obey similar laws of attraction and repulsion; in order to reduce overall strain, compressive
strains are attracted to tensile strains, and vice versa.

The visible (macroscopic) results of plastic deformation are the result of microscopic dislocation motion.
For example, the stretching of a steel rod in a tensile tester is accommodated through dislocation
motion on the atomic scale.

Increase of dislocations and work hardening

Increase in the number of dislocations is a quantification of work hardening. Plastic deformation occurs
as a consequence of work being done on a material; energy is added to the material. In addition, the
energy is almost always applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude to not only move existing
dislocations, but also to produce a great number of new dislocations by jarring or working the material
sufficiently enough. New dislocations are generated in proximity to a Frank–Read source.

Yield strength is increased in a cold-worked material. Using lattice strain fields, it can be shown that an
environment filled with dislocations will hinder the movement of any one dislocation. Because
dislocation motion is hindered, plastic deformation cannot occur at normal stresses. Upon application of
stresses just beyond the yield strength of the non-cold-worked material, a cold-worked material will
continue to deform using the only mechanism available: elastic deformation, the regular scheme of
stretching or compressing of electrical bonds (without dislocation motion) continues to occur, and the
modulus of elasticity is unchanged. Eventually the stress is great enough to overcome the strain-field
interactions and plastic deformation resumes.

However, ductility of a work-hardened material is decreased. Ductility is the extent to which a material
can undergo plastic deformation, that is, it is how far a material can be plastically deformed before
fracture. A cold-worked material is, in effect, a normal (brittle) material that has already been extended
through part of its allowed plastic deformation. If dislocation motion and plastic deformation have been
hindered enough by dislocation accumulation, and stretching of electronic bonds and elastic
deformation have reached their limit, a third mode of deformation occurs: fracture.

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

Advantages:[5]

No heating required

Better surface finish

Superior dimensional control

Better reproducibility and interchangeability

Directional properties can be imparted into the metal

Contamination problems are minimized

The increase in strength due to strain hardening is comparable to that of heat treating. Therefore, it is
sometimes more economical to cold work a less costly and weaker metal than to hot work a more
expensive metal that can be heat treated, especially if precision or a fine surface finish is required as
well. The cold working process also reduces waste as compared to machining, or even eliminates with
near net shape methods.[5] The material savings becomes even more significant at larger volumes, and
even more so when using expensive materials, such as copper, nickel, gold, tantalum, and palladium.[9]
The saving on raw material as a result of cold forming can be very significant, as is saving machining
time. Production cycle times when cold working are very short. On multi-station machinery, production
cycle times are even less. This can be very advantageous for large production runs.

During cold working the part undergoes work hardening and the microstructure deforms to follow the
contours of the part surface. Unlike hot working, the inclusions and grains distort to follow the contour
of the surface, resulting in anisotropic engineering properties.[10]

Disadvantages:[5]

Greater forces are required

Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger tooling are required

Metal is less ductile

Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free

Intermediate anneals may be required to compensate for loss of ductility that accompanies
strain hardening

The imparted directional properties may be detrimental

Undesirable residual stress may be produced

Due to the large capital costs required to set up a cold working process the process is usually only
suitable for large volume productions.[5]

Intermediate annealings may be required to reach the required ductility to continue cold working a
workpiece, otherwise it may fracture if the ultimate tensile strength is exceeded. An anneal may also be
used to obtain the proper engineering properties required in the final workpiece. Also, the distorted
grain structure that gives the workpiece its superior strength can lead to residual stresses.[10]

Cold worked items suffer from a phenomenon known as springback, or elastic springback. After the
deforming force is removed from the workpiece, the workpiece springs back slightly. The amount a
material springs back is equal to the yield strain (the strain at the yield point) for the material.
Recrystallization

is a process by which deformed grains are replaced by a new set of defects-free grains that nucleate and
grow until the original grains have been entirely consumed. Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a
reduction in the strength and hardness of a material and a simultaneous increase in the ductility. Thus,
the process may be introduced as a deliberate step in metals processing or may be an undesirable
byproduct of another processing step. The most important industrial uses are the softening of metals
previously hardened by cold work, which have lost their ductility, and the control of the grain structure
in the final product.

Definition

It is defined as the process in which grains of a crystal structure come in a new structure or new crystal
shape.

A precise definition of recrystallization is difficult to state as the process is strongly related to several
other processes, most notably recovery and grain growth. In some cases it is difficult to precisely define
the point at which one process begins and another ends. Doherty et al. (1997) defined recrystallization
as:

"... the formation of a new grain structure in a deformed material by the formation and migration of
high angle grain boundaries driven by the stored energy of deformation. High angle boundaries are
those with greater than a 10-15° misorientation"

Thus the process can be differentiated from recovery (where high angle grain boundaries do not
migrate) and grain growth (where the driving force is only due to the reduction in boundary area).
Recrystallization may occur during or after deformation (during cooling or a subsequent heat treatment,
for example). The former is termed dynamic while the latter is termed static. In addition,
recrystallization may occur in a discontinuous manner, where distinct new grains form and grow, or a
continuous manner, where the microstructure gradually evolves into a recrystallised microstructure. The
different mechanisms by which recrystallization and recovery occur are complex and in many cases
remain controversial. The following description is primarily applicable to static discontinuous
recrystallization, which is the most classical variety and probably the most understood. Additional
mechanisms include (geometric) dynamic recrystallization and strain induced boundary migration.

Laws of recrystallization

There are several, largely empirical laws of recrystallization:

Thermally activated. The rate of the microscopic mechanisms controlling the nucleation and growth of
recrystallized grains depend on the annealing temperature. Arrhenius-type equations indicate an
exponential relationship.

Critical temperature. Following from the previous rule it is found that recrystallization requires a
minimum temperature for the necessary atomic mechanisms to occur. This recrystallization
temperature decreases with annealing time.

Critical deformation. The prior deformation applied to the material must be adequate to provide nuclei
and sufficient stored energy to drive their growth.
Deformation affects the critical temperature. Increasing the magnitude of prior deformation, or
reducing the deformation temperature, will increase the stored energy and the number of potential
nuclei. As a result, the recrystallization temperature will decrease with increasing deformation.

Initial grain size affects the critical temperature. Grain boundaries are good sites for nuclei to form.
Since an increase in grain size results in fewer boundaries this results in a decrease in the nucleation rate
and hence an increase in the recrystallization temperature

Deformation affects the final grain size. Increasing the deformation, or reducing the deformation
temperature, increases the rate of nucleation faster than it increases the rate of growth. As a result, the
final grain size is reduced by increased deformation.

fatigue

is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and localized
structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum
stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the material typically
quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit.

Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are above a
certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as the surface,
persistent slip bands (PSBs), interfaces of constituents in the case of composites, and grain interfaces in
the case of metals.[1] Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and
the structure will fracture. The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square
holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes
and smooth transitions or fillets will therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

Characteristics of fatigue

In metal alloys, and for the simplifying case when there are no macroscopic or microscopic
discontinuities, the process starts with dislocation movements at the microscopic level, which eventually
form persistent slip bands that become the nucleus of short cracks.

Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities (at the crystalline grain scale) as well as component
design features which cause stress concentrations (holes, keyways, sharp changes of load direction etc.)
are common locations at which the fatigue process begins.

Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomness (stochastic), often showing considerable
scatter even in seemingly identical sample in well controlled environments.

Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses but fatigue cracks have been reported due to
compressive loads.[8]

The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life.

Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives.

Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.

 Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish,
metallurgical microstructure, presence of oxidizing or inert chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact
(fretting), etc.

Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoretical fatigue limit below
which continued loading does not lead to fatigue failure.

High cycle fatigue strength (about 104 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress-based
parameters. A load-controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with frequencies
of around 20–50 Hz. Other sorts of machines—like resonant magnetic machines—can also be used, to
achieve frequencies up to 250 Hz.

Low cycle fatigue (loading that typically causes failure in less than 104 cycles) is associated with
localized plastic behavior in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be used for fatigue life
prediction in metals. Testing is conducted with constant strain amplitudes typically at 0.01–5 Hz.

Fatigue limit, Endurance limit, and fatigue strength

are all expressions used to describe a property of materials: the amplitude (or range) of cyclic stress that
can be applied to the material without causing fatigue failure.[1] Ferrous alloys and titanium alloys[2]
have a distinct limit, an amplitude below which there appears to be no number of cycles that will cause
failure. Other structural metals such as aluminium and copper do not have a distinct limit and will
eventually fail even from small stress amplitudes. In these cases, a number of cycles (usually 107) is
chosen to represent the fatigue life of the material.

Stress Rupture Properties

Stress rupture testing is similar to creep testing except that the stresses are higher than those used in a
creep testing. Stress rupture tests are used to determine the time necessary to produce failure so stress
rupture testing is always done until failure. Data is plotted log-log as in the chart above. A straight line
or best fit curve is usually obtained at each temperature of interest. This information can then be used
to extrapolate time to failure for longer times. A typical set of stress rupture curves is shown below.
Dynamic load testing (or dynamic loading) is a method to assess a pile's bearing capacity by applying a
dynamic load to the pile head (a falling mass) while recording acceleration and strain on the pile head.
Dynamic load testing is a high strain dynamic test which is applied after pile installation.

The procedure is standardized by ASTM D4945-00 Standard Test Method for High Strain Dynamic
Testing of Piles. It may be performed on all piles, regardless of their installation method. In addition to
bearing capacity, Dynamic Load Testing gives information on resistance distribution (shaft resistance and
end bearing) and evaluates the shape and integrity of the foundation element.

The foundation bearing capacity results obtained with dynamic load tests correlate well with the results
of static load tests performed on the same foundation element

Impact Testing

The purpose of impact testing is to measure an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. It is usually
thought of in terms of two objects striking each other at high relative speeds. A part, or material's ability
to resist impact often is one of the determining factors in the service life of a part, or in the suitability of
a designated material for a particular application. Impact resistance can be one of the most difficult
properties to quantify. The ability to quantify this property is a great advantage in product liability and
safety.

Impact Testing most commonly consists of Charpy and IZOD Specimen configurations. The Charpy
Impact Tests are conducted on instrumented machines capable of measuring less than 1 foot-pound. to
300 foot-pounds. at temperatures ranging from -320°F to over 2000°F. Impact test specimen types
include notch configurations such as V-Notch, U-Notch, Key-Hole Notch, as well as Un-notched and ISO
(DIN) V-Notch, with capabilities of impact testing subsize specimens down to ¼ size. IZOD Impact Testing
can be done up to 240 foot-pounds. on standard single notch and type-X3 specimens.

The Charpy Impact Test is commonly used on metals, but is also applied to composites, ceramics and
polymers. With the Charpy impact test one most commonly evaluates the relative toughness of a
material, and as such, it is used as a quick and economical quality control device

The Charpy Impact Test consist of striking a suitable specimen with a hammer on a pendulum arm while
the specimen is held securely at each end. The hammer strikes opposite the notch. The energy absorbed
by the specimen is determined by precisely measuring the decrease in motion of the pendulum arm.

Important factors that affect the toughness of a material include: low temperatures, high strain rates (by
impact or pressurization), and stress concentrators such as notches, cracks and voids.

By applying the Charpy Impact Test to identical specimens at different temperatures, and then plotting
the impact energy as a function of temperature, the ductile-brittle transition becomes apparent. This is
essential information to obtain when determining the minimum service temperature for a material.

Drop-Weight Testing is preformed to ASTM E208. This test is conducted to determine the nil ductility
transition temperature (NDT) of materials. Impact testing can also be conducted to your temperature
requirements from elevated temperature down to -320°F.
Dynamic Tear Testing has a wide range of Research and Development applications. Used to study the
effects of metallurgical variables like heat treatment, composition, and processing methods on the
dynamic tear fracture resistance of material. Manufacturing processes, such as welding, can be
effectively evaluated for their effect on dynamic tear fracture resistance. Additional uses for this impact
test include evaluating the appropriateness of selecting a material for an application where a baseline
correlation between Dynamic Tear energy and actual performance has been developed.

transition temperature is the minimum temperature in which a given material has the ability to absorb a
specific amount of energy without fracturing.

As temperatures decrease, a material’s ability to deform in a ductile matter decreases. This is usually
measured using on a case-by-case basis using a Charpy impact test. This is particularly important in
Canada as temperatures often fall below -20 degrees and into a zone where common structural steels
start to behave in a brittle matter. The danger from this is that brittle failure comes quickly and without
much warning. Extra safety precautions should be taken when working in crane or oilfield applications.

Factors of safety (FoS), also known as (and used interchangeably with) safety factor (SF), is a term
describing the load carrying capacity of a system beyond the expected or actual loads. Essentially, the
factor of safety is how much stronger the system is than it usually needs to be for an intended load.
Safety factors are often calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is impractical
on many projects, such as bridges and buildings, but the structure's ability to carry load must be
determined to a reasonable accuracy.

Many systems are purposefully built much stronger than needed for normal usage to allow for
emergency situations, unexpected loads, misuse, or degradation (reliability).

Definition

There are two definitions for the factor of safety: One as a ratio of absolute strength (structural capacity)
to actual applied load, this is a measure of the reliability of a particular design. The other use of FoS is a
constant value imposed by law, standard, specification, contract or custom to which a structure must
conform or exceed.

The first use (a calculated value) is generally referred to as a factor of safety or, to be explicit, a realized
factor of safety. The second use (a required value) as a design factor, design factor of safety or required
factor of safety. The realized factor of safety must be greater than the required design factor of safety.
However, between various industries and engineering groups usage is inconsistent and confusing, it is
important to be aware of which definition(s) are being used. The cause of much confusion is that various
reference books and standards agencies use the factor of safety definitions and terms differently. Design
codes and structural and mechanical engineering textbooks often use "Factor of Safety" to mean the
fraction of total structural capability over that needed and are realized factor of safety[1][2][3] (first
use). Many undergraduate Strength of Materials books use "Factor of Safety" as a constant value
intended as a minimum target for design (second use).

Selection of Material

The quality, performance, life etc. of an engineering product, all are effected by the engineering material
being used for manufacturing that product. Hence it becomes necessary to select a suitable Engineering
materials for a successful engineering product. For selection of suitable materials for any engineering
application / product, following factors should be considered –

Mechanical Strength

Mechanical strength is primary criteria for selection of suitable materials for any Engineering application
/ product. Mechanical strength is the ability of materials to withstand with load or forces. Materials
selected for any engineering application, should have appropriate mechanical strength to be capable to
withstand with loads or forces developed in structure of engineering product during operation.

Stability

Stability of engineering material is defined by the ability of engineering product manufactured by using
that material to with stand with following operating conditions-

1. Temperature

2. Fluctuations in temperature

3. During of operation

4. Radiation

5. Atmospheric conditions

Ductility

Ductility of engineering material is the property of material makes the material suitable for fabrication
by rolling, drawing, extrusion and other mechanical processes. Basically it is the ability of material that
how much the materials can be stretched plastically without breakdown or failure. Ductility of materials
is related to the strength of material. Considerable ductility can be obtained at a sacrifice of strength or
vice versa. For example, by increase of temperature ductility of material increased and strength
decreased. By cold rolling the mechanical strength is increased whereas the ductility is decreased. It is
not necessary the material being used for all product should have high ductility. But it should have
suitable ductility.

Availability

Material selected for engineering product should be easily available in desired form and at appropriate
cost. So that the product can be produced economically to make its price competitive in market.
Material may be available in any form such as casting, forging, rolled sheets etc. But the availability of
material in suitable form is necessary to facilitate the manufacturing the product with desired quality.

Fabricability

Fabricability of an Engineering material is the ability of material, which indicates that how easily it can
be fabricated in desired form and shape in order to manufacture an engineering product. Fabricability of
material makes it suitable for mechanical processing to convert it in desired form and shape.
Design

The selection of material for any engineering product is also governed by the design of product. The
design of engineering product decides the strength and ductility required for in materials being selected
for that product. Hence, the engineering product should be designed with consideration of properties of
engineering material.

Corrosion Resistance

When the Engineering product is used in an industrial atmospheric environment, there are chances that
the base materials of product gets corroded. Corrosion of refined material is a natural process which
converts the refined material in more stable oxides. This corrosion makes the material gradually weak
with time. Hence, for the satisfactory operation, performance and life of engineering product, it
becomes necessary that material being selected for that product should have sufficient corrosion
resistance.

Cost

To make the engineering product commercially successful and profitable, its price should be reasonable
and competitive in market. The price value of any engineering product is governed by many factor such
as material cost, labour cost, processing cost etc. Hence, the keep the price of product low, it becomes
necessary that the material cost, labour cost and processing cost should by as minimum as possible.
Therefore, the cost of engineering material selected for engineering product must be low.