Deformation (engineering)

Compressive stress results in deformation which shortens the object but also expands it
outwards.
In materials science, deformation is a change in the shape or size of an object due to

an applied force (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through work) or
a change in temperature (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through heat).

The first case can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces, shear,
bending or torsion (twisting).
In the second case, the most significant factor, which is determined by the temperature, is the
mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw
dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids. The
movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by the
rate of atomic diffusion. [1][2]
Deformation is often described as strain.
As deformation occurs, internal inter-molecular forces arise that oppose the applied force. If the
applied force is not too large these forces may be sufficient to completely resist the applied force,
allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original state when the
load is removed. A larger applied force may lead to a permanent deformation of the object or
even to its structural failure.
In the figure it can be seen that the compressive loading (indicated by the arrow) has caused
deformation in the cylinder so that the original shape (dashed lines) has changed (deformed) into
one with bulging sides. The sides bulge because the material, although strong enough to not
crack or otherwise fail, is not strong enough to support the load without change, thus the material
is forced out laterally. Internal forces (in this case at right angles to the deformation) resist the
applied load.
The concept of a rigid body can be applied if the deformation is negligible.

Contents

1 Types of deformation

1.1 Elastic deformation

Types of deformation
Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object, and the forces applied,
various types of deformation may result. The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs.
strain diagram for a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may
occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a deformation mechanism map.

Typical stress vs. strain diagram with the various stages of deformation.

Elastic deformation
For more details on this topic, see Elasticity (physics).
This type of deformation is reversible. Once the forces are no longer applied, the object returns
to its original shape. Elastomers and shape memory metals such as Nitinol exhibit large elastic
deformation ranges, as does rubber. However elasticity is nonlinear in these materials. Normal
metals, ceramics and most crystals show linear elasticity and a smaller elastic range.
Linear elastic deformation is governed by Hooke's law, which states:

Where is the applied stress, is a material constant called Young's modulus, and is the
resulting strain. This relationship only applies in the elastic range and indicates that the slope of
the stress vs. strain curve can be used to find Young's modulus. Engineers often use this
calculation in tensile tests. The elastic range ends when the material reaches its yield strength. At
this point plastic deformation begins.
Note that not all elastic materials undergo linear elastic deformation; some, such as concrete,
gray cast iron, and many polymers, respond nonlinearly. For these materials Hooke's law is
inapplicable.[3]

Plastic deformation
See also: Plasticity (physics)
This type of deformation is irreversible. However, an object in the plastic deformation range will
first have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible, so the object will return part way to
its original shape. Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic deformation range as do ductile
metals such as copper, silver, and gold. Steel does, too, but not cast iron. Hard thermosetting
plastics, rubber, crystals, and ceramics have minimal plastic deformation ranges. One material
with a large plastic deformation range is wet chewing gum, which can be stretched dozens of
times its original length.
Under tensile stress, plastic deformation is characterized by a strain hardening region and a
necking region and finally, fracture (also called rupture). During strain hardening the material
becomes stronger through the movement of atomic dislocations. The necking phase is indicated
by a reduction in cross-sectional area of the specimen. Necking begins after the ultimate strength
is reached. During necking, the material can no longer withstand the maximum stress and the
strain in the specimen rapidly increases. Plastic deformation ends with the fracture of the
material.
Metal fatigue
Another deformation mechanism is metal fatigue, which occurs primarily in ductile metals. It
was originally thought that a material deformed only within the elastic range returned completely
to its original state once the forces were removed. However, faults are introduced at the
molecular level with each deformation. After many deformations, cracks will begin to appear,
followed soon after by a fracture, with no apparent plastic deformation in between. Depending
on the material, shape, and how close to the elastic limit it is deformed, failure may require
thousands, millions, billions, or trillions of deformations.
Metal fatigue has been a major cause of aircraft failure, such as the De Havilland Comet
accidents, especially before the process was well understood. There are two ways to determine
when a part is in danger of metal fatigue; either predict when failure will occur due to the
material/force/shape/iteration combination, and replace the vulnerable materials before this

occurs, or perform inspections to detect the microscopic cracks and perform replacement once
they occur. Selection of materials not likely to suffer from metal fatigue during the life of the
product is the best solution, but not always possible. Avoiding shapes with sharp corners limits
metal fatigue by reducing stress concentrations, but does not eliminate it.
Compressive failure
Usually, compressive stress applied to bars, columns, etc. leads to shortening.
Loading a structural element or specimen will increase the compressive stress until it reaches its
compressive strength. According to the properties of the material, failure modes are yielding for
materials with ductile behavior (most metals, some soils and plastics) or rupturing for brittle
behavior (geomaterials, cast iron, glass, etc.).
In long, slender structural elements such as columns or truss bars an increase of
compressive force F leads to structural failure due to buckling at lower stress than the
compressive strength.

Fracture

Diagram of a stress-strain curve, showing the relationship between stress (force applied) and
strain (deformation) of a ductile metal.
See also: Fracture mechanics
See also: Concrete fracture analysis
This type of deformation is also irreversible. A break occurs after the material has reached the
end of the elastic, and then plastic, deformation ranges. At this point forces accumulate until they
are sufficient to cause a fracture. All materials will eventually fracture, if sufficient forces are
applied.

Misconceptions
A popular misconception is that all materials that bend are "weak" and those that don't are
"strong." In reality, many materials that undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as

steel, are able to absorb stresses that would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal
plastic deformation ranges, to break.[4]

References
1. Davidge, R.W., Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics, Cambridge Solid State Science
Series, Eds. Clarke, D.R., et al. (1979)
2. Zarzycki, J., Glasses and the Vitreous State, Cambridge Solid State Science Series, Eds.
Clarke, D.R., et al.(1991)
3. Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, William D. Callister, John Wiley
and Sons, 2nd International edition (September 3, 2004), ISBN 0-471-66081-7, ISBN
978-0-471-66081-1, p.184
4. Peter Rice, Hugh Dutton (1995). Structural glass. Taylor & Francis. p. 33. ISBN 0-41919940-3.