Vedic Culture

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 55

P a g e |1

INTRODUCTION
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE),
is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of
the history of India when the Vedic literature, including
the Vedas (c. 1500–900 BCE), composed in the northern
Indian subcontinent, between the end of urban Indus
Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation, which
began in central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE.
The Vedas are liturgical texts which formed the basis of
the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in
the Kuru Kingdom, a tribal union of several Indo-Aryan
tribes. The Vedas contain details of life during this period
that have been interpreted to be historical[1][note 1] and
constitute the primary sources for understanding the
period. These documents, alongside the corresponding
archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-
Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred.[2]
The Vedic Age can be divided into two parts, including the
Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Age (15000–1000 BCE) and the
Later Vedic Age (1000–600 BCE). Rig Veda was the
earliest Vedic text, which was created during the early
Vedic period. The remaining three Vedas were composed
during the later Vedic period. Apart from this, there were
some major differences in the nature of society, economy,
and polity between these two periods.
P a g e |2

Vedic texts are among the most significant sources of


ancient Indian history. These texts contain information
about the geographical extent of Indo-Aryans, i.e., how
they went from North-West to East India, and a lot of
other details. Apart from this, Vedic texts tell us about the
socio-economic conditions of that particular period.
These texts mention the evolution of the varna system,
belief system, transition from a tribal to a centralized
polity, and position of women during the Vedic age.
The Vedic Age is believed to be one of the greatest cultures
of ancient India. Many historians also call it the ‘age of
Aryans (a strict ethnic group). However, the major reason
behind naming the era ‘Vedic Age’ is the composition of
Vedic texts, which was done during these years. These are
among our country’s richest works of literature and are
believed to have been composed by Indo-Aryans.
Indo-Aryans can be defined as a subgroup of people
speaking Indo-European languages. There are numerous
theories associated with the origin and invasion of the
Aryans. The Aryan invasion is also believed to be a
possible reason for the decline of the IVC; however, there
is no strict evidence supporting this. Read below this
comprehensive article to learn more about the religion,
society, polity, and economy during the Vedic Age.
The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with
precision[note 2] by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language
who had migrated into the northwestern regions of the
P a g e |3

Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society


was patriarchal and patrilineal.[note 3] Early Indo-
Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in
the Punjab, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms,
and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life.
Around c. 1200–1000 BCE the Aryan culture spread
eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain. Iron
tools were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of
forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural
way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was
characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms, and
a complex social differentiation distinctive to India,[2] and
the Kuru Kingdom's codification of orthodox sacrificial
ritual.[4][5] During this time, the central Ganges Plain was
dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture,
of Greater Magadha. The end of the Vedic period
witnessed the rise of true cities and large states
(called mahajanapadas) as well as śramaṇa movements
(including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the
Vedic orthodoxy.[6]
Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy,
and around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic
tradition formed one of the main constituents of "Hindu
synthesis".[7] Archaeological cultures identified with
phases of Indo-Aryan material culture include the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara grave culture,
the black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware
culture.[8]
P a g e |4

HISTORY
The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half
of the second millennium BCE.[10] Historically, after the
collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which occurred
around 1900 BCE,[11][12] groups of Indo-Aryan
peoples migrated into north-western India and started to
inhabit the northern Indus Valley.[13] The Indo-
Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from
other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo
horizon[14] before the middle of the
2nd millennium BCE.[15][note 4] The Indo-Iranians
originated in the Sintashta culture, from which arose the
subsequent Andronovo horizon.[14] The Indo-Aryans
migrated through the adjacent Bactria–Margiana area
(present-day northern Afghanistan) to northwest
India,[16][note 5] followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz
culture at c. 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into
Iran at c. 800 BCE.
Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the
notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and
argued for an indigenous origin of the Indo-
Aryans.[17][18] In this view, "the Indian civilization must be
viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the
earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus)
tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)."[19] Though popular in
India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and
P a g e |5

religion,[20] the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the


Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream.[note 6]
The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from
the Rigveda-samhita,[21] i.e. the oldest layer of the Vedas,
which was composed c. 1400–1000 BCE.[16][22][23] They
brought with them their distinctive religious traditions
and practices.[24] The Vedic beliefs and practices of the
pre-classical era were closely related to the
hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[25] and the
Indo-Iranian religion.[26] Funeral sacrifices from the
Sintashta-culture show close parallels to the sacrificial
funeral rites of the Rigveda,[27] while, according to
Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among
Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between
the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and
(present-day) Tajikistan.[28] It was "a syncretic mixture of
old Central Asian and new Indo-European
elements",[28] which borrowed "distinctive religious
beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana
culture,[29] including the god Indra and the ritual
drink Soma.[16][note 5]
Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta-culture show close
parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of
the Rigveda,[27] while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic
religion probably emerged among Indo-European
immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan
River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day)
Tajikistan.[28]
P a g e |6

Early Vedic period


The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the
Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and
Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu)
or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their
speech is described as mridhra which could variously
mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. However,
some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the
Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and
believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan
immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the
Vedic Aryans.[30][31] Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that
the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but
non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture,[32] a difference also noted
by Samuel.[33]
People classified forces of nature as deities. Surya (the
God who drives away darkness), Indra (the greatest God
of Aryans), Vayu (the God of air), Varuna (the God of
personified water), Soma (the God of plants),
and Maruta were the major deities during the early Vedic
period. Moreover, ‘Agni‘ was worshipped as an
intermediary between people and God. Rig Vedic people
followed some simplistic rituals, including yajnas,
domestic rituals, and a few community rituals that were
held by tribal chiefs. Women were allowed to participate
in all these rituals. The concept of human or animal
sacrifice was not there. People used to offer basic things,
P a g e |7

such as fruits and vegetables, during these rituals. The


positions of celestial objects are used to influence the
auspiciousness of a particular time.
Accounts of military conflicts in between the various
tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda.
Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of the Ten
Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni
(modern day Ravi).[note 7] The battle was fought between
the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a
confederation of ten tribes.[36] The Bharatas lived around
the upper regions of the river Saraswati, while the Purus,
their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of
Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the
Bharatas in the region of Punjab.[37] Division of the waters
of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.[38][unreliable
source?] The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the

Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas


emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.[39] The
Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru,
after the war.[37]
Rig Vedic people followed some simplistic rituals,
including yajnas, domestic rituals, and a few community
rituals that were held by tribal chiefs. Women were
allowed to participate in all these rituals. The concept of
human or animal sacrifice was not there. People used to
offer basic things, such as fruits and vegetables, during
these rituals. The positions of celestial objects are used to
influence the auspiciousness of a particular time.
P a g e |8

Later Vedic period


After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its
final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the
Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan
people in northern India,[40] transitioned from semi-
nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western
India.[39] Possession of horses remained an important
priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic
lifestyle,[41] resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu
Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry
and sacrifice could not be bred in India.[42]
The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the
Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE,
the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and
the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the
Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western
area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.[43] Many of the old tribes
coalesced to form larger political units.[44]
The Vedic religion was further developed with the
emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its
religious literature and developing the Śrauta
ritual.[45][46][47] It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware
culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of
the Ganga-Yamuya Doab.[40] It differed from the related,
yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges
region, which was associated with the Northern Black
P a g e |9

Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas


of Kosala and Magadha.[48]
In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and
Rothermund,[49] which in this stage of Indian history were
a "hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division
of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period
estates were four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility
stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and
slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the
indigenous people, were the fourth.[50][51][52] This was a
period where agriculture, metal, and commodity
production, as well as trade, greatly expanded,[53] and the
Vedic era texts including the early Upanishads and many
Sutras important to later Hindu culture were
completed.[54]
People shifted from pastoral nomadism to a sedentary life
based on agriculture. Therefore, there was a settled
community. Some taxes were levied by the king. Some
common taxes were ‘Bali’ (a voluntary tax) and ‘Bhaag’ (a
share in agricultural produce). These taxes were used by
the king for Dana/Dakshina, raising an army, paying
officials, and personal expenses. Dana and Dakshina could
be in the form of grains, cows, or human slaves. It was
given for penance, religious merit, and supporting
Brahmanas. Although Vedic society was rural, there is a
reference to ‘Nagara’ and ‘Nagrin’ in the later Vedic texts.
Due to the agricultural surplus, various non-agricultural
classes were rising. People shifted to trade and crafts.
P a g e | 10

There is some reference to ‘Ayas’ (metal) in Rigvedic


texts, but no evidence of iron. However, later Vedic texts
mention ‘Krishna Ayas’ and ‘Shyama Ayas’ (black metal),
which may be iron.
The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed
by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new
unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and
transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which
formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals.[55] Two key
figures in this process of the development of the Kuru
state were the king Parikshit and his
successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the
dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron
Age India.[45]
The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that
arose in this period were the Ashvamedha (horse
sacrifice).[56] This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated
horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The kingdoms
and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay
homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse
belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on
inter-state relations in this era.[56] This period saw also
the beginning of the social stratification by varna, the
division of Vedic society
in Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.[55]
The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-
Vedic Salva tribe, and the political center of Vedic culture
P a g e | 11

shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges,


under King Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900
and 750 BCE).[45] Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the
kingdom of Videha emerged as a political center farther to
the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and
southeastern Nepal, reaching its prominence under the
king Janaka, whose court provided patronage
for Brahmin sages and philosophers such
as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, and Gargi
Vachaknavi;[8] Panchala also remained prominent during
this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali.[57]
The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse
wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king
to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put
considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this
era.[56] To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected
and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which
formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals.[55] Two key
figures in this process of the development of the Kuru
state were the king Parikshit and his
successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the
dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron
Age India.[45]
P a g e | 12

Urbanization
By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated
into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of
urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce
and travel flourished, even regions separated by large
distances became easy to access.[58] Anga, a small
kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the door step of
modern-day West Bengal), formed the eastern boundary
of the Vedic culture.[59] Yadavas expanded towards the
south and settled in Mathura.
During the later Vedic period, most democratic elements
were declining. Due to the agricultural surplus, the
population increased and the kinship-bond-based society
declined. Assemblies fell into disuse and declined.
War booty was no longer given the same importance.
Sabha and Samiti declined. Women lost almost all their
rights. The four-fold varna system evolved, which ruined
the pre-existing structure of Vedic polity.
To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was
governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada
River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the
southern limits.[60][61] The newly formed states struggled
for supremacy and started displaying imperial
ambitions.[62]
The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic,
cultural and political changes. The grammar
P a g e | 13

of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification


of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning
of Classical Sanskrit.[63] The invasion of Darius I of the
Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the
beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms
of the Indo-Greeks.[64]
Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region,
the shramana movements
(including Jainism and Buddhism) objected the self-
imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding
Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual.[6][65]
According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in
"Greater Magadha," which was Indo-European, but not
Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than
Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and
rituals.[32][66]
To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was
governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada
River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the
southern limits.[60][61] The newly formed states struggled
for supremacy and started displaying imperial
ambitions.[62]
The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic,
cultural and political changes. The grammar
of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification
of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning
of Classical Sanskrit.[63]
P a g e | 14

Culture
While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense
that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes
or castes was absent,[67][68] the Vedic period saw the
emergence of a hierarchy of social classes.[4][5] Political
hierarchy was determined by rank, where rājan (tribal
king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the
top, the viś (the common people) in the middle, and
the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the
bottom.[68][69]
The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various
family books of the Rigveda, but they are not associated
with the term varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are
absent. Verses of the Rigveda, such as 3.44–45, indicate
the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of
social mobility:[30]
O, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector
of people, or would you make me a king, would you make
me a sage who has drunk soma, would you impart to me
endless wealth.
The institution of marriage was important and different
types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry
are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both women sages and
female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could
choose their husbands and could remarry if their
husbands died or disappeared.[68] The wife enjoyed a
P a g e | 15

respectable position.[70] People consumed milk, milk


products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is
mentioned; however, cows are labeled aghnya (not to be
killed).
Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were
worn.[68] Soma and sura were popular drinks in the Vedic
society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute
(vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals and drums were the
musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was
used.[70] Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling
were other popular pastimes.[68]
The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic
age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the
emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided
into four social groups—
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later
Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual
purity for each of the groups.
The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with
purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or
protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling,
and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and
production-related activities such as cattle rearing and
agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas.
The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of
the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre,
P a g e | 16

Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power


and Shudra with stability.
The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the
later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse
13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya
over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12
places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and
Shudra. The Purusha Sukta visualised the four varnas as
hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic
whole.[71]
Despite the increasing social stratification in the later
Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda IX.112 suggest some
amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my
father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with
stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various
actions."[72][73]
Household became an important unit in the later Vedic
age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way
to an idealised household which was headed by
a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife,
father and son were hierarchically organised and the
women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles.
Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts
like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around
menstruating women.
Various professions women took to are mentioned in the
later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows,
P a g e | 17

carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders.


Women warriors such as Vishpala, who lost a leg in battle,
are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned
in the Upanishads.[74] Patrick Olivelle, in his translation of
the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are
introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain
how women could be engaged in theological matters
suggests the relatively high social and religious position of
at least women of some social strata during this
period."[75]
The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic
age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the
emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided
into four social groups—
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later
Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual
purity for each of the groups.
The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with
purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or
protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling,
and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and
production-related activities such as cattle rearing and
agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas.
The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of
the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre,
Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power
and Shudra with stability.
P a g e | 18

Political Organisation
Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than
kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan. The
autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal
councils called sabha and samiti. The two bodies were, in
part, responsible for the governance of the tribe.
The rajan could not accede to the throne without their
approval.
The distinction between the two bodies is not
clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham, a noted historian
and indologist, theorises that sabha was a meeting of
great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of
all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs
and were directly governed by the tribal
councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was
attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs of sects
(gramani).
The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the
tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including
the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army
chief), dutas (envoys)
and spash (spies).[76] Purohita performed ceremonies
and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.[77]
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into
small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary
administrative system.[60] To aid in governing these new
P a g e | 19

states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic


hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals
(the now orthodox Śrauta rituals) to strengthen the
emerging social hierarchy.[45] The rajan was seen as the
custodian of social order and the protector
of rashtra (polity).
Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions
like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which
previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king,
became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of
the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to
as samrat (supreme ruler).
The rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain
greater control over the productive resources. The
voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory tribute;
however, there was no organised system
taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later
Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king,
their influence declined.[78] By the end of the later Vedic
age, different kinds of political systems such as
monarchical states (rajya), oligarchical states
(gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had emerged in
India.[78]
According to Michael Witzel's analysis of the Kuru
Kingdom, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic
"state", during the Middle Vedic Period.[45][note
8] However, Robert Bellah observes that it is difficult to
P a g e | 20

"pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or


a complex chiefdom, as the Kuru kings notably never
adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means
"chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context.[79]
The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of
cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in
ancient Hawaii and "very early Egypt," which were
"territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it
was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and
the court was often peripatetic."[80] Romila
Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being
in a condition of "arrested development," because local
chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus
wealth that could have been directed towards state-
building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose
rituals that also served to structure social relations.[81]
The period of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic
era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new
wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of
urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth
of population and trade networks, these social and
economic changes put pressure on older ways of life,
setting the stage for the Upanishads and the
subsequent śramaṇa movements,[82] and the end of the
Vedic Period, which was followed by
the Mahajanapada period.
P a g e | 21

According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the


period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered
settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some
"modest central places," suggestive of the existence of
simple chiefdoms, with the Kurukshetra district itself
displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized)
three-tiered hierarchy.[83] Subsequently, (after 600 BCE)
there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and
fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level
society.[84]
Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as
being in a condition of "arrested development," because
local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because
surplus wealth that could have been directed towards
state-building was instead used for the increasingly
grandiose rituals that also served to structure social
relations.[81]
The period of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic
era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new
wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of
urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth
of population and trade networks, these social and
economic changes put pressure on older ways of life,
setting the stage for the Upanishads and the
subsequent śramaṇa movements,[82] and the end of the
Vedic Period, which was followed by
the Mahajanapada period.
P a g e | 22

Economy
Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a
combination of pastoralism and agriculture.[70] There are
references, in the Rigveda, to the leveling of fields, seed
processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty
was also a major source of wealth.[68] Economic exchanges
were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( bali)
and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of
currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there
is no indication of the use of coins.
Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rigveda, but the
word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors,
bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions
purification of ayas. Some scholars believe
that ayas refers to iron and the
words dham and karmara refer to iron-
welders.[85] However, philological evidence indicates
that ayas in the Rigveda refers only to copper and bronze,
while iron or śyāma ayas, literally "black metal", first is
mentioned in the post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda,[8][45] and
therefore the Early Vedic Period was a Bronze Age culture
whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron
Age culture.[citation needed]
In the Early Vedic Age, Pastoralism was the major activity,
along with agriculture as a secondary activity. The most
significant sources of wealth were cattle and war booty.
Cows were considered aghanya (shouldn’t be killed).
P a g e | 23

Cattle herding was only performed by non-priestly, non-


warriors, and non-brahmanical people. There is a
reference to several words derived from ‘Gau’ (cow),
including Gopa (chief), Gavisthi (war for capturing cow),
Gomat (influential individual), etc. People were living a
nomadic life, and there were constant wars, due to which
people had no time for agriculture. A barter system
existed for cattle exchange. There was no private
ownership of land or war booty. It was equally distributed
among the community in an assembly called Vidhata.
The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to
settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase
in trade and competition for resources.[86] Agriculture
dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley
during this period.[87] Agricultural operations grew in
complexity and usage of iron implements (krishna–
ayas or shyama–ayas, literally black metal or dark metal)
increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were
cultivated.
In the Later Vedic Age, People shifted from pastoral
nomadism to a sedentary life based on agriculture.
Therefore, there was a settled community. Some taxes
were levied by the king. Some common taxes were ‘Bali’
(a voluntary tax) and ‘Bhaag’ (a share in agricultural
produce). These taxes were used by the king for
Dana/Dakshina, raising an army, paying officials, and
personal expenses. Dana and Dakshina could be in the
P a g e | 24

form of grains, cows, or human slaves. It was given for


penance, religious merit, and supporting Brahmanas.
Although Vedic society was rural, there is a reference to
‘Nagara’ and ‘Nagrin’ in the later Vedic texts. Due to the
agricultural surplus, various non-agricultural classes
were rising. People shifted to trade and crafts. The
agricultural surplus also led to an increase in population
as there was no nutrient deficiency. Some references to
plowing, sowing, use of how, sickle, etc. have been found
in the later Vedic texts. There is some reference to ‘Ayas’
(metal) in Rigvedic texts, but no evidence of iron.
However, later Vedic texts mention ‘Krishna Ayas’ and
‘Shyama Ayas’ (black metal), which may be iron.
Surplus production helped to support the centralised
kingdoms that were emerging at this time.[45] New crafts
and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning,
pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking
arose.[88] Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic
texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.[89]
Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to
stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform
Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis
were semitic traders, but the evidence for this is
slim.[37] Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers,
farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-
making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning,
making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass
P a g e | 25

and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda.


Some of these might have needed full-time specialists.[85]
Although Vedic society was rural, there is a reference to
‘Nagara’ and ‘Nagrin’ in the later Vedic texts. Due to the
agricultural surplus, various non-agricultural classes
were rising. People shifted to trade and crafts. The
agricultural surplus also led to an increase in population
as there was no nutrient deficiency. Some references to
plowing, sowing, use of how, sickle, etc. have been found
in the later Vedic texts. There is some reference to ‘Ayas’
(metal) in Rigvedic texts, but no evidence of iron.
There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of
the Rigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans.
Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as
a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement
(dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a result of non-
payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in
households rather than production-related activities.[68]
People shifted to trade and crafts. The agricultural surplus
also led to an increase in population as there was no
nutrient deficiency. Some references to plowing, sowing,
use of how, sickle, etc. have been found in the later Vedic
texts. There is some reference to ‘Ayas’ (metal) in
Rigvedic texts, but no evidence of iron. However, later
Vedic texts mention ‘Krishna Ayas’ and ‘Shyama Ayas’
(black metal), which may be iron.
P a g e | 26

Religion
Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly
the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the
older Upanishads as well as the oldest Śrautasutras are
also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record
the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices
performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and
the purohitas.[citation needed] The rishis, the composers of the
hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets
and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of
an eternally existing Veda, Śruti means "what is heard").
In the Early Vedic Period, People classified forces of
nature as deities. Surya (the God who drives away
darkness), Indra (the greatest God of Aryans), Vayu (the
God of air), Varuna (the God of personified
water), Soma (the God of plants), and Maruta were the
major deities during the early Vedic period. Moreover,
‘Agni‘ was worshipped as an intermediary between
people and God. Rig Vedic people followed some
simplistic rituals, including yajnas, domestic rituals, and a
few community rituals that were held by tribal chiefs.
Women were allowed to participate in all these rituals.
The concept of human or animal sacrifice was not there.
People used to offer basic things, such as fruits and
vegetables, during these rituals. The positions of celestial
objects are used to influence the auspiciousness of a
particular time.
P a g e | 27

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices


(Yajna) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses
(see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of
sacrificial mantras (Yajus). Yajna involved sacrifice and
sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)
in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic
mantras.
The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from
the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of
worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña)
and charity (dána).[90] An essential element was the
sacrificial fire—the divine Agni—into which oblations
were poured, as everything offered into the fire was
believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of
rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
In the Late Vedic Period, Along with the forces of nature,
later Vedic people were worshipping some new deities.
They majorly worshipped Prajapati, or Brahma (creator),
Shiva (destroyer), and Vishnu (preserver). Rituals in the
later Vedic age were more elaborate and materialistic.
These were considered the means of acquiring legitimacy
by the ruling class. The priestly class rose as an
intermediary, and their influence increased during this
period.
Women were not allowed to participate in any rituals,
except domestic ones. Ashwamedha, Vajapeya, and
Rajasayu were some popular rituals performed by the
P a g e | 28

king. Kshatriya used to give dana and dakshina to


Brahmanas. Moreover, the concept of Bali (voluntary
offerings by Vaishyas) was there. This was the period of
the rise of the Brahman-Kshatriya nexus.
Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul,
and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time
of the Atharvaveda.[91] Many of the concepts of Indian
philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace
their root to the Vedas.[92]
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon
were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some
deities of social order such as Mitra–
Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities
such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind)
and Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the
dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or
sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were
also considered goddesses.
Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship
between humans and the deity was one of transaction,
with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger
between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-
Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult
and the fire worship, both of which are preserved
in Zoroastrianism.
Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts
of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration
P a g e | 29

rooted in the Absolute.[93] Whereas, Ṛta is the expression


of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of
the universe and everything within it.[94][note 9] Conformity
with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation
would lead to punishment.
The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from
the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of
worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña)
and charity (dána).[90] An essential element was the
sacrificial fire—the divine Agni—into which oblations
were poured, as everything offered into the fire was
believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of
rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon
were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some
deities of social order such as Mitra–
Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities
such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind)
and Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the
dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or
sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were
also considered goddesses.
Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship
between humans and the deity was one of transaction,
with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger
between the two.
P a g e | 30

Literature
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based
on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant
archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could
be classified in five chronological strata:[8]
Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the
Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-
Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are
not present in any other Vedic text.
Mantra language texts: This period includes both
the mantra and prose language of
the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunmkiya),
the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing
some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of
the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived
from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes,
both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation.
Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all"
by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for
Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in
north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red
Ware (BRW) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures, and
the early Kuru Kingdom, dating from c. the 12th to 11th
centuries BCE.
Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of
the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An
P a g e | 31

important linguistic change is the complete loss of


the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on
mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS)
belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey
Ware culture from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to
the Kuru Kingdom and the subsequent eastward shift of
the political centre from the Kurus to the Panchalas on
the Ganges.
Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the
four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas,
the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the
oldest Śrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). In the east, Videha (N.
Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political
centre of the Vedic period.
Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic
Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of
the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras,&some Upanishads (e.g. Kat
hU, MaitrU)
Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all"
by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for
Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in
north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red
Ware (BRW) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures, and
the early Kuru Kingdom, dating from c. the 12th to 11th
centuries BCE.
P a g e | 32

Archaeology
Archaeological cultures identified with phases of
Vedic material culture include the Ochre Coloured
Pottery culture, the Gandhara grave culture, the Black and
red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.[8]
Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found
approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar
Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district.[100] It is
thought that this culture was prominent during the latter
half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between
the Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan
culture.[101] This pottery is typically created with wheel
ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated
with a red slip, and occasional black bands1.
When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre
color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging,
bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these
factors.[100] This pottery was found all throughout the
doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and
Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these
districts, extending north and south of
Bahadrabad.[100] This pottery does, however, seem to
exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre
colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as
Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the
doab being heavily associated with the culture.[100]
P a g e | 33

Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric


cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all
the way from Bajuar to the Indus.[102] These cemeteries
seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary
practice", such as inflexed inhumation and
cremation.[103] This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages:
the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined
pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are
added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are
covered with huge stone slabs.[103]
In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are
typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on
top.[102] After digging out the stones, skeletons were found
facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one
direction, and the hands laying on top of one
another.[102] Female skeletons were often found wearing
hair pins and jewelry.[102] Pottery is greatly important to
this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good",
being buried with the bodies of the dead.[103] Buried
alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on
top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of
pottery per grave.[103] Within this culture we typically see
two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.[102]
Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946
by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[104] The pottery, as the name
suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a
red lower half on the outside of the piece.[104] Red-ware
pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands,
P a g e | 34

or cooking vessels.[102] Most of these pieces of pottery


were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted,
or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-
stands have also been found in small quantities.[104]
Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began
its spread during the neolithic period and continues until
the early medieval period in India, as well as being found
in parts of West Asia and Egypt.[104] There are many
theories about the process of its creation, the most
popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a
simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.[104]
Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that
has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej,
Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely
classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in
the beginning of the Vedic period.[105] It's also thought that
the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture
also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains,
making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern
Indian Iron Age.[105]
After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing
southwest to northeast, with the head facing one
direction, and the hands laying on top of one
another.[102] Female skeletons were often found wearing
hair pins and jewelry.[102] Pottery is greatly important to
this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good",
being buried with the bodies of the dead.[103] Buried
P a g e | 35

alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on


top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of
pottery per grave.[103] Within this culture we typically see
two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.[102]
The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown
into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often
decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns,
sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas.[105] Grey-ware
pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to
have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking
glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases
with outturned lips.[102]
Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found
approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar
Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district.[100] It is
thought that this culture was prominent during the latter
half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between
the Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan
culture.[101] This pottery is typically created with wheel
ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated
with a red slip, and occasional black bands1.
There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the
establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is
significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found
Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey
ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".[106]
P a g e | 36

Sources
• Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel,
and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the
Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-
0.

• Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-


European Homeland from Linguistic and
Perspectives", Annual Review of Linguistics, 1: 199–
219, doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812

• Basham, A. L. (2008) [first published 1954 by


Sidgwick and Jackson], The Wonder that was India:
A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-
continent before the coming of the Muslims,
Scholarly Publishing Office, University of
Michigan, ISBN 978-1-59740-599-7

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires


of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from
the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2994-1.

• Bhan, Suraj (2002). "Aryanization of the Indus


Civilization". In K. N. Panikkar; T. J. Byres; U. Patnaik
(eds.). The Making of History. pp. 41–55.
P a g e | 37

• Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007), Greater Magadha:


Studies in the Culture of Early India, BRILL

• Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of


Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate,
New York: Oxford University Press

• Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie, eds. (2005), Indo-


Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in
Indian History, Routledge

• Dani, Ahmad Hasan (15 August 1966), Gandhara


Grave Complex in West Pakistan, Pakistan:
University of Peshawar

• Erdosy, George (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient


South Asia: Language, Material Culture and
Ethnicity, Walter de Gruyter

• Erdosy, George (1995a). "The prelude to


urbanization: ethnicity and the rise of Late Vedic
chiefdoms". In F. R. Allchin (ed.). The Archaeology of
Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities
and States. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–
98. ISBN 978-0-521-37695-2.

• Erdosy, George (1995b). "City states of North India


and Pakistan at the time of the Buddha". In F. R.
Allchin (ed.). The Archaeology of Early Historic
P a g e | 38

South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States.


Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–122. ISBN 978-
0-521-37695-2.

• Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to


Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-
521-43878-0

• Flood, Gavin (2003), The Blackwell Companion to


Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1-4051-
3251-5

• Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011), Indo-European


Language and Culture: An Introduction, John Wiley
& Sons, ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8

• Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971), The Religion of the


Ṛigveda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-
0745-7

• Hedge, K.T.M. (2 January 2015), The Painted Grey


Ware of India, vol. 49, Cambridge University Press,
pp. 187–190

• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2001), Rethinking the Mahabharata:


A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma
King, University of Chicago Press
• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), "Hinduism", in Joseph
Kitagawa (ed.), The Religious Traditions of Asia:
P a g e | 39

Religion, History, and Culture, Routledge, ISBN 978-


1-136-87597-7

• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), "Hinduism", in Joseph


Kitagawa (ed.), The Religious Traditions of Asia:
Religion, History, and Culture (Digital printing),
Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-87590-8

• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). Dharma: Its Early History in


Law, Religion, and Narrative. Oxford University
Press.

• Holdrege, Barbara A. (2004), "Dharma", in Mittal, S.;


Thursby, G. (eds.), The Hindu World, New York:
Routledge, pp. 213–248, ISBN 0-415-21527-7

• Jamison, Stephanie W. (2006). "The Indo-Aryan


controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian
history (Book review)" (PDF). Journal of Indo-
European Studies. 34: 255–261.

• Joseph, Tony (2018), Early Indians: The Story of Our


Ancestors and Where We Came From, Juggernaut

• Joseph, Tony (13 September 2019), "New reports


clearly confirm 'Arya' migration into India", The
Hindu
P a g e | 40

• Kak, Subhash (2001b), "On the Chronological


Framework for Indian Culture" (PDF), Journal of
Indian Council of Philosophical Research

• Kak, Subhash (2005), "Vedic astronomy and early


Indian chronology", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie
(eds.), Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and
Inference in Indian History, Routledge

• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998), A


History of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32920-
0

• Kuzmina, Elena E. (2007). The Origin of the Indo-


Iranians. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.

• Long, Jeffrey D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B.


Tauris

• Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), Ancient India,


Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4

• Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), The Oxford


Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-
Indo-European World, Oxford University Press
P a g e | 41

• Mishra, Anup (2007), "Chalcolithic Black and Red


Ware of Balathal, Upaidur, Rajasthan: A
Study", Indian History Congress, 68: 1322–1339

• McClish, Mark; Olivelle,


Patrick (2012), "Introduction", in M. McClish; P.
Olivelle (eds.), The Arthasastra: Selections from the
Classic Indian Work on Statecraft, Hackett
Publishing, p. xxiv, ISBN 978-1-60384-903-6

• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present,


Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

• Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory,


James; Reich, David (2018), The Genomic Formation
of South and Central
Asia (PDF), bioRxiv 10.1101/292581, doi:10.1101/
292581

• Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick;


Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos,
Rebecca (2019). "The Formation of Human
Populations in South and Central
Asia". Science. 365 (6457).
• Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upanis̥ ads, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-283576-5
P a g e | 42

• Panikkar, Raimundo (2001), The Vedic Experience:


Mantramañjari, Bangalore: Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1280-8

• Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The


Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford
University Press

• Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989).


"Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā:
Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1–
4): 111–143. JSTOR 29756891.

• Proferes, Theodore (2003). "Kuru kings, Tura


Kavaseya and the -tvaya Gerund". Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies. 66 (2): 210–
219. doi:10.1017/S0041977X03000120. S2CID 162
246125.

• Ratnagar, Shereen (2008). "The Aryan homeland


debate in India". In P. L. Kohl; M. Kozelsky; N. Ben-
Yehuda (eds.). Selective remembrances:
archaeology in the construction, commemoration,
and consecration of national pasts. pp. 349–378.
• Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), Indian History, Tata
McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN 978-0-07-132923-1

• Rocher, Ludo (1986), The Purāṇas, Otto


Harrassowitz Verlag
P a g e | 43

• Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and


Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,
Cambridge University Press

• Sen, S. N. (1999), Ancient Indian History And


Civilization, New Age International, ISBN 978-81-
224-1198-0

• Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and


Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the
12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-
81-317-1120-0

• Singh, Upinder (2009), History of Ancient and Early


Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th
Century, Longman, ISBN 978-8131716779

• Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa


(1981), A history of Indian literature: Introduction,
Veda, epics, purānas and tantras, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3
• Witzel, Michael (1989), "Tracing the Vedic
dialects", Dialectes dans les Litteratures Indo-
Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 97–265.

• Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization.


Origins and Development of the Kuru
State" (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic
P a g e | 44

Studies, 1 (4): 1–26, archived from the


original (PDF) on 11 June 2007

• Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans?


The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian
Texts" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies
(EJVS). 7 (3): 1–115.

• Ratnagar, Shereen (2008). "The Aryan homeland


debate in India". In P. L. Kohl; M. Kozelsky; N. Ben-
Yehuda (eds.). Selective remembrances:
archaeology in the construction, commemoration,
and consecration of national pasts. pp. 349–378.
• Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), Indian History, Tata
McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN 978-0-07-132923-1

• Rocher, Ludo (1986), The Purāṇas, Otto


Harrassowitz Verlag

• Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and


Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,
Cambridge University Press

• Sen, S. N. (1999), Ancient Indian History And


Civilization, New Age International, ISBN 978-81-
224-1198-0

• Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and


Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the
P a g e | 45

12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-


81-317-1120-0

• Woodard, Roger D. (18 August 2006). Indo-


European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult.
University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-
4.

• Mishra, Anup (2007), "Chalcolithic Black and Red


Ware of Balathal, Upaidur, Rajasthan: A
Study", Indian History Congress, 68: 1322–1339

• McClish, Mark; Olivelle,


Patrick (2012), "Introduction", in M. McClish; P.
Olivelle (eds.), The Arthasastra: Selections from the
Classic Indian Work on Statecraft, Hackett
Publishing, p. xxiv, ISBN 978-1-60384-903-6

• Zahir, Muhammad (15 April 2016), The Gandhara


Grave Culture: New Perspectives on Protohistoric
Cemeteries in Northern and Northwestern Pakistan,
pp. 274–293.

• Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and


Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,
Cambridge University Press
P a g e | 46

References
• McClish & Olivelle 2012, p. xxiv.

• Jump up to:a b Stein 2010, p. 50.

• M Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in Flood, Gavin, ed.


(2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5,
pages 68-71

• ^Jump up to:a b Witzel 1995, p. 3-5.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Samuel 2010, p. 49-52.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Flood 1996, p. 82.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Hiltebeitel 2002, p. [page needed].

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Witzel 1989.

• ^ Narasimhan et al. 2019.


• ^ Pletcher, Kenneth (2010). The History of India.
Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 60.

• ^ Witzel 1995, p. 3.

• ^ Samuel 2010, p. 41.


P a g e | 47

• ^ Flood 1996, pp. 30, 33–35.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Anthony 2007, pp. 410–411.

• ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 322.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c Anthony 2007, p. 454.

• ^ Bryant 2001.

• ^ Singh 2008, p. 186.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Kak 2001b.

• ^ Witzel 2001, p. 95.

• ^ Flood 1996, p. 31

• ^ Witzel 2019, p. 11: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan


loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the Rig
Veda for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The Rig Veda is a late
Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE.
However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-
Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the Rig
Veda cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into
account a period needed for linguistic change, it may
not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."
P a g e | 48

• ^ Flood 1996, p. 30.

• ^ Woodard 2006, p. 242.

• ^ Beckwith 2009, p. [page needed].

• ^ Anthony 2007, p. 375, 408–411.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Anthony 2007, p. 462.

• ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 32.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Singh 2008, p. 192.

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 38.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Bronkhorst 2007.

• ^ Samuel 2010.

• ^ Erdosy 1995, p. 335.


• ^ Hiltebeitel 2001, p. 2, note 12.

• ^ Singh 2008, p. 187.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c Basham 2008, p. 32.


P a g e | 49

• ^ Reddy 2011, p. 103.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp. 37–


38.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Samuel 2010, p. 49.

• ^ Tignor, Robert L. (2014). Worlds together, worlds


apart: a history of the world from the beginnings of
humankind to the present (4th ed.). New York: W.
W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-
3. OCLC 854609153.

• ^ Kaushik, Roy (2013). Military manpower, armies


and warfare in South Asia. London: Pickering &
Chatto. ISBN 978-1-84893-292-
0. OCLC 827268432.

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp. 37–39.

• ^ Singh 2008, p. 200.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Witzel 1995.

• ^ Samuel 2010, p. 48-51, 61–93.

• ^ Hiltebeitel 2007, pp. 8–10.


P a g e | 50

• ^ Samuel 2010, p. 49-50.

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp. 39–40.

• ^ Avari, Burjor (2016). India: The Ancient Past: A


History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE
to CE 1200. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-317-
23673-3.

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp. 39–41.

• ^ Sharma, Ram Sharan (1990), Śūdras in Ancient


India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to
Circa A.D. 600, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 33, ISBN 978-
81-208-0706-8

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, pp. 41–43.

• ^ Witzel 1995, p. 2-8.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Samuel 2010, p. 48-56.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Basham 2008, p. 42.

• H. C. Raychaudhuri (1972), Political History of


Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.67–
68.
P a g e | 51

• ^ Olivelle 1998, pp. xxviii–xxix.

• ^ Basham 2008, p. 40.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Basham 2008, p. 41.

• ^ Majumdar 1998, p. 65.

• ^ Majumdar 1998, p. 66.

• ^ Fortson 2011, p. 208.

• ^ Sen 1999, pp. 117–120.

• ^ Samuel 2010, p. 48-51; ch. 3.

• ^ Long 2013, p. chapter II.

• ^ Staal 2008, p. 54.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Singh 2008, p. 191.

• ^ Witzel 1995, p. 5.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c Basham 2008, p. 35.

• ^ Singh 2008, pp. 201–203.


P a g e | 52

• ^ Singh 2008, p. 204.

• ^ Olivelle 1998, p. xxvi.

• ^ Singh 2008, pp. 204–206.

• ^ Olivelle 1998, p. xxxvi.

• ^ Majumdar 1977, p. 45.

• ^ Basham 2008, pp. 33–34.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Singh 2008, pp. 200–201.

• ^ Bellah, Robert N. Religion in Human


Evolution (Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 491 f.
(online).

• ^ Bellah 2011, 697–98: citing the terminology of


Bruce Trigger, Understanding Early
Civilizations (online).

• ^ Cited by Bellah 2011, p. 698 f. (online).

• ^ Bellah 2011, p. 509, citing Patrick Olivelle's


introductory remarks to his translation of the
Upanishads (online).
P a g e | 53

• ^ Erdosy 1995a.

• ^ Erdosy 1995b.

• ^ Jump up to:a b Singh 2008, p. 190.

• ^ Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 40.

• ^ Olivelle 1998, p. xxvii.

• ^ Singh 2008, pp. 198–199.

• ^ Basham 2008, pp. 42–43.

• ^ Nigal, S.G. Axiological Approach to the Vedas.


Northern Book Centre, 1986. P. 81. ISBN 81-85119-
18-X.

• ^ Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History


of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P.
150-151.
• ^ *Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of
Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario:
Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-
919812-15-5.
P a g e | 54

• ^ Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious


and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life
Society. p. 21

• ^ Holdrege 2004, p. 215.

• ^ Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind


Sharma, editor, The Study of Hinduism. University of
South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65: "... to call this
period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms
since Vedic religion is very different from what we
generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old
Hebrew religion is from mediaeval and modern
Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is
treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."

• ^ Paul & Paul 1989, pp. 112–114, 115, 125.

• ^ Paul & Paul 1989.

• ^ Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K.


(1996). The Buddha Image: Its Origin and
Development. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. ix–
x. ISBN 978-81-215-0565-9.
• ^ Jump up to:a b c Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert
(2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley &
Sons. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1.
P a g e | 55

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d Singh 2008, p. 218.

• ^ Darvill, Timothy (2009). The Concise Oxford


Dictionary of Archeology (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Dani 1966, p. 99.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d Zahir 2016, pp. 274–293.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Mishra 2007.

• ^ Jump up to:a b c Hedge 2015.

• ^ Lal, B.B. (1996), The Painted Grey Ware Culture of


the Iron Age, Unesco, pp. 412–419

• ^ Rocher 1986, p. 122.

• ^ Singh 2009, p. 19.

• ^ Narasimhan, Vagheesh (2019). "The formation of


human populations in South and Central
Asia". Science. 365 (6457). doi:10.1126/science.aat
7487. PMC 6822619. PMID 31488661

You might also like