REPUBLIC OF KENYA

Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology

TECHNICAL, INDUSTRIAL,
VOCATIONAL,
AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING

Diploma in Catering and Accommodation Management

TRAINEE MANUAL

KENYA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

P O BOX 30231 00100
TEL 014 – 3749900-9
NAIROBI October 2009
Kenya Institute of Education
P.O. Box 30231-00100
Nairobi
Email: [email protected]
Off Murang’a Road

First published in 2009

© Kenya Institute of Education

All rights are reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transcribed, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publisher.

ISBN…………………
 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T

FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................................. II

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... III

NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION .................................................................................................................. III
1.2 NATIONAL AIMS OF TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAMMES ................................................................. IV
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAMMES ................................................................. IV
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE ............................................................................................. IV
2.1 COURSE DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................................................... V
2.2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE .............................................................................................. V
2.3 GENERAL REGULATIONS ................................................................................................................... V
2.5 EXAMINATIONS AND AWARD OF CERTIFICATES ............................................................................... VIII
3.0 COURSE SUMMARY AND TIME ALLOCATION ....................................................................................... X

MODULE I .................................................................................................................................................... 1
3.1.0 COMMUNICATION SKILLS .......................................................................................................... 4
4.1.0 LIFE SKILLS ................................................................................................................................... 5
5.1.0 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ........................................................ 6
6.1.0 ENTREPRENEURSHIP .................................................................................................................. 7
7.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 8
8.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES....................................................................... 156
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE LAUNDRY AND HOME NURSING .................................. 192
10.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL I ................................................................. 348
11.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PREMISE..................................................................... 371
12.1.0 MATHEMATICS ........................................................................................................................ 417

MODULE II ............................................................................................................................................... 418

13.2.0 ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT 1 ................................................................................... 420
14.2.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL II ............................................................... 439
15.2.0 DIET THERAPY .......................................................................................................................... 460
16.2.0 HOSPITALITY ACCOUNTING .................................................................................................. 567
17.2.0 LAW RELATED TO HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY ....................................................................... 593
18.2.0 BUSINESS PLAN ........................................................................................................................ 613

MODULE III.............................................................................................................................................. 614

19.3.0 ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT II ......................................................... 616
20.3.0 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT ............................................................... 638
21.3.0 SALES AND MARKETING FOR HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY .................................................. 638
22.3.0 HUMAN RELATIONS ................................................................................................................ 638
23.3.0 RESEARCH METHODSELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III .............................. 638

ELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III ................................................................................... 639

24.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT ....................................................... 640
25.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES MANAGEMENT.......................................... 684

APPENDIX I: HOUSEKEEPING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................... 717

APPENDIX II: KITCHEN EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS .......................................................................................... 719
APPENDIX III: LAUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................... 721
APPENDIX IV: RESTRAURANT ...................................................................................................................... 722
FOREWORD

Technical, Industrial, Vocational, and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) Division has been revising the old
syllabuses. In the revision of the syllabus the new emerging issues and trends have been incorporated, some
units removed from the syllabus, outdated information deleted and new content developed to make the syllabus
meet the industry needs.

This syllabus is designed to assist lecturers on the depth of teaching on each unit. The syllabus outlines the
objectives, content, learning activities and the suggested evaluation methods to be adopted in assessing a
trainee’s progress and achievement.
It is hoped that this syllabus will greatly assist the lecturers in delivering quality education to trainees in the
TIVET training institutions.
I am grateful to the staff of TIVET in Kenya Institute of Education, subject panel members, TIVET course panel
members, the KIE Academic Board and all who participated in the development and production of this syllabus.

DIRECTOR OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In developing this syllabus, considerable involvement and support was received from various persons to make
this syllabus all-inclusive in terms of content and context for the benefit of all who will make use of it. To all of
you, we say thank you for making this a reality.

The KIE wishes to sincerely thank the Academic board members, Course panel members and syllabus writers
for the development of this syllabus.

L. N. NZOMO OGW (MRS.)

DIRECTOR KENYA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

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1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

National Goals of Education

The overall education policy goal of the Government of Kenya is to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for all (EFA) goals by 2015 in tandem with the national
and international commitments. The vision of the Ministry of Education, is “to have a globally
competitive education, training and research for Kenya’s sustainable development” while the
mission is “to provide, promote, coordinate the provision of quality education, training and research for
the empowerment of individuals to become responsible and competent citizens who value education
as a lifelong process” as envisaged by Kenya Vision 2030. The national goals of education are given
below:

i) Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity

Kenya’s people belong to different ethnic groups, races and religions, but these differences
need not divide them. They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount
duty of education to help the youth acquire this sense of nationhood, by removing conflicts
and by promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect, which enable them to live together in
harmony, and foster patriotism in order to make a positive contribution to the life of the
Nation.
ii) Promote the social economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development

Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in
the life of the nation.
 Social Needs
Education in Kenya must prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships, which
are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern economy. There is
bound to be a silent social revolution following in the wake of rapid modernization.
Education should assist our youth to adapt to this change.

 Economic Needs
Education in Kenya should produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal
qualities that are required to support a growing economy. Kenya is building up a modern and
independent economy, which is in need of adequate domestic manpower.

 Technological and Industrial Needs

Education in Kenya should provide the learners with the necessary skills and attitudes for
Industrial development. Kenya recognizes the rapid industrial and technological changes
taking place, especially in the developed world. We can only be part of this development if
our education system deliberately focused on knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare
the youth for these changing global trends.
iii) Promote individual development and self-fulfilment

Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and
personality. It should help children to develop their potential, interests and abilities. A vital
aspect of individual development is character building.
iv) Promote sound moral and religious values

Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will
enhance acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow up into self-disciplined,
self-reliant and integrated citizens.

v) Promote social equality and responsibility

Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within an
education system, which provides equal education opportunities for all. It should give all

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 children varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social
service, irrespective of gender, ability or geographical environment.

vi) Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures

Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures
and their valid place in contemporary society. The children should be able to blend the best of
traditional values with the changed requirements that must follow rapid development in order
to build a stable and modern society.

vii) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations

Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and interdependent
network of peoples and nations. Education should, therefore, lead the youth of the country to
accept membership in this international community with all the obligations and
responsibilities, rights and benefits that this membership entails.

viii) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

Education should inculcate in the youth the value for good health in order to avoid indulging
in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It should foster positive attitudes
towards environmental development and conservation. It should lead the youth to appreciate
the need for a healthy environment.

1.2 National Aims of Technical Training Programmes

The aims of the technical training at both post primary and post secondary levels should be to:
a) provide training opportunities for the increasing number of school leavers to enable them to be self-
supporting
b) develop practical skills and attitudes which will lead to income generating activities in the urban
and rural areas through self-employment
c) provide practical education and training skills which are responsive and relevant to
d) Kenya’s agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic needs
e) provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary to enhance the pace of this nation’s
development
f) encourage self-employment while at the same time producing skilled artisans, technicians and
technologists for both formal and informal sectors at the ratio of one technologist to five technicians
to 30 craftsmen/artisans (1:5:30).

1.3 Objectives of the Technical Training Programmes

The general objectives of the technical training programmes are to:
a) develop skills which will be responsive and relevant to the country’s human resources required at
the middle level:
b) prepare the trainees so that they can enter the world of work with confidence for either salaried
employment or self-employment:
c) impart adequate skills which will enable the trainee to perform middle supervisory functions.

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

The Diploma in a Catering and Accommodation Management course is deigned to equip the trainee
with the knowledge, skills and attitude that will enable him/her to perform managerial duties in a
catering and accommodation establishment.

The course is designed in modular form where the trainee can enter and leave for the world of work at
the end of each module. There are three modules. Each module prepares the trainee to perform a

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 particular task, whose total value is combined to produce the required graduate at the end of the third
module (Module III).

The trainee leaving module I is equipped with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to prepare, produce
and serve meals as well as carry out accommodation operations in a catering and accommodation
establishment.

Module II equips the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for performing
supervisory duties in a food and beverage production, sales and service and in catering and
accommodation establishment.

Module III is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes required by for
managerial duties in a catering and accommodation establishment.

Module II and III has two elective module units, Food and Beverage Production Management and Food
and Beverage Sales and Service Management. A trainee is required to choose one of the two elective
module units at Module II and take the other at module III. The two module units cannot be taken
simultaneously.

One will have to complete all the three modules to be awarded The Diploma in Catering and
Accommodation Management

2.1 Course Description

2.2 General Objectives of the Course

At the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) Develop and produce different types of foods and beverage to the required standards of catering
and accommodation establishment
b) Develop management skills to manage a catering and accommodation establishment
c) Appreciate hygiene and safety principles required in a catering and accommodation establishment
and apply them in his or her day to day work,
d) Demonstrate ability to use and care for tools and equipment used in the catering and
accommodation establishment
e) Appreciate the role of food science and nutrition in the catering industry,
f) Ensure good maintenance of premises and equipment,
g) Appreciate the value of cost control in order to minimize cost and maximize profit,
h) Appreciate the need for good of cost communication skills and the impact of information and
communication technology in a catering and accommodation establishment
i) Apply entrepreneurship, marketing and management skills to start and run a catering and
accommodation business

2.3 General Regulations

2.3.1 Approval of the Training Institutions

Institutions offering this course should be recognized and approved by the Ministry responsible for
Training.

2.3.2 Duration of the Course

The course is designed to have 2970 hours. 2310 hours will be spent in the institution while 660 hours
will be used for industrial attachment. The course is structured in three Modules as outlined below

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 Institution Time Industrial Total Time
(Hours) Attachment Time (Hours)
(hours)
MODULE I 660 330 990
MODULE II 825 165 990
MODULE III 825 165 990
TOTAL 2310 660 2970

2.3.3 Entry requirements

Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum
Requirements:
a) Passed relevant Craft Course
OR
b) Passed Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) with an average grade of C (C plain)
OR
c) Equivalent qualifications as determined by Kenya National Examinations Council.

2.3.4 Examinable units

All module units are examinable. The examination (paper) may constitute of one or more than one
units as guided below.

External Examinations

Module 1

Theory Examinations

1. Food and Beverage Production with Food Science and nutrition

2. Food and Beverage Service and Sales and First Aid
3. Housekeeping, Front office, Laundry and Home Nursing, Catering and accommodation premises

4. Catering and accommodation control I, Mathematics

5. Information communication Technology, Communication Skills
6. Entrepreneurship

Practical examinations

7. Food and Beverage Production , Service and Sales

8. Housekeeping and Laundry operations

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 Module II
Theory Examinations

1. Food and beverage production management

OR
2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management
3. Diet therapy
4. Accommodation operations management I, Law related to hospitality
5. Catering and accommodation control II
6. Hospitality accounting
7. Business plan

Practical Examinations

1. Food and beverage production Management

OR
2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management
3. Accommodation operations management

Module III

Theory Examinations

1. Food and beverage sales and service management

OR
2. Food and beverage production Management
3. Accommodation operations management II
4. Principles and practices of management, Human relations
5. Sales and marketing
6. Research project

Practical Examinations

1. Food and beverage production Management

OR
2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management

3. Accommodation operations management

2.4 Attendance and course work requirements

The candidates are expected to be attending an institution approved for the courses for the theoretical
and practical studies.

2.4.1 Coursework marks

Continuous assessment marks for course work must be kept by the institution and details must
be submitted to the Kenya National Examinations Council in respect of each candidate entered
for the examinations at least two weeks before the external examinations are taken.

2.4.2 Coursework Assessment

Continuous assessment will be given a weighting of 30% and the external examinations by
KNEC will be given a weighting of 70% in the determination of the final grade.

2.4.3 Compulsory Industrial Attachment/Internship for Trainees

Before the end of the course, every trainee shall undergo an industrial attachment/internship of
660 hours. Industrial attachment shall be an integral part of training and its assessment shall
form part of the final grade and certification.

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 The training institutions in collaboration with the organisation where the trainee is attached
shall supervise the trainee during the Industrial Attachment. The examining body shall
provide the modalities of industrial attachment assessment.

2.4.4 Project Work

Project work encompass of both Business plan and Research Methods
i) Business Plan
The business plan comprise of business-related research aimed at generating a
comprehensive business proposal in the field of catering and accommodation
management and other related industries. The business plan is aimed at inculcating
entrepreneurial culture in the trainees, which should result in the development of
income generating projects and business incubators leading to increased self-
employment opportunities in view of vision 2030. KNEC or other legal body and the
training institutions shall determine the management and assessment methods.
ii) Research Methods
A research method project means a research carried out by an individual trainee or
maximum of two (2) where circumstances dictate. The research should be problem
solving with industrial orientation. It may be evaluative and descriptive or research
based project. The research must have well defined objectives and designed to exhibit
creativeness and innovativeness. KNEC or other legal body and the training institutions
shall determine the management and the assessment methods of the project.

2.5 Examinations and Award of Certificates

2.5.1 Assessment
The assessment of all the modules shall be competency based.

2.5.2 Internal Examinations

The training institutions will conduct course work and/or project work assessments based on
the competences acquired during the training. The institutions will offer internal
examinations at the end of each module and keep these records to determine the final grade by
the end of the course. The course work or project work and/or assessments shall also be used
during the re-entry to the course or for the award of credit transfer.

2.5.3 External Examinations

The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) will offer external examinations to
trainees in all modules covered during the training.

2.5.4 Eligibility for Candidates Entering Into External Examinations

Candidates for external examinations must at the time of entry to the examinations, have
successfully completed the required competencies in each course modules.

2.5.5 Coursework/continuous Assessment

Coursework/continuous Assessment will be prepared and marked by the institutions.
The institutions will issue statement of results while the examining body will award a
certificate after completion of the relevant modules.

2.5.6 Examination Results

In order to qualify for the award of the Diploma, the candidate must pass all the modules of
the course. Results of the examination as a whole will be issued in five classes and for the
individual papers will be in eight grades. Each candidate will receive all records of
performance, giving the result in terms of class and grade.

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 The relationship between classes and grades is:

- Pass with distinction Grade 1 and 2

- Pass with credit Grade 3 and 4
- Pass Grade 5 and 6
- Referred Grade 7
- Fail Grade 8

Candidates, who fail any paper (module unit) in a particular module, will be REFERRED in
the failed paper and will be allowed to re-sit three (3) times and pass within a period of five
(5) years after the date of the first sitting. Thereafter the candidate will be discontinued from
further re-sitting the paper(s).

2.5.7 Award of Certificate

The KNEC will issue the candidates with result slips for Modules passed and a final certificate
in Diploma in Catering and Accommodation Management

2.5.8 General Examination Regulation

In the event of any inconsistency arising between the regulations as set out in this syllabus and
the General Regulations published by the examining body, the General Regulations of the
KNEC shall prevail. Candidates do not have to take all the papers of a module at the same
sitting.

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3.0 Course Summary and Time Allocation

Code Module unit Sub-Module Unit Time

(hrs)

Module I
3.1.0 Communication Skills  Introduction to communication 80
 Communication process
 Classification of communication
 Channels of communications
 Forms of communication
 Office etiquette, protocol and
diplomacy
 Writing skills
 Summary writing
 Report writing skills
 Conducting meetings and minute
writing
 Interviews
 Public relations and customer
care
 Emerging issues and trends
4.1.0 Life Skills  Introduction to life skills 80
 Knowing and living with oneself:
self awareness
 Self esteem
 Stress management
 Coping with emotion
 Empathy
 Assertiveness
 Negotiation
 Non-violent conflict resolution
 Effective decision making
 Critical thinking
 Creative thinking
 Problem solving
 Leisure
 Time management
 Gender education
 Drug and substance abuse
 HIV and Aids
 Child labour
 Child rights
 Relationships

x
5.1.0 Information  Introduction to ICT 80
Communication  Computer structures
Technology  Computer care
 Software and hardware
 Computer installation
 Operating system
 Directory and file management
 Storage media
 Data management
 Basic computer networking
 Computer security
 Office automation
 Internet
 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 Other networks
 Emerging trends in ICT
6.1.0 Entrepreneurship  Introduction to entrepreneurship 65
 Evolution of entrepreneurship
 The entrepreneur
 Creativity and innovation
 Entrepreneurial culture
 Entrepreneurial opportunities
 Entrepreneurial motivation
 Entrepreneurial competences
 Starting a small business
 Business enterprise management
 Financial management
 Marketing
 Enterprise social responsibility
 Business plan
 Information communication
technology
 Emerging issues and trends in
entrepreneurship
7.1.0 Food and Beverage  Kitchen organisation 190
Production with Food  Kitchen equipment
Science and Nutrition  Hygiene
 Safety
 Fuel and other sources of energy
 Recipes
 Cooking methods
 Herbs spices and condiments
 Stocks, soups and sauces
 Horsd’voures and other starters
 Proteins
 Starches
 Vegetables
 Salads and salads dressing
 Fruits
 Pastry and pastry products
 Cakes and cake decoration
 Yeast products
 Desserts
 Sandwiches
 Garnishes

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  Beverages
 Menu planning
 Meal production procedures
 Function menus
 Local dishes
 International dishes
 Introduction to food and nutrition
 Acids, bases and salts
 Physical and chemical aspects of
nutrients
 Nutritional diseases and
disorders
 Enzymes
 Digestion
 Food additives
 Food contamination
 Food spoilage
 Micro organisms
 Food poisoning
 Food preservation
 HIV/Aids nutrition
 Emerging trends
8.1.0 Food and Beverage  Introduction to food and 190
Service, Sales and First beverage service and sales
Aid  Staff organisation
 Food and beverage service
equipment
 Food and beverage service area
and ancillary departments
 Safety
 Hygiene
 Table covering and linen
 Furniture fittings and fixtures
 Menu knowledge
 Non-alcoholic beverages
 Alcoholic beverages
 Food and beverage service
procedures
 Service to persons with
disabilities
 Interior decorations
 Introduction to first aid
 First aid supplies
 Common accidents and their
causes
 Emerging trends
9.1.0 Housekeeping, Front  Introduction to accommodation 160
Office, Laundry and Home operation
Nursing  Hygiene and safety during
operations
 Safety During Operations
 Cleaning equipment and
materials
 Cleaning and special treatment
agents
 Cleaning process
 Cleaning of surface finishes used

xii
 in buildings
 Methods and procedure for
cleaning different areas
 Interior decoration
 Furnishings
 Security in house keeping
 House keeping services for
persons with disabilities
 Introduction to front office
 Front office equipment and
supplies
 Security in front office
 Front office procedures
 Communication
 Front office services to persons
with disabilities
 Work control
 Introduction to laundry
 Hygiene and safety
 Laundry tools and equipment
 Laundry agents
 Fibres and fabrics
 Laundry processes
 Stains and stain removal
processes
 Special laundry processes
 Linen room
 Handling infected linen
 Introduction to home nursing
 Understanding the sick and the
infirm
 The sickroom
 Emerging trends
10.1.0 Catering and  Introduction to control 70
Accommodation Control I  Equipment and materials in cost
control
 Purchasing
 Receiving
 Storing and issuing
 Portion control
 Costing and pricing
 Catering cost control
 Accommodation cost control
 Control sales
 Emerging trends
11.1.0 Catering and  Introduction to catering and 70
Accommodation Premise accommodation premises
 Premises location and layout
 Building fabrics
 Main services
 Environmental hygiene
 Safety and security
 Maintenance
 Tenancy of premises
 Emerging trends
12.1.0 Mathematics  Fundamentals of mathematics 60

xiii
  Ratio and proportions
 Geometrical calculations
 Graphs
 Elements of probability
 Commercial calculations
 Data collection and presentation
 Measures of central tendency
 Measures of dispersion
 Sampling
 Emerging trends

Industrial Attachment 330

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MODULE II
13.2.0 Accommodation  Introduction to accommodation 150
Operations management
Management I
 Work plan organisation and
control
 Introduction to supervision in
accommodation management
 Cleaning standards
 Report writing
 Fabric finishes
 Planning organising and
controlling laundry work
 Staff organisation in different
types of laundries
 Operations control in laundry
 Reception functions
 Reservations and legislation
 Departmental liaison
 Emerging issues and trends
14.2.0 Catering and  Budgets and budgetary control
Accommodation Control II  Catering and accommodation
production planning and control
 Costing and pricing
 Revenue control systems
 Labor cost control
 Catering and accommodation
reports
 Staff organization in different
types of laundries

 Emerging trends
15.2.0 Diet Therapy  Introduction to diet therapy 70
 Importance of diet therapy
 Therapeutic diets
 Hospitalization and the
nutritional team
 Feeding methods
 Drug nutrient interaction
 The role of the digestive system
in diet therapy and health
 Disorders of the upper gastro-
intestinal tract (G.I.T.)
 Disorders of the stomach
 Disorders of the lower gastro-
intestinal tract
 Disorders of the liver and the
pancrease
 Diabetes
 Gall bladder and renal disorders
 Cardiovascular disorders
 Surgical and burn therapy
 HIV/Aids
 Emerging trends

xv
16.2.0 Hospitality Accounting  Nature and purpose of 70
bookkeeping
 Accounting equation and the
balance sheet
 Double entry system and the
ledger
 Balancing the accounts and
extracting a trial balance
 Final accounts
 Banking system
 Books of original entry
 Bad debts and provision for
doubtful debts
 Depreciation of fixed assets
 Year end adjustment
 Bank reconciliation statement
 Control accounts
 Correction of errors
 Accounts for non-profit making
organisation
 Partnership accounts
 Company accounts
 Emerging trends
17.2.0 Law Related to Hospitality  Sources of Kenya law 60
 Organization of judiciary
 The law of tort
 Law of contract
 Contract of employment
 Business enterprise
 Sale of foods
 Public health, environment and
safety legislation
 Law of insurance
 Intellectual property law
 Administrative authorities and
licensing law
 Emerging trends
18.2.0 Business Plan  Introduction to business planning 50
 Business description
 Marketing plan
 Organization and management
plan
 Operational/production plan
 Financial plan
 Presentation
 Emerging trends

Industrial Attachment 165

MODULE III
19.3.0 Accommodation  Introduction to 150
Operations accommodation
Management II management
 Introduction to
supervision in
accommodation
management

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  Work study
 Special functions
 Internal environment
 Linen and laundry
systems
 Contract services
 Emerging issues and
trends
20.3.0 Principles and Practices of  Introduction 70
Management  Evolution of
management thought
 The context of
organisation and social
responsibility
 Planning
 Organizing
 Controlling
 Directing
 Staffing
 International
management
 Business policy
 Emerging trends

xvii
21.3.0 Sales and Marketing  Introduction 70
 The marketing
environment
 Consumer behaviour
 Market segmentation
 Marketing mix
 Product
 Pricing
 Promotion
 Distribution channels
 Qualities of salesman
 Functions of sales and
marketing departments
 Process of selling
 Evaluation of sales
performance
 Emerging trends
22.3.0 Human Relations  Introduction to human 70
relations
 Social organisation
 Mobilization and
employee morale
 Personality
 Attitudes
 Frustration
 Group development
 Leadership
 Stress
 Conflict
 Employee participation
in management
 Emerging trends
23.3.0 Research Project  Introduction to research
 Research process
 Research proposal
 Data collection
 Presentation, analysis
and interpretation
 Report wring
 Emerging issues and
trends in research
methods

Industrial Attachment 165

xviii
Elective Module Units for Modules II and III
24.4.0 Food and Beverage  Introduction to the catering 200
Production Management industry
 Kitchen organisation
 Recipes
 Menu planning
 Kitchen supervision
 Production evaluation
 Eggs
 Meat and meat products
 Poultry
 Game
 Fish and sea foods
 Pulses
 Cereals and cereal products
 Milk and milk product
 Vegetables
 Fruits
 Fats and oils
 Convenience foods
 Rechauffe dishes
 Catering systems
 Local dishes
 International dishes
 Function catering
 Emerging trends
25.4.0 Food and Beverage Service  Supervisory aspects of food and 200
Management beverage service
 Beverage knowledge
 Food and beverage
service procedures
 The bar
 Specialized forms of
service
 Function catering
 Sales promotion
 Emerging trends

Total 400

xix
MODULE I

Introduction
The Module I course is designed to provide the trainee with skills, knowledge and attitudes required to prepare,
produce and serve meals as well as carry out accommodation procedures in a catering and accommodation
establishment.

General Objectives of the Course

At the end of this module, the trainee should be able to:
a) Apply knowledge and skills to produce, serve food and beverage products to the required catering standards
b) Apply knowledge, skills and attitudes to perform tasks in house keeping, front office and laundry in a
catering and accommodation establishment
c) Appreciate importance of first aid and home nursing skills in a catering and accommodation establishment
d) Demonstrate ability to use, care and maintain catering accommodation premises
e) Appreciate importance of the knowledge of food science and nutrition in healthy feeding
f) Appreciate the value of control in catering and accommodation in order to minimise cost and maximise
profit.
g) Appreciate the need for good communication skills and the impact of information and communication
technology in a catering and accommodation establishment
h) Apply entrepreneurship skills to start and run a business

Entry Requirements

Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements

a) Passed Craft Certificate in Food and Beverage Production Sales and Service

OR

b) Passed Craft Certificate in House Keeping and Laundry

OR

c) Passed KCSE with a minimum of C Plain

OR

d) Equivalent qualification

1
MODULE UNITS AND TIME ALLOCATION

CODE MODULE UNITS TIME

(HRS)
3.1.0 Communication Skills 80
4.1.0 Life skills 80
5.1.0 Information Communication Technology (ICT) 80
6.1.0 Entrepreneurship 65
7.1.0 Food and Beverage Production, Science and Nutrition 190
8.1.0 Food and Beverage Service, Sales and First Aid 190
9.1.0 Housekeeping, Laundry and Home Nursing 200
10.1.0 Catering and Accommodation Control 70
12.1.0 Catering and Accommodation Premise 70
13.1.0 Mathematics 60
Industrial attachment 990
Total 1320

2
3
3.1.0 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

4
4.1.0 LIFE SKILLS

5
5.1.0 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

6
6.1.0 ENTREPRENEURSHIP

7
7.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

7.1.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart in trainees cooking skills and attitudes required for professional
cookery. It gives the trainees a broad knowledge of raw food materials and their application in food
production.

7.1.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) operate a given kitchen equipment correctly and safely
b) observe hygiene rules in food and beverage production
c) demonstrate the ability to receive and store ingredients appropriately
d) select ingredients to produce a particular food item
e) prepare and produce a given food item correctly
f) portion, present and garnish food appropriately
g) handle challenges arising from emerging issues and trends in food production

8
 KITCHEN ORGANIZATION

7.1.01 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain terms in kitchen organisation
b) explain the layout of a given production area in different establishments
c) state the importance of motion economy in catering processes
d) explain the staff structure of a given catering outlet of different sectors of the industry
e) identify the qualities of kitchen personnel
f) highlight the duties of the kitchen personnel

Unit tasks
Task 1: explaining terms in kitchen organisation
Definitions of a kitchen:
 A room equipped for preparing meals.
 A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation.
 Any room used for the storage and preparation of foods and containing the following equipment: sink or other
device for dishwashing, stove or other device for cooking, refrigerator or other device for cold storage of food,
cabinets or shelves for storage of equipment and utensils, and counter .

Definitions of kitchen design;

 specialty or sub-set of interior design focusing on kitchens

Task 2: Kitchen layouts:

The layout of a kitchen must be planned around an efficient and systematic flow of foods from receipt of goods to the
service of meal. Details concerning water, fuel, drainage, lighting and ventilation are also important to any well-designed
kitchen. When a kitchen is built, it is designed to achieve maximum efficiency of time, Labour and product. To achieve
this number of factors are taken into account:
 Type of menu
 Type of establishment
 Type and method of food service
 Number of meals to be served and length of service time
 The size, shape, and location of the food service
 The position of the kitchen in the establishment.

Types of Kitchen Layouts

L- Shaped layout
An L-shaped kitchen consists of work space on two adjoining walls perpendicular to each other.
This is the most popular kitchen design. It consists of a long leg and a shorter one and this type of design can be used in
small and large kitchens. The L-shaped kitchen gives you the possibility of having a center island depending on the space
available. In general, this design will have 2 or 3 appliances on one wall. The usual arrangement is to have the
refrigerator at one end, the range or cooktop at the other end with the sink located in the middle. This shape of kitchen
generally provides good traffic flow.

9
Island grouping
In this arrangement equipment is placed back to back in the centre of the cooking area. There is need for sufficient space
to allow for this, including adequate gangways around the equipment and space to place other items along the walls.

U-shaped

A U-shaped kitchen consists of work space on three adjoining walls, two parallel walls perpendicular to a third. There
are no traffic lanes flowing through the work area. The base of the U-shaped kitchen is best when it is 10-18 feet wide.
A U-shaped kitchen can have legs as long as you want. You will need to divide that elongated leg into different work
sites for efficient use.

10
This kitchen design shape has three walls instead of two, and the sink usually is located in the middle wall section. The
refrigerator and range or cooktop are usually on the side walls opposite each other. The U-shaped kitchen design gives
room for ample countertop space, and you have three walls for cabinets and appliances. This kitchen layout tends to
create a working triangle that is very efficient.
The only problem with this type of kitchen design is that sometimes the two U corners are not used appropriately. Make
sure you buy the appropriate storage items for the corner cabinets created by the U shape design. The U shape design can
also create dark kitchens because of the shape and the amount of cabinets. Using skylights, large windows, lots of under-
cabinet task lighting and light colors will help keep the kitchen bright with sufficient light to see what you're doing.

Wall sitting
In the wall sitting kitchen design, all major work zones of the kitchen are arrayed along one wall. Major work zones
include the refrigerator, sink, and stove/oven. Minor work zones would include: microwave, trash compactor, dishwater,
etc.

The counter typically is no less than 8 feet long (any less and you would not be able to fit in all the appliances). The
order of the work zones can be almost anything: sink, stove, then fridge...or stove, sink, then fridge. And so on. Because
the arrangement is so small, the order does not really matter.

Task 3: Importance of motion economy in catering processes.

Work flow- A work flow plan is an ergonomic, food safety orientated plan for efficient use of the workspace. If you
imagine a kitchen space to be a set of rooms, connected by doors, it should go flow as follows
1 Dirty veg in
2 Veg preparation / cleaning
3 Veg cooking / raw veg storage
4 Veg serving / cooked veg storage
5 Disposal

That way the dirty new veg never comes into contact and cross contaminates the cooked / cleaned veg.
A similar flow can be made for all aspects of the service of food, including the clean and dirty pots and rubbish removal.
Organising the kitchen into separate areas for separate tasks lies at the heart of hygienic kitchen design. The exact layout
depends on the size of the kitchen as well as what type of meals are to be prepared there. The objective is to facilitate a
smooth work flow:
Delivery >> Storage>> Preparation>> Service >>Disposal
Work triangle- The kitchen work triangle is probably the most researched and applied ergonomic principle around. It is
the centerpiece of most kitchen layouts.
The importance of a good kitchen work triangle is to place the three most common work sites the most efficient distance
apart and to minimize traffic through the work zone.
The kitchen work triangle consists of the distance between the sink, refrigerator and range or cooktop. Each one of these
areas becomes a focal point in the kitchen and forms the three points of a triangle with different distances between them.
Done correctly, the kitchen work triangle provides the most efficient food preparation area layout in the kitchen.

11
Whether you're remodeling an existing kitchen or building a new one, an efficient design means that your work triangle
minimizes the number of steps the cook must take between the three areas during meal preparation and cleanup. The
total distance from the sink to the stove to the refrigerator and back to the sink should be not less than 12 feet total nor
more than 27 feet. Each triangle leg should measure between 4 and 9 feet in length. The kitchen isles should be at least
42 to 48 inches wide to allow people to move around easily and for appliances to be opened with ease.

Task 4: Staff structure of catering outlet

of different sectors of the industry.

The number of staff employed in a

kitchen can vary from very few to as
many as over hundred. They are referred to as the kitchen brigade. There have been many changes in the hospitality
industry in recent years; the clientele has changed, which ha influenced the type of menu offered, which in turn has
affected the way an establishment organizes its kitchen and staff.
Examples of staff structures for different establishments:

1) Partie system- this is the most popular for large establishments. Its main personnel are as follows;
 Chef de cuisine(head chef)
 Sous chef(second chef)
 Chef de partie (section chef)
 Commis chef(assistant chef)
 Trainee chef
 kitchen porter

2) Staff structure for a fast food unit- the personnel here will be influenced by the menu and equipment available. Its
main personnel are as follows:
 Area manager
 Unit manager
 Assistant unit manager
 Floor manager
 Senior crew members
 Crew members.

3) Staff structure for a staff restaurant

 Catering manager
 Chef supervisor
 Leading cook
 Assistant cook
 General assistant

Task 4: Qualities of kitchen personnel

12
  Creativity
 Passion for food and cooking
 Dedicated
 Knowledgeable
 Team player
 Ambitious- must always look forward to perfecting his or her flair
 Multi task- must do many tasks at once
 Commitment to eminence/ doing the best
 Prompt decisions – able to think rapidly and make good decisions
 Accepting criticisms

Task 5: Duties and responsibilities of kitchen staff

 Ensure that all food and associated products are prepared, cooked served and presented well
 Ensure that highest standards of food quality are maintained
 Observe stock control procedures
 Proper use and maintenance of kitchen equipment
 Ensure the kitchen is kept clean and hygienic
 Proper use and maintenance of kitchen equipment

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Kitchen
 Equipment
 Charts
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Name four main kitchen arrangements.
2) Identify the main sections in a kitchen.
3) Sketch the kitchen work triangle and motion flow chart
4) Outline the staff structure for various establishments

7.1.02 KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Theory

7.1.02 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify kitchen equipment
b) outline factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment
c) Explain the use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1; Classification of kitchen equipment;
 Small equipment and utensils:- pots, pans, bowls, saucepans, knives, striners, wisks, trays, measuring
equipment and miscellaneous items.
 Large equipment; refrigerators, cookers, deep fat- fryers , bratt pans, micro- wave oven, boiling pans,
bains marie, grills and salamanders griddle.
 Mechanical equipment; blenders, mixers, food slicers, mincers, potato peelers, pastry rollers, food
processors, chipper, juicers, electric masher, dish washers.

Task 2; Factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment

13
  Type of fuel
 Number to be catered for
 Cost
 Space available
 Drainage
 Water supply
 Capacity
 Ease of handling
 Maintenance
 Attachments
 Noise level
 Construction
 Safety
 Manufacturers reputability

Task 3: The use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment

Trainees should explain and practice the use care and maintenance of different kitchen equipment in relation to
type.

KEY LEARNING RESOURCES

 Kitchen equipment
 Pictures
 Photographs
 Internet

EVALUATIONS
1. Classify kitchen equipment and give examples in each case.
2. State factors to consider when choosing kitchen equipment.
3. Clean various kitchen equipment properly

7.1.03 HYGIENE

Theory

7.1.03 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain personal hygiene requirements
b) explain food hygiene requirements
c) discuss the environmental hygiene requirement in a work place
d) explain the HACCP concept
e) identify types of waste and its disposal
f) explain legislation in food hygiene and safety

Unit tasks
Task 1: personal hygiene requirements

Good grooming
 Bathe regularly
 Clean hands regularly
 Short fingernails and without varnish

14
  Hair clean and covered
 Avoid touching nose, mouth and ears during food preparation.
 Clean teeth and regular visit to the dentist
 Clean feet with low closed shoes
 Cover all cuts burns and sores with a water proof dressing. Kitchen staff with septic wounds and boils should
not handle food.
 Use cosmetics in moderation but ideally should be discouraged.
 No jewellery should be worn in the kitchen
 No smoking tasting, of food using fingers or other activities which bring hands and mouth directly in contact
with food.
 No spitting
 Illness sickness diarrhea sore throat fever or skin infections should be reported to management
 Clean appropriate kitchen uniform
-double breast chefs jacket
-chefs cap
-apron long enough to protect the legs
-checked cotton trousers /skirts
-neck tie

Chef Paper Hat

Note holes on the

Chef clothe Hat
top that allows
air flow and is
Durable
Won
washedoncetoand
allow
disposed
continuous use

Task 2: food hygiene requirements

 Direct handling of food should be avoided particularly cooked food
 Food should be covered to prevent contamination
 Equipment and utensils should be clean

15
 Cook food thoroughly
 Hot food should be eaten while still hot
 If the food is to be eaten cold cool rapidly and refrigerate within 90 minutes. Cold food should be kept below 50
c in a refrigerator.
 Cooked food should not be stored too long.
 Take particular care in thorough reheating of made up dishes
 Have boards and knives colored for particular foods (colour coding)
 Wash raw fruit and vegetables thoroughly
 Pay particular attention when handling raw poultry meat and fish
 Ensure food is obtained from reliable sources.

16
 Colour coded
chopping
 Red for Red Meat
 White for dairy products
 Yellow for fruits
 Green for vegetables
 White for dairy products

Task 3: environmental hygiene requirements

 All equipment and utensils should be kept clean
 Work surfaces should be washed and disinfected thoroughly:
 Floor should be kept clean and dry
 Kitchen cloths should be washed with a bactericide or by boiling
 Bins kept indoors should be emptied cleaned with detergent and dried, disinfecting is recommended regularly
and bins should be lined before use.

Task 4: The HACCP concept

HACCP (hazard analysis critical control point) enables evaluation of the operation .
It locates possible points of contamination, determines the severity of the hazard and takes preventive measures to
protect against food borne illness outbreak

The HACCP is an assessment of all the hazards associated with each step of a catering organization. Staff needs to know
the hazard, the degree of risk involved and that they apply the controls which have been introduced to reduce and
eliminate the risk.

Task 5: Types of waste and its disposal

 Organic
- Derived from animal and plants foods which includes
- Vegetable and meat trimmings
- Bones
- Inedible plant parts
- Food leftovers
- Old cooking oils
- From flower beds and hedges

 Inorganic (solid waters) which include

17
- Packaging materials, cans both plastic and metals
- Glass which include crockery
- Glass bottles mostly from the bar and kitchen
- Office wastes which include papers cardboards, cartridges
- Garage wastes which include old engine oils
- Linen wastes, towels and rags

 Liquid wastes
- This include grey water from the kitchen and cooking oils

Disposing wastes
 Burying
- It is suitable for organic wastes which can not (degrade) once in the soil thus add nutrients to the soils.
- It is not suitable for solid wastes
- It is not suitable where large amount of wastes are produced
- It is ideal for picnic where amount of wastes are produced
 Burning
- Mainly used fro flammable waste like paper
- Suitable for small amount of wasted as this method may pollute the air
 Draining into main sewer
- Suitable for disposing liquid wastes like grey water from dish washing
Water from the kitchen is normally channeled to the main sewer.
 Recycling
- This is one of the best way of disposing wastes
- Materials are separated and taken for recycling.
Wastes that can be recycled include
- Glass
- Metals
- Plastic cans and heavy duty plastic sheets and paper
- Rubber
- Paper (made from wood)
- Cooking oil into bio diesel
 Compositing
- Organic matter is composted to produce organic manure to grow organic foods and for adding nutrients to flower
beds

 Feeding animals
Leftover foods are used to feed pigs, cows, dogs and other domestic animals.
 Compactors
- Compacting reduces the wastes sizes (bulkiness)
- The compacted wastes are then discarded into dumping sites.
 Disposal into sea/rivers
- This is a bad method of waste disposal because it pollutes the river environments
- However water from sewage lagoons is usually safe to dispose into the rivers once they are certified clean.

Task 6: Legislation in food hygiene and safety

The preparation and sale of food is controlled by the food hygiene regulation (general) 1970. The regulations are
applicable to any staff involved in handling food and cleaners of equipment in food rooms. The responsibility for

18
implementing this regulation is carried by environmental health officers who regularly visit food businesses to monitor
standards and offer advice. Failure to comply with the regulations may lead to fines or imprisonment but legal action is
used only if advice has persistently been ignored.
The general food hygiene regulations (1970) include:

Premises
 Premises should be clean, well lit, suitably ventilated, sanitary conveniences provided for
 Food production areas should not be used for sleeping
 Adequate provision should be made for refuse

Facilities
The following must be provided for:
 First aid materials
 Clean wholesome water
 Accommodation for outdoor clothes and shoes
 Separate facilities for washing hands, raw food and equipment

Equipment should be:

 Clean
 Kept in good repair
 Constructed of non absorbent materials

Food handlers:
 Must not smoke
 Must cover abrasions with water proof dressings
 Wear clean, washable over-clothing
 Inform management of diarrhea, vomiting, septic cuts, boils, throat/nose infections

Food handling:
 Food handlers must protect food from risk of contamination:
 Food should not be placed where it can be contaminated
 Food kept for animals must be kept away from other food
 Food for sale must be covered or screened

Catering practice
 High-risk foods for immediate consumption should be kept at above 630C or below 100C; e.g. gravy, meat,
poultry, cream, milk, fish.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Public Health Act Cap 242
 Food Safety Act Cap 129
 Field visits
 Sample solid wastes
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. Visit a nearby river and identify waste material going into the river
2. discuss methods of waste disposal used in establishments
3. explain how the HACCP concept is used in the kitchen

19
20
7.1.04 SAFETY

Theory

7.1.04 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term safety
b) state the safety requirements in a catering premises
c) outline safety precautions necessary when operating a kitchen equipment
d) explain fire safety practices.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of the term safety

 the state of being certain that adverse effects will not be caused by some agent under defined conditions
 freedom from danger; quality of not causing injury or loss.

Task 2: Safety requirements in catering premises

i) All areas in the kitchen should be kept tidy,
ii) Walkways, stairs, entrances and exits should be kept clear
iii) Avoid a build up of rubbish particularly flammable paper and boxes as these can
become fire hazard
iv) Waste product should be stored in covered bins which should be emptied regularly
v) Immediately clean up liquid and powder spillages as they can cause slippery floor
vi) Damaged or unsafe surfaces, fixtures and fittings should be reported to the
responsible person
vii) If you are uncertain in the safe use of equipment or products consult the
Manufacturers’ guidelines or ask your supervisor for guidance
viii) Make sure you are aware of your kitchen fire and evacuation procedure

Task 3: Safety precautions necessary when operating kitchen equipment

Task 4: Fire safety practices.

Identification of fire fighting equipment and causes of fire

CAUSES OF FIRE FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
 Flammable substances like wood, papers, grass  Extinguishers labeled Class A fires
( Class A fires)
 Flammable substances like petrol, paraffin,  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class B fires
chemical (Class B fires
 Electrical fault e.g. faulty sockets, faulty tools/  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class C fires
equipment (Class C fires)
 Flammable metals (Class D fires)  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class D fires

21
 A fire extinguisher
showing different parts

Hose Reels
Uses water at high pressure for
class A fires

22
  Used to put out fire by cutting
out oxygen supply

 Suitable for fighting fire on

human clothes

Water bucket/ Sand bucket

 Water bucket used for

class A fires

 Sand used for class B

fires

Fighting fire in a workshop

i) Fire is fought depending on the size and source of fire
ii) Small fire resulting from flammable substance is fought by covering the source of
fire with a fire blanket or spraying carbon dioxide from a fire extinguisher
iii) Big fire resulting from an explosion is fought using hose reels
iv) Small fire resulting from flammable materials is fought by covering the source of fire with a fire blanket
or pouring with fire blanket water on the source of fire
v) Fire resulting from electrical fault is fought by spraying halogen from a fire
extinguisher or using fire hose

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Fire extinguishers
 Fire blanket
 Fire hose
 Guest speaker from fire brigade
 Poster and charts on fire fighting
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Identify 3 types of accidents in a given establishment, their cause and advise on a control measure or safety
precaution that can be taken

23
2) Identify at least 3 fire fighting equipment and explain when and how you would use then in a given establishment
3) State at least 4 safe working practices in a given establishment
4) State safety precautions to observe when operating electrical and mechanical equipment.

7.1.05 FUEL AND OTHER SOURCES OF ENERGY

Theory

7.1.05 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify sources of fuel and energy used in catering establishments
b) state factors to consider when selecting fuel and energy for catering establishments
c) describe methods of heat transfer
d) explain ways of fuel and energy conservation.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Sources of fuel and energy used in catering establishments

 Kerosene
 Gas
 Charcoal
 Electricity
 Wood
 Biogas
 Solar
 Coal

Task 2: Factors to consider when selecting fuel and energy for catering establishments

 Storage requirements
 Availability – consistency of supply
 Cost
 Efficiency
 Safety
 Installation and maintenance

Task 3: Methods of heat transfer

Conduction: Involves transfer of heat in solid materials. Some materials are better conductors of heat than others and
some materials can retain heat better than others. Most conduction of heat occurs on top of the
range(stove). Heat is conducted from its source to the container holding food and the food is heated.

Convection: Involves the transfer of heat in liquids and gases. In heating liquids or gases, convection currents are
produced which distribute the heat

Radiation: Involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as infra-red waves and microwaves. The waves
pass from their source and are absorbed into the food e.g. the flat grill, salamander or open barbecue.

Task 4: ways of fuel and energy conservation

24
  Use of energy saving stoves and burners
 Use of natural lights
 Energy saving bulbs
 Use of enough fuel for intended purpose
 Planning household chores
 Correct size of pans for burners
 Cover cooking pots and pans while cooking

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Kitchen
 Different types of fuel

EVALUATION
 Explain how methods of heat transfer are applied in a given establishment
 Identify the strategies a given establishment uses to conserve fuel and energy

7.1.06 RECIPES
Theory

7.1.06 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the term recipe
b) explain the importance of a recipe
c) write recipes for dishes
d) cost and price recipes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Define the term recipe

 This is a precise written formula for preparation and cooking of a menu item
 A recipe is a set of instructions that show how to prepare or make something, especially a culinary dish.
 A set of directions with a list of ingredients for making or preparing something, especially food.
 A list of materials and directions for preparing a dish or drink; any procedure for accomplishing something.

Task 2: importance of a recipe

 Helps predetermine portion yields thus more efficient cost control
 Helps standardize purchase specifications
 Menu planning is assisted particularly where nutritional data is included
 Helps to simplify staff induction/training
 Enhance better quality control
 Ensures that the customer always gets a standard product

25
Task 3: Writing recipes for dishes
A recipe should contain the following:
 Name of the dish
 Yield/ number of portions
 A sequential list of Ingredients
 Quantity of each ingredient
 Method/procedure of preparing the dish
 Cooking time
 Cooking temperature
 Any special equipment needed
 Garnish
 The pan size
 Service methods/accompaniments (optional)

Sample recipe

Name: Roast Chicken

Pan size: Sheet Pan
Temperature: 3500F
Yield: 25 portions
Portion Size: 6 oz
Portion Utensil: Spatula
Cooking Time: 30 minutes
Ingredients Quantity Method
Capons 71/2 Kg  Coat chicken with bread crumbs and
1
Cooking oil /2 litre cheese
Bread crumbs 24 oz  Place on baking sheet
Parmesan cheese (grated) 24 oz  Sprinkle a little salt and pepper
Salt 1 oz  Roast in a hot oven at 3500F for 30
Pepper 1 oz minutes
 Serve with sauté potatoes and garnish
with parsley

Note:
Usually a standard recipe is established for 25 portions
 Some standard recipe forms list ingredients’ quantities for two or three levels of production e.g. 4 portions; 10
portions and 25 portions
 A standard recipe can be modified by dividing or multiplying the quantities present
 Some progressive food operations/establishments have the capacity to print a standard recipe for any forecasted
number through the use of an in-house computer.

Task 4: Costing and pricing recipes

The cost price of any individual dish may be established by adding together the cost of all ingredients and dividing by
the number of portion.

Example Dish: Steak and Kidney Pie (10 Portions)

Commodity Quantity Unit Cost Unit of purchase Recipe Cost (Kshs)
Topside beef 800g 200 Kg: 160.00
Ox kidney 400g 240 Kg: 96.00

26
Onion 200g 100 Kg: 20.00
Parsley 1 tspn 10 Bunch: 10.00
Soy sauce 7 ml 65 Litre 0.50
Demi-glace 1 lt 120 Litre 120.00
Tomato paste 750g 100 Kg 75.00

481.50

Price per portion: - Kshs.481.50 ÷ 10 = Kshs.48.15

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Recipe files
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION

27
7.1.07 COOKING METHODS

Theory

7.1.07 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting cooking methods
b) explain the preparation methods for food commodities
c) discuss the cooking methods of food items
d) describe how to present various dishes
e) Explain factors to consider when holding and storing different dishes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Factors to consider when selecting cooking methods

 The type of food
 Time available
 Type of fuel
 Equipment available
 Personal taste and preference
 Number of people to be catered for
 Cost
 Skill of personnel
 Culture and religion
 Desired effect
 Dietary needs

Task 2: The preparation methods for food commodities

 Straining
 Sieving
 Chopping
 Slicing
 Shredding
 Dicing
 Blanching
 Grating
 Freezing
 Chilling/cooling
 Chopping
 Cutting

28
Task 3: Cooking methods of food items

Cooking methods fall under 2 main categories

(i) Moist heat
 They include boiling, steaming, stewing, frying and poaching
(ii) Dry heat methods
 They include baking and roasting, microwave cooking, grilling etc

1. Moist heating
a) Boiling
This is cooking food completely covered with water, heated to boiling point (100°c) and then left to
simmer in a cooking pot with a well fitting lid. The method is suitable for foods like meats, arrow
roots, yams, potatoes, maize and beans.

b) Stewing
This is cooking food in a small measured amount of liquid that is allowed to simmer.
It is a long slow method of cooking tough hard foods e.g. beef, poultry, vegetables. It is also used for
soft foods such as fruits. The aim is to give food enough time to soften and to retain nutrients and
flavour.

c) Steaming
This is cooking food using steam for steam from boiling water. The steam does not come into direct contact
with the food, it comes into contact with the container holding the food. It is a suitable method for cooking
fish fillet and cake mixture pudding, spinach.
The methods of steaming include:-
 Plate method
 Bowl steaming method
 Using steamer
 Using colander

Plate Method procedure

Food in the covered plate is placed over a boiling cooking pan root tubers like yams, arrow roots, potatoes
can be cooked in the pan at the same time to economize fuel.

d) Poaching
It is similar to boiling but the temperature is kept below 100°c

e) Frying
 Frying is cooking food in hot fat or oil in a pan

There are three methods of frying

 Shallow fat frying
 Deep fat frying
 Dry fat frying

Shallow-fat frying

 This is cooking food to a

frying pan into which some
fat has been added.
 29
It is a suitable method for
cooking eggs, sausages, thin
slices of meat, fish and
Deep-fat frying
Food is cooked in hot oil which completely covers the food. A deep fat fryer or a strong deep pan, a frying
basket and a draining spoon are required for the process. It is a suitable method for cooking potato chips,
mandazi and samosas

Dry-fat frying
This is cooking food in its own fat in a shallow pan or cooking in a lightly greased pan. The fat or oil used
to cook comes from the food being cooked. It is used for cooking bacon and cuts of pork.

2. Dry heat method of cooking

(a) Baking
In this method of cooking hot dry air is used. It is usually done in an oven.
It is suitable for foods that have enough moisture such as potatoes and flour mixture for cakes, scones and
bread.

Electric
(b) Roasting Baking
oven charcoal. It is suitable for cooking maize,
It is a process of cooking food over a fire such as glowing
sweet potatoes, yams, arrow roots and fish. Used to
Another way of roasting is cooking food in a heatedbake oven or while it is rotating on a spit. In both cases
fat is used to boost the food. It is a suitable method for cooking meat
 Cakes
(c) Grilling  Pizza etc.
Foods cooked by grilling are placed over or under the direct heat source and re cooked by radiation. If
the food is fairly thick, then only the surface is cooked by radiation and further cooking takes place by
condition.

Charcoal Grill

(d) Microwave cooking

30
Food cooked by convectional methods use heat transfer by convection, conduction and radiation but
microwave ovens operate by a different mechanism

31
Task 4: How to present various dishes
Consider the following factors:-
 The type of food
 Style of service
 Temperature of food
 Service equipment
 Garnishing
 Recommended portions
 Number of courses
 Occasion
 Type of establishment
 Skill of personnel

Task 5: Factors to consider when holding and storing different dishes.

 Quantity
 Packing material and equipment
 Temperature
 Shelf life
 Storage area

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Kitchen equipment
 Food ingredient

EVALUATION
1. State reasons for cooking foods
2. Suggest a suitable method of cooking the following foods:-
a) Tough cuts of meat
b) Bread rolls
c) Tomatoes
d) Chicken
e) Pancakes
f) Doughnuts
g) Chapati

7.1.08 HERBS, SPICES AND

CONDIMENTS

Theory

7.1.08 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms

32
 b) Name types of herbs, spices and condiments
c) explain uses of herbs, spices and condiments
d) explain appropriate storage of herbs, spices and condiments

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms

Herbs: comes from a Latin word “herba” which means grass or herbage. Herbs are green plants which include roots,
stems, leaves, flowers and seeds. They owe their distinctive aromas and flavours to volatile oils.

Spices: are dried aromatic parts of plants which include roots, bark, leaves, flowers and seeds. They are purchased whole
or powdered.

Condiments: comes from the Latin word “condimentum.” They are generally salty, spicy, piquant or stimulating. They
include salt, pepper, mustard and vinegar.

Task 2: Types of herbs, spices and condiments

 Fresh herbs
 Dried herbs
 Frozen herbs
 Herb butters
 Herb vinegars
 Herb mixtures

Examples of commonly used herbs, spices and condiments

Herbs
 Basil  Rosemary
 Bay leaves  Sage
 Coriander  Tarragon
 Chive  Thyme
 Lemon grass  Mixed herbs
 Mint  Garlic
 Oregano  Horse radish
 Parsley
Spices
 Cardamon  Garam masala
 Chilli  Ginger
 Cinnamon  Tumeric
 Cloves  Sesame seeds
 Coriander seeds  Vanilla
 Cumin seeds  Saffron

Condiments
 Salt
 Pepper
 Cayenne pepper
 Paprika
 Vinegar
 Mustard

33
Task 3: Uses of herbs, spices and condiments
 To enhance flavour of foods
 Enhance colour of food
 Therapeutic purposes
 For preservation purposes
 To distinguish the origin of cuisine

Task 4: Appropriate storage of herbs, spices and condiments

 Dried ones should be stored in containers with tight fitting lids
 Liquid ones should be stored in sealed containers
 Fresh ones should be used as fresh as possible
 Store in a cool dry place

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books

EVALUATION
1 Distinguish between herbs and spices
2 Give three examples of herbs frequently used in food production
3 Write notes on the following
a) Bouquet garni
b) Parsley
c) Ginger

7.1.09 STOCKS, SOUPS AND SAUCES

Theory

7.1.09 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state types of stocks, soups and sauces
c) describe the methods of producing and presenting stocks, soups and sauces
d) explain the uses of stock, soups and sauces
e) prepare, produce and present stocks soups and sauces
f) state qualities of well made stocks, soups and sauces.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Stocks: is a liquid containing the flavour, nourishment and colour extracted from raw meat and bones, vegetables such as
carrots, celery and onion and seasonings such as bay leaf, parsley stocks and pepper cones by long gentle
simmering. It is used as a basis for cooking many dishes such as soups, sauces and gravies.

Sauces: a well-flavoured thickened liquid used as an accompaniment for other dishes.

Soups: is a well flavoured liquid served as a first course to stimulate appetite

34
Task 2: Types of stocks, soups and sauces
Stocks
 White (vegetable or bones )
 Brown (vegetable or bones )
 Fish
 Convenience
Sauces
 Brown sauce (Èspagnol)
 White sauce (Béchamel)
 Cold sauces (Mayonnaise, mint)
 Sweet sauces (custard, chocolate, jam, vanilla, orange, )
 Savory sauces (tomato, curry, gravy, barbeque, )
 Veloute
 Hollandaise
Soups
 Clear (consomme)
 Broth
 Veloute
 Puree
 Cream
 Pottage
 Chowder
 Bisques

Task 3: Methods of producing and presenting stocks, soups and sauces

Stocks
Guidelines for preparing stocks
 Use fresh meat or bones and vegetables
 Scum should be removed
 Fat should be skimmed
 Simmer stock gently
 It should not be allowed to go off the boil otherwise in hot water there is the danger of it going sour
 Salt should not be added
 If stock is to be kept, strain, reboil, cool quickly and place in the refrigerator

Sauces
 A white sauce is prepared from white roux with milk and clove-studded onion
 Veloute is made from a blond roux
 Brown sauce is based on a brown roux
 Hollandaise is made by reducing vinegar with herbs and adding egg yolk with a little water, cooking gently over
heat while being aerated with a whisk and slowly incorporating melted butter
 Mayonnaise is an emulsification of egg yolk and oil with salt, pepper, mustard and vinegar

Ways of Thickening Sauces

It is important to select the thickening agent that will suit the type of sauce being made:
 A roux
 A starch e.g. corn starch, arrowroot
 Protein like egg yolk and cream
 A beurre manie
 A puree of fruits or vegetables ( also known as coullis)
 Blood (used traditionally for recipes such as jugged hare but not normally used today)

35
  Cooking liquor from certain dishes and/or stock can be reduced to give a light sauce

Soups
Un thickened soups
 Consommés are clear soups prepared from strong stocks which are flavoured with various meats (poultry,
game, and fish), vegetables, hers and seasoning and are then clarified with egg whites. Serve alone or with a
simple garnish e.g. julienne or strips of root vegetables or pasta among others
 Broths are strained soups made from stock and garnished with a cereal, mild herbs, diced vegetables, meat or
fish

Thickened soups
 Purees are made from fresh diced vegetables cooked in stocks. The ingredients in the soup are passed through a
sieve or blender to make a thick soup
 Veloutes are prepared from a blond roux and flavoured stock with the additions of blanched vegetables, meat,
fish poultry and game. They are passed through a sieve and thickened with a liaison of egg yolks and cream.
 Cream are velvety in consistency and are thickened with cream
 Bisques are made with shellfish, fish stock, vegetables, wines, herbs and seasoning. They are thickened with
rice, passed through a sieve and thickened with wine and cream

Task 4: Uses of stock, soups and sauces

Stocks
 Used as a basis for cooking many dishes such as soups, sauces and gravies

Sauces
 To enhance flavour and appearance of the food it accompanies
 To provide a contrast in texture to food
 To provide a contrasting flavour to food that may be mild
 To add colour to the dish
 To contribute to the nutritional value of the food
 To counteract the richness of a food
 White sauce is used as a part of some cream soups and as binding agent

Soups
 To stimulate appetite
 For therapeutic purposes

Task 5 prepare, produce and present stocks soups and sauces

Suggested recipes
Sauces (Mayonnaise, mint, tomato, curry, gravy, barbeque, custard, chocolate, jam, vanilla, orange)
Soups (tomato, minestrone, consommé, leek and potato, pumpkin, green pea, brown onion)

Task 6: Qualities of well made stocks, soups and sauces

Stocks
 Should not be greasy
 Should have its distinctive flavour
 Should not have an unpleasant flavour
 Should not be cloudy
Sauces
 Should have the right consistency
 Should be lump free
 Should have a distinctive flavour

36
Soups
A soup’s quality is determined by its flavour, appearance and texture
 Should be full flavoured with no off or sour taste – soup’s ingredients should blend and complement with no
one flavour over powering another
 The vegetables in vegetable soup should be brightly coloured not grey
 Garnishes should be attractive and uniform in size and shape
 The soup’s texture should be very precise e.g. smooth, lump free
 Consommes must be crystal clear when cooked
 Cream soups should be velvety in consistency

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 magazines

EVALUATION
1 Define the terms sauce and soups
2 explain two qualities of a good sauce
3 differentiate between a broth and a puree
4 explain five uses of sauce in a meal
5 discuss points to observe when making sauces

7.1.10 HORS D’OEUVRES AND OTHER STARTER DISHES

Theory

7.1.10 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
c) describe the preparation and production procedures of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes
d) prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
e) outline the qualities of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes
f) describe the presentation of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of the term

Hors d’oeuvres: are well seasoned foods for stimulating appetite and are served as a first course
Foods used include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, vegetables, salads and fruits

Salads
These are hors d’oeuvres of a spicy nature that stimulate the appetite e.g. anchovies, beetroot, red cabbage, potato salad,
tomato salad, fish mayonnaisse,egg mayonnaissse,mixed vegetable salad, cauliflower in cooking liquor.
Other starter dishes
Caviar, shelfish cocktail, melon frappe, salmon fume, fruit fume, pate maison, huitres, escargots, moules mariniere,
Florida cocktail
Savouries: they are small delecate served in a variety of situations e.g fingerbuffets,savoury course at a dinner and high
tea.

37
Task 2: Types of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
Hors d’oeuvres
Can be classified as hot or cold and in both instances could be simple or compound
Hot simple hors d’oeuvres include: bouchees, asparagus, soufflé, assorted, ratatouille, quichelorraine.
Cold simple hors d’oeuvres include: oysters, grapefruit, fruitjuice, assorted, salads, ratatouille.
.

Task 3: Preparation and production procedures of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes.
 Well planned organisation is essential to ensure adequate preparation (mise-en-place), so that foods are
assembled with a good work flow and ready on time.
 Before, during and after assembling, and before final garnishing foods must be kept in a cool place, cold room
or refrigerator so as to minimize the risk of food contamination.
 Personal, food and equipment hygiene of the highest order must be observed with all cold preparations
 Garnishing and final decoration should take place as close to service time as possible.

General rules when making cold dishes
 Be aware of the texture and flavour of many raw foods that can be mixed together or combined with cooked
foods
 Understand what combination of foods is best suited to be served with other foods
 Develop simple artistic skills that require the minimum time for preparation and assembly
 Provide an attractive presentation of food at all times
 Individual portions should be removed from refrigeration and allowed to stand at room temperature for 5-10
minutes before being served.

Task 4: prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
Suggested dishes (chutneys and relishes, cold meats, cold salmon, egg mayonnaise, cucumber salad, French bean salad,
green salad, potato salad horseradish,)

Task 5: Qualities of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes

They should be:
 Attractive
 Compliment the meal
 Well flavoured
 Served at the correct temperature

Task 6: Presentation of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes

 Portions should be small as they are only meant to stimulate the appetite and not to appease hunger
 They should be attractively presented as they are the first contact a guest has with the establishment
 Present appropriately according to type e.g. if to be hot make sure it is hot
 Use appropriate equipment

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
1 expain the following terms
a) Starter.

38
 b) hors d’oeuvres
2 explain five qualities to observe when preparing cold starters
3 discuss the presentation of hors d’ oeuvres

7.1.11 PROTEINS

Theory

7.1.11 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) state the classification of proteins
b) list sources of protein
c) state factors to consider when selecting protein food
d) explain the preparation of protein foods
e) outline the production method of protein dishes
f) prepare, produce and present protein dishes
g) describe the presentation methods of protein dishes
h) explain the qualities of a finished protein dish.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Classification of proteins

 Animal (High biological value) proteins

 Plant (Low biological value) proteins

Task 2: Sources of protein

Animal proteins
- Red meats
 Beef
 Veal
 Mutton
 Lamb
 Pork
 Goat meat
 Offal – liver, kidney, sweet breads
 Game meat
- White meat
 Poultry – chicken, duck, goose, turkey, quails
 Fish – fresh water, salt water, sea fish, shell fish

Plant proteins
- Pulses
 Beans
 Soya beans (high biological value)
 Peas
 Lentils
 Greengrams
 Cowpeas

39
  Black beans e.t.c

- Nuts
 Ground nuts
 Peanuts
 Almonds
 Walnuts
 Chest nuts
 Hazel nuts

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting protein food

Animal proteins
 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat e.g. beef should be bright red)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone
 Texture should be firm and elastic
 The dish to be prepared
 The method of cooking

Plant proteins
 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season

Task 4: Preparation of protein foods

The following preparation methods can be used however, it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Trimming  Sealing
 Cutting  Barding
 Deboning  Carving
 Marinating  Tenderising
 Larding  Sorting (applies to pulses)
 Trussing  Soaking (applies to pulses)
 Singeing

Task 5: Production method of protein dishes

The following cooking methods can be used however; it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Boiling  Frying
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Poaching (particularly for fish)
 Grilling  Steaming (particularly for fish)

Task 6: prepare, produce and present protein dishes

Suggested protein dishes
Plant proteins (curries, stews, goulash)
Animal proteins (curries, stews, goulash roasts and grills)

40
Task 7: Presentation methods of protein dishes
The following are guidelines for presentation of protein dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at the correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 8: Qualities of a finished protein dish.

The following are guidelines for assessing the quality of finished protein dishes
 Doneness
 Colour
 Texture
 Flavour
 Temperature
 Accompaniment
 Presentation

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 describe the procedure of trussing poultry
2 discuss the cuts of beef available to a chef
3 explain five points to observe when buying plant proteins.
4 discuss points on storage of proteins

7.1.12 STARCHES

Theory

7.1.12 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state sources of starch used in food production
c) state factors to consider in selecting a starch food
d) explain preparation, production and presentation of a starch dish
e) prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
f) explain the qualities of a finished starch dish.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Starch is a type of carbohydrate. It is used as a staple food in the diet of most people and it makes the bulk of a meal.

41
Task 2: Sources of starch used in food production
 Tubers
 Roots
 Cereals
 Farinaceous (rice and pasta)
 Plantains
Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting a starch food
 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season
 Personal preferences

Task 4: Preparation, production and presentation of a starch dish

Preparation
 Sorting  Dicing
 Peeling  Chipping
 Grating  Stalking
 Slicing
Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Boiling  Baking
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Baking
 Grilling  Steaming
 Frying

Methods of presenting starch dishes
The following are guidelines for presentation of starch dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 5: prepare, produce and present starch dishes

Suggested starch recipes.
Rice (pilaf, braised, steamed, fried, risibisi, buttered)
Potatoes (mashed, sauté, croquette, maxim, chipped, parsley,irio)
Ugali balls
Chapati, pasta

Task 6: Qualities of a finished starch dish

 Doneness  Temperature
 Colour  Accompaniment
 Texture  Presentation
 Flavour

42
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Internet
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 giving examples explain any three sources of starch in a diet
2 discuss the following processes used in preparation of starch dishes
a) Chipping
b) Peeling
c) Shredding
d) Stalking
e) Dicing
3 explain three qualities to look for in the evaluation of a finished starch dish

7.1.13 VEGETABLES

Theory

7.1.13 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify vegetables
c) state factors to consider in selecting vegetables
d) explain methods of preparing vegetables
e) explain methods of producing vegetables
f) prepare, produce and present vegetable dishes
f) describe methods of presenting vegetables
g) explain the qualities of finished vegetable dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

The term vegetable includes any edible part of any plant.

Task 2: Classification of vegetables

1. Roots  Carrots
 Beetroots
 Onions
 Radishes
 Garlic
 Ginger
2. Tubers  Arrow roots

43
  Cassava
 Sweet potatoes
 Yams
3. Pods and seeds  Green peas
 French beans
4. Fruit vegetables  Tomatoes
 Cucumber
 Green pepper (Hoho)
 Hot paper
 Courghettes
 Pumpkins

5. Flower fruits  Cauliflower

 Broccoli
6. Leafy vegetables  Kales
 Spinach
 Cabbages
 Lettuce
 Amaranthus (Terere)
 Nightshade (Managu)
7. Stems and shoots  Leeks
 Celery
 Asparagus
 Bean sprouts
8. Fungi  Mushrooms

Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting vegetables

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment.
 Free from signs of damage, frost pests and disease
 Green vegetables should have crisp fresh leaves with a bright colour.
 Root vegetables should have unblemished skins free from spongy discolored patches
 Legumes should be firm crisp and not too big, pods should not be too full or the vegetable may be coarse
textured.
Task 4: Methods of preparing vegetables
 Cutting  Blanching
 Chopping  Refreshing
 Shredding  Dicing
 Slicing  Grating

Task 5: Methods of producing vegetables

 Steaming  Braising

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  Stewing  Sautéing
 Baking  Stir-frying
 Frying  Boiling

Task 6: prepare, produce and present vegetable dishes

Suggested dishes
Braised red cabbage, sauté spinach, mixed vegetables, ratatouille, buttered baby marrow, stir fried cabbage and carrots,
Vichy carrots, steamed okra in cream.)

Task 7: Methods of presenting vegetables

The following are guidelines for presentation of protein dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 8: Qualities of finished vegetable dishes

 Doneness
 Colour
 Texture
 Flavour
 Temperature
 Accompaniment
 Presentation

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the use and versatility of vegetables in the diet
2 describe the method of storing vegetables in order to maintain their freshness
3 giving examples in each case explain the classes of vegetables
4 illustrate various cuts of vegetables

7.1.14 SALAD AND SALAD DRESSING

Theory

7.1.14 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms

45
 b) identify types of salads and salad dressing
c) describe the preparation and production of salads and salad dressings
d) describe the presentation of salads.
e) prepare, produce and present salads and salad dressing
f) outline the qualities of salads and salad dressing

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms

A salad is any cold dish consisting of meat, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables and grains or grain products served singly or
as a combination.

Salad dressings are used with most salads to add flavour improve palatability and sometimes bind ingredients together

Task 2: Types of salads and salad dressing

Salads may appear on the menu in the following ways
 an appetizer
 accompaniment
 main course
 dessert
 for a buffet

Salad dressings
 French dressing
 Mayonnaise
 Vinaigrette

Task 3: Preparation and production of salads and salad dressings

 Select fruits and vegetables that are crisp fresh free from bruises or blemishes
 To maintain crispness stand fruits in ice cold water
 Ingredients washed or stood in water should be dried thoroughly to reduce the risk of the salad being watered
down.
 Select ingredients which compliment each other in flavour texture and colour.
 Use a dressing to enhance the flavour of a salad, do not dress the salad until just before serving time
 Keep the arrangement of the salad simple.
 Ensure that the fruits are not overcooked
 Garnish should be designed to give contrast and eye appeal to the dish without being too elaborate.

Task 4: Presentation of salads

 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Salads should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve salads at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 5: Prepare, produce and present salads and salad dressing

Beetroot salad, cucumber, coleslaw, mustard and cress, potato, pineapple and carrot, tomato and cucumber.
Task 6: Qualities of salads and salad dressing
 Should appear fresh
 Should be neatly arranged
 Should not be over garnished
 Should be eye appealing

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  Should be appetizing
 Should be well chilled

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 food commodities
 kitchen equipment
 magazines
 food charts

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the guidelines for making salads
2 explain the value of salads and salad dressings
3 prepare produce and present various salads and salad dressings

7.1.15 FRUITS

Theory

7.1.15 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify fruits
c) factors to consider in selecting fruits
d) explain methods of preparing fruits
e) explain methods of producing fruit dishes
f) describe methods of presenting fruit dishes
g) Prepare, produce and present fruit dishes
h) explain qualities of fruit dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Fruit is the edible seed bearing portion of some cultivated or wild shrub, trees and plants. Fruits can be eaten raw and
served at the beginning and the end of a meal.

Task 2: Classification of fruits

CLASS EXAMPLE
1. Stone fruits  Avocado
Have a hard un edible  Plums
kennel inside the fruit  Peaches
 Cherrie
 Apricots
 Mangoes
 Grapes

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 2. Soft fruits fleshy  Strawberries
 Blackberries
 Paw paw
 Ripe bananas
 Water melons
 Sweet melons
3. Citrus fruits  Oranges
 Lemons
 Lime
 Tangerine
4. Tropical  Passion fruits
 Yellow passion
 Guavas
 Tree tomato fruit
 Bananas
 pawpaw
5. Hard fruits  Apples
 Pears

Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting fruits

 Buy fruits in season
 Choose good quality fruit
 They should appear fresh and firm to the touch
 Should be clean free from disease or pest damage and un-bruised.
 They should be free from moulds, shriveling or wilting

Task 4: Methods of preparing fruits

 Cutting
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Peeling
 Coring

Task 5: Methods of producing fruit dishes

Fruits can be eaten:-
 Raw-salads, juices, snacks, garnishes, cocktails, platters.
 Cooked – jams, jellies, fritters, puddings, pastries, pies, cakes, syrups.

Task 6: Methods of presenting fruit dishes

 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Fruit should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes

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  Serve fruit dishes at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 7: Prepare, produce and present fruit dishes

Suggested recipes
Fruit fools, glazed, salads, compote, cocktail, juices.

Task 8: Qualities of fruit dishes

 Good flavour
 Appropriate temperature
 Good texture
 Have appropriate colour

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 explain the points to consider when buying fruits
2 discuss fault that often occur in preparation of fruits
3 explain measures taken to prevent loss of nutrients during preparation of fruits

7.1.16 PASTRY AND PASTRY PRODUCTS

Theory

7.1.16 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of pastry and pastry products
c) describe the preparation and production of pastries and pastry products
d) describe the presentation of pastry products
e) Prepare, produce and present pastries and pastry products
f)outline qualities of pastries and pastry products
g) describe storage of pastry and pastry products.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Pastry
A mixture of flour, fat, possibly egg and sugar, the fat usually dispersed as small solid globules coated with flour and the
whole brought together with liquid prior to shaping and baking. There are many types of pastry.

Pastry board
A square or oblong board preferably marble but usually wood on which pastry is rolled out.

Pastry brake

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Opposed and contra-rotating rollers with a variable gap through which pastry can be worked and reduced in thickness for
commercial production. A very small version is used domestically for pasta production.

Pastry case
An uncooked or blind baked pastry container used to hold savory or sweet mixtures.

Pastry cream
Confectioner’s custard. An egg and flour thickened custard made with sweetened milk flavored with vanilla. Used as a
filling for flans, cakes, pastries, tarts, etc. The flour prevents the egg from curdling.

Pastry cutters
Various metal or plastic outlines of shapes, e.g. circles fluted circles, diamonds, ginger bread men, etc. Sharpened on one
edge and used to cut out corresponding shapes from biscuit, scone, pastry, or cakes mixtures.

Task 2: Types of pastry and pastry products

Pâte à choux is a light pastry dough used to make profiteroles, croquembouches, eclairs, French crullers, beignets. It
contains only butter, water, flour, and eggs. Its raising agent is the high moisture content, which creates steam during
cooking, puffing out the pastry.
Phyllo (filo) pastry
Phyllo pastries are usually paper-thin and greatly stretched. They involve several stretched out layers and are wrapped
around a filling and brushed with butter. These pastries are very delicate and can break easily.

Phyllo dough is paper-thin sheets of raw, unleavened flour dough used for making pastries like samosa bags
In both sweetcrust and shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to ensure that fat and flour are blended thoroughly before
liquid is added - this ensures that the flour granules are adequately coated with fat and are less likely to develop gluten.
Overworking the dough is also a hazard. Overworking elongates the gluten strands, creating a product that is chewy, as
opposed to 'short', or light and crumbly.

Flaky (or rough puff) pastry

The flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to amount of layers. These are perfect if you are
looking for a crisp, buttery pastry. The “puff” is obtained by beginning the baking process with a high temperature and
lowering the temperature to finish.
Flaky pastry is similar to puff pastry, the difference being that large lumps of shortening are mixed into the dough,
which is then rolled and folded in a similar manner.
The chunks of fat keep the rolled particles of dough separate from each other so that when the dough is baked, they
become flakes. This creates a different texture from puff pastry where rectangles of dough and fat are rolled and folded
in such a way that sheets of pastry in uniform layers result.

Puff pastry
The puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or “puff” when being baked. Pastries are made using flour,
butter, salt, and water. It rises up due to the combination and reaction of the four ingredients and also from the good
amount of air that gets between the layers. Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender.

Puff pastry is a light, flaky, unleavened pastry containing several layers of fat which is in solid state at 20°C (68°F).
Puff pastry can also be leavened with baker's yeast to create croissants or Danish pastry, though such doughs are not
universally known as puff pastries.
In addition, since the process of making puff pastry is generally somewhat laborious and quite time-intensive, faster
recipes (known as "blitz" or "rough puff") are fairly common. Many of these recipes combine the butter into the

50
détrempe(mixture of flour and water) rather than adding it in the folding process and are thus similar to a folded short
crust.

Choux pastry
The choux pastry is a very light pastry that is filled with cream. The pastry is filled with various flavors of cream and is
often topped with chocolate. Choux pastries can also be filled with things like cheese, tuna, or chicken to be used as
appetizers.

Shortcrust pastry
The shortcrust, or short pastry is the simplest and most common pastry made. It is made with the ingredients of flour, fat,
salt, and water. The process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and flour, adding water, and rolling out the
paste. It is cooked at 180°C and the result is a soft, tender pastry. A related type is the sweetened sweet crust pastry.
It is based on a "half-fat-to-flour" ratio. Fat (lard, butter or full-fat margarine) is rubbed into plain flour to create a loose
mixture that is then bound using a small amount of ice water, rolled out, then shaped and placed to create the top or
bottom of a flan or pie.
Sweet crust pastry (sugar paste) is made with the addition of sugar, which sweetens the mix and impedes the gluten
strands, creating a pastry that breaks up easily in the mouth.

Task 3: Preparation and production of pastries and pastry products

 Short crust

This pastry is crispy, light and crumby

Basic recipe of short crust pastry
- ½ fat to flour (i.e. ratio of 0.5:1 fat to flour)
- ½ teaspoon of salt to each 200 gms of flour
- 2-5 tablespoons of water to each 400 gms of flour.

Method
- Sieve the flour and salt together
- Add the fat into lumps
- Cover the fat with flour before beginning to rub in
- Rub until there is no lump using finger tips to avoid melting fat and allowing aeration.
- Add water by sprinkling over the surface of the flour with a round ended knife until large lumps are formed,
- Draw together with the fingertips
- Knead on a board until the dough is smooth using fingertips
- Form into the required shape
- Roll out round the pastry so as to maintain the shape
- Place in the refrigerator or cool place

 Rough puff pastry

Ingredients
- flour
- teaspoon salt
- (butter/ margarine)
- fresh lemon juice
- Cold water (ice water will make good pastry)
- fat

Method
- Soft the flour and salt into a mixing bowl

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 - Chop butter/margarine into small pieces
- Add fat into the flour and add lemon juice
- Add a little cold water
- Use pastry knife to mix lightly until dough becomes stiff
- Press the pastry gently but do not kneed it
- On the floured board roll the dough lengthwise longer that width.
- Fold into 3 layers
- Wrap the pastry in greaseproof paper and cool in the fridge for 45 minutes
- Remove from fridge and prepare pastry like croissants

 Puff pastry
Ingredients
- Sifted flour - Sugar
- Salt - Salt
- Butter - Baking powder
- Iced water
- Lemon juice
Method
- Put sifted flour and salt in the mixing bowl and add small pieces of butter
- Use the rubbed in method of making pastry mixture
- Add iced water and lemon juice to make dough using pallet knife
- Knead the dough gently on a floured work surface (table, wooden kneading board)
- Make “flap” and roll then cut with a rolling pin
- Add more butter/ margarine and roll out again
- Cover in a cloth and leave in cool place for about 20 minutes
- Roll out 5 more times and fold
- Leave 30 minutes of chilling
- Shape and bake at 22°c

Flaky pastry

Sample recipe
Ingredients
- plain flour
- teaspoon salt
- butter
- fat
- teaspoon lemon juice
- Cold water (ice cold water will give better results)

Method
- Place butter and fat onto a plate and mix until soft
- Sift flour and salt into a large mixing bowl
- Using rubbed in method mix the fat (butter fat) until the mixture form crumbs
- Add lemon juice and cold water
- Roll the pastry out to form a shape longer in length than width
- Fold the 1/3 of the dough and apply the remaining dots of fat
- Fold the other ½ cup of the dough without fat
- Finely fold the remaining dough part
- Gently press with the rolling pin down on the sides of the pastry
- Repeat folding and doting with fat and rolling
- Wrap with grease proof paper and cool in the fridge of 45 minutes

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Choux pastry

Method
- Melt butter/margarine milk and water in a saucepan
- Heat rapidly so that in bubbles
- Remove from the heat add flour and salt and stir to combine
- Cool pastry and add beaten eggs gradually (step by step)
Transfer the mixture using piping bag with nozzle onto a greased baking tray oven

Task 4: Presentation of pastry products

 In a hotel setting pastry products are presented in different meal times
- For breakfast
- As puddings
- As snack
- As accompaniment

 Breakfast pastry
- Butter croissant – mandazi
- Filled croissant
- Muffins
- Samosa

 Pudding pastry
- Jam pancake
- Jam filled pastry
- Honey/sweet fillet

 Accompaniment Pastry
- Chapati
- Meat pie

Task 5: Prepare, produce and present pastry and pastry products

Suggested recipes
Meat pie, Sausage roll, Palmers, Cream buns, Éclairs, Cream horns, Jam turnovers.

Task 6: Qualities of pastries and pastry products

 They should be light golden brown
 They should cut easily with a fork and break readily when bitten
 The flakes should be thin and the blisters plentiful
 It should be crisp and not soggy
 Should have an acceptable flavour

Task 7 Storage of pastry and pastry products

 Pastry products should be eaten same day it is cooked unless stored in the freezer.

LEARNING RESOURCES

 Text books
 Food charts
 Internet magazines

53
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1differentaiate the following types of pastry
a) Puff and rough puff
b) Short and choux
2 explain rules to observe when preparing pastry
3 explain the role of the following ingredients in pastries
a) Fat
b) Flour
c) Liquid

7.1.17 CAKES AND CAKE DECORATION

7.1.17 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the role of ingredients in cake making
c) describe the preparation and production methods of cakes
d) Prepare, produce and present cakes using different methods
e) outline the qualities of a well made cake
f) explain the importance of cake decoration
g) describe the types of cake decorations
h) identify equipment and tools used in cake decoration
i) decorate cakes using different methods
j) describe the methods of decorating cakes
k) describe the storage of cakes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Task 2: The role of ingredients in cake making

INGREDIENTS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES USAGE

FOR USE
Eggs  Fresh at room temperature  Makes the texture light
 Promotes leavening
 Binds the mixture
 Retains air
 Breaks down fats and oils
 Add food value
 Shorten cakes
Flour  Well sieved and whole  Add food value
 Provide the base of the cake
Sugar  Granulated  Sweetens the cake

54
  Fine crystals  Provide the base of the cake
 brown
Fat  Solid  Makes cake “short” and rich
 Liquid  Give cake good flavour

Liquid  Water-at room temperature  Helps in raising the mixture

 Helps in raising the cake during baking
Dried fruits  Whole  Keep the cake moist
 Sultanas  Chopped  Add flavour
 Raisin
 Red Cherries
 Currents
Essence  Liquid  Add flavour
 Solid  Some like lemon rind, orange rind or
others keep the cake moist
Dry powder Flavouring  Solid  Add flavour
 Cocoa  Add colour
 Spices
 Coffee

Task 3: Preparation and production methods of cakes

Creaming

Ingredients
 Fat/butter
 Sugar which make the major component.
 Eggs enrich the cake, Improves colour, Moistens and tenderizes.

Procedure
 Weigh equal portions i.e.
 200 gms of fat and 200 gms of sugar
 Place in a mixing bowl and vigorously beating it against the wall of the bowl
 Use hands to mix large quantities
 Beat until the mixture turns white and fluffy.
 Beat the eggs a little at a time in the mixture of fat and sugar.
 Sift the flour directly in the creamed mixture until it is evenly mixed.
 Add other ingredients to the mixture such as fruits to complete the creamed mixture.

Rubbing in involves rubbing fat with flour to add air. Use a metal spoon or palette knife.

Rubbing in Procedure
 Weigh fat and flour e.g. 750 gms fat and 200 gms of flour
 Using fingertips lift the mixture above the mixing bowl to allow adding of air.
 Once the fat and flour is mixed well add other ingredients.

Suggested items which can be prepared using rubbing

(i) Large cakes e.g. chocolate cake

55
 (ii) Small cakes
(iii) Rock, chocolate and coconut buns

Melting used to mix fat and flour using melted fat or oil.
Procedure:
Ingredients
Fat and flour in the ratio of 1:3 of fat and flour.
⅓ of sugar to flour.
⅓ : ⅔ syrup to flour.
Raising agent bicarbonate of soda alone
Using a metal spoon mix the ingredients to produce a cake mixture.

Whisking
Ingredients
Eggs
Plain flour
Essence
Hot water

Procedure
 Prepare two 15cm sand witch tins
 Heat the oven 190 0 c
 Sieve the floor
 Warm the floor
 Put the sugar into a large mixing bowl
 Break the egg separately and add to the sugar
 Stand the bowl in a basin of hot water
 With an egg beater whisk the eggs and sugar together until the mixture is white fluffy and leaves a trail behind
the whisk
 Remove the bowl from the saucepan and continue whisking until the trail left lasts for three seconds
 Sieve the floor onto the surface of the mixture and fold the floor lightly onto the mixture using s palette knife
 Add vanilla essence and hot water and continue folding in lightly
 Divide the mixture equally into the two tins and bake it until set and golden brown
 Remove from the oven stand it for a second on damp cloth and turn it out and cool

Task 4: Prepare, produce and present cakes using different methods

Suggested recipes
Fruit scones Cheese scones, Coconut scones, Rock buns, Victoria sandwich, Queen cakes, Marble cakes, Madeline,
Chocolate cakes, Ginger bread, Ginger biscuits, Swiss roll, Genoese fancies.

Task 5: Qualities of a well made cake

 Be well risen and brown
 Slightly shrunken from the sides of the tin
 Firm to touch
 Produce no bubbling sound
 Smell cooked

Task 6: Importance of cake decoration

 Improve appearance
 Add flavour

Task 7: Types of cake decorations

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Glace icing
Ingredients

 sifted icing sugar

 water
 lemon juice
 Flavouring and colouring essences as desired

Method:
 Sieve the icing sugar in a dry clean mixing bowl
 Make a well in the centre
 Add half of the water and mix with a wooden spoon from the centre outward into a smooth consistency. Add the
remaining water.
 Add flavoring and colouring essences.
 Cover with a damp cloth for a few minutes to let air bubbles bust before use
 Use immediately as it dries quickly and forms a brittle crust.

Butter icing

Ingredients
 butter or margarine.
 sifted icing sugar.
 Few drops of vanilla essence.
 Colouring as desired.
Method:
 Sieve the icing sugar preferably twice into a mixing bowl.
 Add soft butter or margarine and beat the two together using a wooden spoon until a soft whitish consistency is
obtained as desired.
 Add vanilla essence and colouring as desired

Application
 Place the cake on the cake board
 Put icing on top and spread evenly on top and sides of the cake as required. Smoothen out with a pastry knife dipped
in hot water.
 Pipe or decorate as required

NB: An interesting effect can be produced by simply running a fork dipped in hot water across the cake to produce lines
or work basket type of design on top. Pipe rosettes at the edge

Royal icing:
Ingredients

 sifted icing sugar

 egg whites
 lemon juice and few drops of glycerin

Method:
 Sift twice the icing sugar.
 Separate egg whites from egg yolk.
 Make a well in the centre of icing sugar and add egg whites.
 Mix with a wooden spoon from the centre outward into a smooth constituency.
 Add 1-3 teaspoon lemon juice to whiten.
 Add flavouring and colouring essence as desired
 Leave covered with a damp cloth for at least 30 minutes for air bubbles to bust.

57
 Apply e.g. coating, piping design, trells work.
 For making leaves and rosettes etc. The consistency will depend on the end use e.g. for roses one needs a fairly stiff
consistency.

Task 8: Equipment and tools used in cake decoration

 Mixing equipment used for mixing ingredients.

Examples of mixing equipments
- Automated mixer.
- Improvised equipment (Bowl and wooden spoon)
 Piping and accessories – used for decorating the cake.
 Fine sieve - used for sieving icing sugar to remove any lumps and impurities.
 Small bowls for dividing a mixer when different colours are required.
 A jug.
 A set of knives e.g. palette and pastry knife.
 Spatula for scrapping or a serrated scraper.
 A cake king ruler – used for leveling.
 Cake rack – used for cooling of cakes after baking.
 Table spoon and wooden spoon - used for mixing, scooping.
 Cake icing syringe or bag and a set of nozzles (can be bought or improvised) - used for decorating the cake.
 A cake stand or turntable – used for holding the cake during decoration.
 Cake board, stand – used for display of the cake.

Task 9: Methods of decorating cakes

 Icing
 Piping using icings or whipped cream
 Dusting/dredging
 Glacing
 Decorating with items such as grated chocolate, jelly, coloured sugar, nuts, dessicated coconut, sweets, fruits,
glaced cherries, moulded flowers,

Task 10: Decorate cakes using various methods

Task 11: Storage of cakes

Cakes once produced can be kept for different periods. Depending on the ingredients some go bad quickly others will
stay longer as they age.

Methods of storing include

 Room temperature storage for storage 3 to 4 days
 Fridge at a temperature of between 00 C and 80 C
 Freezer for longer period up to three months
Alcohol baked cakes stores up to 3 months at room temperature

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Internet
 Food charts

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 Magazines

EVALUATION
1. Explain three methods of making cakes
2. Discuss qualities of a well made cake
3. Differentiate the following
a) Glace and butter
b) Royal and fondant

7.1.18 YEAST PRODUCTS

Theory

7.1.18 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of yeast products
c) explain the role of ingredients in yeast mixtures
d) describe the preparation and production of yeast mixtures
e) Prepare, produce and present yeast products
f) outline the qualities of yeast products
g) describe storage of yeast products.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

A commercial leavening agent containing yeast cells; used to raise the dough in making bread and for fermenting beer or
whiskey

Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in baking bread and
related products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol.

Task 2: Types of yeast products

 Lean dough products
A lean dough is one that is low in fat and sugar
Examples: breads, rolls, buns, doughnuts
 Rich dough products
Rich doughs are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, and sometimes eggs.
Examples; croissants, Danish

Task 3: The role of ingredients in yeast mixtures

 Flour – has high gluten content that softens and stretches during fermentation
 Salt – flavours yeast products and prevents yeast from working too fast thus producing a coarse texture
 Sugar – essential for the fermentation process
 Liquid – used to bind ingredients. Liquid used can be luke warm water, milk
 Fat – used to improve keeping qualities, flavour and to add nutritive value

Task 4: Preparation and production of yeast mixtures

A sample recipe for bread
Ingredients

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Flour
Salt
Water
Dry yeast
Sugar
Margarine

Procedure
1) Mix the warm liquid and sugar, then add the yeast. Leave the mixture in a warm place for yeast to grow
2) Sieve dry ingredients into a bowl.
3) Rub in fat
4) Using the yeast and the flour mixture, make a soft dough
5) Knead the dough well to distribute the yeast cells evenly
6) Place the dough in a greased bowl. Stand the bowl in a basin or sufuria of warm water
7) Cover the bowl with a damp cloth and leave the dough to rise until it has doubled its size
8) Turn the risen dough on a floured board and give it a thorough kneading to distribute carbon dioxide and the
yeast cells evenly.
9) Cut and shape the dough to the required shapes
10) Place on a greased loaf tin or baking sheet and leave it in a warm place to rise evenly(to prove)
11) Brush with milk or beaten egg to add sheen when baked
12) Bake in a very hot oven (2300C; Gas No. 8) for the first five minutes to kill the yeast. Reduce the temperature to
2000C; Gas No. 6 and continue baking until the loaf is cooked.
13) Remove from oven, test for readiness and turn on a cooling tray

Task 5: Prepare, produce and present yeast products

Suggested recipes
Danish pastry, Croissants, Bread, Dinner rolls, Doughnuts, Chelsea buns, Fruit buns, hot cross buns.

Task 6: Qualities of yeast products

 A symmetrical shape
 A uniform golden brown to brown crust which is both thin and smooth
 Well risen but not over inflated
 A light texture with a moist and resilient crumb
 A good flavour without a taste of yeast or a sour taste
 A well rounded top especially for breads

Task 7: Storage of cooked yeast products

 Best eaten on the day of baking because they have a low keeping quality due to low shortening and sugar
content
 Store in suitable containers (sealed plastic bags or containers), at room temperature.
 For longer storage put in a freezer.
 Yeast products are softened by a damp environment and humid conditions.

Task 8: Presentation of yeast products

 In a hotel setting yeast products are presented at different meal times
- For breakfast
- As a snack
- As an accompaniment

 Breakfast
- Bread
- Buns
- Doughnuts

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 Accompaniment
- Bread rolls
- Croutons

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Internet
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Explain the conditions necessary for the growth of yeast
2. Identify common faults and their remedies in yeast products

7.1.19 DESSERTS

Theory

7.1.19 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify desserts
c) explain preparation methods of desserts
d) explain the production method of desserts
e) describe methods of presenting desserts
f) Prepare, produce and present desserts
g) describe the qualities of desserts

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Desserts are sweet dishes that can be served hot or cold depending on the type. They are served after the main meal.

Task 2: Classification of desserts

 Suet mixtures e.g. Christmas pudding
 Rubbed-in mixtures e.g. pineapple crumble, cake
 Creamed mixtures e.g. banana upside down, cakes
 Milk puddings e.g. rice pudding
 Batters e.g. pancakes, fritters
 Pastry dishes e.g. fruit flans, pies and tarts
 Apple dishes e.g. baked apples
 Hot soufflés e.g lemon soufflés
 Sponges e.g. triffle
 Cold sweets e.g. jellies, creams, ice creams, yoghurt, fruit mixtures like fruit fool, fruit salad, mousse

Task 3: Preparation methods of dessert

 Whisking
 Creaming

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  Rubbing in
 Dicing
 Slicing

Task 4: Production method of desserts

 Baking
 Frying
 Steaming
 Chilling

Task 5: Methods of presenting desserts

 In coupes
 On dessert plates
 In salad bowls
 Multi-portion salad bowls
 On trays/ platters

Task 6: Prepare, produce and present desserts

Suggested recipes
Pineapple crumble, cake, banana upside down, cakes, rice pudding
Jellies, creams, ice creams, yoghurt, fruit mixtures like fruit fool, fruit salad, mousse, fruit flans, pies and tarts, baked
apples, lemon soufflés, trifle, pancakes, fritters

Task 7: Qualities of desserts

 They should have eye appeal
 They should conform to the requirements of their basic recipes
 Well garnished/decorated
 Served in appropriate dishes
 Presented at the right time and temperature
 The portions should be appropriate

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts
 Magazines
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of desserts
2. Discuss the role of desserts in a meal
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable dessert for a given meal

7.1.20 SANDWICHES

Theory

7.1.20 T Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of sandwiches
c) describe the preparation and production of sandwiches
d) describe the presentation of sandwiches
e) Prepare, produce and present sandwiches
f) outline the qualities of sandwiches
g) describe the storage of sandwiches

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Sandwiches may be made from every kind of bread , fresh or toasted , in a variety of shapes
and with an almost endless assortment of fillings. They may be garnished with potato or vegetable crisps and a little
salad

Task 2: Types of sandwiches

 Toasted sandwiches
 Club sandwich
 Bookmaker sandwich
 Double-decker/ Treble-decker sandwiches
 Open sandwiches/Scandinavian smorrebord
 Croque monsieur

Task 3: Preparation and production of sandwiches

 Toasted sandwiches: made by inserting a variety of savoury fillings between two slices of hot, freshly buttered
toast e.g. scrambled egg, bacon, fried egg, scrambled egg with chopped ham, or by inserting two slices of
buttered bread with the required filling into a sandwich toaster
 Club sandwich: made by placing between two slices of hot buttered toast, a filling of lettuce, grilled bacon,
slices of hard boiled egg, mayonnaise and slices of chicken. The sandwiches are usually held together with
decorated cocktail sticks

 Bookmaker sandwich: this is a toasted sandwich with a cooked seasoned minute steak (which is thinly cut from
the sirloin) spread with mustard, cut into triangles and served with parsley

 Double-decker/ Treble-decker sandwiches: toasted and untoasted bread can be made into double-decker
sandwiches, using three slices of bread with two separate fillings. Trebble and quadro-decker sandwiches may
also be prepared. They may be served hot or cold.

 Open sandwiches/ Scandinavian smorrebord: are prepared from buttered slice of any bread garnished with any
type of meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, salads e.t.c. The varieties of open sandwiches can include some of the
following:
-Smoked salmon, lettuce, potted shrimps, slices of lemon
-Cold sliced beef, sliced tomato, fans of gherkins
-Sredded lettuce, sliced hard-boiled egg, mayonnaise, cucumber
-Pickled herring , chopped gherkin, capers sieved, hard-boiled egg

 Croque monsieur: the filling for this sandwich is Gruyere cheese and ham enclosed with two slices of bread and
it is gently fried in clarified butter unti the cheese melts, then garnished with parsley. This is sometimes cooked
in a sandwich toaster.

Task 4: Presentation of sandwiches

 All spreads and fillings should be prepared and placed on plates ready for assembling

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  All equipment and utensils including chopping boards must be ready/accessible
 Bread should be cut and buttered ready for passing along for the various fillings, finishing with cutting and
dressing onto dishes or platters
 Sandwiches may be cut into small cubes and a variety placed on a cocktail stick to represent a mini kebab.
 When filled the crusts are removed and the sandwiches cut to fingers

Task 5; Prepare, produce and present sandwiches

Suggested recipes
Smoked salmon, lettuce, sliced beef, sliced tomato, sliced hard boiled eggs, cucumber, pickled herrings.

Task 6: Qualities of sandwiches

 Should always be fresh
 Made to order for best results

Task 7: Storage of sandwiches

 Should be served fresh
 If made in advance they should be well covered with film and refrigerated

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Magazines
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of sandwiches
2. Discuss the qualities of sandwiches
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable sandwich for a given function

7.1.21 GARNISHES

Theory

7.1.21 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of garnishes
c) explain the role of garnishes in food presentation
d) outline the qualities of garnishes
e) describe the preparation and production of garnishes
f) garnish food appropriately

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Garnishes are used for savoury dishes to make food look attractive and colourful

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Task 2: Types of garnishes
 Raw garnishes; presented in their fresh raw form e.g. carrots, tomatoes, pepper, parsley, lemons.
 Cooked garnishes: used on hot dishes e.g. grilled meat with grilled tomatoes
 Cold garnishes: used on cold dishes e.g. cherries on ice-cream, trifles

Task 3: The role of garnishes in food presentation

 To enhance eye appeal
 Give colour and flavour
 Add nutritional value e.g. tomatoes, pepper, carrots, parsley provide vitamins

Task 4: Qualities of garnishes

 The colour and design must harmonize with the food
 They must be edible
 Raw garnishes should be fresh and firm

Task 5: Preparation and production of garnishes

 Slicing  Cutting
 Chopping  Dicing
 Shredding  Blanching
 Grating  Grilling

Task 6: garnish food appropriately

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Food charts
 Magazines
 Internet
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. List different types of garnishes
2. Discuss the role of garnishes in a meal
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable garnish for a given meal

7.1.22 BEVERAGES

Theory

7.1.22 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of beverages
c) explain methods of preparing beverages
d) explain the presentation of beverages
e) prepare and present different beverages

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 f) explain the qualities of beverages
g) describe how to store beverages

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

A beverage is basically a drink specifically prepared for human consumption. This does not include water as it is a
natural resource. Beverages almost always largely consist of water as their main ingredient.

Task 2: Types of beverages

There are different types of beverages but they are mainly classified based on their properties and ingredients.

Broadly there are two types of beverages:

1. Alcoholic Beverages and
2. Non-Alcoholic Beverages

These two types of beverages can be then further classified as:

1. Hot Beverages and
2. Cold Beverages

Alcoholic Beverages

Wines are made from a variety of fruits, such as grapes, peaches, plums or apricots. The most common wines are
produced from grapes. The soil in which the grapes are grown and the weather conditions in the growing season
determine the quality and taste of the grapes which in turn affects the taste and quality of wines. When ripe, the grapes
are crushed and fermented in large vats to produce wine.

Beer is also made by the process of fermentation. A liquid mix, called wort, is prepared by combining yeast and malted
cereal, such as corn, rye, wheat or barely. Fermentation of this liquid mix produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
process of fermentation is stopped before it is completed to limit the alcohol content. The alcohol so produced is called
beer. It contains 4 to 8 percent of alcohol.

Whisky is made by distilling the fermented juice of cereal grains such as corn, rye or barley. Scotch whisky was
originally made in Scotland. The word "Scotch" has become almost synonymous with whisky of good quality.

Rum is a distilled beverage made from fermented molasses or sugarcane juice and is aged for at least three years.
Caramel is sometimes used for colouring.

Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juices. Brandy is usually aged in oak casks. The colour of brandy comes either
from the casks or from caramel that is added.

Gin is a distilled beverage. It is a combination of alcohol, water and various flavours. Gin does not improve with age, so
it is not stored in wooden casks.

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 Liqueurs are made by adding sugar and flavouring such as fruits, herbs or flowers to brandy or to a combination of
alcohol and water. Most liqueurs contain 20-65 per cent alcohol. They are usually consumed in small quantities after
dinner.

Non-Alcoholic Beverages

A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol. Non-alcoholic mixed drinks (including punches,
"virgin cocktails", or "mocktails") are often consumed by children, people whose religion restricts alcohol consumption,
recovering alcoholics, and anyone wishing to enjoy flavorful drinks without alcohol. They are often available as
alternative beverages in contexts (such as bars) where the norm is to drink alcoholic beverages.

A non alcoholic beverage is also a drink that usually contains alcohol, such as beer and wine, but contain less than .5%
alcohol by volume. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider.

Types of non-alcoholic beverages

 Soft drinks
The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard drink" and the term "drink", the
latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries connotations of alcoholic content. Beverages like colas, sparkling
water, iced tea, lemonade, squash, and fruit punch are among the most common types of soft drinks, while hot chocolate,
hot tea, coffee, milk, tap water, alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall into this classification. Many carbonated soft drinks
are optionally available in versions sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric sweeteners.

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 A carbonated beverage Fruit juice

Hot beverages

Coffee-based beverages , Cappuccino Coffee Espresso Café au lait Frappé , Flavored coffees (mocha etc.) Latte

Hot chocolate ,Hot cider ,Mulled cider,Tea-based beverages ,Flavored teas (chai etc.)

Green tea ,Pearl milk tea ,Tea ,Herbal teas

Yerba Mate Roasted grain beverages ,Sanka

Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending
upon their thickness and solid ingredients.
Buttermilk

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Soup
Yoghurt

Task 3: Methods of preparing beverages

Task 4: Presentation of beverages

Task 5: prepare and present beverages
Task 5: Qualities of beverages
Task 6: Storage of beverages

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of beverages
2. Discuss the qualities of well made beverages
3. Explain the preparation procedure for various beverages

7.1.23 MENU PLANNING

Theory

7.1.23 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in menu planning
b) state the importance of menu planning
c) identify types of menu
d) explain factors to consider when planning menus
e) explain factors to consider when compiling menus
f) explain how to cost and price menus
g) prepare a time plan for production of a menu.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms used in menu planning

Menu is a list of dishes to be served in a given meal.

Task 2: Importance of menu planning

 Customer satisfaction
 Facilitating costing
 Facilitating pricing
 Reference by customer and management
 Guide production
 Facilitate evaluation and improvements
 Facilitate ordering
 Plan storage

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 Guides the catering staff on how to prepare dishes
 Help the catering staff to prepare in terms of attitudes, skills ordering etc.
 Some menu requires special preparation like decorations and equipments therefore menu will help in availing the
necessary.

Task 3: Types of menu

1. Table d’hôte
A set menu forming a complete meal at a set price A choice of dishes may be offered at all courses. Choice and number
of courses is limited to two, three or four.

2. A La Carte
Menu with all the dishes individually priced.
Customers compile their own menu from the list.
The meal is cooked to order.
The customer should be prepared to wait for this service.

3. Party/function Menus
Menu for banquets or functions of all kinds.
All guests start the meal at the same time.
Seasonable foods must be available if the menus are printed well in advance to avoid embarrassments.

4. Ethnic/Specialty menus
Can be al carte or table d’hôte specializing in the food or religion of the country or in a specialized food itself e.g.

a) Ethnic: - Chinese, Indian, Kosher, Kenyan, African etc

b) Specialty: - steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian etc
Kitchen staff must know how to obtain and use the ingredients.
The ambience (mood) of the restaurant must reflect the menu.

5. Hospital menus/Institutional menus.

It’s a form of a menu given to the patient. The day before service the patient ticks his/her preferences.
A dietician is usually involved with menu compilation to ensure nothing is given to the patients that would be
detrimental to their health.
The patient’s meals are usually 2-3 courses.

6. Menu for people at work

Menus served to people at the work place.
They vary in standard and extent from one employer to another depending on the company policy.
They are usually served in staff canteens or cafeteria.
Some companies charge for the meals and some ask for a token sum and offer meals at a subsidized price/rate.
The menu offers 2 or 3 course meal with a selection of items.

7. Traditional menus/Ethnic menus

Traditional recipes form a sound foundation of knowledge for the chef/caterer.
However fashions in food change and customers look for new dishes, different combinations of food, fresh ideas on
menu etc
Some of the most successful menus contain a sensible balance of traditional and contemporary dishes.

8. Menu for children

They emphasize on healthy eating and a balanced diet in schools.
Schools with children from different cultural and religious backgrounds should have appropriate items available o the
menu.
Most establishments provide special children’s menus which concentrate on favorite foods.

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Task 4: Factors to consider when planning menus
Several factors direct what kind of menu to make
1. Nutrition requirements
- Proteins
- Starches
- Vitamins
- Fats
- Mineral salts

2. Health consideration
- Sickness
- Deficiencies like scurvy, diabetes, kwashiorkor

3. Availability of foodstuffs
- Seasonal foods like
- Fruits
- Vegetables
4. Number of courses
- Appetizer
- Main dish
- Dessert
5. Sequence of courses

6. Nutritional balance
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Water
- Roughage – acts as a “broom” along the digestive system.
- Fats and oils

7. Occasions
- Funerals - Festivities like
- Wedding - Christmas
- Birthday - Ramadhan
- Graduation Ceremony - Easter holiday
- National holiday celebration

Task 5: Factors to consider when compiling menus

 Pricing policy based on cost
 Clientele
 Staff capability
 Facilities for cooking and service
 Balance
 Business promotion and marketing
 Availability and season of supplies

Task 6: Costing and pricing menus

When costing include the following

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  Cost of individual ingredients in a recipe
 Cost of each recipe
 Total cost of each dish
 Total cost of the whole meal
 Profit margin and price per portion

Task 7: Preparation of a time plan for production of a menu

A production time plan should include the following
 Menu
 Food order list
 Costing
 Timed order of work
 Presentation and garnishing

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1 explain the factors to consider when planning menus for different function
2 plan and cost a meal for a given function.
3 discuss the different types of menu

7.1.24 MEAL PRODUCTION PROCEDURE

Theory

7.1.24 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting ingredients for different dishes
b) describe preparation of ingredients for different dishes
c) describe the production of different dishes
d) explain the presentation of different dishes
e) outline the quality of a given dish
f) explain the post production tasks in meal production procedure.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Factors to consider when selecting ingredients for different dishes

 balance -the ingredients should contain all the food nutrients in correct amounts
 Individual requirements - the nutritional needs of individual members depending on the body size, occupation,
age, state of health, sex.
 Foods in season-they are cheaper and fresh.
 Money available-the food budget should be within financial means
 time available for cooking
 individual preferences- personal likes and dislikes
 cooking facilities and equipment available

Task 2: Preparation of ingredients for different dishes

 Sorting

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  Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking

Task 3: Production of different dishes

The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

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  Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 4: Presentation of different dishes

general presentation
 the meal should look attractive
 well garnished
 the correct temperature
 food should be served on clean dishes
 edges of the dishes should be free from smudges

Task 5: Quality of a given dish

 Attractive
 Well flavoured
 Served at the correct temperature
 Balanced
 variety of texture, colour, cooking methods
 correct portion sizes

Task 6: Post production tasks in meal production procedure

This includes the following task
 cleaning pots ,pans, and other equipment
 cleaning the worktops, sinks, cookers, fridges and floor
 arranging equipment in the store
 emptying washing and disinfecting dustbins
 washing and disinfecting kitchen cloths

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION

1. plan prepare and produce a three course menu for ten delegates attending a syllabus workshop at the special
institute.

7.1.25 FUNCTION MENUS

Theory

7.1.25 T Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of function menus
c) explain factors to consider when planning for a function menu
d) plan menu for different functions.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
 Function menu is simply a menu in which is served at a occasion e.g. Wedding in which alternate
meals may be served between people.
Task 2: Types of function menus
 birthday parties
 wedding parties
 Christmas
 family get together
Task 3: Factors to consider when planning for a function menu
 number of guests
 the menu to be prepared
 the venue
 method and style of service
 type of foods
 serving equipment
Task 4: Menu for different functions
 rice pilau
 stewed meats
 vegetable salads
 fruit salads or whole fruits
 irio\ mukimo
 cold drinks
 roast meats and chicken
Task 5: Prepare and present meals for different functions

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1.explain the steps to follow when running a catering function
2. plan prepare produce and present a meal for fifty birthday celebrants

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7.1.26 LOCAL DISHES

Theory

7.1.26 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 identify different types of local dishes
 explain the methods of preparation and production of local dishes
 describe the presentation of local dishes.
Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of local dishes

 western-chicken stew, omusenye, brown ugali
 central-irio,njahi
 riftvalley-roast meat, murusik
 coast-biriani, pilau, chicken curry
 eastern-mukimo, muthokoi, nzuu
 nyanza- omena, whole fish, ugali

Task 2: Methods of preparation and production of local dishes

 Sorting
 Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking
Production methods
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 3: Presentation of local dishes.

general presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments
 Should reflect the theme of the meal

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION

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1. Plan prepare produce and present a three course menu for twenty luo elders negotiating dowry for
your sister.

7.1.27 INTERNATIONAL DISHES

Theory

7.1.27 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify international dishes
b) describe the preparation and production of international dishes
c) describe the presentation of international dishes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: international dishes

4. Caribbean
-avocado soup, baked bananas in tamarin, fish fritters, ham in coconut milk
5. Asia and the Far East
-stir-frys and curries
6. France and other European countries
- fish ,noodles,ratatouille,
7. Japanese
-sushi, deep fried dishes, barbecued chicken skewers
8. North American countries
- salmon, corned beef, marple baked beans, pizza, pies hotdogs

Task 2: preparation and production of international dishes

 Sorting
 Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking
Production methods
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 3: presentation of international dishes.

General presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments
 Should reflect the theme of the meal

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LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

 Food Style: the Art of Presenting Food Beautifully,

Molly Siple and Irene Sax

EVALUATION

Plan prepare produce and present a three course menu for thirty Asians students visiting your institution on an
exchange programme

7.1.28 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

Theory

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of food science and nutrition
c) explain the components of a balanced diet
d) Interpret the food composition tables.

Task 1: defining terms

Food: is any substance, solid or liquid, usually of plant or animal origin that contains or consists of essential
body nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an
organism to produce energy, stimulate growth, and maintain life.
Science is a field of study seeking to understand natural phenomena through repeated observations and
experiments
Nutrition is
1. The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a living organism
assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues.
2. The science or study that deals with food and nourishment, especially in humans.
Nutrients: Is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's
metabolism which must be taken in from its environment.

Nutrients can be organic or inorganic.

 Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids),
and vitamins.
 Inorganic nutrients such as dietary minerals and water.

Task 2: stating the importance of food science and nutrition

Nutrition

 Keeps us healthy and free of diseases, psychological and behavior issues.

 Deals with the relationship between our diet and how our body functions. If we want our body to
maintain health then we must supply the essential nutrients.

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  Nothing can heal the body except the body itself so it is vital that we properly nourish our cells.
 When cells do not receive proper nutrition our health suffers and we become malnourished or
experience an imbalance. When the body is nourished and working properly it can fight off toxins,
bacteria and viruses.
 Our bodies needs are simple, vitamins, minerals, water, carbohydrates, protein and fats. The food
we eat gets ubsorbed in our bloodstream and is broken down and carried to every cell in our body.
These cells all have jobs to do in order for us to function correctly, build and maintain health
 We need to get the optimum balance of these nutrients in order to thrive.
 The importance of good nutrition plays a vital role in our well-being.
 When we eat a diet rich in essential nutrients we can then sustaining health and reduce risks of
problems, disease and premature death.
 Eating fruits and vegetables in their natural state provides unsurpassed nutrition. Removing toxins
in our food is also imperative to lessen the load our bodies have to deal with.
 A raw vegan diet can provide all the nutrients we need. Why nutrition is important can best be
answered by knowing how our body works and responds to the substances it needs to maintain
health and then giving it just that.

TASK 3: COMPONENTS OF A BALANCED DIET

A balanced diet

A balanced diet is one that provides an adequate intake of energy and nutrients for maintenance of the body and
therefore good health. A diet can easily be adequate for normal bodily functioning, yet may not be a balanced
diet. An ideal human diet contains fat, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre all in correct
proportions. These proportions vary for each individual because everyone has different metabolic rates and
levels of activity.

Malnutrition results from an unbalanced diet, this can be due to an excess of some dietary components and lack
of other components, not just a complete lack of food. Too much of one component can be as much harm to the
body as too little. Deficiency diseases occur when there is a lack of a specific nutrient, although some diet
related disorders are a result of eating an excess.

1.1 The components of a balanced diet

A balanced diet contains six key nutrient groups that are required in appropriate amounts for health. These
groups are outlined below.

 Proteins are involved in growth, repair and general maintenance of the body.
 Carbohydrates are usually the main energy source for the body.
 Lipids or fats are a rich source of energy, key components of cell membranes and signalling molecules,
and as myelin they insulate neurons (nerve cells).
 Vitamins are important in a range of biochemical reactions.
 Minerals are important in maintaining ionic balances and many biochemical reactions.
 Water is crucial to life. Metabolic reactions occur in an aqueous environment and water acts as a
solvent for other molecules to dissolve in.

A deficiency of any one type of nutrient can lead to disease, starvation (or dehydration in the case of water) and
subsequent death. Fibre is a component of food that is not nutritious but is important to include in our diet.
Fibre or roughage is non-digestible carbohydrate and it has an important role in aiding the movement of food
through the gut.

An adequate diet provides sufficient energy for the performance of metabolic work, although the energy
food is in an unspecified form. A balanced diet provides all dietary requirements in the correct proportions.
Ideally this would be 1/7 fat, 1/7 protein and 5/7 carbohydrate.

Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates are a rapid source of energy, they are the body's fuel. The bulk of a balanced diet should be made
from carbohydrates. If eaten in an excess of the dietary requirements carbohydrates are easily stored as fats in
the cells, although carbohydrate is the first source of energy in the body.

An average adult requires about 12,000kJ of energy a day, most of this is supplied by the respiration of
carbohydrates in the cells.

Lipids

Lipids are a rich source of energy in the diet, they can be greatly reduced in metabolic reactions and therefore
release much energy. They are easily stored in the body and can form a layer beneath the skin of adipose tissue.
As lipids are such a rich source of energy they are often not needed for respiration if there are adequate
quantities of carbohydrate for the energy output of the body.

As lipids are digested in the intestine into fatty acids and glycerol, some fatty acids are only available in the diet
and cannot therefore be synthesized in the cell in any way. These are therefore known as Essential Fatty Acids.
Fatty acids are categorized according to the number of double bonds they have in their carbon chain. Saturated
fatty acids have none, monounsaturated fatty acids have one, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than
one. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized in the body from anything else as the correct
enzymes to add double bonds after the ninth carbon to the carbon chain are not present. Two essential fatty acids
are linoleic and linolenic acid which are found in vegetable oils such as soya, sunflower and maize.

Fatty acids are needed for the formation of cell membrane phospholipids and also for the production of steroid
hormones such as prostaglandins and thromboxin which have important roles in the renal, immune and
circulatory systems as signaling chemicals.

Deficiencies of essential fatty acids result in limited growth in children, poor healing of wounds, scaly skin and
hair loss.

Obesity is a result of a high fat intake in the diet and lack of exercise. Obesity is in fact a form of malnutrition as
the diet is not balanced. The risk of developing diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, CHD, arthritis (due to
extra pressure on joints), stroke and some cancers are increased dramatically with obesity.

Proteins

Protein is not a direct source of energy in the body, it is used primarily for growth and repair of body tissues
although can be used as an energy source as a last resort. Proteins fulfil a wide variety of roles in the body, they
are broken down in the stomach and intestines to amino acids which are then absorbed. The body can only form
8 amino acids to build proteins from, the diet must provide Essential Amino Acids (EAAs) which are
synthesised into proteins which can be structural, i.e. collagen in bone, keratin in hair, myosin and actin in
muscle; metabolic enzymes, haemoglobin, protective antibodies and communicative hormones.

The diet needs to provide 8 EAAs as the body is unable to synthesis proteins without these molecules. 2 other
amino acids are synthesised from EAAs so if the diet lacks the original EAAs these other two will not be present
either. Phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine and methionine is converted to cysteine. Cells draw upon a pool of
amino acids for protein synthesis which either come from dietary protein digested and absorbed in the gut and
the breakdown of body protein such as muscle. However, unlike fats and carbohydrates there is no store of
amino acids for cells to draw on, any amino acid in excess of immediate bodily requirements is broken down
into urea and excreted. It is therefore important to maintain the dietary intake of protein everyday. If the body
lacks protein, muscle wasting occurs as muscle is broken down .

If protein is lacked in a diet a person develops kwashiorkor which is caused when high levels of carbohydrates
are eaten to overcome the lack of protein in the diet. One symptom of kwashiorkor is the abnormal collection of
fluid around the abdomen due to the lack of protein in the blood. The body cannot retain water by osmosis and
fluid accumulates in tissues causing them to become waterlogged.

Vitamins

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Vitamins cannot be synthesised by the body so must be supplied by diet. Vitamins have no common structure or
function but are essential in small amounts for the body to be able to utilise other dietary components efficiently.

Vitamins fall into two categories, fat soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K which are ingested with
fatty foods and water soluble vitamins such as the B group vitamins and vitamin C. Vitamins are known as
micronutrients because only small quantities are required for a healthy diet, in fact fat soluble vitamins can be
toxic in high concentrations, for example the body stores vitamin A, or retinol, in the liver as it is toxic if kept in
high concentrations in the blood stream, a dose of more than 3300mg of vitamin A can be considered toxic.
Water soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and B groups vitamins can be excreted in the urine if in excess in the
diet.

Vitamins carry out a wide range of functions and prevent specific deficiency diseases. A diet that lacks a certain
vitamin is not a balanced diet, vitamins have vital roles in the maintenance of a healthy body.

An example of a deficiency is when the diet does not contain enough, or any vitamin A.

Vitamin A is essential to the proper functioning of the retina in the eye and the epithelial tissues. A lack of
vitamin A results in dry, rough skin, inflammation of the eyes, a drying or scarring of the cornea -
xerophthalmia, which occurs when the secretion of lubricating tears is stopped, the eyelids become swollen and
sticky with pus. Mucous surfaces of the eye may become eroded allowing infection to set in, leading to
ulceration and destruction of the cornea. Night blindness - an inability to see in dim light can also occur. Rod
cells in the retina of the eye detect light of low intensity, they convert vitamin A into a pigment, rhodopsin,
which is bleached when light enters the eye. Rod cells resynthesis rhodopsin, but if there is a deficiency of the
vitamin, rod cells can no longer function and the result is night blindness. Epithelial cells use retinol to make
retinoic acid, an intracellular messenger used in cell differentiation and growth. Without retinoic acid epithelial
cells are not maintained properly and the body becomes susceptible to infections, particularly measles and
infections of the respiratory system and gut.

Xenophthalmia is common among children who's diets consist of mainly cereals with little meat or fresh
vegetables, this is common in Indonesia, Bangladesh, India and the Philippines.

Vitamin D, or calciferol, is another fat soluble steroid vitamin which functions to stimulate calcium uptake from
the gut and its deposition in bone. Vitamin D acts as a hormone when converted by enzymes in the gut and liver
into an active form "active vitamin D", which stimulates epithelial cells in the intestine to absorb calcium.
Vitamin D is therefore essential in growing children's diets to enable the growth of strong bones. Without
adequate amounts of vitamin D children can develop rickets, which is the deformation of the legs caused when
they lack calcium to strengthen the bones. In adults a lack of vitamin D in the diet can lead to osteomalacia, a
progressive softening of the bones which can make them highly susceptible to fracture.

Vitamin D is made by the body when exposed to sunlight and is stored in the muscles, however, if the skin is
rarely exposed to the sunlight or is dark little vitamin D is produced. Foods such as eggs and oily fish are all rich
in vitamin D.

Vitamin K, phylloquinone, is found in dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale. It is a fat soluble
vitamin which is involved in the clotting process of blood. In the intestines bacteria synthesise a number of
important clotting factors which need vitamin K. Without vitamin K cuts can fail to heal and internal bleeding
can occur.

Vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin, known chemically as ascorbic acid. It is found in citrus fruits such as
oranges and lemons, and also in potatoes and tomatoes. The main function of vitamin C is the formation of
connective tissues such as collagen. It is also known to be an antioxidant which helps to remove toxins from the
body and aids the immune system. A lack of vitamin C leads to Scurvy, a condition experienced by sailors on
long journeys when they did not have fruit in their diets. Scurvy causes painful, bleeding gums. As vitamin C is
water soluble, it is not toxic in high doses as it can be excreted in the urine, very high doses can however cause
diarrhoea.

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B group vitamins have a wide range of roles acting as co-enzymes in metabolic pathways. They are found in
most plant and animal tissues involved in metabolism, therefore foods such as liver, yeast and dairy products are
all rich in B group vitamins. Deficiency of B group vitamins include dermatitis, fatigue and malformation of red
blood cells.

Minerals

Some minerals are considered to be macronutrients as they are required in fairly large amounts in the diet to
maintain a healthy body. Minerals are required in their ionic state in the diet.

Calcium, Ca2+, is a major constituent of bones and teeth and is required to keep bones strong. It is required in
blood clotting as an activator of various plasma proteins and is also involved in muscle contraction. Calcium is
used in synapses and also as an enzyme activator. A good source of calcium is in dairy products, eggs and green
vegetables, the RDA for calcium is 800mg.

Chlorine, Cl-, is required to maintain the osmotic anion / cation balance of the body and the formation of HCl in
the stomach. It is found in table salt and is rarely deficient in the diet as it is used as a preservative to may foods.
Sodium, Na+, is also found in table salt as well as dairy foods, meat, eggs and vegetables. Sodium is used in
conjunction with chlorine in the maintenance of the osmotic anion / cation balance. It is also needed in nerve
conduction and muscle action. Potassium, K+, is yet another mineral required in nerve and muscle action, it also
has a role in protein synthesis. It is found in meat, fruit and vegetables.

Phosphorus, in the form of phosphate, PO43- is a constituent of nucleic acids, ATP, phospholipids in cell
membranes, bones and teeth. It is present in dairy foods, eggs, meat and vegetables.

Magnesium, Mg2+, is an important component of bones and teeth and is also an enzyme activator. It is found in
meats and green vegetables.

Micronutrients are minerals needed in trace quantities. Despite the small quantity required, they are still
essential to a healthy balanced diet.

Iron, in the forms of Fe2+ and Fe3+, are required in the formation of haemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is a
constituent of many enzymes as a prosthetic group and also as an electron carrier in mitochondria. Red meat,
liver and green vegetables are all sources of iron. Iron supplements are taken by people who suffer from
anaemia.

Iodine, I-, is a component of the growth hormone thyroxine. A lack of iodine in the diet can cause
hypothyroidism which results in weight gain and in extreme cases a lack of physical and mental development
known as cretinism. A swelling of the neck can occur which is called goitre if iodine is deficient in the diet.
Iodine can be found in seafood such as shellfish, seaweed and fish. Iodine has also been added to water supplies
in areas where it is deficient in the main water system.

Copper, Cu2+, manganese, Mn2+ and cobalt, Co2+, are all needed in the diet to form co-factors for enzymes.
Copper is also needed for bone and haemoglobin formation and cobalt is needed for the production of red blood
cells, manganese is also a growth factor in bone development. They are found in meat and liver as well as some
dairy products.

Fibre

Fibre is not digested by the body, but is involved in maintaining the health of the gut and is therefore an
essential part of a balanced diet. Fibre is mostly made up of cellulose from plant cell walls and is indigestible as
the stomach and gut do not contain the correct enzymes. Fibre aids the formation of faeces, preventing
constipation. It also aids the peristaltic movement in the intestine and has been linked to the prevention of bowel
cancer. Fibre also removes some saturated fats and cholesterol therefore protecting the body a little from the
build up of plaques in blood vessels. Fruit, vegetables and cereals are a good source of dietary fibre.

Water

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 The diet must provide water which is required as a solvent, a transport medium, a substrate in hydrolytic
reactions and for lubrication. Water in fact makes up about 70% of the total body weight of humans. Water is
needed as it is lost constantly from our bodies in urine, sweat, evaporation from lungs and in faeces. An average
person requires 2-3 litres of water a day which is supplied through drinks and liquid foods.

As you can see a balanced diet is imperative to maintaining a healthy body. People who choose to be
vegetarians and vegans therefore must make sure that their diet contains all the correct nutrients to avoid any
deficiencies that may occur, as well as people living in countries where their diet lacks certain important food
groups.

.TASK 4: INTERPRETATION OF THE FOOD COMPOSITION TABLES.

Food Composition Table
Introduction
The composition of food can vary widely, depending, among other factors, on the variety of plant or animal, on
growing and feeding conditions and, for some foods, on freshness. Tables are based on average values from a
number of samples analyzed in the laboratory and therefore only provide a rough guide.
The table below thus gives an indication of the average composition of foods. Please refer to your national food
composition table for details of your country of origin.
Food Composition Table
The following table provides details of the energy (kcal), Protein (g), Carbohydrate (g) and Fat (g) for 100g of
various foods.

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

All Bran 250 13 2.5 46
Almonds 560 17 54 4
Alpen 368.2 11.5 6.2 66.6
Apples 35 0.2 0 9
Apricots 30 0.6 0 7
Apricots, dried, raw 180 4 0 43
Artichokes Globe boiled 15 1 0 3
Artichokes Jerusalem boiled 20 1.5 0 3
Asparagus boiled 8.8 1.7 0 0.5
Aubergine raw 15 0.7 0 3
Avocados 220 4 20 2

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Bacon collar joint boiled 330 20 27 0
Bacon gammon grilled 230 30 12 0
Bacon gammon joint boiled 270 25 19 0
Bacon rashers streaky fried 500 23 45 0
Bacon rashers streaky grilled 400 25 36 0
Baked Beans - Heinz 74 5 0.3 12.7
Baked beans - Weight Watchers 53 4.8 0.3 8.8
Bananas 80 1 0.3 20
Barcelona nuts 640 11 64 5
Barley pearl boiled 120 2.7 0.5 28
Bean sprouts canned 10 1.6 0 0.8
Beans broad boiled 50 4 0.6 7

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Beans butter boiled 100 7 0.3 17
Beans french boiled 7 0.8 0 1
Beans haricot boiled 90 6.6 0.5 17
Beans mung cooked 100 6 4 11
Beans runner boiled 20 2 0.2 3
Beef brisket boiled 320 27 24 0
Beef Casserole -Crockpot 98.14 9.87 3.37 7.17
Beef corned canned 216 26 12 1
Beef minced stewed 230 23 15 0
Beef rump steak fried 250 29 15 0
Beef rump steak grilled 220 27 12 0
Beef silverside salted 240 29 14 0
Beef sirloin roast 280 24 21 0
Beef steak stewing stewed 220 30 11 0
Beef topside roast 200 27 12 0
Beer bitter 30 0 0 2
Beer larger 30 0 0 1.5
Beer stout 40 0 0 4
Beetroot boiled 45 1.8 0 10
Beetroot raw 30 1.3 0 6
Bilberries 60 0.5 0 14
Biscuit - Custard Cream 483 6 23.8 65
Biscuit - mini cheddars 529 9.8 29.1 54.2
Biscuits - morning coffee 444 6.9 14.5 75.4
Biscuits - Rich Tea 440 6.9 15.7 71.5
Biscuits Chocolate covered 520 6 27 67
Biscuits digestive chocolate 490 7 24 66
Biscuits digestive plain 477 6.5 22 67
Biscuits semi sweet 460 7 17 75
Biscuits shortbread 500 6 26 65.5
Biscuits wafers filled 540 5 30 66
Biscuits water 440 11 12.5 76
Black currents 30 1 0 7
Black pudding fried 300 13 22 15
Blackberries 30 1.5 0 6
Bran Flakes 329 9.3 2 71.5
Bran wheat 200 14 5.5 27
Brazil Nuts 600 12 60 4
Bread brown 220 9 2.2 45
Bread malt 250 8 3 49
Bread rolls white 300 10 7 54
Bread white 235 7.8 1.6 46.2
Bread white toasted 300 9.6 1.7 65
Bread wholemeal 220 8.8 2.7 42
Breadcrumbs white 350 12 2 77
Broccoli tops boiled 20 3 0 1.6
Brussels sprouts boiled 20 3 0 1.7
Buns current 300 7 8 55
Butter 750 0.5 82 0

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Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)
Cabbage savoy boiled 10 1.3 0 1
Cabbage savoy raw 25 3 0 3
Cabbage spring boiled 8 1 0 1
Cabbage winter boiled 15 1.7 0 2.3
Cake fruit 330 4 11 58
Cake Madeira 400 5 17 58
Cake rock 400 5 16 60
Cake sponge with fat 460 6.5 27 53
Cake sponge without fat 300 10 7 54
Cakes fancy 400 4 15 69
Carrots boiled 20 0.6 0 4
Carrots raw 25 0.7 0 5
Cauliflower boiled 10 1.5 0 0.8
Cauliflower cheese 116 6 8 5
Celery boiled 5 0.6 0 0.7
Celery raw 10 1 0 1.3
Cheese camembert 300 23 23 0
Cheese cheddar 400 26 34 0
Cheese cottage 66.5 14 0.5 1.5
Cheese cream 440 3 47 0
Cheese danish blue 360 23 29 0
Cheese edam 300 24 23 0
Cheese pamesan 400 35 30 0
Cheese processed 300 22 25 0
Cherries 40 0.5 0 10
Cherries glace 224 0 0 56
Cheese stilton 460 26 40 0
Chestnuts 170 2 2.7 37
Chicken Kiev 328 24.4 21.6 10
Chicken roast boned 150 25 5 0
Chicken roast meat 159 22 7.5 0
Chicory 10 0.8 0 1.5
Chocolate Break (mug of) 107 3.1 2.4 19.4
Chocolate milk 530 8 30 59
Chocolate plain 530 5 29 65
Christmas Pudding 300 5 12 48
Cider dry 35 0 0 3
Cider sweet 40 0 0 4
Cockles boiled 50 11 0.3 0
Cocoa powder 300 19 22 12
Coconut 350 3 36 4
Coconut desiccated 600 6 62 6
Cod fillet baked 100 21 1.2 0
Cod fillet fried 170 21 8 4
Cod fillet fried in batter 200 20 10 8
Cod fillet grilled 100 21 1.3 0

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Cod fillet poached 90 21 1 0
Cod fillet steamed 80 19 1 0
Coffee instant 155 4 0.7 35.5
Coffee instant & milk 36.96 3.27 0.12 6.14
Coke diet 0.48 0 0 0.12
Cola 48.8 0 0 12.2
Coleslaw 163 1.1 14.8 6.7
Cornflakes 350 8 0.5 82
Cornflour 350 0.6 0.7 92
Cornish pastie 330 8 20 31
Crab boiled 130 20 5 0
Crab canned 80 18 1 0
Cracker Bread 375 10.9 4.1 73.7
Cranberries 18 0.5 0 4
Cream crackers - Crawford 390 7.7 12.8 64.9
Cream double 450 1.5 48 2
Cream single 200 2.4 21.2 3
Cream sterilised canned 230 2.6 23 3
Cream whipping 330 1.9 35 2.5
Crispbread rye 320 9.5 2 71
Crispbread wheat 390 45 7.5 37
Croissant 230 4.3 12.2 27.3
Cucumber 10 0.6 0 2
Currents dried 240 2 0 63
Custard egg 120 6 6 11
Custard powder 120 4 4 17

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Damsons 35 0.4 0 9
Dates dried 210 2 0 55
Drinking chocolate 370 6 6 77
Dripping 900 0 100 0
Duck roast 190 25 10 0
Dumpling 200 3 12 25

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Egg dried whole 560 43.6 43.3 0
Egg scrambled 250 10 23 0
Egg whole raw 150 12.3 10.9 0
Egg yolk 340 16.1 30.5 0
Eggwhite 35 9 0 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

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Fat cooking 900 0 100 0
Fish fingers fried 230 13.5 13 17
Flour brown 330 13 2 69
Flour white 340 11 1.2 75
Flour white self raising 340 9 1.2 77.5
Flour wholemeal 320 13 2 66
Fruit gums 170 1 0 45
Fruit juice sweetened 40 0 0 10
Fruit juice unsweetened 30 0 0 8
Fruit pie 370 4 16 56
Fruit salad canned 101.2 0.3 0 25

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Goose roast meat 320 29 22 0
Gooseberries 16 1 0 3
Grape nuts cereal 360 11 3 76
Grapefruit - Tin 36 0.3 0 9
Grapefruit peeled 20 0.5 0 5
Grapes black 50 0.5 0 13
Grapes white 60 0.6 0 15
Green Bean Mix 25.71 1.21 0.53 4.18
Greengages 50 1 0 11

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Haggis boiled 300 11 22 19
Halibut steamed 130 24 4 0
Ham 120 18 5 0
Ham cooked 269 24.7 18.9 0
Hamburgers fried 260 20 17 7
Hare stewed with bones 140 22 6 0
Heart roast 240 26 15 0
Heart stewed 180 31 6 0
Herring grilled 200 20 13 0
Honey 290 0 0 76

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Ice cream dairy 170 4 7 25
Ice cream non dairy 170 3 8 21

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Jams 260 0.5 0 60

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Jelly packet 58 1 0 14

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Kidney fried 150 25 6 0
Kidney stewed 170 26 8 0
Kipper baked 200 26 11 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Lamb breast roast 400 19 37 0
Lamb chops loin grilled 350 24 29 0
Lamb cutlets grilled 370 23 31 0
Lamb leg roast 270 26 18 0
Lamb scrag and neck stewed 290 26 21 0
Lamb shoulder roast 320 20 26 0
Lard 900 0 100 0
Leeks boiled 25 1.8 0 5
Lemon curd 280 0 5 63
Lemon juice 7.2 0.3 0 1.5
Lemon sole fried in breadcrumb 200 16 13 9
Lemon sole steamed 90 21 1 0
Lemonade bottled 24 0 0 6
Lemons 15 1 0 3
Lentils boiled 100 8 0.5 17
Lettuce 8 1 0 1
Liver fried 250 27 13 7
Liver stewed 200 25 10 3
Lobster boiled 120 22 3.5 0
Luncheon meat 300 13 27 5

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Macaroni boiled 120 4 0.6 25
Macaroni cheese - Tin 97 3.6 4.8 10.5
Mackerel fried 190 22 11 0
Mandarin Oranges - can 57 0.6 0 14.7
Mango Chutney 230 0.5 0.4 59.8
Mangoes 60 0.5 0 15
Mararoni cheese 170 7 10 15
Margarine 730 0 81 0
Margarine low fat spread 370 0 40 0
Marmalade 260 0 0 69
Marrow boiled 7 0.4 0 1.4
Mars bar 440 5 19 67
Marzipan 440 9 25 49

88
 Mayonnaise 720 2 79 0
Melon 22 0.5 0 5
Milk 65 3.3 3.8 4.7
Milk condensed skimmed 270 9.9 0.3 60
Milk condensed whole sweetened 320 8.3 9 55.5
Milk evaporated whole 160 8.6 9 11.3
Milk skimmed 33 3.4 0.1 5
Mince and Spaghetti 92.34 8.79 4.04 5.33
Mincemeat 284 0 4 62
Muesli 370 13 7.5 66
Mushrooms fried 210 2.2 22 0
Mushrooms raw 13.4 2 0.6 0
Mustard and cress 10 1.5 0 1

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Nectarines 50 1 0 11

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Oil vegetable 900 0 100 0
Omelette 200 11 16 0
Onions fried 350 2 33 10
Onions raw 25 1 0 5
Onions spring 35 1 0 8.5
Orange juice 40 0.6 0 9
Orange peeled 40 1 0 9
Oxo cube 16 1.5 0.3 1.8

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Pancakes 300 6 16 36
Parsnips - boiled 60 1.3 0 13.5
Pasta 365 13.2 2 77
Pastry flaky cooked 560 6 40 47
Pastry Puff 385 5.4 25 37
Pastry shortcrust cooked 530 7 32 56
Peach Slices - tin 49 0.5 0 12.3
Peaches canned 49 0.5 0 12.3
Peaches fresh 34 0.5 0 8
Peanuts fresh 570 24 50 9
Peanuts roasted and salted 570 24 50 9
Pears 30 0.2 0 8
Peas boiled 41 5.4 0.4 4.3
Peas canned 50 5 0.3 7
Peppers green raw 15 1 0.4 2

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Philadelphia cheese - light 196 12 15 4
Pickle Branston 150 0.7 0.2 34.5
Pilchards canned 130 19 5 0.7
Pineapple canned 63 0.4 0.2 16
Pineapple fresh 50 0.5 0 12
Plaice fried in butter 280 16 18 14
Plaice steamed 90 19 2 0
Plums cooking 26 0.5 0 6
Plums dessert 40 0.5 0 10
Popcorn 415 1.6 12.8 78.2
Pork chops grilled 330 29 24 0
Pork leg roast 290 27 20 0
Porridge Oats with Bran 332 10.6 6.7 60
Potato chips 250 4 11 37
Potato crisps 526 7.3 35.2 48.4
Potatoes baked with skin 85 2 0 20
Potatoes boiled - King Edwards 82 1.4 0.1 19.7
Prawns 100 23 2 0
Prunes - Tin 88 1 0 22
Prunes stewed 84 1 0 20
Puffed wheat cereal 325 14 1.3 68.5

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Quiche Lorraine 400 15 28 20

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Rabbit stewed 90 14 4 0
Radish 15 1 0 3
Raisins 250 1 0 65
Raspberries 28 1 0 6
Red Currents 20 1 0 4
Rhubarb raw 6 0.5 0 1
Rhubarb stewed with sugar 45 0.5 0 10
Rice Brown Boiled 182 3.4 1.4 40.7
Rice Krispies cereal 350 6 0.7 88
Rice pudding canned 72 3.7 1.2 12.4
Rice white boiled 119 2.6 0.1 28
Rice white raw 360 6.5 1 87

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Salad Cream 300 2 27 15
Salad Cream Weight Watchers 145 1.2 8.2 17.4
Salmon steamed 200 20 13 0

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Sardines canned in oil 220 24 14 0
Sardines canned tomato sauce 180 18 12 0.5
Satsumas peeled 35 1 0 8
Sauce brown 100 1 0 25
Sausages beef grilled 270 13 17 15
Sausages pork grilled 320 13 25 12
Sausage - Herta 335 12 31 2
Scampi fried in breadcrumbs 320 12 18 29
Scones 370 7.5 15 56
Sherry dry 115 0 0 1.4
Sherry sweet 140 0 0 7
Shredded wheat cereal 320 10.5 3 68
Sorbet Blackcurrent 118 0.3 0 30.7
Spaghetti boiled 120 4 0.3 26
Spaghetti canned tomato sauce 51 1.7 0.2 10.5
Spaghetti tin, weight watchers 51 1.7 0.2 10.5
Spirits - whisky,Gin etc 220 0 0 0
Sponge pudding 340 6 16 46
Spring greens boiled 10 1.7 0 1
Squash undiluted 122 0.1 0.1 32.2
Squash Undiluted - sugar free 5 0.1 0 1.2
Steak stewed canned 180 15 13 1
Strawberries fresh 25 0.5 0 6
Sugar 390 0 0 100
Sugar puffs cereal 350 6 0.8 84
Sultanas 250 2 0 65
Swede boiled 20 1 0 4
Sweetcorn 124 4.1 2.3 22.8
Sweets boiled 330 0 0 87

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Tangerines peeled 36 1 0 8
Toffees 430 2 17 71
Tomato juice 12 0 0 3
Tomato Ketchup 97 1 0 24.9
Tomato Puree 89 5.6 0.4 16.4
Tomatoes canned 23 1 0 5
Tomatoes raw 15 1 0 3
Trout steamed 140 24 4.5 0
Tuna canned in oil 100 25 0.1 0
Turkey roast 140 29 3 0
Turnips boiled 10.8 0.7 0 2

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Veal fillet roast 230 32 12 0

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 Venison roast 200 35 6 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Walnuts 530 11 52 5
Watercress 14 3 0 0.7
Weetabix cereal 340 11.5 3.5 70
Wine red 70 0 0 0
Wine white dry 65 0 0 0.6
Wine white sweet 10 0 0 6

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Yoghurt flavored - low fat 41.6 4.6 0.1 5.5
Yoghurt natural 55 5.9 1.2 5.6
Yorkshire puddings 222 7 10 26

Suggested Teaching /Learning Activities

- Textbooks
- Food lab
- internet

Evaluation
1. Define the following terms
2. State the importance of food science and nutrition
3. Explain the components of a balanced diet
4. Interpret the food composition tables.

7.1.29 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state properties of acids, bases and salts
c) explain the use of the pH scale and classify foods
- alkaline foods
- acidic foods
- neutral foods

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1: DEFINING OF TERMS

Ph:
1.is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It approximates but is not equal to p[H], the negative
logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+). Crudely, this matches the

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number of places behind the decimal point, so for example 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and
0.0001 molar HCl should be near pH 4.
Pure water itself is a weak acid, dissociating to produce a pH of 7, or 0.0000001 M H+. For an aqueous solution
to have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away many of these rare hydrogen ions.
Hydrogen ions in water can be written simply as H+ or as hydronium (H3O+) or higher species (e.g. H9O4+) to
account for solvation, but all describe the same entity.
2. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is
neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
3. A measure of acidity or alkalinity.
Acids
1. Any of a class of substances whose aqueous solutions are characterized by a sour taste, the ability to
turn blue litmus red, and the ability to react with bases and certain metals to form salts.
2. A substance that yields hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
3. A substance that can act as a proton donor.
4. A substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.
5. A substance having a sour taste.

Acids taste sour, are corrosive to metals, change litmus (a dye extracted from lichens) red, and become
less acidic when mixed with bases.

Bases

A base is a chemical species that donates electrons or hydroxide ions or that accepts protons.

Base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept hydrogen ions. Bases are also
the oxides or hydroxides of metals. A soluble base is also often referred to as an alkali if hydroxide ions
(OH−) are involved.

Salts

1. A colorless or white crystalline solid, chiefly sodium chloride, used extensively in ground or granulated form
as a food seasoning and preservative. Also called common salt, table salt.
2. A chemical compound formed by replacing all or part of the hydrogen ions of an acid with metal ions or
electropositive radicals.
3. salts Any of various mineral salts used as laxatives or cathartics

4. The chloride of sodium, a substance used for seasoning food, for the preservation of meat, etc. It is found
native in the earth, and is also produced, by evaporation and crystallization, from sea water and other water
impregnated with saline particles.

A salt is an ionic compound which when dissolved in water yields a positive ion other than hydrogen ion (H )
and a negative ion other than hydroxyl ion (OH-).

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TASK 2: STATING PROPERTIES OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Properties of Acids and Bases

 ACIDS

1. Taste sour
2. Reach with certain metals (Zn, Fe, etc.) to produce hydrogen gas
3. cause certain organic dyes to change color
4. react with limestone (CaCO3) to produce carbon dioxide
5. React with bases to form salts and water

 BASES

1. Taste bitter
2. feel slippery or soapy
3. react with oils and grease
4. cause certain organic dyes to change color
5. react with acids to form salts and water

Properties of Salts

1) Hydrolysis

This is a reaction in which a salt reacts with water to form a solution which is either acidic or basic in nature.

a) Salt of weak alkali and strong acid

NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + HCl

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(Slightly acidic)

b) Salt of strong alkali and weak acid

K2CO3 + H2O 2KOH + H2CO3

(Slightly basic)

c) Strong alkali and strong acid

NaCl + H2O Not hydrolyse

(neutral)

2) Efflorescence

The property of hydrated crystals to loose water of crystallization is called efflorescence.

e.g. Washing soda ( Na2CO3 . 10 H2O )

Glauber’s salt ( Na2SO4 . 10 H2O )

Epson salt ( MgSO4 . 7 H2O )

3) Deliquescence

Certain salts when exposed to atmosphere, absorb moisture, becomes moist and ultimately dissolve in absorbed
water forming a saturated solution.
e.g. CaCl2.6H2O, FeCl3, NaOH
4) Hygroscopy
When a salt exposed to atmosphere, absorbs moisture without dissolving in it, this property is called
Hygroscopy.
e.g. Anhydrous CaCl2, Silica gel, CaO

TASK 3: EXPLAINING THE USE OF THE PH SCALE AND CLASSIFY FOODS

- alkaline foods
- acidic foods
- neutral foods

Why is pH so Important!
A functional definition of pH is the measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution commonly measured
on a scale of 0 to 14. pH 7 is considered neutral, with lower pH values being acidic and higher values being
alkaline or caustic. pH is the most common of all analytical measurements in industrial processing and since it is
a direct measure of acid content [H+], it clearly plays an important role in food processing. Among the reasons
for measuring pH in food processing include:

1. To produce products with consistent well defined properties

2. To efficiently produce products at optimal cost
3. 4. To avoid causing health problems to consumers
5. To meet regulatory requirements

6. For reaction in aqueous solutions, reaction rates will typically depend on pH. For example, practically all
enzymatic reactions have maximum value at optimal pH. This is important for for biological functioning.

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7. The electrical charge of most biological molecules will depend on pH due to pH influence on the ionization of
weak bases and week acids which are components of those molecules.

In general leafy, dark green vegetables are alkaline. Eat these to your heart's content - they'll fill you up, there's
hardly any calories in them and they're amazingly alkalizing - raw form is best. These include foods such as
spinach, kale, cucumber (ok, not 'leafy' but still dark green on the outside :-) ), watercress, lettuce, cabbage,
green beans, broccoli. The deep green pigment is due to 'chlorophyll' in the plant - which is pure alkaline
sunlight goodness and amazingly nutritious.

2. Cold pressed omega 3 oils such as olive oil, flax seed oil, starflower oil, sesame seed oil and even (virgin)
coconut oil are very alkaline. Do not fry or heat your oil, as this acidifies it and in some cases hydrogenates it,
which is very harmful. So cold omega 3 oils, which can be used in salads etc are good.

3. Anything sweet is generally out. Sugar is one of the most acidic foods to your body, so obviously things such
as cakes, chocolate, sweets and fizzy drink s are a no-no if you're on an alkaline diet. When it comes to fruit, I'm
afraid most fruits are acidic. Grapefruits, lemons, limes and avocadoes are the only fruits (aside from tomatoes)
that are truly alkaline. Some others are debatably mildly alkaline or neutral - perhaps watermelon or blueberries.
It depends on how rigid you want to be with your alkaline diet.

4. Processed foods are acidic. Now this comes down to common sense. If you think of acidic foods as being
harmful to your body, then it stands to reason that things such as takeaways, chips, burgers, microwave meals,
reconstituted meats and dried packet foods are acidic doesn't it? We are all aware that these foods are bad for
our health if eaten frequently, however in our culture, this kind of diet is sadly becoming the norm. Following an
alkaline diet means a shift to healthier eating.

5. Meat and dairy are acidic. It's as simple as that really - meat and dairy products are highly acidic to you your
body so must be limited heavily or eliminated altogether if you're going to go alkaline.

Healthy Alkaline Foods Foods you should only Unhealthy Acidic Foods
- Eat lots of them! consume moderately - Try to avoid them!

Vegetables Fruits Meat, Poultry, And Fish

Alfalfa Grass +29.3 (In Season, For Cleansing Only Beef -34.5
Asparagus +1.3 Or With Moderation) Chicken (to -22) -18.0
Barley Grass +28.1 Apricot -9.5 Eggs (to -22)
Brussels Sprouts +0.5 Bananna, Ripe -10.1 Liver -3.0
Cabbage Lettuce, Fresh +14.1 Bananna, Unripe +4.8 Ocean Fish -20.0
Cauliflower +3.1 Black Currant -6.1 Organ Meats -3.0
Cayenne Pepper +18.8 Blueberry -5.3 Oysters -5.0
Celery +13.3 Cantaloupe -2.5 Pork -38.0
Chives +8.3 Cherry, Sour +3.5 Veal -35.0
Comfrey +1.5 Cherry, Sweet -3.6
Cucumber, Fresh +31.5 Coconut, Fresh +0.5
Dandelion +22.7 Cranberry -7.0
Dog Grass +22.6 Currant -8.2
Milk And Milk Products
Endive, Fresh +14.5 Date -4.7 Buttermilk +1.3
French Cut Green Beans +11.2 Fig Juice Powder -2.4 Cream -3.9
Garlic +13.2 Gooseberry, Ripe -7.7
Hard Cheese -18.1
Green Cabbage December Grape, Ripe -7.6 Homogenized Milk -1.0
Harvest +4.0 Grapefruit -1.7
Quark -17.3
Green Cabbage, March Harvest Italian Plum -4.9
+2.0 Mandarin Orange -11.5

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Kamut Grass +27.6 Mango -8.7
Lamb's Lettuce +4.8 Orange -9.2
Leeks (Bulbs) +7.2 Papaya -9.4 Bread, Biscuits (Stored
Lettuce +2.2 Peach -9.7 Grains/Risen Dough)
Onion +3.0 Pear -9.9 Rye Bread -2.5
Peas, Fresh +5.1 Pineapple -12.6 White Biscuit -6.5
Peas, Ripe +0.5 Rasberry -5.1 White Bread -10.0
Red Cabbage +6.3 Red Currant -2.4 Whole-Grain Bread -4.5
Rhubarb Stalks +6.3 Rose Hips -15.5 Whole-Meal Bread -6.5
Savoy Cabbage +4.5 Strawberry -5.4
Shave Grass +21.7 Tangerine -8.5
Sorrel +11.5 Watermelon -1.0
Soy Sprouts +29.5 Yellow Plum -4.9
Spinach (Other Than March) Nuts
+13.1 Cashews -9.3
Spinach, March Harvest +8.0 Peanuts -12.8
Sprouted Chia Seeds +28.5 Pistachios -16.6
Non-Stored Grains
Sprouted Radish Seeds +28.4
Brown Rice -12.5
Straw Grass +21.4
Wheat -10.1
Watercress +7.7
Wheat Grass +33.8 Fats
White Cabbage +3.3 Butter -3.9
Zucchini +5.7 Corn Oil -6.5
Nuts Margarine -7.5
Root Vegetables Hazelnuts -2.0
Beet +11.3 Macadamia Nuts -3.2
Carrot +9.5 Walnuts -8.0
Horseradish +6.8 Sweets
Kohlrabi +5.1 Artificial Sweetners -26.5
Potatoes +2.0 Barley Malt Syrup -9.3
Red Radish +16.7 Fish Beet Sugar -15.1
Rutabaga +3.1 Fresh Water Fish -11.8 Brown Rice Syrup -8.7
Summer Black Radish +39.4 Chocolate -24.6
Turnip +8.0 Dr. Bronner's Barley
White Radish (Spring) +3.1 Dried Sugar Cane Juice -18.0
Fats Fructose -9.5
Fruits Coconut Milk -1.5 Honey -7.6
Avocado (Protein) +15.6 Sunflower Oil -6.7 Malt Sweetner -9.8
Fresh Lemon +9.9 Milk Sugar -9.4
Limes +8.2 Molasses -14.6
Tomato +13.6 Turbinado Sugar -9.5
White Sugar -17.6
Non-Stored Organic Grains
And Legumes Condiments
Buckwheat Groats +0.5 Ketchup -12.4
Granulated Soy (Cooked Mayonaise -12.5
Ground Soy Beans) +12.8 Mustard -19.2
Lentils +0.6 Soy Sauce -36.2
Lima Beans +12.0 Vinegar -39.4
Soy Flour +2.5
Soy Lecithin (Pure) +38.0
Soy Nuts (soaked Soy Beans,
Then Air Dried) +26.5
Beverages
Soybeans, Fresh +12.0
Beer -26.8
Spelt +0.5
Coffee -25.1
Tofu +3.2
Fruit Juice Sweetened With
White Beans (Navy Beans)
Fruit Juice, Packaged, Natural

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 +12.1 -8.7
Liquor -38.7
Nuts Tea (Black) -27.1
Almonds +3.6 White Sugar -33.6
Brazil Nuts +0.5 Wine -16.4

Seeds
Caraway Seeds +2.3
Cumin Seeds +1.1 Miscellaneous
Fennel Seeds +1.3 Canned Foods
Flax Seeds +1.3 Microwaved Foods
Pumpkin Seeds +5.6 Processed Foods
Sesame Seeds +0.5
Sunflower Seeds +5.4
Wheat Kernel +11.4

Fats (Fresh, Cold-Pressed

Oils)
Borage Oil +3.2
Evening Primrose Oil +4.1
Flax Seed Oil +3.5
Marine Lipids +4.7
Olive Oil +1.0

Table: pH scale of alkaline and acid forming foods

Source: "Back To The House Of Health" by Shelley Redford Young)

The more alkaline-forming foods you add to your nutrition, the stronger will be the results. Should you not be
able to completely avoid acidic foods, you should at least try to consume as less as possible of them, and instead
put more green food and veggies on your plate. Remember that every little step to a more alkaline diet is an
improvement to a healthier way of life.

Moreover, you can add green plants nutritional supplements to your diet, which can support you in attaining
pH balance in a natural way. Such supplements were developed by Dr. Young, a microbiologist and
nutritionist. Over many years he has researched the interrelations between acid wastes inside the body and the
development of unhealthy conditions and disease.

His assignment is not only to promote a stronger awareness among people for a proper acid alkaline balance
within the body, he has also developed the InnerLight products to support the body to naturally decrease its
acid levels by alkalizing the cell system. Two of his cornerstone products are called SuperGreens and Prime pH.

Neutral Foods

Neutral foods are foods that have neither an acid nor alkaline ash. The have a pH of 7, or close to it.

The following foods as neutral foods:

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  Butter
 Margarine
 Cooking fats
 Oils
 Plain candies
 Sugar
 Syrup
 Honey
 Arrowroot
 Corn
 Tapioca
 Coffee
 Tea

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- food lab
- internet
- food commodities
- acids
- bases
- water pH scale
- litmus paper

EVALUATION
1)define the following terms:-
a) Acids
b) Bases
c) Salts
d) pH
2) state properties of acids, bases and salts
3) explain the use of the pH scale and classify foods

7.1.30: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF

NUTRIENTS
Specific objectives:-
1. List types of nutrients and other useful components in food
2. Identify chemical components of macro nutrients
3. Outline the properties of nutrients
4. Explain the functions of nutrients and other food components
5. Explain the physical and chemical changes in nutrients during production procedures
Task 1: Listing types of nutrients and other useful
components in food
Nutrients can be classified in different ways:-
Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and vitamins.
Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients.
A nutrient is essential to an organism if it cannot be synthesized by the organism in sufficient quantities and
must be obtained from an external source. Nutrients needed in large quantities are called macronutrients;
micronutrients are required in only small quantities.

The following are the basic components of food:-

Carbohydrates
The body's principal source of energy. All sugars and starches that we consume are carbohydrates. Examples
include table sugar, whole grains, pasta, fruit, popcorn etc. Carbohydrates can be classified into two types,
simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are sugars and complex carbohydrates are primarily starches.

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Carbohydrates are transformed by the body into one substance, glucose. Glucose is a form of sugar that is
carried in the blood and transported to the cells for energy. Any glucose not used by the cells is converted into
glycogen that is stored in the muscles and liver. The body's glycogen storage capacity is limited, so any unused
glucose is converted to fat.
Fiber
Fiber is not a single substance. It is a group of different compounds that have a varied effect in the body. All
types of fiber are parts of plants that can't be digested. There are two categories of fiber, those that are soluble in
water and those that are not soluble in water.
An advantage of fiber is if you eat foods with high fiber, then you will have less room for high calorie and fat
foods. Fiber also has many health benefits. Foods that are rich in fiber also tend to be high in anti-oxidants and
other substances that may protect against a variety of cancers.
Protein
Protein is the basic material of life. It makes up 3/4's of our body tissue. Without dietary protein, all body
functions would not take place. Proteins can be broken into complete and incomplete proteins. Complete
proteins supply a sufficient amount of the nine essential amino acids.
Adequate amounts of protein are necessary to build muscles. Eating a normal, balanced diet should give you
adequate amounts of protein.
Fats
Fats are essential for the proper functioning of the body. We need to consume some fats to remain healthy. Fats
supply necessary fatty acids that the body can only get from foods. Fats also serve as the storage substance for
the body's excess calories. When the body has depleted its carbohydrate stores, it draws on fat. Additional
benefits of fats include maintaining healthy skin and hair, regulating blood cholesterol levels, and giving you the
sensation of feeling full.
There are saturated fats, unsaturated fats and trans fats. The majority of our fat intake should come from the
unsaturated fats.
Vitamins
Without vitamins, we could not exist. They affect all functions in the body and help regulate them. Most
vitamins must be obtained from food. We need 13 vitamins: A, C, D, E, K, B (8 different B Vitamins).
Vitamins are either water-soluble (B + C) or fat-soluble (A,D,E,K)
Each vitamin carries out specific functions. If your diet is lacking in a certain vitamin, you may develop a
deficiency disease.
Minerals

Mineral Chemical element (as opposed to organic compound, as in the case of vitamins) necessary for
the health and maintenance of bodily functions.

Macro Definitions vary slightly from one source to another, but common definitions of Macro
Mineral Minerals include:

1. Minerals found in a typical adult human body in quantities greater than 5g.

2. Minerals required by a typical adult human body in quantities greater than 100mg per
day.

Micro Definitions vary slightly from one source to another, but common definitions of Micro
Mineral Minerals include:

1. Minerals found in a typical adult human body in quantities less than 5g.

2. Minerals required by a typical adult human body in quantities of 1mg-100mg per day.

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Trace Element Chemical element (as opposed to organic compound, as in the case of vitamins) required in
minute concentrations for normal bodily development and growth.
There is some overlap between the classification of elements as "Micro Minerals" and "Trace
Elements"; different textbooks favouring one or other category for elements such as copper,
manganese, zinc and others.
In the case of "Trace Elements", `of the two definitions stated above, No.2 (relating to the
typical daily requirement) may be the most helpful because according to this definition Trace
Elements are described as "Minerals required by a typical human body in quantities of less
than 1mg per day".
Examples of Trace Elements include:
Flourine; Iodine; Cobalt; Molybdenum; Silicon, and others.

Minerals act as nutrients and are essential to many processes in the body, including the functioning of the heart
and digestive system and bone formation. Some key minerals we need include Boron, Calcium, Chloride,
Chromium, Copper, Iron, Fluoride, Iodine, Magnesium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Phosphorus, Potassium,
Selenium, Sodium and Zinc. These are also needed in small amounts but are important for our body's basic
growth & structure. There are some 50 minerals in our body serving important functions like formation of bones
& teeth, formation of blood, hair growth, nail growth, skin integrity etc. Food sources include - egg, meat, milk,
cheese, nuts, vegetables, beans, banana, orange, melons, salt etc.
Water
Water is essential to human life. Half of our weight is water. The body loses and needs to replace water every
day. The typical suggestion is 8 glasses of liquid every day.

Task 2: Identifying chemical components of macro

nutrients
Macro nutrients
Macro nutrients constitute the bulk of the food we eat, they provide energy and chemical building-blocks for
tissues.
CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF MACRONUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates serve as the main energy source for the human body. Chemically, carbohydrates are organic
molecules in which carbon, hydrogen and oxygen bond together in the ratio: C x(H2O)y where x and y are some
whole numbers. Animals break down carbohydrates during metabolism to release energy. This reaction is
shown below for the carbohydrate glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
Animals obtain carbohydrates by eating food that contains them, such as plant material. Plants manufacture
carbohydrates by harvesting energy from sunlight to run the above reaction in reverse, as shown below:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight) C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbohydrates come in 2 types: the simple sugars and the complex carbohydrates.

 Simple Sugars: Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken down quickly in the body to release
energy (as shown in the reaction at top). The basic unit in a carbohydrate is the sugar, or saccharide,
unit. The simplest sugars are the monosaccharides, these are sugars that are composed of a single
saccharide molecule. Three of the most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose and galactose.
Fructose is the main sugar found in many fruits. The structure of these monosaccharides are shown
below:

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 glucose fructose galactose
As you can see, all three monosaccharides are similar, differing in structure only in the position of the
=O group or in the orientation of an -OH group. These structural differences are an important feature
of the monosaccarides. In water, the monosaccharides shown above actually link to themselves to form
a ring structure. Disaccharides are also simple sugars that taste sweet and are easily broken down to
release energy in the body. Disaccharides are formed when 2 monosaccharides molecules bond
together. A water molecule is eliminated when this reaction takes place. Two of the most common
disaccharides are sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, and lactose, or milk sugar. Sucrose is a
disaccharide consisting of 1 glucose molecule linked to one fructose molecule. Lactose consists of a
glucose molecule bonded to a galactose molecule.

 Complex Carbohydrates: The complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple sugars. A polymer
(simply translated as 'many parts') is a molecule that consists of repeating units of a smaller molecule.
For example, a chain can be thought of as a polymer of the links in the chain. The complex
carbohydrates are molecules in which many mono-, or di-, saccharides bond together in a chain. The
three most common complex carbohydrates are: starch, glycogen and cellulose:
o Starch is a straight chain polymer of glucose. Plants manufacture starch by bonding many
glucose molecules end-to-end as a means of storing energy for future use. Animals can digest
starch easily by breaking it down into glucose and using the sugar as an energy source. Some
common sources of starch are potatoes, bread (made from grains), beans, corn, etc.
o Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose. But rather than a straight chain of glucose units,
glycogen is a more highly branched chain of glucose molecules. Glycogen is the main energy
reserve in animals. When excess glucose is eaten by an animal, this glucose is bonded
together to form glycogen molecules which the animal stores in the liver and muscle tissue as
an "instant" source of energy.
o Cellulose is yet a third polymer of the monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose differs from starch
and glycogen because the glucose-to-glucose bonds in cellulose are different and are much
more difficult to break apart. Most animals (with the exception of cockroaches, cows and
some other creatures) cannot digest cellulose. Since plants do not have bones to provide
support for the plant, cellulose is used as a structural molecule to support leaves and other
plant parts. Despite the fact that it cannot be used as an energy source in most animals,
cellulose in the diet is often referred to as dietary fiber. Fiber helps exercise the digestive
track and keep it clean and healthy.

Fats
Fats are a sub-group of compounds found in living organisms that are insoluble in water known as lipids.
Fats are triglycerides, molecules made from the reaction of one molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids, as
depicted in the reaction below:

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Fats serve several nutritional purposes. First, fats can be used as a reserve, or long-term, source of energy in
animals. During periods of low food consumption, fat reserves in the body can be mobilized and broken down
to release energy. Fats serve as an insulation material to allow body heat to be conserved and also lining and
protecting delicate internal organs from physical damage. In addition, fats are essential to the proper
maintenance of cell membranes in the body and are used in the production of certain hormones and steroids.
Fats can be classified as either saturated or unsaturated depending on the number of carbon-carbon double
bonds in the Fatty Acid chains of the molecule. Fats that contain no or few double bonds are referred to as
saturated fats. These fats tend to be solid at room temperature, such as butter or lard. The consumption of
saturated fats carries some health risks in that they have been linked to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the
arteries) and heart disease. Unsaturated fats contain more double bonds in their structure. These fats are
generally liquids at room temperature (fats that are liquid at room temperature are referred to as oils).
Monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil and canola oil, appear to be particularly beneficial in the fight against
heart disease.
Proteins
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. While there are hundreds of thousands of different proteins that
exist in nature, they are all made up of different combinations of just 20 amino acids. Proteins are large
molecules that may consist of hundreds, or even thousands of amino acids. The 20 amino acids found in nature
all have the general structure:

Where the R group at bottom varies depending on the specific amino acid in question. This R group can be
simply an H atom, as in the amino acid glycine, or a more complex organic structure. When 2 amino acids bond
together, the OH group highlighted in red above is released from one amino acid, and the H atom highlighted in
red is released from a second amino acid. The nitrogen from the second amino acid then bonds to the carbon
from the first to create a peptide bond, as illustrated below (the peptide bond is highlighted in red).

A Peptide Bond
In proteins, many peptide bonds form between many amino acids to create long chains (thus proteins are also
called polypeptides because they contain many peptide bonds).
Proteins serve many purposes in the body. Structural proteins such as keratin and collagen are the main
ingredients in your hair, muscles, tendons and skin and help give structure to the body. In addition to adding

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structure, other proteins perform a wide range of functions in the human body. Amylase is a protein that helps
your body digest starch, the protein hemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood stream,
insulin helps regulate the storage of glucose in the body and the list goes on and on. There are an estimated
100,000 different proteins in the human body alone. Each has a different structure and performs a different
function in the body.
Because proteins perform such specific tasks in the body, each protein has to be manufactured in the body
to suit the individual's specific needs. When an animal eats protein, that protein is broken down in the digestive
tract into its individual amino acids. These amino acids are then recombined in the body in the specific
sequence needed to form whichever protein the animal needs at that point in time. Thus protein in food is just a
source of amino acids. Some good food sources of protein include beans, milk and cheese, fish and meats.
General Nutrition
In addition to the macronutrients described above, there are many micronutrients (substances needed in
small amounts) essential to healthy living. These micronutrients include the vitamins and minerals. A healthy
diet includes the proper ratio of macronutrients along with the essential quantities of micronutrients. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture has put together a Food Pyramid to help educate the public on a proper diet.

The food groups at the bottom of the pyramid, including the grains and cereals, should make up the largest
portion of an individual's diet. Those groups at the top of the pyramid, including the fats and oils, should make
up
the smallest portion of the diet.

Task 3: Outlining the properties of nutrients

Task 4: Explaining the functions of nutrients and other
food components
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
Functions of Protein
Protein has a range of essential functions in the body, including the following:

 Required for building and repair of body tissues (including muscle)

 Enzymes, hormones, and many immune molecules are proteins
 Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle contractions require
protein to function.
 Protein is a source of energy.
 Protein helps keep skin, hair, and nails healthy.
 Protein, like most other essential nutrients, is absolutely crucial for overall good health.

Proteins are, in effect, the main ‘actioners’ in cells and in an entire organism. Without proteins the most basic
functions of life could not be carried out. Respiration, for example, requires muscle contractions, and muscle
contractions require proteins.
Proteins as Enzymes
The function of proteins as enzymes is perhaps their best-known function. Enzymes are catalysts—they initiate
a reaction between themselves and another protein, working on the molecule to change it in some way.

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The enzyme, however, is itself unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Enzymes are responsible for catalyzing reactions in processes such as metabolism, DNA replication, and
digestion.
In fact, enzymes are known to be involved in some 4,000 bodily reactions.
Proteins in Cellular Signaling and Molecular Transport
Cells signal one another for an enormous variety of reasons, the most basic of which is simply to coordinate
cellular activities. Signaling is how cells communicate with one another, allowing such essential processes as
the contraction of the heart muscle to take place.
Proteins are important in these processes due to their ability to bind other molecules—a protein produced by one
cell may bind to a molecule produced by another, thus providing a chemical signal which allows the cells to
provide information about their state. Proteins are also involved in molecular transport. A prime example of this
is the protein called hemoglobin, which binds iron molecules and transports them in the blood from the lungs to
organs and tissues throughout the body.
FUCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:

1. Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose

2. Sparing the use of proteins for energy
3. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
4. Biological recognition processes
5. Flavor and Sweeteners
6. Dietary fiber

Providing energy and regulating blood glucose

Glucose is the only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues. Therefore, all digestible
polysaccharides, disaccharides, and monosaccharides must eventually be converted into glucose or a metabolite
of glucose by various liver enzymes. Because of its significant importance to proper cellular function, blood
glucose levels must be kept relatively constant.
Among the enormous metabolic activities the liver performs, it also includes regulating the level of blood
glucose. During periods of food consumption, pancreatic beta cells sense the rise in blood glucose and begin to
secrete the hormone insulin. Insulin binds to many cells in the body having appropriate receptors for the peptide
hormone and causes a general uptake in cellular glucose. In the liver, insulin causes the uptake of glucose as
well as the synthesis of glycogen, a glucose storage polymer. In this way, the liver is able to remove excessive
levels of blood glucose through the action of insulin.
In contrast, the hormone glucagons is secreted into the bloodstream by pancreatic alpha cells upon sensing
falling levels of blood glucose. Upon binding to targeted cells such as skeletal muscle and brain cells, glucagon
acts to decrease the amount of glucose in the bloodstream. This hormone inhibits the uptake of glucose by
muscle and other cells and promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver in order to release glucose into the
blood. Glucagon also promotes gluconeogenesis, a process involving the synthesis of glucose from amino acid
precursors. Through the effects of both glucagon and insulin, blood glucose can usually be regulated in
concentrations between 70 and 115mg/100 ml of blood.
Other hormones of importance in glucose regulation are epinephrine and cortisol. Both hormones are secreted
from the adrenal glands, however, epinephrine mimics the effects of glucagon while cortisol mobilizes glucose
during periods of emotional stress or exercise.
Despite the liver's unique ability to maintain homeostatic levels of blood glucose, it only stores enough for a
twenty-four hour period of fasting. After twenty four hours, the tissues in the body that preferentially rely on
glucose, particularly the brain and skeletal muscle, must seek an alternative energy source. During fasting
periods, when the insulin to glucagons ratio is low, adipose tissue begins to release fatty acids into the
bloodstream. Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains consisting of single carboxylic acid group and are not very
soluble in water. Skeletal muscle begins to use fatty acids for energy during resting conditions; however, the
brain cannot afford the same luxury. Fatty acids are too long and bulky to cross the blood-brain barrier.
Therefore, proteins from various body tissues are broken down into amino acids and used by the liver to produce
glucose for the brain and muscle. This process is known as gluconeogenesis or "the production of new glucose."
If fasting is prolonged for more than a day, the body enters a state called ketosis. Ketosis comes from the root

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word ketones and indicates a carbon atom with two side groups bonded to an oxygen atom. Ketones are
produced when there is no longer enough oxaloacetate in the mitochondria of cells to condense with acetyl CoA
formed from fatty acids. Oxaloacetate is a four-carbon compound that begins the first reaction of the Krebs
Cycle, a cycle containing a series of reactions that produces high-energy species to eventually be used to
produce energy for the cell. Since oxaloacetate is formed from pyruvate (a metabolite of glucose), a certain level
of carbohydrate is required in order to burn fats. Otherwise, fatty acids cannot be completely broken down and
ketones will be produced.

Sparing Protein and Preventing Ketosis

So why are carbohydrates important if the body can use other carbon compounds such as fatty acids and ketones
as energy? First of all, maintaining a regular intake of carbohydrates will prevent protein from being used as an
energy source. Gluconeogenesis will slow down and amino acids will be freed for the biosyntheses of enzymes,
antibodies, receptors and other important proteins. Furthermore, an adequate amount of carbohydrates will
prevent the degradation of skeletal muscle and other tissues such as the heart, liver, and kidneys. Most
importantly, ketosis will be prevented. Although the brain will adapt to using ketones as a fuel, it preferentially
uses carbohydrates and requires a minimum level of glucose circulating in the blood in order to function
properly. Before the adaptation process occurs, lower blood glucose levels may cause headaches in some
individuals. To prevent these ketotic symptoms, it is recommended that the average person consume at least 50
to 100g of carbohydrates per day.
Although the processes of protein degradation and ketosis can create problems of their own during prolonged
fasting, they are adaptive mechanisms during glucose shortages. In summary, the first priority of metabolism
during a prolonged fast is to provide enough glucose for the brain and other organs that dependent upon it for
energy in order to spare proteins for other cellular functions. The next priority of the body is to shift the use of
fuel from glucose to fatty acids and ketone bodies. From then on, ketones become more and more important as a
source of fuel while fatty acids and glucose become less important.

Flavor and Sweeteners

A less important function of carbohydrates is to provide sweetness to foods. Receptors located at the tip of the
tongue bind to tiny bits of carbohydrates and send what humans perceive as a "sweet" signal to the brain.
However, different sugars vary in sweetness. For example, fructose is almost twice as sweet as sucrose and
sucrose is approximately 30% sweeter than glucose.
Sweeteners can be classified as either nutritive or alternative. Nutritive sweeteners have all been mentioned
before and include sucrose, glucose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, and lactose. These types of sweeteners
not only impart flavor to the food, but can also be metabolized for energy. In contrast, alternative sweeteners
provide no food energy and include saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame, and acesulfame. Controversy over
saccharin and cyclamate as artificial sweeteners still exists but aspartame and acesulfame are used extensively in
many foods in the United States. Aspartame and acesulfame are both hundreds of times sweeter than sucrose but
only acesulfame is able to be used in baked goods since it is much more stable than aspartame when heated.

Dietary Fiber
Dietary fibers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum and mucilage are important carbohydrates for
several reasons. Soluble dietary fibers like pectin, gum and mucilage pass undigested through the small intestine
and are degraded into fatty acids and gases by the large intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either
be used as a fuel for the large intestine or be absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, dietary fiber is essential
for proper intestinal health.
In general, the consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the elimination of waste much easier. Since
dietary fiber is both indigestible and an attractant of water, stools become large and soft. As a result, feces can
be expelled with less pressure. However, not enough fiber consumption will change the constitution of the stool
and increase the amount of force required during defecation. Excessive pressure during the elimination of waste
can force places in the large intestine wall out from between bands of smooth muscle to produce small pouches
called diverticula. Hemorrhoids may also result from unnecessary strain during defecation.
The disease of having many diverticula in the large intestine is known as diverticulosis. Although diverticula is
often asymptomatic, food particles become trapped in their folds and bacteria begin to metabolize the particles
into acids and gases. Eventually, the diverticula may become inflamed, a condition known as diverticulitis. To
combat the disease, antibiotics are administered to the patient to destroy the bacteria while the intake of fiber in
the diet is decreased until the inflammation has subsided. Once the inflammation has been reduced, a high fiber
diet is begun to prevent a relapse.

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Besides the prevention of intestinal disease, diets high in fiber have other health benefits. High fiber intake
reduces the risk of developing obesity by increasing the bulk of a meal without yielding much energy. An
expanded stomach leads to satisfaction despite the fact that the caloric intake has decreased.
Beyond dieters, diabetics can also benefit from consuming a regular amount of dietary fiber. Once in the
intestine, it slows the absorption of glucose to prevent a sudden increase in blood glucose levels. A relatively
high intake of fiber will also decrease the absorption of cholesterol, a compound that is thought to contribute to
atherosclerosis or scarring of the arteries. Serum cholesterol may be further reduced by a reduction in the release
of insulin after meals. Since insulin is known to promote cholesterol synthesis in the liver, a reduction in the
absorption of glucose after meals through the consumption of fiber can help to control serum cholesterol levels.
Furthermore, dietary fiber intake may help prevent colon cancer by diluting potential carcinogens through
increased water retention, binding carcinogens to the fiber itself and speeding the passage of food through the
intestinal tract so that cancer-causing agents have less time to act.

Biological Recognition Processes

Carbohydrates not only serve nutritional functions, but are also thought to play important roles in cellular
recognition processes. For example, many immunoglobulins (antibodies) and peptide hormones contain
glycoprotein sequences. These sequences are composed of amino acids linked to carbohydrates. During the
course of many hours or days, the carbohydrate polymer linked to the rest of the protein may be cleaved by
circulating enzymes or be degraded spontaneously. The liver can recognize differences in length and may
internalize the protein in order to begin its own degradation. In this way, carbohydrates may mark the passage of
time for proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF FAT
The various functions of fat are:-

The Caloric Value Of Fat

Among the many functions of fats in the body is that they provide a lot of energy in the form of calories.
Calories are a measure of the heat produced by the utilization of foods in the body. Carbohydrates and proteins
produce four Calories of heat per gram. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are all composed of hydrogen, oxygen,
and carbon, but fats don't have enough oxygen built into their structures to allow for breakdown. Oxygen has to
be added into the mix from the oxygen in the blood.

This process is called oxidation and it gives rise to a great deal more caloric heat than is involved in the
breakdown of carbohydrates or proteins, which do have sufficient oxygen. The heat value of a pound of fat is
equal to the heat value of two and 1/4 pounds of carbohydrate or protein. This is why we say that fat has 9
Calories per gram while carbohydrates have only 4 Calories.

Body Fat As Storage of Energy

Body fat provides the most important reservoir of stored energy as adipose tissue. Even in a person who is not
overweight, body fat still makes up about 10 percent of their body weight. From a survival standpoint, this is
absolutely critical, since in periods of low food availability or during a famine situation, a person must live off
his/her stored body fat or perish.

This is how we obtain energy from the stored body fats. As we have seen, fats are made up of glycerol
combined with fatty acids. The glycerol is broken away from the fatty acids, and can then be converted into
glucose for immediate use, and to glycogen for storage and later use. About 10 percent of the fat we eat converts
to sugars in a process called glyconeogensis

Fats Also Serve As Transporters

Another very important function of fats is the transportation and use of vitamins A, D, E, K, and for other
substances which are fat soluble. Without fat in the diet, those vitamins would not be able to function. This
would result in severe problems with eyesight, skin, nail formation, blood clotting, kidney function, bone
growth and repair, reproductive functions, and cellular energy. Additionally, some of the fatty acids that make
up fats are absolutely necessary for life. They are called essential fatty acids (or EFAs), because they must be
eaten.

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Fats slow stomach digestion and passage of foods through the intestinal path. This important fat function gives
the body the necessary time to absorb the essential nutrients in the protein food, which historically has been in
shorter supply.

Additional Functions Of Fat

 Fat, in the form of structural body fat, provides important protection for the vital internal organs.
 Fat is a fairly poor conductor of heat, body fat in the subcutaneous tissues (under the skin) acts as
insulation, and tends to prevent loss of body heat.
 Fats are required for brain structure.
 Substances made from fats also provide the covering for nerves, and thereby allows nerves to carry the
impulses necessary to function.
 Fat provides the makeup of the walls of cells, the cell membranes, which are required to allow the
passage in and out of essential chemicals.
 Fats are part of the structure of the skin which literally holds us together. The skin is often overlooked
as being important for existence, but consider what would happen if the skin were to 'come apart' like
old fabric.
 Fats are necessary for the production of hormones to regulate and initiate body activities.
 Another function of dietary fats is the stimulation of the flow of bile, and the emptying of the
gallbladder. Bile, is important in the body's elimination of the waste products created by the normal
breakdown of red blood cells. If the bile does not leave the gallbladder as it should, gallstones may
form.
 Fat is absolutely necessary for milk production in nursing mothers, and is required during pregnancy
for the proper development of the child.
 Fat is also necessary for the normal body development of children, once born.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

Function:
Each vitamin has specific functions. If levels of a particular vitamin are inadequate, a deficiency disease results.
Vitamin A helps in the formation and maintenance of healthy teeth, skeletal and soft tissue, mucous membranes,
and skin. It is also known as retinol because it generates the pigments that are necessary for the working of the
retina. It promotes good vision, especially in dim light. Vitamin A may also be required for reproduction and
breast-feeding. Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A that has antioxidant properties, helping the body deal
with unstable chemicals called free radicals.
Thiamine (B-1) helps the body cells convert carbohydrates into energy. It is also essential for the functioning of
the heart and for healthy nerve cells, including those in the brain. promotes digestion, child growth; prevents
fatigue and fat deposits in arteries
Riboflavin (B-2) works with the other B vitamins and is important for body growth and red blood cell
production. Similar to thiamine, it helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates.
Niacin is a B vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It is also important for the conversion of food
to energy and may have cholesterol-lowering effects.
Vitamin B-6 is also known as pyridoxine. Aids metabolism of protein carbohydrates and fats i.e the protein a
person eats, the more vitamin B-6 is required to help the body use the protein. It aids in the formation of red
blood cells and in the maintenance of normal brain function. It also assists in the synthesizing of antibodies in
the immune system. It controls cholesterol level; aids chemical balance between blood and tissue; prevents
water retention
Vitamin B12 like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It, too, helps in the formation of red blood
cells and in the maintenance of the central nervous system.It builds nucleic acid; prevents pernicious anemia.
Pantothenic acid is essential for the metabolism of food. It is also essential in the synthesis of hormones and
cholesterol. Biotin is essential for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, and in the synthesis of
hormones and cholesterol. Cholesterol is needed for the functioning of cell membranes, particularly in the brain.
Folate (folic acid) works with vitamin B-12 in the production of red blood cells. It is necessary for the synthesis
of DNA, which controls heredity as well as tissue growth and cell function. Any woman who may become

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pregnant should be sure to consume enough folate -- low levels of this substance are associated with devastating
birth defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folic acid to help reduce the level of such
birth defects. Essential for function of Vitamins A, D, E, and K, forms red blood cells and nucleic acid;
improves circulation; aids digestion of proteins. May help some cancers. Reduces the risk of coronary heart
disease.
Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin," since it is manufactured by the body after being exposed to
sunshine. Ten to 15 minutes of sunshine three times per week is adequate to produce the body's requirement of
vitamin D. This vitamin promotes the body's absorption of calcium, which is essential for the normal
development and maintenance of healthy teeth and bones. It also helps maintain adequate blood levels of
calcium and phosphorus, which are minerals necessary for many functions. It also maintains nervous system and
heart action;

Vitamin E is also known as tocopherol and is an antioxidant, It protects body's store of Vitamin A, tissues and
fat from destructive oxidation, and breakdown of red corpuscles; strengthens capillary walls; regulates
menstrual rhythm; prevents loss of other vitamins; aids blood flow to heart; lowers blood cholesterol and fatty
acids; vital to cell health; regulates protein and calcium It is also important in the formation of red blood cells
and the use of vitamin K.

Vitamin K is known as the clotting vitamin, because without it blood would not clot. Some studies indicate that
it helps in maintaining strong bones in the elderly.

.vitamin c: also called ascorbic acid is essential for the formation of collagen thus promotes wound healing ;
needed for absorption of iron, some proteins and folic acid; prevents oxidation of other vitamins(is an
antioxidant); aids in metabolism of amino acids and calcium; stops internal bleeding; strengthens blood vessels
maintains hard bones and teeth; promotes healthy teeth and gums ;promotes stamina; holds body cells together
prevents infections, colds, fatigue and stress; reduces allergies; heals wounds and burns.
FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

Summary Table
The following table (in alphabetical order within categories) includes basic information about some functions of
the major minerals used by the human body.

Signs of
Mineral Functions Signs of
Deficiencies
Excessive Intake

Calcium (Ca) Key constituent Deficiency (or Formation of

of bones and insufficient uptake) "stones" in the body,
teeth; may lead to: especially the Gall
Essential for Osteomalacia; Bladder and the
vital metabolic Osteoporosis; Kidneys.
processes such Rickets;
as nerve Tetany.
function,
muscle
contraction, and
blood clotting.

Iron (Fe) Essential for Deficiency may lead Long-term

transfer of to: excessive intake of
oxygen between Anaemia; iron can lead to:
tissues in the Increased Haemochromatosis
body; susceptibility to or Haemosiderosis
infections. (involving organ
damage), and both
of which are rare;

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 Insufficient calcium
and magnesium in
the body (because
these minerals
compete with each
other for
absorption);
Increased
susceptibility to
infectious diseases.

Magnesium (Mg) Essential for Deficiency can occur Unusual.

healthy bones; gradually, leading to:
Functioning of Anxiety; Fatigue;
muscle & Insomnia; Muscular
nervous tissue; problems; Nausea;
Needed for Premenstrual
functioning of problems.
approx. 90 The most extreme
enzymes. cases of deficiency
may be associated
with arrhythmia.

Phosphorous (P) Constituent of Insufficient Excess phosphorous

bone tissue; phosphorous may can interfere with
Forms lead to: the body's
compounds Anaemia; absorption of:
needed for Demineralization of calcium, iron,
energy bones; magnesium, and
conversion Nerve disorders; zinc.
reactions (e.g. Respiratory
adenosine problems;
triphosphate - Weakness;
ATP). Weight Loss.

Potassium (K) Main base ion Insufficient Excessive amounts

of intracellular potassium in the body in the body (whether
fluid; may lead to: due to intake or
Necessary to General muscle other causes) may
maintain paralysis; lead to:
electrical Metabolic Arrhythmia, and
potentials of the disturbances. ultimately cardiac
nervous system arrest ("heart
- and so attack").
functioning of Metabolic
muscle and disturbances.
nerve tissues.

Sodium (Na) Controls the Insufficient sodium in Excessive amounts

volume of the body may lead to: in the body (whether
extracellular Low blood pressure; due to intake or
fluid in the General muscle other causes) may
body; weakness/paralysis; lead to:
Maintains the Mild Fever; Hypernatraemia;
acid-alkali (pH) Respiratory De-hydration
balance in the (especially in

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 body; problems. babies);
Necessary to Possible long-term
maintain effects may include
electrical hypertension.
potentials of the
nervous system
- and so
functioning of
muscle and
nerve tissues.

Chromium (Cr) Involved in the Deficiency may lead

functioning of to:
skeletal muscle. Confusion;
Depression;
Irritability;
Weakness.

Copper (Cu) Part of the Insufficient copper

enzyme copper- has been associated
zince with:
superoxide changes in hair
dismutase colour & texture, and
(CuZn SOD); hair loss;
Also present in disturbances to the
other enzymes, nervous system; bone
including diseases.
cytochrome
oxidase, Serious deficiency is
ascorbic acid rare but can lead to:
oxidase, and Menke's syndrome.
tyrosinases;
Found in the red
blood cells, and
in blood
plasma;

Manganese (Mn) Antioxidant Deficiencies are Excessive intake has

properties; unusual but may lead been associated with
Fertility; to: brain conditions
Formation of Bone deformities; such as symptoms
strong healthy Rashes & skin similar to those
bones, nerves, conditions; resulting from
and muscles; Reduced hair growth; Parkinson's disease.
Forms part of Retarded growth (in
the enzyme children).
copper-zince
superoxide
dismutase
(CuZn SOD)
system;

Selenium (Se) Antioxidant Deficiency may lead Excessive intake

properties to: can lead to selenium
(prevents Cardiomyopathy; poisoning.
peroxidation of Kaschin-Beck disease

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 lipids in the (affects the cartilage
cells); at joints).
Essential
component of
the enzyme
glutathione
peroxidase;
Contributes to
efficiency of the
immune system
-
very wide
variety of
protective
functions within
the body.

Sulphur (S) Healing build- Deficiency of sulphur

up of toxic is unusual.
substances in
the body;
Structural
health of the
body (sulphur is
a part of many
amino acids
incl. cysteine
and
methionine);
Healthy skin,
nails & hair.

Zinc (Zn) Needed for: Deficiency is rare but Excessive intake is

Functioning of may lead to: not a common
many (over Lesions on the skin, problem but
200) enzymes; oesophagus and especially if zinc
Strong immune cornea; supplements are
system; Retarded growth (of taken over an
children); extended period of
Susceptibility to time, can reduce the
infection. absorption of
Copper (so Copper
supplements may
also be appropriate).

FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN HUMAN BODIES

Water serves many curative functions even in our day-to-day life. In fact, water is very essential for maintaining
the proper functioning of our body and sustaining us. It makes up more than half of our body weight and caters
to the requirements of various bodily needs. Deficiency of water in the body can affect various functions and in
severe conditions might also lead to death.

Effects of Water Deficiency

 Low blood pressure

 Clotting of blood

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  Kidney malfunction
 Severe constipation

Functions of Water in the Human Body

The functions given below will help you understand the role of water in our body:

 Water is essential for digesting food. It is also important for getting rid of various toxic elements from
the body, in the form of urine, sweat and fecal matter.
 Water helps to cushion our joints and prevents shocks in them.
 Water present in blood is the carrier of oxygen and nutrients to all our body cells.
 Water present in lymph (a fluid that is part of our immune system) helps the body to fight against
various diseases.
 Water helps to regulate and maintain our body temperature.
 Water prevents dehydration and thus, helps to maintain proper metabolism in our body.

Task 5: Explaining the effects of the following

conditions on nutrients during production
procedures
- acid
- heat
- air
- water
- light

Task : SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS AND OTHER FOOD COMPONENTS

Nutrient Sources

wholemeal bread, wholegrain cereals, baked beans, pasta,

Complex carbohydrate & fibre
potatoes, peas, other starchy vegetables

lean meat, chicken, fish, cheese, milk, eggs, bread, nuts,

Protein
legumes

oils, butter, margarine, cream, meat, cheese, pastry,

Fat
biscuits, nuts

Vitamin A butter, margarine, cream, cheese, eggs, meat

carrots, spinach, pumpkin, broccoli, tomatoes, apricots,

Beta-carotene (converts to vitamin A)
rockmelon

Vitamin D Fatty/canned fish, butter, margarine, cream, cheese, eggs

Polyunsaturated oils, polyunsaturated margarine, nuts,

Vitamin E olive oil, fatty fish and small amounts in wholegrain
cereals and green vegetables

Vitamin K green vegetables, cheese, butter, pork, eggs

Thiamin Wholegrain cereals, pork, bread, nuts, peas

milk, meat, eggs, cheese, wholegrain, cereals, nuts,

Riboflavin
mushrooms

Niacin fish, meat, peanuts, wholegrain cereals, nuts, mushrooms

Pantothenic acid eggs, wholegrain cereals, peanuts, fish, meat, vegetables

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 Vitamin B6 Wholegrain cereals, meat, fish, peanuts, bananas

green vegetables, wholegrain cereals, wholemeal bread,

Folic acid
nuts

Vitamin B12 meat, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, oysters

Biotin eggs, cheese, milk, fish, wholegrain cereals

Oranges, tomatoes, potatoes, broccoli, cabbage, Brussels

Vitamin C
sprouts, Strawberries

cheese, milk, yoghurt, canned fish, nuts, sesame seeds

Calcium
,dried fruit

meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, cheese, nuts, cereals,

Phosphorus
bread

Iron meat, poultry, wholegrain cereals, wholemeal bread, eggs

Sodium table salt, meat, milk, cheese, seafood, spinach, celery

Potatoes, bananas, oranges, apricots, other fruit and

Potassium
vegetables, meat, fish, nuts

Sea foods, milk and cereals and vegetables from areas

Iodine
with high iodine content in the soil, iodised table salt

oysters, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, wholegrain cereals,

Zinc
peanuts

Suggested Teaching /Learning Activities

- Textbooks
- manuals
- internet
- Food commodities
- Acids
- Bases
- Water pH scale
- Litmus paper

Evaluation
1. List types of nutrients and other useful components in food
2. Identify chemical components of macro nutrients
3. Outline the properties of nutrients
4. Explain the functions of nutrients and other food components
5. Explain the effects of the following conditions on nutrients
during production procedures
- acid
- heat
- air
- water
- light

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7.1.31 NUTRITIONAL DISEASES AND DISORDERS

Theory
Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) list nutritional diseases and disorders
b) explain the causes of nutritional diseases and disorders
c) describe the signs and symptoms of nutritional diseases and disorders
d) discuss prevention and management of nutritional disorders

Task 1: Listing nutritional diseases and disorders

Obesity
Dental caries
Coronary heart disease
Diabetes mellitus
Kwashiorkor
Marasmus
Anorexia nervosa
Food allergy
Iron deficiency anaemia
Chronic starvation.
Pellagra
Scurvy
Rickets
Nutritional anaemia
Osteomalacia
Beriberi
Keratomalacia
Gouts

Task 2: Explaining the causes of nutritional diseases and disorders

Kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is a virulent form of childhood malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia,
ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. The presence of edema caused by poor
nutrition defines kwashiorkor.[1] The cause of kwashiorkor was thought to be due to insufficient protein
consumption alone, however micronutrient and antioxidant deficiencies are now believed to play important
roles.
Signs and symptoms
The defining sign of kwashiorkor in a malnourished child is pedal edema (swelling of the feet). Other signs
include a distended abdomen, an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates, thinning hair, loss of teeth, skin
depigmentation and dermatitis. Children with kwashiorkor often develop irritability and anorexia. [1]
Victims of kwashiorkor fail to produce antibodies following vaccination against diseases, including diphtheria
and typhoid.[5] Generally, the disease can be treated by adding food energy and protein to the diet; however, it
can have a long-term impact on a child's physical and mental development, and in severe cases may lead to
death.
Possible causes
There are various explanations for the development of kwashiorkor and the topic remains controversial. It is
now accepted that protein deficiency, in combination with energy and micronutrient deficiency, is necessary but
not sufficient to cause kwashiorkor [The condition is likely due to deficiency of one of several types of nutrients
(e.g., iron, folic acid, iodine, selenium, vitamin C), particularly those involved with anti-oxidant protection.
Important anti-oxidants in the body that are reduced in children with kwashiorkor include glutathione, albumin,
vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, if a child with reduced type one nutrients or anti-oxidants
is exposed to stress (e.g. an infection or toxin) he/she is more liable to develop kwashiorkor.
Anorexia nervosa
There are two main types: a general deficiency of calories and all nutrients; and deficiency of specific nutrients.
A general lack of nutrition may be caused by poor eating as a result of severe illness or surgery. It may also be

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due to extreme dieting, general bad eating habits, or deliberate starvation as occurs in the eating disorder
anorexia nervosa. Some people may neglect their diet because of other psychological problems such as alcohol
dependance. A general deficiency of nutrients may also result from poor absorption of food in the small
intestine - due to a specific intestinal disorder or a gastric bypass operation. Symptoms of a general deficiency
may include weight loss, muscle weakness, tiredness, as well as skin and hair disorders.
Specific nutritional deficiencies may occur if people limit their diets because of certain beliefs. In some cases
malabsorption in the small intestine causes deficiency of a specific nutrient. For example, the bowel disorder
Crohn's Disease can affect the last section of the small intestine (ileum) through which Vitamin B12 is
absorbed. Specific nutritional deficiencies may result in a variety of disorders. These include iron deficiency
anemia and the bone disorders osteomalacia and rickets caused by a lack of calcium or Vitamin D. Vegetarians
who fail to eat a balanced diet may often suffer from a lack of iron and other micronutrients. Vegans will suffer
from a deficiency of Vitamin B12 if they do not eat B12 fortified foods.

Marasmus
Signs and symptoms
Marasmus is a type of serious protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency, causing a look of
emaciation since body weight is reduced to up 80% of the normal weight for a patient’s height. Other common
characteristics of marasmus include dry skin and loose skin folds. The main symptom of marasmus is
malnutrition, which can lead to muscle and tissue wasting, edema, behavior changes and drastic loss of adipose
tissue from areas where fat deposits are normally present, such as thighs and buttocks.

Possible causes
Marasmus is caused by an unhealthy and excessive deficiency of almost all nutrients, especially calories and
protein.

Diabetes

Definition of Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by the inability of the pancreas to produce insulin or to use the
insulin produced in the proper way.

Description of Diabetes
After a meal, a portion of the food a person eats is broken down into sugar (glucose). The sugar then passes into
the bloodstream and to the body's cells via a hormone (called insulin) that is produced by the pancreas.
Normally, the pancreas produces the right amount of insulin to accommodate the quantity of sugar. However, if
the person has diabetes, either the pancreas produces little or no insulin or the cells do not respond normally to
the insulin. Sugar builds up in the blood, overflows into the urine and then passes from the body unused. Over
time, high blood sugar levels can damage:

 eyes - leading to diabetic retinopathy and possible blindness

 blood vessels - increasing risk of heart attack, stroke and peripheral artery obstruction
 nerves - leading to diabetic neuropathy, foot sores and possible amputation, possible paralysis of the
stomach, chronic diarrhea
 kidneys - leading to kidney failure

Diabetes has also been linked to impotence and digestive problems. It is important to note that controlling blood
pressure and blood glucose levels, plus regular screenings and check-ups, can help reduce risks of these
complications.
There are two main types of diabetes, Type I and Type II:
Type I diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes (formerly called juvenile-onset diabetes, because it tends
to affect persons before the age of 20) affects about 10 percent of people with diabetes. With this type
of diabetes, the pancreas makes almost no insulin.
Type II diabetes or non-insulin-dependent diabetes. This was previously called "adult-onset diabetes"
because in the past it was usually discovered after age 40. However, with increasing levels of obesity

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 and sedentary lifestyle, this disease is now being found more and more in adolescents - and sometimes
even in children under 10 - and the term "adult onset" is no longer used.
Type II diabetes comprises about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes. With this type of diabetes, either
the pancreas produces a reduced amount of insulin, the cells do not respond to the insulin, or both.
There are three less common types of diabetes called gestational diabetes, secondary diabetes and impaired
glucose tolerance (IGT):
Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and causes a higher than normal glucose level reading.
Secondary diabetes is caused by damage to the pancreas from chemicals, certain medications, diseases
of the pancreas (such as cancer) or other glands.
Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) is a condition in which the person's glucose levels are higher than
normal.
Causes and Risk Factors of Diabetes
The cause of Type I diabetes is genetically based, coupled with an abnormal immune response.
The cause of Type II diabetes is unknown. Medical experts believe that Type II diabetes has a genetic
component, but that other factors also put people at risk for the disease. These factors include:

 sedentary lifestyle
 obesity (weighing 20 percent above a healthy body weight)
 advanced age
 unhealthy diet
 family history of diabetes
 improper functioning of the pancreas
 minority race (higher risk in Black, Hispanic, American Indian, westernized Asian and native Hawaiian
populations)
 medication (cortisone and some high blood pressure drugs)
 women having given birth to a baby weighing more than 9 lbs.
 previously diagnosed gestational diabetes
 previously diagnosed IGT

Symptoms of Diabetes
Usually, the symptoms of Type I diabetes are obvious. That is not true for Type II. Many people with Type II do
not discover they have diabetes until they are treated for a complication such as heart disease, blood vessel
disease (atherosclerosis), stroke, blindness, skin ulcers, kidney problems, nerve trouble or impotence.
The warning signs and symptoms for both types are:
Type I: Frequent urination, increased thirst, extreme hunger, unexplained weight loss, extreme fatigue, blurred
vision, irritability, nausea and vomiting.
Type II: Any Type I symptom, plus: unexplained weight gain, pain, cramping, tingling or numbness in your
feet, unusual drowsiness, frequent vaginal or skin infections, dry, itchy skin and slow healing sores.
Note: If a person is experiencing these symptoms, they should see a doctor immediately.

Diagnosis of Diabetes
Besides a complete history and physical examination, the doctors will perform a battery of laboratory tests.
There are numerous tests available to diagnose diabetes, such as a urine test, blood test, glucose-tolerance test,
fasting blood sugar and the glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) test.
A urine sample will be tested for glucose and ketones (acids that collect in the blood and urine when the body
uses fat instead of glucose for energy).
A blood test is used to measure the amount of glucose in the bloodstream.
A glucose-tolerance test checks the body's ability to process glucose. During this test, sugar levels in the blood
and urine are monitored for three hours after drinking a large dose of sugar solution.
The fasting blood sugar test involves fasting overnight and blood being drawn the next morning.
The glycohemoglobin test reflects an average of all blood sugar levels for the preceding two months.

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Treatment of Diabetes
A landmark study, the 10-year, multi-center Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT), has now shown
that intensifying diabetes management with stricter control of blood sugar levels can reduce long-term
complications.
The results of DCCT are extraordinary in that they prove that tight control of glucose levels can in fact
dramatically slow the onset and progression of diabetic complications in both Type I and Type II diabetes.
Additionally, researchers have found strict attention to diet and exercise also helps in the management of
diabetes.
Management of Type I Diabetes
Virtually everyone with Type I diabetes (and more than one in three people with Type II) must inject
insulin to make up for their deficiency. Until recently, insulin came only from the pancreases of cows
and pigs (with pork insulin more closely duplicating human insulin). While beef, pork and beef/pork
combinations are still widely used, there are now two types of "human" insulin available: semisynthetic
(made by converting pork insulin to a form identical to human) and recombinant (made by using
genetic engineering). All insulin helps glucose levels remain near normal (about 70 to 120 mg/dl).
Different types of insulin work for different periods of time. The numbers shown below are only
averages. The onset (how long it takes to reach the bloodstream to begin lowering the blood sugar),
peaking (how long it takes to reach maximum strength) and duration (how long it continues to lower
the blood sugar) of insulin activity can vary from person to person and even from day to day in the
same person.
Rapid or Regular Activity: Onset is within half an hour and activity peaks during a 2 to 5 hour period.
It remains in the bloodstream for about 8 to 16 hours. These fast-acting, short-lasting insulins are useful
in special cases: accidents, minor surgery or illnesses, which cause the diabetes to go out of control or
whenever insulin requirements change rapidly for any reason. These are also being used more and more
in combination with a long-acting insulin or alone (prior to meals and at bedtime).
Semilente: A special type of short-acting insulin that takes 1 to 2 hours for onset, peaks 3 to 8 hours
after injection and lasts 10 to 16 hours.
Intermediate-Acting: Reaching the bloodstream 90 minutes after injection, intermediate-acting insulin
peaks 4 to 12 hours later and lasts in the blood for about 24 hours. There are two varieties of this type
of insulin: Lente (called L) and NPH (called N).
Long-Acting: These insulins, which take 4 to 6 hours for onset, are at maximum strength 14 to 24
hours after injection, lasting 36 hours in the bloodstream. Long-acting insulin is referred to as U (for
Ultralente).
Pellagra
Pellagra is a disease that is caused by a vitamin deficiency of niacin and/or tryptophan. Niacin is one of the B
complex vitamins that provides essential nutrients to the human body. Tryptophan can be converted to niacin as
long as there is not a protein deficiency in addition to the niacin deficiency, because the body will create needed
protein before niacin. The human body is very complex and requires a lot of different vitamins and minerals to
maintain a healthy state, that is why the government and other health agencies recognize similar standards for
the daily intake of foods rich in the essential vitamins and minerals. With the right balance of foods in a human
beings diet, diseases like Pellagra can be avoided.
Symptoms of Pellagra
The symptoms of Pellagra are skin irritations and sores that resemble scaly or dry skin in a severe state or even
large weeping sores. There is typically diarrhea and inflamed mucous membranes, causing someone suffering
from Pellagra to have a sore mouth on top of everything else. A high sensitivity to light, aggressive behavior and
insomnia are also reported symptoms. Mental confusion or delusions are a common symptom of this disease,
along with the potential for dementia if it goes untreated.
Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra
Pellagra is easily treated through receiving doses of niacin, although it must be done carefully as overdosing on
niacin can be very dangerous. Niacin in high amounts is considered toxic to the body and can cause serious
consequences if too much is administered and too quickly. That is why a doctor or medical professional or some
sort is a must for dealing with this disease. However, preventing the disease is done simply through maintaining
a properly balanced diet. Most all plant and animal foods are rich in niacin, so it is not difficult for those in a

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developed country to receive the proper amounts just by eating normally. Foods that are especially high in
niacin are yeast, all kinds of meat especially liver and fish, any kind of beans or soy products such as kidney
beans, green beans, pinto beans, tofu and soy beans, milk and green leafy vegetables like lettuce, kale and
spinach. Seeds are another good source of niacin, like sunflower seeds, which also make a great snack.
Obesity
Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health. One
of the measure of obesity is the body mass index (BMI), a person’s weight (in kilograms) divided by the square
of his or her height (in metres).
BMI = weight/height²
A person with a BMI of 30 or more is generally considered obese. A person with a BMI equal to or more than
25 is considered overweight.
Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for a number of chronic diseases, including diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Once considered a problem only in high income countries, overweight and
obesity are now dramatically on the rise in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in urban settings.

Dental caries
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or cavity, is a disease wherein bacterial processes damage hard tooth
structure (enamel, dentin and cementum). These tissues progressively break down, producing dental caries
(cavities, holes in the teeth). If left untreated, the disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe
cases, death.
Tooth decay is caused by specific types of acid-producing bacteria that cause damage in the presence of
fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The mineral content of teeth is sensitive to
increases in acidity from the production of lactic acid. Specifically, a tooth (which is primarily mineral in
content) is in a constant state of back-and-forth demineralization and remineralization between the tooth and
surrounding saliva. When the pH at the surface of the tooth drops below 5.5, demineralization proceeds faster
than remineralization (i.e. there is a net loss of mineral structure on the tooth's surface). This results in the
ensuing decay. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to
proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth
structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventive and prophylactic measures, such as regular
oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the
heart. CHD is also called coronary artery disease.
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a condition called atherosclerosis, which occurs when fatty material
and a substance called plaque build up on the walls of your arteries. This causes them to get narrow. As the
coronary arteries narrow, blood flow to the heart can slow down or stop. This can cause chest pain (stable
angina), shortness of breath, heart attack, and other symptoms.
Many things increase your risk for heart disease:

 heredity can increase your risk. You are more likely to develop the condition if someone in your family
has had a history of heart disease -- especially if they had it before age 50. Your risk for CHD goes up
the older you get.
 Diabetes is a strong risk factor for heart disease.
 High blood pressure increases your risk of coronary artery disease and heart failure.
 Abnormal cholesterol levels: your LDL ("bad") cholesterol should be as low as possible, and your HDL
("good") cholesterol should be as high as possible.
 Metabolic syndrome refers to high triglyceride levels, high blood pressure, excess body fat around the
waist, and increased insulin levels. People with this group of problems have an increased chance of
getting heart disease.
 Smokers have a much higher risk of heart disease than nonsmokers.
 Chronic kidney disease can increase your risk.
 Already having atherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries in another part of your body (examples are
stroke and abdominal aortic aneurysm) increases your risk of having coronary heart disease.

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  Other risk factors including alcohol abuse, not getting enough exercise, and excessive amounts of
stress.

Symptoms
Chest pain or discomfort (angina) is the most common symptom. The pain usually occurs with activity or
emotion, and goes away with rest.

Other symptoms include shortness of breath and fatigue with activity (exertion).

Prevention and management

1. Management of risk factors.

2. Regular exercises
3. Lifestyle modification.

Food Allergy
Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food triggered by your body's immune system. Allergic reactions to
food can sometimes cause serious illness and death.
In adults, the foods that most often trigger allergic reactions include

 Fish and shellfish, such as shrimp, lobster and crab

 Peanuts
 Tree nuts, such as walnuts
 Eggs

Problem foods for children are eggs, milk (especially in infants and young children) and peanuts.
Sometimes a reaction to food is not an allergy. It is often a reaction called "food intolerance". Your immune
system does not cause the symptoms of food intolerance. However, these symptoms can look and feel like those
of a food allergy.
Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of a food allergy usually develop within about an hour after eating the offending food. The most
common signs and symptoms of a food allergy include:

 Hives, itching, or skin rash

 Swelling of the lips, face, tongue and throat, or other parts of the body
 Wheezing, nasal congestion, or trouble breathing
 Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting
 Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting

In a severe allergic reaction to food—called anaphylaxis—one may have more extreme versions of the above
reactions. Or one may experience life-threatening signs and symptoms such as:

 Swelling of the throat and air passages that makes it difficult to breathe
 Shock, with a severe drop in blood pressure
 Rapid, irregular pulse
 Loss of consciousness

Management of allergies

 People allergic to certain food items should carefully read food labels before consuming any product.
 medical alert bracelet or necklace or a card stating that one has a food allergy and are subject to severe
reactions should be worn.

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  An auto-injector device containing epinephrine (adrenaline) one can get by prescription should be
carried and administered when one is experiencing a food allergic reaction.
 Seek medical help immediately if you experience a food allergic reaction, even if you have already
given yourself epinephrine.

Chronic Starvation
Starvation is a severe reduction in vitamin, nutrient, and energy intake. It is the most extreme form of
malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage ,and eventually death.
Common causes
The basic cause of starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. In other words: the
body expends more energy than it takes in as food. This imbalance can arise from one or more medical
conditions and/or circumstantial situations, which can include:
Medical causes

 Anorexia nervosa
 Bulimia nervosa
 Coma
 Depression
 Diabetes mellitus
 Digestive disease

Circumstantial causes

 Famine for any reason, including overpopulation and war.

 Fasting, when done without proper medical supervision and lasting more than a month.
 Poverty
 Deprivation

Signs and symptoms

Emmaciation
Vitamin deficiency is a common result of starvation, often leading to anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy.
Diarrhoea, skin rashes, edema,heart failure are also associated with it.
Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.
Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by
the percentage of the stomach that is empty. Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and
therefore become dehydrated.
All movements become painful due to atrophy of the muscles, and due to dry, cracked skin caused by severe
dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grow under the
esophagus, making swallowing unbearably painful.
The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more apathetic over time. As
the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat, his or her interaction with the surroundings
diminishes.
Management
Treat underlieng causes
Scurvy
Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of collagen in
humans. Scurvy leads to the formation of spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from the mucous
membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels
depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, wounds and loss of teeth.
Vitamin C is widespread in plant tissues, with particularly high concentrations occurring in citrus fruits
(oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits), tomatoes, potatoes, cabbages, and green peppers.

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Methods of prevention of Scurvy include

- Adequate diet - sources include citrus fruits (lemons, limes, oranges), berries, capsicum, parsley,
pawpaw, leafy green vegetables.
- Vitamin C supplements

Rickets
Rickets is a softening of bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets is among the
most frequent childhood diseases in many developing countries. The predominant cause is a vitamin D
deficiency, but lack of adequate calcium in the diet may also lead to rickets (cases of severe diarrhea and
vomiting may be the cause of the deficiency). Although it can occur in adults, the majority of cases occur in
children suffering from severe malnutrition, usually resulting from famine or starvation during the early stages
of childhood. Osteomalacia is the term used to describe a similar condition occurring in adults, generally due to
a deficiency of vitamin D.
Long-term consequences include permanent bends or disfiguration of the long bones, and a curved back.
Vitamin D is required for proper calcium absorption from the gut. Sunlight, especially ultraviolet light, lets
human skin cells convert Vitamin D from an inactive to active state.
Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets include:

 Bone pain or tenderness

 dental problems
 muscle weakness
 increased tendency for fractures (easily broken bones),
 Skeletal deformity
o Toddlers: Bowed legs
o Older children: Knock-knees
o Cranial, spinal, and pelvic deformities
 Growth disturbance
 Hypocalcemia (low level of calcium in the blood), and
 Tetany (uncontrolled muscle spasms all over the body).
 soft skull

Long-term consequences include permanent bends or disfiguration of the long bones, and a curved back.

Prevention of Rickets:
Methods of prevention of Rickets mentioned in various sources includes :-

- Sunlight exposure
- Vitamin D
- Adequate diet
- Cod liver oil - a good source of Vitamin D

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Treatments for Rickets
Treatments to consider for Rickets may include:

 Adequate diet
 High-calcium high-phosphorous diet
 Vitamin D supplements
 Cod liver oil

Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia is the softening of the bones due to defective bone mineralization. It may show signs as diffuse
body pains, muscle weakness, and fragility of the bones. A common cause of the disease is a deficiency in
vitamin D, which is normally obtained from the diet and/or sunlight exposure.
Causes
The causes of adult osteomalacia are varied.

 Insufficient sunlight exposure, especially in dark-skinned subjects

 Insufficient nutritional quantities or faulty metabolism of vitamin D or phosphorus
 Renal tubular acidosis
 Malnutrition during pregnancy
 Malabsorption syndrome
 Chronic renal failure
 Tumor-induced osteomalacia
 Long-term anticonvulsant therapy
 Celiac disease

Signs and Symptoms

 Weak bones
 Bone pain
 Muscle weakness
 Hypocalcemia
 Easy fracturing

Treatment

- Exposure to sufficient and direct sunlight.

- Eating foods rich in Vitamin D is recommended.
- Calcium and phosphorous intake should also be increased
- Supplements may be administered in some cases

Beriberi
Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet. Thiamine is
involved in the breakdown of energy molecules such as glucose and is also found on the membranes of neurons.
Symptoms of beriberi include severe lethargy and fatigue, together with complications affecting the
cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, and gastrointestinal systems.
Description and Treatment
Beriberi is a disease in which the body does not have enough thiamine (vitamin B1).
There are two major types of beriberi:

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  Wet beriberi affects the cardiovascular system.
 Dry beriberi and Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome affect the nervous system.

Beriberi occurs mostly in patients who abuse alcohol. Drinking heavily can lead to poor nutrition, and excess
alcohol makes it harder for the body to absorb and store thiamine.

Symptoms of dry beriberi:

 Difficulty walking
 Loss of feeling (sensation) in hands and feet
 Loss of muscle function or paralysis of the lower legs
 Mental confusion/speech difficulties
 Pain
 Strange eye movements (nystagmus)
 Tingling
 Vomiting

Symptoms of wet beriberi:

 Awakening at night short of breath

 Increased heart rate
 Shortness of breath with activity
 Swelling of the lower legs

Prevention
Eating a proper diet that is rich in thiamine and other vitamins will prevent beriberi.
Nursing mothers should make sure that their diet contains all vitamins .
People who drink heavily should try to cut down or quit, and take B vitamins to make sure their body is properly
absorbing and storing thiamine.

Treatment

 Eating food rich in thiamine be recommended.

 Supplementation may be necessary in some cases.
 Other types of vitamins may also be recommended.

Nutritional Anaemia
Anaemia is a condition that is characterised by very low levels of healthy red blood cells (RBCs) or
haemoglobin (the component of RBCs that delivers oxygen to tissues throughout the body
Nutritional anaemia is caused by deficiency of nutrients required for the formation of RBCs. Nutrients that are
essential for formation of normal blood cells are iron, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin B6 and vitamin C.
Among nutritional anaemia, iron deficiency anaemia is the most common anaemia in India. Nutritional
megaloblastic anaemia (caused by deficiency of vitamin B12 and folic acid) is the other common nutritional
anaemia. These anaemia are due to reduced intake, impaired absorption and increased losses, or may be because
of the body's increased demand of nutrients.
Symptoms of Anaemia
Weakness, fatigue and lethargy may be signs of mild anaemia. A pale skin, lack of colour in the creases of the
palm, gums, nail beds, or lining of the eyelids are other signs of anaemia. Someone who is weak, tires easily and
is often out of breath, and feels faint or dizzy may be severely anaemic. Some other symptoms of anaemia are:

 Pica (craving for abnormal things, such as ice)

 Headaches

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  Inability to concentrate, memory loss
 Inflammation of the mouth or tongue
 Insomnia
 Irregular heartbeat
 Loss of appetite
 Rapid breathing
 Sweating
 Thirst

Types of Anaemia
There are numerous types of anaemia, ranging from nutritional, congenital, anaemia of chronic disease and
haemolytic, to the rare ones. Following is a list of the various types of anaemia:

 Iron deficiency anaemia.

 Folic acid deficiency anaemia.
 Vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia/pernicious anaemia
 Vitamin C deficiency anaemia

Iron Deficiency Anaemia

Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common form of anaemia in the world. The onset of iron deficiency
anaemia is gradual. At first, there may not be any symptoms. The deficiency begins when the body loses more
iron than it derives from food and other sources. As a result, fewer RBCs develop. In the early stage of this
anaemia, RBCs look normal but are reduced in number. Then the body tries to compensate for the iron
deficiency by producing more RBCs, which are characteristically small in size. Symptoms develop at this stage.
Causes and preventions:

 Iron deficiency anaemia occurs because of reduced intake or absorption of iron; adequate iron-
containing foods must be included to form a part of the diet.

 Increased loss of iron as seen in bleeding disorders or in hookworm infestation can cause this anaemia;
treatment for worms should be done regularly and good personal hygiene must be followed.

 Due to increased demand as seen during pregnancy or adolescence; iron supplements should be given if
found necessary.

Iron in the diet: Iron deficiency anaemia can occur at any age group. Dietary iron comes from two sources;
animal products containing haem iron and plant sources containing non-haem iron. Cooking of food in iron pots
also contributes to iron in the diet. Even though breast milk contains less iron content, it has better absorption
and bio-availability of iron as compared to other milks.
Iron absorption is increased in presence of vitamin C. Therefore, inclusion of vitamin C rich foods in meals will
enhance iron absorption. Tannin in tea can inhibit iron absorption. Therefore, drinking tea with meals should be
avoided.
Folic Acid Deficiency Anaemia
This sort of nutritional anaemia is the most common type of megaloblastic anaemia (in which RBCs are bigger
than normal). It is caused by the deficiency of folic acid, a vitamin that the body needs to produce normal cells.
Folic acid anaemia is especially common in infants and teenagers. Although this condition usually results from a
dietary deficiency, it is sometimes due to the body's inability to absorb enough folic acid from foods such as
cheese, eggs, fish, milk, meat, mushrooms and green vegetables.

Vitamin B12 Deficiency Anaemia

Another megaloblastic anaemia, vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia is less common than folic acid anaemia. It
develops when the body does not absorb enough of this nutrient. Vitamin B12 is necessary for the creation of
RBCs and is found in meat and vegetables. Large amounts of B12 are stored in the body, so this condition may

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not become apparent until as much as four years after B12 absorption stops or slows down. The most common
form of B12 deficiency is pernicious anaemia. Eating disorders or an unbalanced diet increase the risk of
developing this type of anaemia.

Vitamin C Deficiency Anaemia

This is a rare disorder that causes the bone marrow to manufacture abnormally small RBCs. Vitamin C
deficiency anaemia results from a severe, long-standing dietary deficiency.

Treatment of Nutritional Anaemia

A diet rich in iron,folate,vitamin C vitamin B12 is recommended, proper cooking of food, good personal
hygiene and fortification of foods with iron goes a long way in combating nutritional anaemia.
Anaemia due to nutritional deficiencies can usually be treated at home with iron supplements or injections of
vitamin B12. People with folic acid anaemia should take oral folic acid replacements. Vitamin C deficiency
anaemia can be cured by taking one vitamin C tablet a day.

Keratomalacia is drying and clouding of the cornea due to vitamin A deficiency and insufficient protein and
calories in the diet.

The surface of the conjunctiva and cornea dries, sometimes leading to corneal ulcers and bacterial infections.
The tear glands are also affected, resulting in an inadequate tear film and dry eyes. Night blindness (poor vision
in the dark) may develop because of the effects of vitamin A deficiency on the retina. The diagnosis of
keratomalacia is based on the presence of a dry or ulcerated cornea in a malnourished person.

Management

Diets rich in vitamin A accompanied with foods rich in fat are recommended.Fat increases the absorption of
vitan A since it is a fat soluble vitamin. Vitamin A supplements is also part of the treatment of this condition.
The dosage is determined by the severity of the condition, although prolonged daily administration of large
doses, especially to infants, may result in hypervitaminosis. An adequate diet containing whole milk and foods
high in vitamin A or carotenes prevents the condition.

Gout
Gout is a disease that results from an overload of uric acid in the body. This overload of uric acid leads to the
formation of tiny crystals of urate that deposit in tissues of the body, especially the joints. When crystals form in
the joints it causes recurring attacks of joint inflammation (arthritis). Chronic gout can also lead to deposits of
hard lumps of uric acid in and around the joints and may cause joint destruction, decreased kidney functions and
kidney stones

It is often related to an inherited abnormality in the body's ability to process uric acid. Uric acid is a breakdown
product of purines that are part of many foods we eat. An abnormality in handling uric acid can cause attacks of
painful arthritis (gout attack), kidney stones, and blockage of the kidney-filtering tubules with uric acid crystals,
leading to kidney failure. On the other hand, some people may only develop elevated blood uric acid levels
(hyperuricemia) without having arthritis or kidney problems.
Management
- Protein intake should be restricted
- One should reduce alcohol intake or stop taking alcohol altogether

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Resource persons
- Food commodities
- Recipes

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 - Magazines
- Internet

Evaluation
1. List nutritional diseases and disorders
2. Explain the causes of the various nutritional diseases and disorders
3. Describe the signs and symptoms of nutritional diseases and disorders
4. Discuss prevention and management of nutritional disorders

7.1.32 ENZYMES
specific objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain characteristics of enzymes
c) explain classification of enzymes
d) explain the role of enzymes in food processing and preservation
TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological catalysts on reactions. Almost all processes in a biological
cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates.
A catalyst is any substance which makes a chemical reaction go faster, without itself being changed. A catalyst
can be used over and over again in a chemical reaction: it does not get used up.
Substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal
chemical is modified by chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary
minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function properly. Metabolism is a step-by-step modification
of the initial molecule to shape it into another product.

TASK 2: EXPLAINING CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES

Characteristics of enzymes
1. Enzymes are specific in nature
Enzymes have a speciality in that they possess an 'active site'. This active site allows other molecules to bind to
the enzyme, and these molecules are known as the 'substrate', and the shape of the active site allows them to fit
perfectly forming the enzyme-substrate complex. The substrate then unbinds in the form of it's product.
Enzymes are said to specific in their nature, as the shape of the active site will only allow one molecule to fit. It
may either catalyse the breaking up or joining of molecules, forming one or more products. When the reaction is
complete, these products leave the active site, and as said before - the enzyme is unchanged and can thus receive
another substrate molecule.
2. Enzyme Concentration
Increasing enzyme concentration increases the rate of the reaction so long as there is sufficient substrate, there is
more enzyme-substrate complexes being formed and more product being formed thus faster rate of reaction. The
rate of reaction increases linearly with enzyme concentration.
3. Substrate Concentration
Increasing the substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction, to a certain point known as the saturation
point, which is where every enzymes active site is occupied and so substrate simply ends up 'queuing up' and
waiting for an active site.
3. Temperature
The speed at which molecules move around freely is determined by the temperature giving them more or less
energy to do so - at high temperatures the molecules, the enzymes and the substrates, move around fastest, and
thus there are the most collisions per second, causing enzyme-substrate complexes to be formed more
frequently.The bonds in the enzyme molecule begin to shake so violently that they begin to break, which causes
the enzyme to lose it's shape, which changes the shape of the active site (so the substrate will no longer fit) and

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the enzyme is said to be denatured. The reason the rate of reaction does not immediately drop to 0 is that the
enzyme slowly loses shape as the temperature increases, and so the substrate fits less well and eventually not at
all, and so the catalysis does not occur. The process of denaturing is usually irreversible.
In humans 40ºc is the optimum temperature for enzyme reactions- the temperature at which an enzyme
catalyses a reaction at the maximum rate. Our bodies are kept at 37ºc to make sure they never go above 40ºc as
enzymes would start to denature at even the slightest upward variation - which would be extremely dangerous as
nearly all reactions within the body rely on enzymes.
A very low temperature on the other hand lowers enzyme activity since low temperatures inactivates the
enzymes.
4. The effect of pH on enzyme activity
pH is a measure of hydrogen ions in a solution, and these affect enzyme activity since the hydrogen ions can
react with the enzyme and change the enzymes shape, deforming the active site. Depending on where it is
normally located in the body, an enzyme will have pH values at which its structure is most stable. As conditions
deviate from this point, the enzyme’s ability to help along reactions decreases.

Most enzymes work best near a pH of 7, but some enzymes operate most effectively in a particularly acidic
environment, such as the stomach; a neutral environment impairs their function As with temperature, too high or
low pH for the enzyme will denature the enzyme.
5. Inhibition
There are two types of enzyme inhibition - that are substances that inhibit the enzymes function.

(i) Competitive
(ii) Non-competitive

They can be harmful in that they can stop a reaction happening, or helpful in stopping a reaction from running
wild - perhaps the end-product of a chain of reactions will be an enzyme inhibitor to prevent the reaction
continuing indefinitely.

i) Competitive

Competitive enzyme inhibitors are named as such because they compete with the substrate for the enzyme
molecule's active site's. They achieve this by being a similar shape and fitting into the active site, temporarily

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blocking substrate from entering. This makes the reaction slower, since there is less chance that genuine
substrate will collide with an enzyme and form product. Competitive inhibitors affect on the enzyme is always
reversible.
ii) Non-Competitive

Non-competitive enzymes are ones that do not compete, in that that either bind permanently to the active site or
bind elsewhere, deforming the active site. Eventually, they will destroy all available enzymes, stopping the
reaction short even if there is remaining substrate, since all active sites are either blocked or deformed. Unless
the inhibitor only binds to somewhere else on the enzyme very briefly, the enzyme will be irreversibly unusable
for normal enzyme-substrate complexes to form.
Example: The antibiotic penicillin acts by permanently filling an enzyme required for bacterial cell wall
synthesis.

TASK 3: EXPLAINING CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

Enzymes are generally classified on the basis of the type of reactions that they catalyse. 6 groups of enzymes
can be recognised on this basis. The following table lists the 6 groups of enzymes along with examples.

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TASK 4: EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
AND PRESERVATION
Enzymes Used in Food Processing -
Enzyme Substrate Action/Objective
A. Proteases
1. Endogenous proteases Meat ('hanging' of meat)
Tenderisation of meat, flavour
development
2. Subtilisin Soya protein Partial hydrolysis; increases
whipping expansion, emulsifying
capacity; hydrolysate may be added
to cured meats.
3. Subtilisin Red blood cells (RBCs) RBC haemolysate subjected to
hydrolysis haeme molecules
precipitate and are removed;
purified hydrolysate spray dried and
used in cured meats, sausages,
luncheon meats, etc.
4. Papain (in active form) Meat (tenderisation) Injected into the jugular vein
shortly before slaughter; after
slaughter, papain is activated and
tenderises the meat; only 2-5 ppm
(of body weight) enzyme injected.
5. Heat labile fungal protease Dough from high gluten Hydrolysis of gluten; makes dough
wheat varieties suitable for biscuit, pie, pastry
making.
C. Catalase H2O2 Degrades H2O2 into water and O2;
used in combination with glucose
oxidase to remove glucose and/or
O2 from foods, drinks, etc.
D. Amylases Starch, sucrose, D - Production of glucose, maltose and
glucose high fructose syrups.

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Other enzymes used in food processing
Enzyme Used in Fruit Juice Manufacturing

Enzymes are, widely used in fruit Juice and brewing industries to achieve specific objectives, which can not be
otherwise, achieved. In addition, brewing industry employs varied but specific strains of yeast for fermentation
of the brew.

The cloudiness of fruit juices and wines is mainly due to pectins, which exhibit are usually associated with other
plant polymers and even cell debris. The pectins are digested by pecteolytic enzymes mixtures prepared . The
four enzymes present in the mixture act synergistically to accomplish, a task, which can not be achieved by
mechanical means. Treatment of fruit pulp with pecteolytic enzyme mixture gives the following benefits:

(i) Elimination of juice/wine cloudiness,

(ii) reduced solution viscosity,

(iii) Increased juice yields, e.g., a 15% increase in case of white grapes,

(iv) Shorter fermentation period in case of wine making.

Cheese Making
The milk is warmed and a mixture of two enzymes (chymosin and pepsin)known as rennet, which is obtained
from the fourth stomach of the milk-fed calf, is added. This coagulates the milk to form 'curds and whey'. The
whey is a cloudy liquid which contains some protein and sugars (including 'milk sugar', lactose), while the curds
are precipitated protein which is pressed and subsequently packed in various sized containers for maturing.
Many modern cheeses are produced using chymosin from fungi or bacteria, and sold as vegetarian cheese.
Liquid-Centred sweets and Chocolates
Have you ever wondered how the liquid centre is placed into chocolates? A mixture of equal parts glucose and
fructose is very soluble in water, whereas sucrose is less soluble; and an equivalent amount of sucrose in water
forms a paste-like solid. If the enzyme invertase (from yeast) is injected into the chocolate which contains
sucrose paste, the sucrose is converted to glucose and fructose.
High Fructose Corn Syrup
Most of us are aware that, traditionally, sugar was obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet. However, most of the
sugar sweeteners used in processed food nowadays, such as jams, ketchups and soft drinks, comes from
sweetcorn. It is also in many so-called health foods.
The process for making the sweetener, known as 'high fructose corn syrup' High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is
produced by processing corn starch to yield glucose, and then processing the glucose to produce a high
percentage of fructose. The process is somewhat complicated, involving the different enzymes amylase and
isomerases.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Food commodities
- Acids
- Bases
- Water pH scale
- Litmus paper
Evaluation
1. Define terms the following
a) Enzyme
b) Catalyst
c) substrate
d) Metabolic pathway

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2. Explain characteristics of enzymes
3. Explain classification of enzymes
4. Explain the role of enzymes in food processing and preservation

7.1.33 DIGESTION OF FOOD

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) describe the digestive system
c) identify enzymes and their functions
d) explain the food absorption process

TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS

Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it
for absorption

Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva

Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx

and into the esophagus.

Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),

Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile
and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,

Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis,
active transport, and diffusion,

Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

Peristalsis refers to rhythmic contractions that move food in the gut. Peristalsis in the esophagus moves food
from the mouth to the stomach.

TASK 2: DESCRIBING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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Human Digestive System
The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down large organic masses into
smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The breakdown of the nutrients requires the coordination of
several enzymes secreted from specialized cells within the mouth, stomach, intestines, and liver. The major
organs or structures that coordinate digestion within the human body include the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestine, and liver.
Mouth
In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for receiving food and breaking up large
organic masses. In the mouth, food is changed mechanically by biting and chewing. Humans have four kinds of
teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped teeth in the front of the mouth for biting; canines are pointed teeth for tearing;
and premolars and molars are flattened, ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and crushing food.
In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food particles together into a soft mass. Three
pairs of salivary glands—the parotid glands, the submaxillary glands, and the sublingual glands—secrete saliva
into the mouth. The saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into smaller
molecules of the disaccharide maltose.
During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a mass called a bolus. The bolus is pushed
back into the pharynx (throat) and is forced through the opening to the esophagus.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe that extends through the neck and
chest to the stomach. The bolus of food moves through the esophagus by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of
muscular contractions that propels the bolus along. The contractions are assisted by the pull of gravity.
Stomach
The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A valvelike ring of muscle called the
cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to the stomach. The sphincter relaxes as the bolus passes through and
then quickly closes.

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The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers of stomach muscle contract
and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to form a soupy liquid called chyme.
The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the stomach plays a role in protein
digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells secrete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in
the presence of hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining. The
pepsin then digests large proteins into smaller proteins called peptides. To protect the stomach lining from the
acid, a third type of cell secretes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An overabundance of acid due to mucus
failure may lead to an ulcer.
Small intestine
The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into the small intestine. An adult's
small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divided into three sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the
duodenum; the next 10 feet form the jejunum; and the final 12 feet form the ileum. The inner surface of the
small intestine contains numerous fingerlike projections called villi. Each villus has projections of cells called
microvilli to increase the surface area.
Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes digest nutrients into simpler
forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are supplemented by enzymes from the pancreas, a large,
glandular organ lying near the stomach. In addition, bile enters the small intestine from the gall bladder to assist
in fat digestion.
The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for starch), maltase (for maltose), sucrase
(for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose). For fats, the principal enzyme is lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the
large globules of fat must be broken into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments, and
cholesterol that is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, a saclike structure underneath the liver.
Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic enzymes: trypsin and
chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and peptidases reduce the enzymes to amino acids.
Nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides in the small intestine also.
Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products of digestion enter cells of the villi,
move across the cells, and enter blood vessels called capillaries. Diffusion accounts for the movement of many
nutrients, but active transport is responsible for the movement of glucose and amino acids. The products of fat
digestion pass as small droplets of fat into lacteals, which are branches of the lymphatic system.
Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum. Substances that have not been
digested or absorbed then pass into the large intestine.
Large intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the body. The two organs meet at a
blind sac called the caecum and a small fingerlike process called the appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe
the caecum and appendix are vestiges of larger organs that may have been functional in human ancestors.
The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending, transverse, and descending portions,
each about one foot in length. The colon's chief functions are to absorb water and to store, process, and
eliminate the residue following digestion and absorption. The intestinal matter remaining after water has been
reclaimed is known as feces. Feces consist of nondigested food (such as cellulose), billions of mostly harmless
bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials. The feces are stored in the rectum and passed out through the anus
to complete the digestion process.
Liver
The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestion. For example, cells of the
liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream and convert the glucose to a polymer called glycogen for
storage.
The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deamination, it converts some amino
acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabolism. In doing so, the liver removes the amino groups
from amino acids and uses the amino groups to produce urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine. Fats
are processed into two-carbon units that can enter the Krebs cycle for energy metabolism. The liver also stores
vitamins and minerals, forms many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and produces bile for fat digestion

TASK 3: IDENTIFYING ENZYMES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

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 Summary of Digestive Enzymes
The digestive enzymes in the table below are summarized according to type of food that they digest.

FOOD TYPE ENZYME SOURCE PRODUCTS

CARBOHYDRATES Salivary amylase Salivary glands Maltose

Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Maltose
Maltase Small intestine Glucose

PROTEINS Pepsin Stomach mucosa Peptides

Trypsin Pancreas Peptides
Peptidases Intestinal mucosa Amino acids

FATS Lipase Pancreas Fatty acids

and glycerol

The table below shows digestive enzymes grouped by source of the enzyme.

SOURCE ENZYME FOOD PRODUCT

MOUTH (salivary glands) Salivary amylase Polysaccharides Maltose

STOMACH Pepsin Proteins Peptides

PANCREAS Pancreatic amylase Polysaccharides Maltose

Trypsin Proteins Peptides
Lipase Fats Fatty acids
and glycerol

SMALL INTESTINE Maltase Maltose Glucose

Peptidases Peptides Amino acids

TASK 4: EXPLAINING THE FOOD ABSORPTION PROCESS

ABSORPTION
The term digestion includes all the chemical changes that occur while food is being prepared for use by the
body..
When digestion is complete proteins no longer exist as such, because they have been split into amino acids.
These important foods are taken up by the tiny blood vessels in the wall of the intestine, and carried to the liver.
There some of them are changed promptly so as to add to the sugar supply of the body, while others circulate in
the blood so as to be available to the tissues, to be used both in the growth of new cells and in replacing those
damaged in the activities of living.
Starches and sugars are finally absorbed as simple sugars—chiefly glucose. These simple sugars are carried in
the blood stream for a short time following a meal, and the level of the blood sugar may be raised slightly until
the surplus sugar is changed to body glycogen. This is accomplished largely by the liver, and glycogen is stored
in the liver and muscles for use as need arises.

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Digestion brings very interesting changes in the fats eaten. They are changed to glycerol and fatty acids
dissolved in bile. These substances enter the cells lining the villi or minute finger-like processes covering the
surface of the intestinal wall, and are rebuilt into neutral fats suitable for the use of the human body. The white
corpuscles of the blood pick up these particles of fat and transport them into the lymph channels which
ultimately empty the fatty solution into the blood stream through the thoracic duct, which unites with the veins
near the heart. After absorption the excess fats are removed from the circulation and are added to the deposits of
fat in the body, in the form of human fat otherwise known as adipose tissue.
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed and stored along with fats. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by
diffusion or mediated transport. Vitamin B12, because of its large size and charged nature, first binds to a
protein, called intrinsic factor, which is secreted by the stomach epithelium, and is then absorbed by
endocytosis.

The stomach absorbs some water but most is absorbed at small intestine by diffusion.
After these necessary foods have been removed from the contents of the bowel, and the available water has been
withdrawn, useless residue remains.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts

Evaluation
1. Define the following terms
- Digestion
- Absorption
- assimilation
- mastication
- peristalsis
- Deglutination
- Egestion
- Ingestion

2. Describe the human digestive system

3. Identify enzymes and their functions
4. Explain the food absorption process

7.1.34 FOOD ADDITIVES

Theory

7.1.34 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of food additives
c) classify types food additives
d) explain the use of food additives
e) explain legal requirements in the use of food additives

TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and appearance.

TASK 2: IMPORTANCE OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Importance of Food Addatives

Food additives have the following importance:-
1. Maintaining product consistency

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Substances called emulsifiers provide a consistent texture and prevent products from separating. Stabilizers and
thickeners provide an even texture. Anticaking agents allow substances to flow freely.
2. Improve or preserve the nutrient value
Many foods and drinks are fortified and enriched to improve the nutritional status. For example, vitamins and
minerals are added to many foods including flour, cereal, margarine, and milk. This helps to make up for
vitamins or minerals that may be low or completely lacking in a person's diet. All products that contain added
nutrients must be labeled.
3. Maintain the wholesomeness of foods
Contamination from bacteria can allow food borne illnesses to occur. Preservatives reduce the spoilage that air,
fungi, bacteria, or yeast can cause. Certain preservatives help preserve the flavor in baked goods by preventing
the fats and oils from going bad. They also keep fresh fruits from turning brown when exposed to the air.
4. Control the acidity and alkalinity and provide leavening
Specific additives help change the acid-base balance of foods to obtain a desired taste, color, or flavor.
Leavening agents that release acids when they are heated react with baking soda to help biscuits, cakes, and
other baked goods rise.
5. Provide color and enhance flavor
Certain colors improve the appearance of foods. There are many spices and natural and synthetic flavors that
bring out the best in the flavor of food.

TASK 3: TYPES OF FOOD ADDITIVES, THEIR FUNCTION AND USES

ADDITIVE FUNCTION FOODS WHERE THEY EXAMPLES OF

ARE USED ADDATIVES
Sweeteners Add sweetness with or without the Beverages, baked goods, Sucrose (sugar), glucose,
extra calories confections, table-top fructose, , corn syrup, high
sugar, substitutes, many fructose corn syrup,
processed foods
Color Additives Offset color loss due to exposure to Many processed foods, carotene, grape skin
light, air, temperature extremes, (candies, snack foods extract, or carmine,
moisture and storage conditions; margarine, cheese, soft paprika, caramel color,
correct natural variations in color; drinks, jams/jellies, fruit and vegetable juices,
enhance colors that occur naturally; gelatins, pudding and pie saffron
provide color to colorless and "fun" fillings)
foods
Flavors and Add specific flavors (natural and Pudding and pie fillings, Natural flavoring, artificial
Spices synthetic) gelatin dessert mixes, flavor, and spices
cake mixes, salad
dressings, candies, soft
drinks, ice cream, BBQ
sauce
Flavor Enhance flavors already present in Many processed foods Monosodium glutamate
Enhancers foods (without providing their own (MSG), hydrolyzed soy
separate flavor) protein, autolyzed yeast
extract,
Emulsifiers Salad dressings, peanut Soy lecithin, mono- and
Allow smooth mixing of
butter, chocolate, diglycerides, egg yolks,
ingredients, prevent separation
margarine, frozen polysorbates, sorbitan
Keep emulsified products stable, desserts monostearate
reduce stickiness, control
crystallization, keep ingredients
dispersed, and to help products
dissolve more easily

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 Stabilizers and Produce uniform texture, improve Frozen desserts, dairy Gelatin, pectin, guar gum,
Thickeners, "mouth-feel" products, cakes, pudding carrageenan, xanthan gum,
Binders, and gelatin mixes, whey
Texturizers dressings, jams and
jellies, sauces
pH Control Control acidity and alkalinity, Beverages, frozen Lactic acid, citric acid,
Agents and prevent spoilage desserts, chocolate, low ammonium hydroxide,
acidulants acid canned foods, baking sodium carbonate
powder
Leavening Promote rising of baked goods Breads and other baked Baking soda,
Agents goods monocalcium phosphate,
calcium carbonate
Anti-caking Keep powdered foods free-flowing, Salt, baking powder, Calcium silicate, iron
agents prevent moisture absorption confectioner's sugar ammonium citrate, silicon
dioxide
Humectants Retain moisture Shredded coconut, Glycerin, sorbitol
marshmallows, soft
candies, confections
Yeast Nutrients Promote growth of yeast Breads and other baked Calcium sulfate,
goods ammonium phosphate
Dough Produce more stable dough Breads and other baked Ammonium sulfate,
Strengtheners goods azodicarbonamide, L-
and Conditioners cysteine
Firming Agents Maintain crispness and firmness Processed fruits and Calcium chloride, calcium
vegetables lactate
Enzyme Modify proteins, polysaccharides Cheese, dairy products, Enzymes, lactase, papain,
Preparations and fats meat rennet, chymosin
Gases Serve as propellant, aerate, or create Oil cooking spray, Carbon dioxide, nitrous
carbonation whipped cream, oxide
carbonated beverages

TASK 4: USES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

(Refer to task 3)

7.1.34 T5 LEGISLATION IN THE USE OF

FOOD ADDITIVES

The government of Kenya regulates the use of additives thorough KEBS and KEPHIS as per the requirements of
Food, Drugs And Chemical Substances (Food Labeling, Additives And Standards) Regulations [CAP 254]

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Manuals
- Internet
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions
Evaluation
1. Define the term food additive
2. Explain the importance of food additives
3. Classify types food additives

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 4. Explain the use of food additives
5. Explain legal requirements in the use of food additives

7.1.35 FOOD CONTAMINATION

Theory

7.1.35 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify food contaminants
c) explain critical points of food contamination
d) outline the legislation regarding food contamination
Task 1;Defining terms
Enzymes- are chemicals which are present in all food. They speed up chemical changes that result in loss of
flavour, colour and texture. As enzymes are mainly composed of protein, they are sensitive to heat. They are
active in temperatures found in a kitchen on a warm sunny

Micro-organisms-- are tiny organisms present almost everywhere; they occur in all fresh foods, in the soil, in
dust, on all surfaces and on the skin of people handling food.

Moulds- are tiny plants, which are just visible to the naked eye. They grow from cells called spores present in
the air. They settle and multiply on suitable foods

Yeasts- are microscopic single called plants, which are found in the air and soil, and on the surface of fruit.
Some are able to tolerate fairly high acidic, salt and sugar concentrations and can grow without the presence of
oxygen.

Bacteria- are the most widespread of the micro-organisms found in food. They are minute single cells of various
shapes. Under ideal conditions, they divide into two every 20 minutes, consequently, millions of them may
develop in contaminated food in a short time

Food contamination-process whereby contaminants or hazardous substance get into food materials

Food spoilage-means the original nutritional value ,texture,flavour,of food are damaged rendering it unfit for
consumption.

Task 2 ;classifying food contaminants

 Food contaminant includes:

- Microbial: bacteria, fungus and virus
- Chemical contaminants i.e. pesticides residues, detergents
- Extraneous matter i.e. weed seeds, soil, dust
- Physical matter i.e. iron fillings, strings, saw dust
- Physical effects like nuclear radiation and gases

Task 3;Explaining critical points of food contamination

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a systematic preventive approach to food
safety and pharmaceutical safety that addresses physical, chemical, and biological hazards as a means
of prevention rather than finished product inspection. HACCP is used in the food industry to identify
potential food safety hazards, so that key actions, known as Critical Control Points (CCPs) can be taken
to reduce or eliminate the risk of the hazards being realized. The system is used at all stages of food
production and preparation processes including packaging, distribution, etc.

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The HACCP seven principles
Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. Plans determine the food safety hazards and identify the preventive
measures the plan can apply to control these hazards. A food safety hazard is any biological, chemical, or
physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human consumption.
Principle 2: Identify critical control points. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point, step, or procedure in a
food manufacturing process at which control can be applied and, as a result, a food safety hazard can be
prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level.
Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each critical control point. A critical limit is the maximum or minimum
value to which a physical, biological, or chemical hazard must be controlled at a critical control point to prevent,
eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level.
Principle 4: Establish critical control point monitoring requirements. Monitoring activities are necessary to
ensure that the process is under control at each critical control point. .
Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. These are actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation
from an established critical limit. The final rule requires a plant's HACCP plan to identify the corrective actions
to be taken if a critical limit is not met. Corrective actions are intended to ensure that no product injurious to
health or otherwise adulterated as a result of the deviation enters commerce.
Principle 6: Establish record keeping procedures. The HACCP regulation requires that all plants maintain
certain documents, including its hazard analysis and written HACCP plan, and records documenting the
monitoring of critical control points, critical limits, verification activities, and the handling of processing
deviations.
Principle 7: Establish procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as intended. Validation ensures
that the plants do what they were designed to do; that is, they are successful in ensuring the production of safe
product. Plants will be required to validate their own HACCP plans. FSIS will not approve HACCP plans in
advance, but will review them for conformance with the final rule.
Task;4-Outlining legislation regarding Food Safety Act 1990

The Food Safety Act 1990 is wide-ranging legislation on food safety and consumer protection in relation to
food .

The main aims of the Act

are:
 to ensure that all food meets consumers‟ expectations in terms of nature, substance and quality and is not
misleadingly presented;

 to provide legal powers and specify offences in relation to public health and consumers‟ interests

Thus, food safety can be achieved provided you;

 Keep yourself clean

 Keep the work place clean
 Wear suitable clean clothing
 Protect food from contamination
 Store, prepare, serve and display food at the correct temperature,
 Inform manager if you have an illness
 Do not work with food if you have food poisoning symptoms

Preventing food contamination at critical points.

To avoid food contamination, the following critical points need to be observed to avoid contamination
ensure that:
- Foods should be bought from reliable suppliers
- Foods need to be stored away from possible contaminants i.e. separate stores for chemicals and non edible
items.
- During transportation separate the foods from potential contaminants.

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- Do quality check before receiving food from suppliers.
- Receiving provide an ideal avenue to check for food contamination.
- Methods of checking contaminants.
- Check for sale by date labels.
- Check for physical damages like discolourisation.
- Check for extraneous matter
- Smell test, some food has characteristic smell.
- For frozen foods do temperatures check as soggy meats means possibility of bacterial contamination
- Check for leaks on containers.
- Check for chemicals contamination by doing small check.
- Clear sewing operation.
- Remove physical contaminants by sieving, winnowing etc.
- Bag clean
- Controlled temperature especially during food serving
- Freezing for meat storage and some dairy products like cheese store at – 18 oC
- Refrigeration store at 0 – 8 0C to store for short periods of time.
- Air conditions to maintain room temperatures.

 During food production and preparation the following should be observed to avoid food contamination:
- Appropriate food handling practices.
- Use clean handling equipments and tools.
- Sanitize tools and equipments.
- Using working boards for different food stuffs.
- Clean and sanitize working surfaces.
- Avoid cross contamination from raw foods and cooked foods.
- Foods that are eaten raw like salads must be properly cleaned and handled with clean ha
- Serve food at correct holding temperature for hot foods at 800C and maintain that temperature for cold foods
likes salad place in a chilled chamber.
- Using clean sanitized tools and equipments during food service.

 Food handlers must observe appropriate food handling practices like:-

- Washing hands before and after serving foods
- Short hair.
- Trimmed finger nails.
- Clean uniforms/clothes.
- No spitting next to food.
- No blowing your nose near foods.
- Avoid touching your body parts like nose, since some bacteria thrive in those parts.
- Washing hands after visiting wash rooms.
- Wear plastic gloves while handling foods.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Food commodities

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions on classification food contaminants
- Observation
- Field visit
- Research

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 - Practice HACCP
- Report writing

.Evaluation
1. Define the following terms:
 Yeast

 Bacteria
 Enzymes
 Micro-organisms
 Moulds
 Food contamination`
2. Classify food contaminants
3.Explain critical points of food contamination
4.Outline legislation regarding food contamination

7.1.36 FOOD SPOILAGE

Theory

7.1.36 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list types of food spoilage
c) explain causes of food spoilage
d) describe the characteristics of food fit for human consumption
e) describe characteristics of spoilt food
f) explain measures taken to prevent food spoilage

Task 1;Defining terms

Food Spoilage - The process of food becoming inedible, usually by microorganisms, which can make
food partially or completely unusable

Task 2: Identifying types of food spoilage

Food spoilage means that the original nutritional value, texture and flavour of food are damaged and the food
becomes harmful to humans thus becoming unsuitable for consumption i.e. becomes unwholesome.

 Enzymatic Spoilage
- Enzymes are proteins found in all plants and animals
- They act on food nutrients when conducive environments like temperature, pH, and oxygen is available
- If uncooked foods are not used while fresh, enzymes can cause undesirable changes in colour, texture and
Flavour
- Enzymes are destroyed easily by heat processing
- Enzymes act as catalysts for chemical reactions causing food spoilage
- The browning of meat is normally caused by oxidation reactions with enzymes playing a major role
- The enzymes reactions can be altered by decreasing or increasing temperature
- High temperatures kill enzymes this stopping enzyme spoilage
- Low temperatures like -18 oC retards the action of enzymes thus preventing food spoilage

 Microbial spoilage caused by bacteria, yeasts and moulds

- Bacterial spoilage accounts for a bigger percentage of food spoilage especially fresh vegetables fruits and
meat
- Bacteria are microscopic minute organisms round, rod or spiral in shape and are of two types spore forming
and non – spore forming
- Optimum conditions for bacteria action
 High temperature
 Low acid conditions thus preferring foods like vegetables and meat
 Moist conditions

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  Oxygen for those which require oxygen
 Non oxygen dependent requires non oxygen conditions.

 Yeast Spoilage
- Yeasts growth causes:
- Fermentation which is the result of yeast metabolism.
- There are two types of yeasts;
- True yeast and false yeast.
- True yeast metabolizes sugar producing alcohol and carbon dioxide gas which is known as fermentation.
- False yeast grows as a dry film on a food surface, such as on mangoes.
- False yeast occurs in foods that have a high sugar or high acid environment.
- Yeasts thrive in high acid foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles.
- Easily destroyed by heat processing high acid foods at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in a boiling water
canner for the appropriate length of time destroys yeasts.

 Mould spoilage
- Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass which is visible and referred to as `mould growth'.
- Moulds form spores which, when dry, float through the air to find suitable conditions where they can start
the growth cycle again.
- Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is allergic to molds.
- Usually though, the main symptoms from eating mouldy food will be nausea or vomiting from the bad taste
and smell of the mouldy food.
- Moulds thrive in high acid foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles.
- Easily destroyed by heat processing high acid foods at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in a boiling water
canner for the appropriate length of time destroys moulds

 Fungal spoilage

Storage rot in Blue mould rot in

grapes caused by tomato caused by
Botrytis cinerea Penicilliumi spp

 Bacterial spoilage causes soft rot in tomato caused due to Erwinia carotovora bacteria
 Chemical food spoilage
- Caused by action of chemical on food
 Insect spoilage
- Insects like weevils attack grains and dry foods stuffs causing physical damage
- Grains such as maize beans, green grams are highly susceptible to spoilage by insects
- Grains get holes thus affecting their appearance, texture and nutrients.
 Animal spoilage

Animals like rats and others eat grains, nuts causing partial damage thus spoiling their physical appearance

Task 3;Explaining causes of food spoilage

o Light
o Humidity
o Oxygen
o Development of micro-organisms
o Heat

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Task 4: Describing characteristics of food fit for human consumption
 .It should not have moulds
 It should not have a bad smell .
 .It should have the desired texture .
 . It should have the right colour
 It should not have a deteriorated taste .

Task 5: Identifying spoilt foods/ Characteristics of spoilt food

 Appearance of moulds on foods
 Bad smell is due to toxins produced by spoilage agents in terms of gases like sulphur dioxide
 Deteriorated texture where foods like fruits become soft or hard
 Colour change for example, meat changes from bright red to brown colour, Oranges from yellow/orange
colour to ash grey colour
 Deteriorated taste like sour taste for milk and fruits
 Food composition, change of food value like change of fruit sugar to

Task 6 :Explaining measures to prevent food spoilage

 Keep food in well-ventilated places to avoid build-up of moisture

 Do not keep food at warm temperatures.

 Make sure pickles or foods preserved in acid (vinegar, acetic acid) have sufficient acid added during
processing and are used within a reasonable time.

 Adding sugar to food will preserve them, e.g. jam. However they should be used within a reasonable time

 Check food on delivery and do not accept damaged stock

 Rotate food using a first in-first out policy.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
Evaluation
1. Define the term food spoilage
2. list types of food spoilage
3. explain causes of food spoilage
4. describe the characteristics of food fit for human consumption
5. describe characteristics of spoilt food
6. explain measures taken to prevent food spoilage

7.1.37 MICRO-ORGANISMS

Theory

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Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list the types of micro-organisms
c) discuss factors affecting the growth of micro-organisms
d) discuss the importance of micro-organisms in the food industry
Content
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Microorganisms are tiny, mostly one-celled organisms capable of rapid reproduction under proper growth
conditions.

TASK 2: TYPES OF MICRO ORGANISMS

Those microorganisms important in the food industry include the bacteria, viruses, yeasts, molds, and
protozoans
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms found in nearly all natural environments. Outward appearances of the
cell such as size, shape, and arrangement are referred to as morphology. Morphological types are grouped into
the general categories of spherical (the cocci), cylindrical (the rods) and spiral. The cocci may be further
grouped by their tendencies to cluster. Diplococci attach in pairs, streptococci in chains, staphylococci bunch
like grapes, and sarcinae produce a cuboidal arrangement. Bacterial cells have definite characteristic structures
such as the cell wall, cytoplasm, and nuclear structures. Some also possess hairlike appendages for mobility
called flagella, fimbriae which aid in attachment, plus cytoplasmic and membranous inclusions for regulating
life processes.
Viruses
Viruses are extremely small parasites. They require living cells of plants, animals, or bacteria for growth. The
virus is mainly a packet of genetic material which must be reproduced by the host.
Yeast and mold
Yeast and mold are fungi which do not contain chlorophyls. They range in size from single-celled organisms to
large mushrooms. Although some are multi celled, they are not differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. The
true fungi produce masses of filamentous hyphae which form the mycelium. Depending on the organism, they
may reproduce by fission, by budding as in the case of yeasts, or by means of spores borne on fruiting structures
depending on the organism.
Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled organisms such as the amoeba which can cause disease in humans and animals. They
possess cell structure similar to higher, more complex organisms.

TASK 3: FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF

MICRO-ORGANISMS
Nutrients
Nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water, required by, man are also needed
by microorganisms to grow. Microbes differ in their abilities to use substrates as nutrient sources. Their
enzyme systems are made available according to their genetic code. They vary in ability to use nitrogen sources
to produce amino acids and, therefore, proteins. Some require amino acids to be supplied by the substrate.
When organisms need special materials provided by their environment, we refer to them as fastidious.
Difference in the utilization of nutrients and the waste products they produce are important in differentiating
between organisms.
Oxygen
Microbes also differ in their needs for free oxygen. Aerobic organisms must grow in the presence of free
oxygen and anaerobic organisms must grow in the absence of free oxygen. Facultative organisms can grow
with or without oxygen, while microaerophilic organisms grow in the presence of small quantities of oxygen.
Water
Water is necessary for microbes to grow, but microbes cannot grow in pure water. Some water is not available.

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A measurement of the availability of water is aw or water activity. The aw of pure water is 1.0 while that of a
saturated salt solution is 0.75. Most spoilage bacteria require a minimum aw of 0.90. Some bacteria can
tolerate an aw above 0.75 as can some yeasts and most molds. Most yeasts require 0.87 water activity. An aw
of 0.85 or less suppresses the growth of organisms of public health significance.
Temperature
Microorganisms can grow in a wide range of temperatures. Since they depend on water as a solvent for
nutrients, frozen water or boiling water inhibits their growth. General terms are applied to organisms based on
their growth at different temperatures. Most organisms grow best at or near room and body temperature. These
are mesophiles. Those growing above 400C (1050F) are called thermophiles while those growing below
250C(750F) are called psychrotrophs.
Acidity
The nature of a solution based on its acidity or alkalinity is described as pH. The pH scale ranges from 0,
strongly acidic, to 14, strongly basic. Neutral solutions are pH 7, the pH of pure water. Most bacteria require
near neutral conditions for optimal growth with minimums and maximums between 4 and 9. Many organisms
change the pH of their substrate by producing by-products during growth. They can change conditions such that
the environment can no longer support their growth. Yeasts and molds are more tolerant of lower pH than the
bacteria and may outgrow them under those conditions.
Light & Chemicals
Ultraviolet light and the presence of chemical inhibitors may also affect the growth of organisms. Many
treatments such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine can kill or injure microbes. Under certain conditions those
given a sublethal treatment are injured, but can recover.

TASK4: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO-

ORGANISMS IN THE FOOD
INDUSTRY
Importance microorganisms
Nutrient Recycling. Dead material in soil is not broken down by microbes to release nutrients making them
available to help sustain the life of other organisms. Microbes have therefore been used for centuries to provide
us with food.
Bread making: Bread is the result of a microbial fermentation of sugars to produce carbon dioxide carbon
bubbles that make bread rise.
Beer and wine making: yeast is used to convert sugars into alcohol for our consumption.
Yoghurt and cheese are produced by bacterial fermentation of lactose, the sugar in milk.
As animal feeds industry and fish industry: Microbes such as phytoplankton also serve as the nutrient source that
indirectly feeds all marine animals. And microbial symbioses with plants allow them to grow strong and
increase productivity sometimes they are even essential for plant survival.
Biosynthesis: Microbes are builders, making products such as vitamin C.
Xanthan gum : It has been discovered that microorganisms are useful for making xanthan gum (a food
thickener).

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions
Evaluation
1. Define the term micro organism
2. List the types of micro-organisms
3. Discuss factors affecting the growth of micro-organisms
4. Discuss the importance of micro-organisms in the food industry

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7.1.38 FOOD POISONING

Theory

7.1.38 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss causes of food poisoning
c) discuss types of food poisoning
d) explain preventive measures of food poisoning
e) explain requirements for prevention of food poisoning

Content

7.1.38 T1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Food poisoning: occurs when food that is eaten, contains harmful bacteria or toxins.

Mild food poisoning is usually not a cause of worry. However sometimes, it can be serious and may cause
deadly illnesses.

The common symptoms associated with food poisoning include vomiting, nausea, diarrhoea and abdominal
pain.

7.1.38 T2 CAUSES OF FOOD POISONING

1. Toxins from bacteria

2. Presence of toxic chemicals like fertilizers, insecticides, heavy

metals and in food and water.

7.1.38 T3 TYPES OF FOOD POISONING

1. Bacterial food poisoning - Here the micro organisms called bacteria are responsible. The food material may
contain the pathogenic bacteria or their toxin and will be ingested along with the food.

2. Non bacterial food poisoning - Due to the presence of toxic chemicals like fertilizers, insecticides, heavy
metals and etc. Since bacterial food poisoning is common it is discussed here.

Bacterial food poisoning

All bacteria are not harmful.There are some pathogenic bacteria which secrete toxins and cause clinical
manifestations.These organisms enter the human body through food articles or drinks.

Some Common Bacterial Food Poisonings

1.Salmonella food poisoning - There are three different varieties of salmonella bacteria. These bacteria are
present in milk, milk products and eggs.
Symptoms of this food poisoning include nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Fever is also common.

2. Botulism - This is the dangerous type of food poisoning caused by clostridium botulinum. The spores of these
organisms are seen in the soil and enters the human body through pickles and canned fish ect. Compared to
other food poisonings here vomiting and diarrhoea are rare mainly the nervous system is affected. The
symptoms start with double vision, numbness with weakness. Later there will be paralysis with cardiac and
respiratory failure ending in death.

3. Staphylococcal food poisoning - It is caused by staphylo coccus aureus. These organisms usually cause skin
troubles like boils and eruptions. It causes mastitis in cow. Through the milk and milk products it enders and

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causes gastroenteritis. There will be vomiting, abdominal cramps with diarrhoea.

4. Clostridium food poisoning - This is caused by clostridium perfringens. They are present in stool, soil and
water. They enter the body through, meat, meat dishes and egg etc. If food articles are cooked and kept in room
temperature for a long time and heated again before eating can result this food poisoning. Symptoms include
vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps.

5. Bacillus cereus - The spores of these organisms can survive cooking and causes enteritis. Diarrhoea and
vomiting is common in this infection.

6.Shigella: Shigella is found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and apes. This type of food poisoning
spreads when people ignore washing their hands properly, after contact with faecal (solid waste products of the
body) matter. Bloody diarrhoea and stomach cramps are the most common symptoms that usually begin within a
couple of days after the infection.
7. Campylobacter: This type of bacteria is commonly associated with poultry products. A person consuming raw
poultry meat or not following safe meat-handling practices, causes Campylobacter. If the storage area of poultry
products is not kept clean, then this bacteria can easily contaminate the meat. The best way to prevent this
bacterial infection is to cook the food thoroughly. Good personal hygiene should also be maintained while
handling the food. Antimicrobial agents are commonly used to treat severe infections.

8. E.Coli: Escherichia Coli is the main culprit behind food borne illness. Although this bacteria is harmless,
some of its strains can cause considerable damage to the body. The bacteria constitutes 1% of the total bacteria
residing in an adult's intestines. People infected with the harmful strains of E.Coli, often experience severe
stomach pain.. People who eat contaminated or undercooked ground beef are susceptible to this infection. It has
been reported that those affected with E.Coli infections recover within 5 to 10 days. As a preventive measure,
one should avoid undercooked and raw meat. Drinking unpasteurized milk or apple juice or eating raw
vegetables can lead to this type of food poisoning.

7.1.38 T4 PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST FOOD POISONING

How to Prevent Food Poisoning

1. Only purified water should be used.

2. Hygiene should be maintained by all persons keeping contact with food.
3. Workers should use masks, cap and gloves during cooking and serving
4. Sick individuals should not come in contact with food materials.
5. Kitchen and premises should be neat and clean.
6. Utensils should be washed with soap and hot water.
7. Should not keep the prepared food for a long time in room temperature.
8. All food materials should be kept in closed containers.
9. Animals like dog, cat, rat ect should not come in contact with food

7.1.38 T5 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS IN PREVENTION OF FOOD

POISONING

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Food commodities
- Food preparation areas
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions

Evaluation
1. Define the term food poisoning

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2. discuss causes of food poisoning
3. discuss types of food poisoning
4. explain preventive measures of food poisoning
5. explain requirements for prevention of food poisoning

7.1.39 FOOD PRESERVATION

Theory

7.1.39 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) definition of terms
b) explain principles of food preservation
c) discuss the importance of food preservation
d) discuss methods of food preservation

Content
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or greatly slow down spoilage (loss of
quality, edibility or nutritive value) caused or accelerated by micro-organisms

TASK 2: PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi, and other micro-organisms, as well as
retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. It also includes processes to inhibit natural ageing and
discolouration that can occur during food preparation such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples which
causes browning when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be sealed after treatment
to prevent recontamination with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to be stored without any special
containment for long periods.
The principles of food preservation are:
 Elimination of water or humidity :- microbial spoilage is controlled by such measures as filtering of
liquids to eliminate the bulk of microbes;

 Control of temperature either by heating or cooling to retard the growth of microbes or kill them;

 Control of the amount of oxygen e.g. by canning, to create an unfavorable environment detrimental to
the growth of microbes;

 Addition of chemicals and biological agents, such as nitrates/nitrites, antibiotics, and non-pathogenic
micro organisms, to create an environment unfavorable to the growth of pathogenic micro organisms;

 Use of radiation to control micro organisms.

TASK 3: IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PRESERVATION

1. Seasonality: Seasonal foods e.g. mangoes can be preserved for use when out of season in form of juices,
jams, pickles etc.
2. Adds variety to our meals
3. Reduces bulk therefore economises on storage facilities
4. Eases transportation
5. Saves time
6. Reduces waste due to spoilage
7. Saves money

TASK 4: METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

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 Method Effect on microbial growth or survival
Refrigeration Low temperature to retard growth Suggested
Low temperature and reduction of water
Freezing activity to prevent microbial growth,
slowing of oxidation reactions
Reduction in water activity sufficient to
Drying, curing and conserving
delay or prevent microbial growth
Vacuum and oxygen free
Low oxygen tension inhibits strict aerobes
modified atmosphere
and delays growth of facultative anaerobes
packaging
Carbon dioxide enriched and
or modified atmosphere Specific inhibition of some micro-organisms
packaging
Addition of weak acids; e.g. Reduction of the intracellular pH of micro-
sodium lactate organisms
Reduction of pH value in situ by microbial
action and sometimes additional inhibition
Lactic fermentation by the lactic and acetic acids formed and by
other microbial products. (e.g. ethanol,
bacteriocins)
Cooking in high sucrose concentration
Sugar preservation creating too high osmotic pressure for most
microbial survival.
Steeping or cooking in Ethanol produces
Ethanol preservation toxic inhibition of microbes. Can be
combined with sugar preservation
Compartmentalization and nutrient
Emulsification limitation within the aqueous droplets in
water-in-oil emulsion foods
Addition of preservatives such Inhibition of specific groups of micro-
as nitrite or Sulphate ions organisms
Pasteurization and Delivery of heat sufficient to inactivate
appertization target micro-organisms to the desired extent
Delivery of ionizing radiation to disrupt
Food irradiation
cellular RNA
Application of high
Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria,
hydrostatic pressure
yeasts and moulds
(Pascalization)
Pulsed electric field Short bursts of electricity for microbial
processing (PEF treatment) inactivation
Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and
- Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions

Evaluation
1. define the term food preservation
2. explain principles of food preservation

150
3. discuss the importance of food preservation
4. discuss methods of food preservation

7.1.40 NUTRITION IN HIV AND AIDS

Theory

7.1.40 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the transmission modes of HIV and Aids
c) state the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids
d) explain the preventive measures of HIV and Aids
e) discuss nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

TASK 1 Definition of terms

1. Nutrition

 The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a living organism assimilates
food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues.
 The science or study that deals with food and nourishment, especially in humans.

2 .HIV AND AIDS

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease caused by the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV). It was first recognized in the United States in 1981. AIDS is the advanced form of infection with
the HIV virus, which may not cause recognizable disease for a long period after the initial exposure (latency).
No vaccine is currently available to prevent HIV infection. At present, all forms of AIDS therapy are focused on
improving the quality and length of life for AIDS patients by slowing or halting the replication of the virus and
treating or preventing infections and cancers that take advantage of a person's weakened immune system.

HIV

HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and is a 'Retrovirus'

 Acquired — because it is a condition that has to be contracted. It cannot be inherited or transmitted

through the genes.
 Immune — because it affects the body’s immune system, the part of the body that fights off diseases.
 Deficiency — because it makes the immune system stop working properly.

 Syndrome — because people with AIDS experience a number of different symptoms and
opportunistic diseases.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a systemic viral infection that weakens the body's ability to fight
infection and can cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS, the last stage of HIV disease).

Task 2: explaining the transmission modes of Hiv and Aids

HIV transmission
 HIV is spread by sexual contact with an infected person,

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 By sharing needles and/or syringes (primarily for drug injection) with someone who is infected
 Less commonly (and now very rarely in countries where blood is screened for HIV antibodies), through
transfusions of infected blood or blood clotting factors.
 Babies born to HIV-infected women may become infected before or during birth or through breast-feeding
after birth.

Task 3: stating the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids

1.depression
2. Diarrhea
Diarrhea can be a life threatening problem if not treated correctly and rapidly
3. Thrush
most common HIV opportunistic infection
4. Weight Loss
Weight loss is a common problem in HIV and AIDS. Weight loss is a serious problem
5. Lipodystrophy
Fat redistribution syndrome
6. Lactic Acidosis
This emerging problem can make you sick, miserable, and can even be fatal.
7. Sinus Infections
Your head feels congested and full. The pressure behind your eyes makes it hard to concentrate. The pounding
in your head and face is relentless.
8. Fatigue
Fatigue is a common problem in HIV and Aids
9. Nausea / Vomiting
Nausea is not only aggravating and can make you feel sick, when associated with vomiting it can be dangerous
10. Burning and Tingling of the Feet and Hands
That burning in your feet can be very painful.

Explaining Some of the frequently reported symptoms of HIV/AIDS infections are:

 constant or rapid unexplained weight loss of more than 10 pounds in two months; lack of appetite
 unexplained long-lasting diarrhea or bloody stools
 constant fatigue that is not associated with physical activity or mental depression
 persistent fevers, night sweats, dry cough, or difficulty breathing for more than two weeks
 lightheadedness, dizziness, headaches, mental disorders
 a thick, whitish coating of yeast on the tongue or mouth that cannot be scraped off (This is called
"thrush.")
 severe or recurring vaginal yeast infections and chronic pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
 purplish growths or blotches on or under the skin, inside the mouth, or on the nose, eyelids, or rectum
 swollen glands or enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin for more than a month

Task 4:explaining the preventive measures of HIV and Aids

If you are HIV negative

The following preventative measures might seem personally restrictive, but they are effective in the prevention
of HIV infection:

1. Do not have sexual intercourse with people known or suspected to be infected with AIDS;
multiple partners; a person who has multiple partners; or people who use intravenous (IV) drugs.
Always know the HIV status of any sexual partner. Do not engage in unprotected sex unless you're
absolutely certain your partner is not infected with HIV.
2. Do not use intravenous drugs. If you do use IV drugs, do not share needles or syringes. ..

152
3. Avoid exposure to blood from injuries or nosebleeds where the HIV status of the bleeding person
is unknown. Using protective clothing, masks and goggles may be appropriate when caring for people
who are injured.
4. The blood for transfusions should be well screened .
5. HIV positive women should be counseled, before becoming pregnant, about the risk to unborn
babies. Pregnant women with HIV should be made aware of medical advances that may help prevent
the fetus from becoming infected. ..
6. Use condoms to prevent HIV transmission. .
7. Get tested immediately if you know or think that you have had contact with someone who has
HIV. Seek medical treatment if the result is positive because early treatment may help.

If you are HIV positive

If you have been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, the following preventative measures can help you protect others:

1. The only way to protect your sexual partner from HIV infection is to avoid practices that expose
them to infected body fluids. Always use a new latex condom for any sexual activity.
2. If you are pregnant, seek medical treatment immediately. The HIV infection can be passed on to
your baby but if treatment is received during pregnancy the risk to the baby can be reduced by as
much as two-thirds. Delivery of the baby by cesarean section cuts the risk even further.
3. Tell the people who need to know about your diagnosis. It is important to tell any previous or
current partners that you are HIV positive. .
4. If you use intravenous drugs, never share your needles and syringes with anyone else as they may
contain traces of HIV infected blood.
5. Do not donate blood or organs.
6. Do not share personal items such as razor blades or toothbrushes. These items may also contain
traces of HIV-infected blood.

.Task 5 Discussing nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

When infected with the HIV virus the body's defence system - the immune system - works harder to fight
infection. This increases energy and nutrient requirements. Further infection and fever also increase the body's
demand for food. Once people are infected with HIV they have to eat more to meet these extra energy and
nutrient needs. Such needs will increase even further as the HIV/AIDS symptoms develop.

Food is essential for our bodies to:

 develop, replace and repair cells and tissues;

 produce energy to keep warm, move and work;
 carry out chemical processes such as the digestion of food;
 protect against, resist and fight infection and recover from sickness

.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein

153
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

VITAMINS AND MINERAL INTAKE

Vitamins and minerals are essential to keep healthy. They protect against opportunistic infection by ensuring
that the lining of skin, lungs and gut remain healthy and that the immune system functions properly. Of special
importance are vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, certain B-group vitamins and minerals such as selenium, zinc
and iron. A mixed diet as recommended in Chapter three should provide enough of these vitamins and minerals.
Some background information on micronutrients, their nutritional role and food sources is provided in Annex 3.
Vitamin A is important to keep the lining of skin, lungs and gut healthy. Vitamin A deficiency increases the
severity of diseases such as diarrhoea while infection will increase the loss of vitamin A from the body. Good
vitamin A sources are dark green, yellow, orange and red vegetables and fruit. These include spinach, pumpkin,
cassava leaves, green peppers, squash, carrots, amaranth, yellow peaches, apricots, papaya and mangoes.
Vitamin A is also contained in red palm oil, yellow maize, orange and yellow sweet potatoes, egg yolks and
liver.
Vitamin C helps to protect the body from infection and aids in recovery. It is found particularly in citrus fruits
such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons and mandarins. Guavas, mangoes, tomatoes and potatoes are also good
sources of vitamin C.
Vitamin E protects cells and aids resistance to infection. Foods containing vitamin E are green leafy vegetables,
vegetable oils, peanuts and egg yolks.
Vitamin B-group. This group is necessary to keep the immune and nervous system healthy. Vitamins, however,
may be lost from the body through the use of certain medicines for the treatment of tuberculosis. Good food
sources include white beans, potatoes, meat, fish, chicken, watermelon, maize, grains, nuts, avocados, broccoli
and green leafy vegetables.
Iron. Iron-deficiency anaemia is a widespread problem in many countries, especially among women and
children. Good iron sources are green leafy vegetables, seeds, whole-grain products, dried fruit, sorghum, millet,
beans, alfalfa, red meat, chicken, liver, fish, seafood and eggs.
Selenium is an important mineral because it helps to activate the immune system. Good sources include whole
grains such as wholemeal bread, maize and millet and dairy products such as milk, yoghurt and cheese. Meat,
fish, poultry, eggs and other protein-rich foods are also good sources, as are peanut butter, dried beans and nuts.
Zinc is also important for the immune system. Zinc deficiency reduces the appetite. Sources include meat, fish,
poultry, shellfish, whole-grain cereals, maize, beans, peanuts and milk and dairy products.
.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

Teaching/ Learning resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts

154
 - Visual aids
- Food commodities
Evaluation

1. define terms
 Nutrition
 HIV/AIDS
2. explain the transmission modes of HIV and Aids
3. state the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids
4. explain the preventive measures of HIV and Aids
5. discuss nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

155
8.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES

8.1.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes, which
enable him/her to maintain high standards of food and beverage service and sales within the
hospitality industry.

The trainee will be involved in all aspects of food and beverage service and sales. He/she will
employ both mental and physical abilities in conjunction with the available resources to achieve
the desired goals.

8.1.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) appreciate the organisation of food and beverage service outlets
b) demonstrate the ability to use appropriate equipment in food and beverage service
c) promote health and safety as regards to employees, guests and property
d) apply food and beverage service manipulation skills
e) appreciate the need for good customer care
f) adopt emerging trends in food and beverage service

156
8.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES

Theory

8.1.01 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of food and beverage service and sales
c) outline the historical development of food and beverage service
d) explain the scope of food and beverage service
e) explain the layout of different food and beverages service outlets

SALES. 8.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND

Unit Tasks

Task 1: Definition of Terms

Food can include a wide range of styles and cuisine types.

Beverages:
Includes all alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, Alcoholic beverages include wines and all other types of
alcoholic drinks such as Cocktails, beers and cider, spirits and liqueurs.
No-n alcoholic bev.includes Mineral Water, Juices,Squaches and Aerated waters as well as Tea, Coffee,
Chocolate, Milk and Milk Drinks also and proprietary drink such as Bovril, Milo and others.
Food and boo (or food service) operators include for example various types of restaurants (bistros, brassenes,
coffee-shop 1st class/fine dining etch themed,)cafes, cafeterias, take away canteens, function rooms, tray
service operators, lounge service and others.

Task 2.Importance of food and beverage service and sales.

Acts as a bridge between the food production system, the beverage provision and the customer.
Provision of food and bev to customers.
To meet various customers needs through meal experience (e.gphysological-need to satisfy one’s appetite and
quench thirst, attending a function in order to meet others and others.

Task 3.Historical development of food and Bev. Service.

Task 4.Scope of food and bev service and sales.

The scope covers commercial profit and on non commercial welfare.
Commercial profit oriented .
This can either be public or private owned with catering as main or secondary activity.
The profit Oriented sectors are further subdivided into two categories.The general market which covers
hotels/restaurant,popular catering, fest food,takeaway, retail stores, Banqueting and others.
Restricted market covers transport catering,clubs industria (contract) and others.
The cost provision (welfare sector)is a restricted includes instritutional catering, school,universities and
colleges,hospitals.the forces prisons and industrial (own catering)

Refer to table 1.4 summery of sectors in food and industry pg 9 food and Bev service by Lillicrap.

The general market, customers are non capture i.e while in the restricted market, customers are capture.
i.e customers have no choice e.g welfare or have seme –capture i.e

Task 5 Layout of different food and beverage.

Task 6 Personnel & their attributes

Duties and responsibilities of restaurant staff refer to booklet pg.20-26

Task 6b.Attribute-Refer to booklet pg 31-34

157
Task 7.Challenges faced by f&B service personnel.
Dealling with warrious customers moods or
-Managing customer/camp/planning
-unsatisfied”
Unpatient”
Rude customers
Poor pay
Working odd hours
Staff paying bills left by costomers.

8.1.2 T STAFF ORGANIZATION.

Unit Task.

Task1.Meaning of staff organization.

Staff organization is basically concerned with matters such as division of tasks within the restaurant position
of responsibility and authority and the relationship between them.

Task 2.importance of staff organization.

It helps in indroducing the concepts of span of control, level of mgt and delegation of power and
responsibilities.
For smooth functioning of food & bev.service
For proper coordination between different levels of mgt and debts.
Task 3 organization structures
Refers to f/b by Lillicrap pg 21 7th ed.

8.1.033FOOD AND BEVARAGES SERVICES EQUIPMENT UNIT TASLS

UNIT TASKS
Task 1
Classification of Food and Beverages Service equipment .The operating equipment used in hotels /restaurants
play an important role in attracting customers.
The Food and Beverage equipment include:- service equipment ,furniture,fixturies including linen all of which
quality reflect the standard and style of the restaurant.

Food and Beverage service equipment may be divided into : glassware; chinaware (or crockery), Tableware
which are further subdivided into flatware ,cuttery and hollware.

GLASSWARE
- It coutributes to the appearance of the table and the overall actraction of the service area.It is produce
frond and (silicon which combined with other substacies,The mixture is heated to a high
temperature,.
- Glassware refers to glass and drinkware items .Some of the example of glassware include colleens
glassware ,highball glass ,pint and pilsner glass and many others.The choiceof the right quality glass
is vital element for customer sastification.Well designed glassware combinies elegance ,strength and
stability and should be fine and smooth.Many standard pattern and sizes it glassware are availablefor
serve each drink.Most glass drinking vessels are either tumblers ,flat,bottomed glass with no handle
,foot or stem.
- (refer to notes on pg 41 for examples0
- Draw the table 2.4 on PP 66 – lilicerap
- Example of Chinaware with standard sizes

CHINAWARE OR CROCKERY
Chinaware is tern used for crockery wheter bone china (i.e fine and expensive) earthenware (opaque
Xcheaper or vetrified (metallised).It is made of Silicon Soda ash and china clay ,glazed to give a fine
finish .Chinaware can be found in different colours a designs which are always coated with glaze.
Chinaware is more resistant to heat than glassware .

TABLEWARE

158
 Is divided into 3 parts:- Flatware, cuttery and hollowware
- Flatware – denotes all forms of spoon tard forks as well as serving flats.
- Cuttery – refers to Knives and other cutterys
- Hollow-ware – consists of any other items ,apart from flatware and cuttery,for example ,tea
pots,mugjugs,sugar basins and srving dishes.
- Tableware come in different sizes and patterns.All spoons ,forks and knives used as eatering
implemention are non referred to as cuttery.
- Examples of tableware are soup spoons, fish refer suddui PP 23 – 26
- Point to consider when purchasing tableware
 The type of menu and service offered
 The peak demand period turnover
 The maximum and average seating capacity
 The washing –up facilities and their turnover.
SILVER-WARE
is a general term used to describe actual cuttery, flatware and hollowware most silverware items made now
are stainless steel since items is cheaper and more hard- wearing.
The silverware used in hotels depends on
 The type and amount of business done
 The meuse
 The type and style of service
 A good quide to the amount of cuttery needed for table service can be calculated by multiplying the
restaurant capacity by three times.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
These are specialist items of equipment provided for use with specific dishes.
Examples of these include asperagus tongs, pastry ,knife/fork,butter knife and others as shown on PP 61 lilicap

DISPOSABLES
These are throe –away and thre has been a considered growth in their use due to:-
- The need to reduce costs
- The difficulty of obtaining labour for washing up
- To reduce the high cost of launderings
- Improved standard of hygiene
- Breakage cost minimization.
- Reduction in storage space required
- The need of transport cateriers on trains,boats and planes
- The devpt fast –food and take away operations
The disposable should be attractive ,presentable and acceptable to the chut and also help to attact
customers.
The choice of which disposable to use new be determinant by;-
 Necessary because of operational needs for
- Outdoor catering
- Automatic vendering
- Fast food
- Take aways

 Cost consideration such as:-

- Tradicyional terms of seurce equipment
- Cost of laundry
- Wash-up costs

TASK 2: SELECTION FOR FOOD AND BEVARAGES SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Selection Factors
- Standard of the restaurant /hotel
- Type of service
- Recor and theme of the restaurant
- Type of chenitelle
- Purability of equipment
- Ease of maintainance
159
 - Availability when stocks runout for replacement\Storage and the washing up facilities
- Flexibility of use
- Price factors
- Standardizations
Hotel/restaurant should be well stocked with appropriate equipment to prove quality service.For multi purpose
use and to cut down costs ,most hotels /restaurants standardize equipment in terms of size and colour.

TASK 3: USE ,CARE AND MAINTAINANCE OF FOOD AND BEVARAGES SERVICES

EQUIPMENT

Handling of glassware
1. Glassware is highly fragile and most delicale and expensive –hence atmost care has to be taken while
handling glass equipment.
2. Glasses are normally stored in a glass pantry and should be placed updise down in single rows on
paper-lined shelves to prevent dust settling in them.
3. Tumblers should not be stacked inside one another as this may result in heavy breakages and
accidents.
4. The appearance of the drink mainly depends on the glass therefore the glass should be sparkling clean
and attractive in shape in style.
5. When glassware is machine or hand washed,each individual item must be polished and dried with a
glass cloth made of lined ,as water leaves stains on the glasses.
6. Glasses whether clean or dirty have to be handled by the base or stem ,since the finger prints left on
necessitates polishing.
Polishing glass
Refer to serving food and drink table and function student guide pg 119

Storing Crockery

Handing crockery Hygiennically

Refer to Serving Fast and drinks Pg 121

Cleaning and polishing Silverware in largo establishments the clearing and polishing of silverware is the
responsibility of the plate room staff but the service staff can look after their own silverware.

Silverware can be cleaned and polished a number of method:-

 By using a burnishing machine
 By using polint method
 By using plate powder
 By using siver dip
 By using other paste,powders and clerning materials sold under trade names.
 Always thoroughly wash silver after using any polish and cleaner cleaning chemicals can cause food
poisoning.
Careful storage of cuttery is most important ideally ,thre should be boxes or drawers for each specific
item,each box has a drawer being lined with saize to prevent the items concerned sliding about and becoming
scrarched and marked.Other items of hollow-ware and flat ware should be stored on hollow-ware and flat ware
should be store on shelves shelves that are labeled to show where different items go.They must be stored at
conviment height for planning on and recovering from the shelves.

-All flat ware ,cuttery and hollow –ware should be stored in a room or cupboard that can be locked.
Cuttery may be store in cuttery trolleys or trays.

TASK 4: RECORDS USED IN F & B SERVICE EQUIPMENT.

- ts
- reports

8.1.02 STAFF
ORGANIZATION

160
 Theory

8.1.02 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of staff organisation
b) state the importance of staff organisation
c) explain the organisational structure of different food and beverage service outlets
d) explain the attributes of food and beverage service personnel
e) identify duties and responsibilities of food and beverage service personnel
f) explain the challenges faced by food and beverage service personnel

8.1.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) sketch organisational structures of different service outlets
ii) perform duties of service personnel

Content
8.1.02 T1 Meaning of staff organisation
8.1.02 T2 Importance of staff organisation
8.1.02 T3 Organizational structure of
food and beverage service
outlets
- Welfare
- Commercial
8.1.02 T4 Personnel and their attributes
8.1.02 T5 Duties and responsibilities
of food and beverage
service personnel
8.1.02 T6 Challenges faced by food
and beverage service
personnel

Practice

8.1.02 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) sketch organisational structures of different service outlets
b) perform duties of service personnel

Content
8.1.02 P1 Organizational structures
8.1.02 P2 Duties of service personnel

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- charts and diagrams
- internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- browsing
- report writing
- sketching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

161
8.1.03 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Theory

8.1.03 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify food and beverage service equipment
b) explain factors to consider in selection of food and beverage service equipment
c) explain use, care and maintenance of food and beverage service equipment
d) identify the records used in food and beverage service equipment

8.1.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify service equipment
ii) use, care and maintain service equipment
iii) keep food and beverage service equipment records

Content
8.1.03 T1 Classification of food and
beverage service equipment
8.1.03 T2 Selection of food and
beverage service equipment
8.1.03 T3 Use, care and maintenance
of food and beverage
service equipment
8.1.03 T4 Records for food and
beverage service equipment
- types
- importance and use

Practice

8.1.03 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify service equipment
b) use, care and maintain service equipment
c) practice record keeping for food and beverage service equipment

Content
8.1.03 P1 Service equipment
8.1.03 P2 Use, care and maintenance
of service equipment
8.1.03 P3 Record keeping for food and beverage service equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing

Suggested Evaluation Methods

162
 - tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.04 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AREAS AND ANCILLARY DEPARTMENTS

Theory

8.1.04 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify food and beverage service areas and ancillary departments
b) state the functions of the service areas and ancillary departments
c) identify equipment used in service areas

8.1.04 FOOD AND BEVERAGE AREAS AND ANCILLARY DEPARTMENTS

Unit Tasks
Task 1: Food and beverage service and ancillary departments
Most work of mis-en-place starts in the service area. In large establishments this area is found between the
kitchen and the food service areas and is one of the busiest areas especially at service time.
The service areas are:
1. still room
2. silver or plate room
3. wash up
4. hotplate
5. spare line store

STILL ROOM
The main function of the still room is to prepare and provide food items and equipment which are not catered
for in any other major departments in a foods service operations such as the kitchen, larders and pastry. The
still room has to produce a wide variety of food items and ensure their proper storage, preparation and
presentation, a considerable amount of equipment is used.
The equipment that may be found includes:
 Refrigeration for the storage of milk
 Beverage making facilities
 Large double sink and drainage board for wash up purposes
 Sinks and washing machines
 Salamander or toasters
 Bread slicing machines
 Worktop and cutting board
 General storage space, shelves and cupboards
 Coffee grinding machines
 Beverage making facilities
 Steamer and hot water boiler

SILVER ROOM OR PLATE ROOM

In large or more luxurious establishments the silver room or plate room may be two separate units, but in
majority of places they are often combined with pantry wash-up area.
The silver room holds the stock of silver required for the service of meals. The various types of silver are kept
here on labeled shelves with all the service plates of one size stacked together.
Cutlery, flatware, hollow ware and other small items are usually stored in drawers lined with baize, as this
helps to reduce noise, slipping and scratching.

Silver cleaning methods

There are various methods of cleaning silver which depend on the size and class of establishment. Larger
establishments are burnishing machines while small establishment use manual method.
1. Burnishing machines
This is a revolving drum with a safety shield depending on size it may be divided into compartments to
hold specific sizes of silver. A rod may be inserted through the centre of the drum from one end to the
163
 other. It is removable and is passed through the handles of tea pots, coffee pots, milk jugs and others. The
burnishing machines are half-full of ball bearings to which soap powder is added. The silver is place
inside and then the lid is clamped down. The main water supply is turned on for constant supply of water.
The machine is switched on as the drum revolves the silver and the ball bearing. Tarnish is removed but
silver is not scratched. The silver should be rinsed in hot water and dried with a clean tea cloth.
2. Polivit
This is an Aluminium metal sheet containing holes. The polivit id placed in a bowl together with some
soda. The silver is then put in the bowl. Sufficient boiling water is poured into the bowl to cover the
silver. A chemical reaction causes tarnish to be lifted. The silver removed and put in a bowl of boiling
water and rinsed then polished with a clean dry cloth
3. Plate Powder
This is a pink powder, which needs mixing with little methylated spirit or water to obtain a smooth paste.
Using methylated spirit takes shorter time than water. The paste is rubbed onto the silver using a clean
piece of clothe then left to dry until the paste dries and the silver is rubbed off with clean clothe. The
silver is finally rinsed in hot water and polished with a dry tea clothe.
4. Silver dip
This is a pink-coloured liquid which must be used in a plastic bowl. The silver is placed into a wire basket
dipped and left only for a very short time, then lifted and drained. It is then placed in a warm water, rinsed
and then polished with a clean dry clothe. Its is a quicker method than others but harder on silver because
of the chemical reaction.

WASH-UP ORGANISATION
At the service time the wash-up area is one of the wash-up area is one of the busiest sections. It must be
correctly sited to allow a smooth flow of work promoting a fast turnover and efficient service. The wash-
up service area should be the first section in the stillroom where the waiter enters from the service area.
The dirty palters are stacked correctly and the entire cutlery in a special wire basket or container in
readiness for washing. The server must place any debris into the bin provided. All used napkins. Doilies
or kitchen paper should be placed in a separate bin.

Dish washing methods

There are five main methods of dishwashing for foodservice operations
1. manual (Tank) method
Dirty crockery are washed in a sink of hot water containing detergent and then placed into racks and
dipped into another sink which is known as the sterilizing tank. The water temperature is very high,
approximately, 75 C (170 F). The crockery is left in for a few minutes then lifted out and left to drain. As
the water is very hot, the crockery will air dry making this a more hygienic method since no cloths are
used. The crockery is then stacked and stored.
2. Semi- automatic
Soiled ware loaded manually into a dishwashing machine by operators and instructions from
manufacturers followed. Debris should be removed from the crockery before it is placed into the wire
racks. The racks are then passed through the machine, the crockery being washed, rinsed and then
sterilized in turn. They are left to drain a few minutes, then stacked and stored.

3. Automatic Conveyor
Soiled ware are loaded in baskets, mounted on conveyor, by operators for automatic transportation
through a dishwashing machine
4. Flight conveyor
Soiled ware loaded with pegs mounted on a conveyor by operators for automatic transportation through a
dish washing machine
5. Deferred wash
Soiled ware (Not complete hand written)

8.1.05 SAFETY

Theory

164
8.1.05 T Specific Objectives
By end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of safety
b) explain safety measures to be observed in food and beverage service areas
c) identify common hazards in the food and beverage service areas
d) explain appropriate action when handling common accidents in food and beverage service
areas
e) explain the legal requirements on safety in food and beverage service area

8.1.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) practice safety rules in food and beverage service
ii) practice fire drills in food and beverage service
iii) apply first aid procedures

Content
8.1.05 T1 Importance of safety in
food and beverage area
8.1.05 T2 Safety measures in food
and beverage service areas
8.1.05 T3 Common hazards in food
and beverage service areas
8.1.05 T4 Handling common
accidents
8.1.05 T5 Legal requirements on safety

Practice
8.1.05 P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice safety rules in food and beverage service
b) practice fire drills in food and beverage service
c) apply first aid procedures

Content
8.1.05 P1 Safety rules in food and
beverage service
8.1.05 P2 Fire drills
8.1.05 P3 First aid procedures

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- browsing
- report writing
- observation

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

165
8.1.06 HYGIENE

Theory

8.1.06 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the importance of hygiene in food and beverage service
c) state hygiene rules in food and beverage service
d) highlight legal requirements on hygiene in food and beverage service outlets

8.1.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice basic hygiene rules in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.06 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.06 T2 Importance of hygiene in
food and beverage service
8.1.06 T3 Hygiene rules in food and
beverage service
8.1.06 T5 Legal requirements in food
and beverage outlets

Practice

8.1.06 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to practice basic hygiene rules in
food and beverage service

Content
8.1.06 P1 Hygiene rules in food and
beverage service

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- handouts
- internet
- journals
- resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.07 TABLE COVERINGS AND LINEN

8.1.07 T Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
d) Define relevant terms
e) identify types of table coverings and linen
f) describe materials used for table coverings and linen
g) describe napkin folds and their application.
h) care for and maintain table covering and linen appropriately

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of terms
Linens are fabric goods, such as tablecloths, napkins and slip cloths.
Today, the term "linen" has come to be applied to all related products even though most are made of cotton,
various synthetic materials, or blends.
Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant.

Unit task 2 Types of table coverings and linen

The main items of linen normally found in a restaurant are: tablecloths; slip-cloths; buffet cloths; trolley and
sideboard cloths; and waiter’s cloths or service cloths.

Table Cloths

 Table linens made from cotton or linen are not only more absorbent but also last longer.
 The fibers don't pill or pile as easy as with synthetic table linens and they don't become shiny when
exposed to an iron's heat.
 Egyptian cotton and Irish linen are considered the finest materials for table linens because of their long,
durable fibers.
 White is the most popular color for table linens because it's considered formal.
 Table linens in off white or ivory are also acceptable.
 A damask (woven) or embroidered pattern is a perfectly acceptable table cloth.

Types of Tables Size of Tables Size of Table Cloths

Square table 76 cm sq 92 cm sq 137 x 137 cm 183 x 183 cm

Rectangular table 136 x 76 cm 183 x 137 cm

Round table 92 cm diameter 184 cm diameter

Figure 4.10 Tables and Table Cloths

 Table cloths should be large enough to cover the top as well as a portion of the legs of a table
without interfering with the guest's comfort while he is seated at the table.
 The size of the tablecloth varies according to the size of the table it is required to cover.

Slip Cloths or Naperones

 These are designed to be laid over the tablecloth to protect it from spillage and give it a longer
life.
 Using a slip cloth reduces the number of tablecloths used and thus reduces the cost of inventory
and laundry.
 Slip cloths may measure 1 metre square approximately.

Figure 4.11 Slip Cloth

Napkins or Serviettes
a) A napkin or serviette is a rectangle cloth or paper used at the table for wiping the mouth
while eating.
b) It is usually small and folded.
c) Conventionally, the napkin is folded and placed to the left of the place setting, outside the

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 outermost fork.
d) In an ambitious restaurant setting, it may be folded into elaborate shapes and displayed on
the empty plate.
e) A napkin may also be held together in a bundle (with cutlery) by a napkin ring.
f) Alternatively, paper napkins may be contained with a napkin holder.

Figure 4.12 Napkin Fold

 Napkins may be of the same colour as tablecloths, or in a colour that blends with the decor
of the restaurant.
 Napkins should be spotlessly clean and well-pressed.
 The ideal size for a napkin is between 46 to 50 cm sq.

Buffet Cloths
 For a buffet table, the minimum size of the tablecloth required is 2 m x 4 m.

Trolley Cloths and Sideboard Cloths

 These are usually made from tablecloths well worn and not suitable for use on tables,
mended by the housekeeping department and folded to fit a sideboard or trolley.

Waiter’s Cloths or Service Cloths

 A service cloth is a very important part of service equipment as well as being part of the food
server’s uniform.
 It must be kept clean and ironed at all times and only used as a service cloth for certain
activities such as:
 Carrying hot plate
 Final polishing of plates
 Wiping small spills
 Brushing crumbs onto a service plate
 Wiping the undersides of the plates before placing plates on the table
 Service cloths are also used by every waiter as protection against heat and to keep uniforms
clean.
Unit task 3 Materials used for table
coverings and linen
 identification
 selection
 care
 maintenance
Unit task 4 Napkin folds and their
applications

Unit task 5

8.1.08 FURNITURE, FITTINGS AND FIXTURES

8.1.08 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define relevant terms
 identify various types of furniture, fittings and fixtures in food and beverage service areas
 identify materials used for different furniture, fittings and fixtures
 explain factors to consider when selecting furniture, sittings and fixtures for the food and
beverage service areas
 explain the use, care and maintenance of furniture, fittings and fixtures

Content
8.1.08 T1 Definition of terms
168
8.1.08 T2 Types of furniture, fittings
and fixtures

169
170
 TABLES
 The size and shape of tables depends entirely on the availability of space and the kind of service envisaged.
 Normally three types of tables are used.
 They are round, rectangular and square.

Figure 4.3 Restaurant Tables

- The height of the table irrespective of the shape should be 75 cm from the floor level.
- The diameter of a round table to seat four people should be approximately 92 cm.
- The size of a square table to seat two people should 76 cm sq and 92 cm square to seat four
people.
a) The size of rectangular table to seat four people should be 137 cm x 76 cm.
b) Commercial table tops come in a variety of materials: wood, metal, stone, tile and melamine.
c) Many restaurant table tops are available with edged finishes to prevent scuffs and dents.
 In some expensive tables, another table top is placed with revolving facility, on top of which the food is
placed where th guests can rotate revolving top and serve himself, if he chooses to.

CHAIRS
 Chair are available in various shapes, colours and sizes to suit all occasions.
 Because of the wide ranges of style, chairs come in varied height and width.
 However the dimension of chairs should be relative to table dimensions.
 The average height of the chair should be 92 cm.
 The seat should be 46 cm from the floor and 23 cm from the top of the table.
 This would enable guests to sit and eat comfortably, without their legs touching the underside
of the table.

Figure 4.4 Restaurant Chairs

SIDE STATION / DUMMY WAITER

 The side station is also called the dummy waiter or service console.
 This is a very important piece of furniture in a restaurant.
 It is used by the service staff for keeping all the service equipment at one place.
 It is also used as a landing table for the dishes picked up from the kitchen enroute to the table and
the dirty dishes from the guest's table to the wash-up area.
 For the convenience of the service staff, the side station should be strategically located in a
restaurant.
 The side station should be kept clean and presentable as it can be seen by the guests.

Figure 4.5 Side Station

g) The following service equipment can be stored in a side station:

-Salvers -Creamers -Wine chiller and stand
-Coffee pots -Teapots -Ice buckets and tongs
-Finger bowls -Cruet sets -Sugar bowl; and tongs
-Soup ladles -Butter dishes -Bottle and wine openers
-Cigar cutters -Bread baskets -Bud vases
-Candle holders -Wine cradle -Toothpick stand
-Straw stand -Pot holders -Drip bowls
 The style and design of the side board varies from establishment to establishment.
 It depends upon:
 The style of service and menu offered
 The number of waiters working from one sideboard
 The number of tables to be served from one sideboard
 The amount of equipment it is expected to hold

Figure 4.6 Old Fashioned Side Station

  It is essential that the side board is of minimum size and portable so that it may be moved, if
necessary.
 If the sideboard is too large for its purpose, then it takes up space which could be used to seat
more customers.
 The top should be of heat resistant material which can be easily washed down.
 After service, the sideboard is either completely emptied out or restocked for the next service.

8.1.08 T3 Materials used for

furniture, fittings and
fixtures
8.1.08 T4 Selecting furniture, fittings
and fixtures
8.1.08 T5 Use, care and maintenance
of furniture, fittings and
fixtures
-

8.1.09 MENU KNOWLEDGE

Theory

8.1.09 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the origin of menu
c) explain the importance of menu
d) identify the types of menu
e) outline the menu sequence
f) describe accompaniments and garnishes

8.1.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) set covers for different menus
ii) identify correct accompaniments for various dishes
iii) design menu cards

Content
8.1.09 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.09 T2 Menu origin
8.1.09 T3 Importance of menu
8.1.09 T4 Types of menu
8.1.09 T5 Menu sequence
8.1.09 T6 Accompaniments and garnishes

Practice

8.1.09 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) set covers for different menus
b) identify correct accompaniments for various dishes
c) design menu cards

Content
8.1.09 P1 Covers setting for different menus

8.1.09 P2 Accompaniments for

various dishes
8.1.09 P3 Designing menu cards

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 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- textbooks
- internet
- journals
- interior decoration equipment and materials
- equipment
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- sketching
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.10 NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

8.1.10 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define relevant terms
 identify types of non-alcoholic beverages
 explain preparation of non-alcoholic beverages
 outline the procedures of serving non-alcoholic beverages
 explain preparation and presentation of non-alcoholic cocktails

UNIT TASK
Unit task 1 Definition of terms
 Beverages are potable drinks which have thirst-quenching, refreshing, stimulating and nourishing
qualities.
 A beverage is a liquid formulation specifically prepared for human consumption
 The word “Beverage” has been derived from the Latin word “bever” meaning rest from work
 A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol.
 Syrup is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars (60 to 65% brix), but
showing little tendency for crystalisation of dissolved sugar.

Nutrients
A source of nourishment, especially a nourishing ingredient in a food.
Psychoactive
Having an altering effect on perception, emotion, or behavior.
Sake
A Japanese liquor made from fermented rice.
Alcoholism
A disorder characterized by the excessive consumption of and dependence on alcoholic beverages
Euphoric
Describes a feeling of joy and excitement
Sangria
A cold drink made of red or white wine mixed with brandy, sugar, fruit juice, and soda water.
Vermouth
A sweet or dry fortified wine flavored with aromatic herbs and used chiefly in mixed drinks.

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Tequila
An alcoholic liquor distilled from the fermented juice of the Central American century plant Agave tequilana
Caffeine
 Caffeine is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system

Unit task 2 Types of non-alcoholic beverages

BEVERAGES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
 A beverage is a liquid formulation specifically prepared for human consumption.
 The word “Beverage” has been derived from the Latin word “bever” meaning rest from work.
 After work, one tends to feel thirsty due to fluid loss through perspiration and one is inclined to drink
water or other potable beverages to compensate fluid loss.
 Beverages can be broadly classified into two.
 They are Alcoholic Beverages and Non-alcoholic Beverages.
 The following chart shows the classification of beverages.

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES
 A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol.
 Such drinks are generally drunk for refreshment, or to quench people's thirst.
 Non-alcoholic beverages can be mainly classified as hot and cold beverages.

Cold Drinks

1.Aerated
 These beverages are charged o r a e r a t e d with carbonic gas.
 The charging with carbonic gas imparts the pleasant effervescent characteristic of these beverages.
Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water or an aqueous solution.
 This process yields the "fizz" to carbonated water and sparkling mineral water. Example: soda water,
dry ginger, fizzy lemonade, ginger beer, coca-cola, pepsi, and others.
 Spring water/ Spring water is the water derived from underground Mineral water formation from which
water flows naturally (artesian) to the surface of the earth. Minerals become dissolved in the water as it
moves through the underground rocks.
 This may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending upon the nature of the
geology through which it passes.
 This is why spring water is often bottled and sold as mineral water.
 Mineral water is the water containing minerals or other dissolved substances that alter its taste or gives
it therapeutic value.
 Salts, sulfur compounds, and gases are among the substances that can be dissolved in the water.
 Mineral water can often be effervescent.
 Mineral water can be prepared or can occur naturally.

Squash
 Squash is a highly-sweetened (and often fruit-based) concentrate, which is diluted with a liquid, most
commonly water, before drinking.
 Typically, squash is created by mixing one part concentrate with four or five parts of water (depending
on concentration and personal taste) directly into a glass or mug or into a jug.
 Squashes are also mixed with spirits or cocktails.
 The most common flavours are orange, apple and blackcurrant, lemon, peppermint, mixed fruit,
summer fruits, and lemon-lime.
 Other flavours include peach, strawberry, passion fruit, custard apple and kiwi fruit.

3. Juice
 Juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fresh fruits or vegetables without the
application of heat or solvents.
 Popular juices include, but are not limited to, apple, orange, prune, lemon, grapefruit, cherry,
pineapple, tomato, carrot, grape, strawberry, cranberry, pomegranate guava, sapota and celery.
 It has become increasingly popular to combine a variety of fruits into single juice drinks.
 Popular blends include cran-apple (cranberry and apple) and apple and blackcurrant.
 Juices are also used for cocktails and mixing with spirits.

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4. Syrup
 Syrup is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars (60 to 65% brix), but
showing little tendency for crystalisation of dissolved sugar.
 The main use of these concentrated sweet fruit flavourings is as a base for cocktails, fruit cups or mixed
with soda water as a long drink.
 Some examples of syrup are orgeat (almond), cassis (blackcurrant), citronelle (lemon), framboise
(raspberry) and cerise (cherry)

Hot Drinks

1. Tea
 Tea is one of the most widely-consumed stimulant beverage in the world.
 It has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavor.
 It has almost no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.
 Tea is a natural source of the amino acid theanine, methylxanthines such as caffeine and theobromine,
and polyphenolic antioxidant catechins.

2. Coffee
 Coffee is a widely consumed stimulant beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee
beans, of the coffee plant.
 Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways.
 Drip brewed, percolated, or French-pressed / cafetière coffee may be served with no additives
(colloquially known as black) or with either sugar, milk or cream, or both.
 When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

3.Cocoa
 It is a powder made from cacao seeds (bean) after they have been fermented, roasted, shelled, ground,
and freed of most of their fat.
 A beverage is made by mixing this powder with sugar in hot water or milk.
It is a rich source of theobromine which acts as a stimulant.

Unit task 3 Preparation of non-alcoholic beverages

Preparation of Tea
 Tea brewing or preparation is an art that is simple to perform but which also requires some care to do
well.
 While essentially tea is brewed by adding boiling water to the dry leaf, the quantity of leaves, the
temperature of the water and timing is of vital concern.
 The following is a guide for the preparation of tea. The basic rule of thumb to start is 'one teaspoon of
loose-leaf tea per cup'.
1. Warm your empty tea pot by filling it with hot water. This will prevent the hot water
from cooling too quickly when leaves are added.
2. Boil freshly drawn tap water. If the quality of your tap water is poor, try using filtered
or bottled spring water. For black tea, use the water when it comes to a boil. Water left boiling too long will de-
aerate. This will result in a flat tasting tea. For green tea, the water should be heated to a lower temperature
(usually approximately 80 degrees Celsius), which may vary from tea to tea.
3. Empty the hot water from your tea pot and add 2.25g or one rounded teaspoon of tea
leaves for each cup of water (or one heaping teaspoon per mug), placing the tea directly into the bottom of the
pot or using a basket infuser. Tea ball strainers, while convenient, often yield poorer tasting tea as they are often
too small to allow all of the leaves to fully unravel its contents. If you do use a tea ball, be sure to use one that is
sufficiently large to pack the tea loosely.
4. Add the freshly boiled water over the leaves in the tea pot.
5. Brew tea for the appropriate length of time. Time needed to brew tea varies depending
on the leaves being used and the drinker's individual taste. Careful timing is essential for brewing tea. A very
general rule to follow is the smaller the leaf, the less time required for brewing. Broken grades of tea leaves and
most Darjeeling teas usually only need 3-4 minutes to brew. Whole-leaf teas often need 4-5 minutes. All teas,
however, will become bitter due to higher tannin

175
 extraction if brewed for longer than 5 or 6 minutes. When brewing tea, time with a timer, and not with your
eyes. It is a common mistake to brew the tea until it looks a particular color or shade. The color of tea is a poor
indicator of the tea's taste.
6. If you use a basket infuser or a tea ball, remove these promptly when the brewing time has
expired. If you placed the tea directly into the pot, pour the tea into the cups through a strainer to catch the
leaves. In this instance, if you do not wish to serve your tea immediately, pour your tea through a strainer into
another pre-heated tea pot.
7. Tea sometimes is brewed with spices like fresh ginger, dried ginger powder or cardoms to
enrich the flavor.
Milk and sugar should be added according to individual taste. Adding of milk first or last does not make any
significant difference in the taste of tea - but many people have their choice some like to add milk first and some
afterwards. Sugar must be added last. Tea is also taken hot with sugar and slices of lemon. This is known as
Russian Tea. For preparing iced tea: prepare strong tea. Pour over crushed ice on which placed a sprig of mint
and topped with lemon slices.

Instant tea:
 Of late completely water soluble tea powder is getting popular. Another convenient method of
preparing tea is to use tea bags
Methods of Preparation of Coffee
 General methods of preparation of coffee is given below.
 This is followed by specific methods of brewing coffee which is given under appropriate headings.
1. Brewing
Coffee can be brewed in several different ways, but these methods fall into two main groups depending upon
how the water is introduced to the coffee grounds. If the method allows the water to pass only once through the
grounds, the resulting brew will contain mainly the more soluble components (including caffeine).If the water is
repeatedly cycled through the beans (as with the common percolator), the brew will also contain more of the
relatively less soluble, and bitter-tasting, compounds found in the bean, but for this coarse ground coffee will be
required.
2. Boiling
Despite the name, care should be taken not to actually boil coffee for more than an instant because the decoction
becomes bitter. The simplest method is to put the ground coffee in a cup, pour in hot water and let it cool while
the grounds sink to the bottom. This is a traditional method for making a cup of coffee (known as "mud
coffee")."Cowboy coffee" is made by simply heating coarse grounds with water in a pot, letting the grounds
settle and pouring off the liquid to drink, sometimes filtering it to remove fine grounds. The above methods are
sometimes used with hot milk instead of water. Water temperature is crucial to the proper extraction of flavor
from the ground coffee. The recommended brewing temperature of coffee is 93°C (199.4°F). If cooler, some of
the solubles that make up the flavor will not be extracted. If the water is too hot, some undesirable, bitter,
components will be extracted, adversely affecting the taste. If coffee is heated to boiling point only very briefly,
the taste will be little affected; the longer it is kept at a high temperature the worse the taste becomes.

Figure 10.3 French Press or Cafetière

Steeping
 A cafetière (or French press) is a tall, narrow cylinder with a plunger that includes a metal or nylon
mesh filter.
 Coffee is placed in the cylinder and boiling water is poured on.
 The coffee and hot water are left in the cylinder for a few minutes (typically 4'-7') and the plunger is
pushed down leaving the filter immediately above the grounds, allowing the coffee to be poured out
while the filter retains the grounds.
 Depending on the type of filter, it is important to pay attention to the grind of the coffee beans, though
a rather coarse grind is almost always called for.
 A plain glass cylinder may be used, or a vacuum flask arrangement to keep the coffee hot.

Drip Brew
 Drip brew (also known as filter or American coffee) is made by letting hot water drip onto coffee
grounds held in a coffee filter (paper or perforated metal).
 Strength varies according to the ratio of water to coffee and the fineness of the grind, but is typically
weaker than espresso, though the final product contains more caffeine.
 By convention, regular coffee brewed by this method is served in a brown or black pot (or a pot with a

176
 brown or black handle), while decaffeinated coffee is served in an orange pot (or a pot with an orange
handle).

Moka Pot Method

 There is an art to making coffee in a moka pot that includes the amount of water, the amount and grind
of the coffee, the compactness of the coffee grounds in the filter and the heat of the water used to brew
it.
 It is possible to make excellent coffee without any acidity or bitterness in a moka pot if you follow
simple procedures listed below:
1. Place your kettle of cold water on your stove burner and heat water until hot. Depending on the quality of
your water, you may find that using filtered water significantly improves the taste of your coffee.
2. Grind your coffee. Grind just a little coarser than for an espresso machine (fine, espresso grind of dark roasted
coffee). Just coarse enough so it doesn't go through the upper filter holes or block them.
3. Place hot water in the bottom section of the pot up to the level of the safety valve.
4. Insert the filter basket. Fill the filter basket with ground coffee until it is level and then level off with a
knife.Do not compact the coffee, because as the water reaches the grounds they will expand effectively tamping
your coffee for you.
5. Make sure the filter disk and gasket are in place in the top portion of the pot. Screw the top section onto the
bottom section of the pot and tighten to obtain a perfect seal. If using a stovetop moka pot, place it on the stove
on medium to medium-high heat. When hot, the air and water trapped inside the bottom tank expand due to the
heat being applied the device. As this happens, it pushes the hot water up a tube, through the coffee grinds, and
out of the spout into the top chamber of the pot.
6. When the water in the tank has been exhausted, that's when you hear the ‘gurgle,’ that signifies the drink is
ready to pour (approximately 4-5 minutes). Brewing is completed when all the water has been percolated into
the top chamber. Remove the moka pot from the stove.

Figure 10.4 Moka Pot

 Do not put the pot in the dishwasher. Wash the pot in mild detergent and water and dry thoroughly
after each use.
 Always keep your moka pot scrupulously clean. Disassemble the moka pot after every use and clean
the filter and top pot, being sure that you clean the underside of the top pot. Every few weeks, run some
vinegar through the moka pot as if you were brewing coffee to get rid of any mineral deposits left
behind by hard water.

Pot Method
i) Warm an earthenware pot or jug. Put in 3 level teaspoons of fresh coffee powder (coarse grind) for each 250
ml cup.
ii) Pour water which has started to boil over the powder and stir. Cover the pot and let it stand near the fire for
5 to 7 minutes.
iii) Pour the coffee through a fine meshed sieve or cloth. Add milk and sugar to taste.

Filter Method
 Several types of filters are available. Stainless steel or brass filters are the best, but the latter should be
properly tinned, or else the coffee will be spoilt.
 Glass or china containers are good but are fragile. Copper should not be used because of possible
copper poisoning.
i) Put in 3 level teaspoons of coffee powder (fine or medium grind) to each 250 ml. or 8 oz. cup. Press the
plunger down lightly over the powder.
ii) Pour water which has just come to boil over (he plunger in a circular motion. Let it stand for 5 to 7 minutes.
iii) Coffee can be poured out straight from the lower vessel and milk and sugar added as required.

Percolator Method
i) Place the ground coffee powder in the centre section of a clean warm percolator on a fine strainer fitted inside
and resting on a paper filter (a pinch off salt is mixed with the coffee).
ii) Pour fresh boiling water slowly through the top section.
iii) The water passes through the coffee, is strained and collects in ihe bottom section of the apparatus.

Figure 10.5 Precolator

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 Espresso or Caffè Espresso
 Espresso is a concentrated coffee beverage brewed by forcing very hot, but not boiling water under
high pressure through coffee that has been ground to a consistency between extremely fine and powder.

Figure 10.6 Caffè Espresso Machine

 The defining characteristics of espresso include a thicker consistency than drip coffee, a higher amount
of dissolved solids than drip coffee per relative volume, and a serving size that is usually measured in
shots, which are between 25 and 30 ml (30ml=1 fluid ounce) in size.
 Espresso is chemically complex and volatile, with many of its chemical components quickly degrading
due to oxidation or loss of temperature. Properly brewed espresso has three major parts: the heart,
body, and the most distinguishing factor, the presence of crema, reddish-brown foam that floats on the
surface of the espresso. It is composed of vegetable oils, proteins and sugars. Crema has elements of
both emulsion and foam colloid.

Instant Coffee
 A thick coffee decoction is prepared first and then it is either spray dried to a fine powder or freeze
dried to granules.
 When added to hot water it dissolves completely leaving no residue.

Turkish Coffee
 It is heavily laced with cardomom and is quite thick in consistency. It is a traditional after meal drink in
many Arab
countries.

General Rules for Storing and for Making Coffee

i) Coffee loses aroma and flavour with storage, as the volatile components evaporate. It should be roasted and
ground immediately before brewing for the best possible drink.
ii) Roasted coffee bean can be stored for some time, and can be re-roasted briefly immediately before use.
Ground coffee should be used within two or three days of grinding.
iii) Vacuum-packing extends storage life much. Roasted coffee, whether ground or not, can be kept in an
airtight container in a freezer to lengthen shelf life.
iv) Fresh coffee is the best; so buy quantities to last not more than a week.
v) Use the exact quantity of powder required.
vi) Use freshly drawn and freshly boiled water.
vii) The coffee-maker must be rinsed with hot water before each use and thoroughly washed and dried
before being put away. Never brew less than three- fourths of the coffee maker's capacity; use
a smaller one instead.
COCOA
 Cocoa, besides being a stimulant, is also a food. It is prepared from the seeds (beans) of a tree called
theobromo cacao, grown in South and Central America.the West and East Indies and along the
Gold Coast and adjacent areas in Africa. Common commercial varities are criolo (fine quality)
and trinitario (medium quality). The pods are gathered in heaps and cut open with sharp
rounded knives. The cocoa beans which are covered with a moist, glistening sweet white pulp
(mucilage) are scooped out. Oxidation begins almost at once causing the beans to become
brown. Therefore, as soon as possible, they must be placed on fermenting heaps and are
spread in the sun to remove the moisture so that spoilage does not set in. However,
fermentation is necessary to get the finest possible flavor. This is accompanied by a rise in
temperature and the transformation of natural sugars to acetic and other acids. After several
days, this operation is complete and the beans are allowed to dry. They are then ready to be
packed and shipped. Cocoa contains theobromine and caffeine as well as starch fat,
nitrogenous compounds and salts. So, apart from being a stimulating drink, it is also a food.
Cocoa can be prepared in milk only, or in milk and water, mixed to suit the taste of the
individual. The powder is mixed with sugar to avoid lumping. A little cold milk is added and a
thick even paste made. Either hot rnilk or hot milk and water are poured over. The preparation
is then allowed to boil for a few minutes which improves the flavour. A pinch of salt added at
the beginning enhances the flavour.

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Unit task 4 Service of non-alcoholic
beverages
Unit task 5 Preparation and
presentation of non-
alcoholic cocktails

8.1.11 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

Theory

8.1.11 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in the service of alcoholic beverages
b) explain the bar layout and work flow
c) identify equipment used in the bar
d) identify bar personnel and their duties
e) classify alcoholic beverages
f) prepare and use wine and drink lists
g) explain the procedures for preparation and service of alcoholic beverages
h) explain the preparation and presentation of alcoholic cocktails
i) outline legal aspects of alcoholic beverages

Content
8.1.11 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.11 T2 Bar layout and work flow
8.1.11 T3 Bar Equipment
8.1.11 T4 Bar personnel
- job titles
- duties
- qualities
8.1.11 T5 Classification of alcoholic
beverages
8.1.11 T6 Wine and drink lists
- function
- compiling
- types

8.1.11 T7 Preparation and service of

alcoholic beverages
8.1.11 T8 Alcoholic cocktails
8.1.11 T9 Legal aspects regarding
alcoholic beverages

Practice

8.1.11 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify equipment used in a bar
b) identify different alcoholic beverages
c) set up and display a given bar
d) serve alcoholic beverages appropriately
e) prepare, present and serve alcoholic cocktail

Content
8.1.11 P1 Bar equipment
8.1.11 P2 Alcoholic beverages
8.1.11 P3 Setting up and displaying a bar
8.1.11 P4 Service of alcoholic beverages

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8.1.11 P5 Alcoholic cocktails

8.1.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify equipment used in a bar
ii) identify different alcoholic beverages
iii) set up and display a given bar
iv) serve alcoholic beverages appropriately
v) prepare, present and serve alcoholic cocktail

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment
- alcoholic beverages

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- interpret themes

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.12 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE PROCEDURES

Theory

8.1.12 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain styles of food and beverage services
b) outline the preparation procedures of food and beverage service
c) explain the importance of interpersonal skills in food and beverage service
d) outline the procedure of taking orders
e) outline the procedures of meal service
f) explain methods of billing and handling payment
g) explain post service tasks

Unit Tasks
Task 1: Explaining styles of food and beverage services
There are a variety of styles of food service. The type used in an establishment will depend on a number of
factors like:
i) the policy of the establishment
ii) the type, size and site of the establishment
iii) the time available
iv) the type and number of customers
v) the type of menu and its cost
For most types of food service, customers are seated at a laid table and served by one or combination of the
service methods
These methods are:
 Plate Service (American Service)
In plate service the food is plated in the kitchen or at a service point and served to guest on the plate

180
It is the basic and commonly used form of service and demands that the waiter should be skilled in carrying
plates without disturbing the food arranged on them. The methods used to carry the plates depend on the number
of plates to be carried. The two professional methods mostly used in the industry are two and three carrying
techniques.
Advantages

i) Its fast and simple service

ii) Its not expensive. One waiter/waitress serve may guests and no special service equipment in
necessary
iii) It does not require highly trained technical staff that demands for higher pay

Disadvantages
i) Less showmanship
ii) Reduced personalized attentions

Silver Service
Silver service is a technique of transferring food from a servicing dish to the guest’s plate from the left with the
use of service cutlery. The food is fully prepared and pre-cut in the kitchen and then neatly arranged on silver
platters by the chef. The waiter then shows the platter to the guests as a polite gesture and serves the food to
individual plates.

Advantages
i) Only one waiter is needed to each station
ii) Elegant and entertaining
iii) No extra space is needed for the equipment except for the side stand
iv) It guarantee equal portions because the food is pre-cut and already served
v) Gives the guests personal attention

Disadvantages
i) It requires a big initiated investment in silver equipment
ii) If many guests are served from one platter, the last one to be served may see a rather less
attractive display
iii) If every guest in a party orders different dish like steak or fish, the waiter must carry very
heavily loaded tray/trays to the dining room
Family Service
Family service is a simple method of service in which serving dishes are placed on the dining table,
allowing the guests to selected and serves themselves. This style of service enables the guests to
select only what they require and in appropriate portions. Family service is often offered in addition
to plate service e.g. the main item may be plate-served and the guests left to help themselves to
serve vegetables and salads.
Advantages
i) It is fast as food is served at the proper temperature
ii) It is inexpensive
iii) It requires no special equipment

Disadvantages
i) Less showmanship
ii) Reduced personalized attention to customers

Buffet Service
In buffet service the food, hot or cold is presented attracting on a long table, classified and arranged according to
proper sequence, from appetizers to desserts. Soup is placed on soup tureen and the hot entrees in chaffing
dishes to keep them warm. Some equipment line dinner plates and saucers are laid down right on the buffet
table. The guests go to the buffet table pick up plates, china, cutlery and napkin and all other items and serve
themselves of their choice.

Advantages
i) Its is a fast service
ii) It requires less staff to render the service

181
 iii) The presentation of different dishes can be appetizing

Disadvantages
i) It may result in shortages of food especially when the early one may serve themselves more
thus very little food is left for the late comers.

Cafeteria service
In this service guests collect their own meals on a tray as they select food items from the hot or cold counters

Carvery Service

Carvery service offers the gusts the opportunity of choosing a starter and sweet from a table d’hote type menu
and main course from a carvery display. When customers are seated the menu is presented and the first course is
ordered. After the first course the customer id invited to the carvery where they choose from a variety of roast
meals or vegetarian alternatives.

Gueridon

8.1.12T UNIT TASK 2: Preparation procedures of Food and Beverage Service

The customer’s first impressions of the restaurant are the most important and these are largely
determined by the professionalism of the service staff and their preparations prior to service.
These pre-service preparations are known as mise-en-place and are vital in that they create the
right and pleasing environment by the setting and controlling of temperature, lighting and
equipment.

Preparation before service

The service staff should check the following before service.
 The tables and linen are clean
 Table cloths are evenly spread on the table
 Chairs are dusted and properly arranged
 The table set up is appropriate and pleasing
 The silver is polished and the china and crockery are spotlessly clean and befitting the
occasion
 Cruet sets, sugar bowls and flower vases are filled and placed on the table suitably
 The floor/carpet is clean and dry
 The restaurant and back area are in a state of readiness before the service session commences
 The side station is fully equipped for service and the following should be checked:
- condiments tray is cleaned and refilled
- Napkins are folded and kept handy for the particular session
- Salvers, extra linen, cutlery and service equipment necessary for the session are
stacked up
- Water jugs and ice buckets are filled and kept ready
- Coffee pots ready with freshly brewed coffee/tea
- Sugar cubes, butter and butter plates ready

Mise-en-Scene
Mise-en-Scene means to prepare environment of the outlet before service in order to make it
pleasant, comfortable, safe and hygienic.

Ensure that:
 Carpets are well brushed or hovered
 All tables and chairs are serviceable
 Table lights and wall lights have functioning bulbs
 Menu cards are presentable and attractive
 Tent cards or other sales material are presentable
 Doors and windows are thrown open for some time to air the restaurant.
 Exchange dirty linen for fresh linen
 Table clothes and mats are laid on the tables

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  Replace wilted flowers with fresh flowers

Mise-en-Place
Mise-en-Place is a French term that means to “putting in place” which is attributed to the
preparation of a work place for ultimate smooth service. Before service commences, the staff
should ensure that the station is in total readiness to receive guests.

Mis-en-Place involves:
 Side stations should be stacked with sufficient covers for resetting is over. Extra linen,
crockery, cutlery, glass ware and ash trays should be kept handy so that they are readily
available for use.
 Cruet sets should be cleaned and filled on a daily basis
 Sauce bottles should be filled and the necks and tops of bottles wiped clean
 Butter condiments and accompaniments for service should be kept ready for use when needed.

Refer to: 25.4.3

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  8
8.1.13T1 Unit task 1: Definition of
terms
 Colour
- Is an element of art and design that is perceived only by the sense of
sight.
- Is a form of light energy that has wavelength
 Pigment
- Is a colouring matter which gives colours to objects
- A surface of an object is capable of reflecting colour of a particular type only if it has its
pigment.
 Hue - the property which makes colours appear different from each other
 Value – lightness or darkness of a colur
 Intensity - the degree of purity and saturation of a colour

8.1.13T2 Importance of interior

decoration in Food and Beverage Service

18.1.13T3 Associative use of colour in Food and Beverage Service

 Colours should be used to express ideas, imaginations and feeling. These thoughts and
feelings which are hidden in us should be produced and made visible to there other people.
 Colour should be chosen wisely so that guests feel at home. Colours can alter size or shape of
a room or add to its warmth, cheerfulness, peace and quiet.
 Warm and cool colours. Hues are categorized as cool or warm. Cool colours are:
- Blue, green and purple
- Pale blue is fresh and cool
- Dark blue can be depressing if used in large areas
- Green is cool and has a soothing and pleasant effect
- Purple has richness and less depressing than dark blue
- White appears hygienic and cold
- Swarm colours are red, yellow and orange. They are conspicuous, cheerful and
stimulating. They can make objects appear nearer and larger so that a large bad lit room
can be made to seem small and cosy.
 Neutral colours are grey, beige, tan, brown, white and black.
These are often used with cool or warm colours. They can be sued as main colours with touches
of contrasting or bright colours. If used alone they appear dull and monotonous.

The following colours are regarded as most acceptable: Pink, peach, pale yellow, clear green,
beige, blue and turquoise. These colours reflect the natural colours found in good and well
represented food stuffs.

Bright illumination may be found in bars with light colours on the walls, but food service areas are
better with dimmer illumination and warmly coloured walls, giving a more relaxed and welcoming
atmosphere.

8.1.13T4 Effects of colour on surfaces

 The aspect of the room will have some influence on the choice of colour.
 The light in the room reflects on the colours and textures and the amount of light varies the
general effect of the colour. If the room faces north and has little light the room can be made
to look bright and cheerful with warm colours such as red, orange and yellow.
 A rough surface appears darker than a smooth surface because of the many shadows cast by
the roughness
 Colours may also be affected by their surroundings and may distort other colours around
them. A large area of bright colours always appear brighter than small ones.

8.1.13T5 Floral arrangement

8.1.13 INTERIOR DECORATION

184
 Theory

8.1.13 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of interior decoration in food and beverage service
c) explain the associative use of colour in food and beverage service areas
d) explain the effects of colour on surfaces
e) identify decorations for different functions
f) describe different floral arrangements

8.1.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify decorations applicable to various functions
ii) interpret different themes

Content
8.1.13 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.13 T2 Importance of interior
decoration in food and
beverage service
8.1.13 T3 Associative use of colour in
food and beverage service
- symbolism
- warm and cool colours
- colours and emotions
- objective and subjective use of colour
8.1.13 T4 Effects of colour on surfaces
8.1.13 T5 Floral arrangements

Practice

8.1.13 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify decorations applicable to various functions
b) interpret different themes

Content
8.1.13 P1 Decoration for various functions
8.1.13 P2 Theme interpretation

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- interior decoration equipment and materials
- equipment
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments

185
 - reports

8.1.14 INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID

Theory

8.1.14 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in first aid
b) explain the importance of first aid
c) describe the scope of first aid
d) identify the responsibilities of a first aid provider

8.1.14 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to provide first aid

Content
8.1.14 T1 Definition of terms
- first aid
- first aid provider
- casualty
- first aid kit
8.1.14 T2 Importance of first aid
8.1.14 T3 Scope of first aid
8.1.14 T4 Responsibilities of a first
aid provider

Practice

8.1.14 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-
module unit the trainee
should be able to role play
the responsibilities of a first
aid provider

8.1.14 P1 Role playing the responsibilities of a first aid provider

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.15 FIRST AID SUPPLIES

186
 Theory

8.1.15 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) list first aid supplies
b) explain the use and care of first aid supplies
c) identify the Content of a first aid kit

8.1.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify first aid supplies
ii) use first aid kit
iii) make an improvised first aid kit
iv) demonstrate the use and care of first aid supplies

Content
8.1.15 T1 First aid supplies
8.1.15 T2 Content s of a first aid kit
8.1.15 T3 Use and care of first aid supplies

Practice

8.1.15 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) identify first aid supplies
b) use first aid kit
c) make an improvised first aid kit
d) demonstrate the use and care of first aid supplies

Content
8.1.15 P1 Identification of first aid supplies
8.1.15 P2 Correct use of first aid kit
8.1.15 P3 Improvise first aid kit
8.1.15 P4 Use and care of first aid supplies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.16 COMMON ACCIDENTS

Theory

187
8.1.16 T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) identify common accidents
b) state causes of common accidents
c) explain the prevention of common accidents
d) outline first aid procedures that apply to common accidents

8.1.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) handle common accidents
ii) prevent of common accidents

Content
8.1.16 T1 Identification of common
accidents
8.1.16 T2 Causes of common accidents
8.1.16 T3 Prevention of common accidents
8.1.16 T4 First aid procedures for
common accidents

Practice

8.1.16 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) handle common accidents
b) demonstrate prevention of common accidents

Content
8.1.16 P1 Handling common accidents
8.1.16 P1 Demonstrate prevention of common accidents

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.17 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

8.1.17 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in food and beverage service
b) explain the challenges posed by emerging trends in food and beverage service
c) explain ways of managing challenges posed by emerging trends

188
8.1.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service
ii) cope with emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.17 T1 Emerging trends in food
and beverage service
8.1.17 T2 Challenges of emerging trends
8.1.17 T3 Managing challenges in
food and beverage service

Practice

8.1.17 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service
b) discuss the emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.17 P1 Emerging trends in food
and beverage service
8.1.17 P2 Group discussion on
emerging trends and issues
in food and beverage
service

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

189
191
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE LAUNDRY AND HOME NURSING

9.1.01 Introduction
This course unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge and skills in housekeeping, laundry
and home nursing to enable him/her to maintain the correct standards of cleanliness, comfort, hygiene
and aesthetic values, perform laundry procedures proficiently and provide basic care for the sick in any
given establishment.

9.1.02 General Objectives

At the end of this course unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand what is involved in housekeeping, laundry and home nursing
b) appreciate the values gained from good housekeeping, laundry and home nursing practices
c) understand the operation, care and maintenance of cleaning and laundry equipment
d) operate the cleaning and laundry equipment
e) acquire knowledge and skills in the selection of appropriate cleaning agents:
f) maintain desirable cleanliness and hygiene standards in different establishments through the
application of appropriate cleaning methods and procedures
g) appreciate principles of home nursing.

192
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE, LAUNDRY AND HOME
NURSING

9.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list the components of the accommodation department
c) describe the organizational structures of accommodation establishments
d) explain the duties of the various accommodation staff
e) state the attributes of accommodation staff

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Defining terms

 Housekeeping
Housekeeping or House cleaning is the systematic process of making a building neat and
clean in approximately that order. This maybe applied more broadly that just an individual
building, or as a metaphor for a similar "clean up" process applied elsewhere such as a
procedural reform. It can also be called household management, which is the act of
overseeing the organizational, financial, day-to-day operations of a building or estate, and the
managing of other domestic concerns.
 Accommodation
Accommodation (in British usage) or accommodations (in American usage) refers to lodging in
a dwelling or similar living quarters afforded to travelers in hotels or on cruise ships, or
prisoners, etc.

 Operations
These are jobs or tasks comprising of one or more elements or sub-tasks, and which are
performed typically in one location.

 Laundry is a noun that refers to the act of washing and finishing of clothes and linens, the
place where that washing is done, and/or that which needs to be, is being, or has been
laundered.

 Front Office
The term, front office is used in business settings and may refer to the Sales and Marketing
divisions of a company. It may also refer to any other divisions in a company that interact with
their customers. The term front office is in contrast to the back office operations, which include
departments such as personnel, accounting, payroll and financial reporting which do not
interact directly with customers.

Unit Task 2: Listing the Components of the accommodation department

Hotels and Motels are organized into departments or Divisions. Each department or division is
responsible for a particular operational function or functions. Most large properties have a room
division which included several departments such as the front office, laundry and housekeeping. These
are known as revenue –generating centers. Others are considered to be support centers. The executive
in charge of the room division is the Rooms Division Director who in some properties may be called
Residence Manager, Executive manager, or Senior Manager. The room Division Director reports
directly to the General Manger. As a part of the executive committee, the Room Division Director takes
an active part in policy-making decision related to operations.

193
Identification of Accommodation areas
 Guestrooms / Floors:
Room attendants and floor supervisors are responsible for the
cleanliness maintenance and security of guestrooms and surrounding
areas.
 Public Areas:
a) Front of the building areas. (E.g. swimming pools, parking area,
club, food service area etc.
b) Back of the building areas.(E.g. Staff canteen, service elevator,
locker rooms, administrative canteen, laundry, linen rooms,
basement, store except kitchen which is cleaned by the kitchen
stewards)
c) Linen and Uniform rooms:
The housekeeping department is responsible for its functioning for
the repairs and renewal of linen and for maintenance of proper
inventory and stock records of all linen items. Linen includes room
linen, food service linen, soft furnishings, uniforms, bed and bath
linen.
d) Laundry: OPL (On Premises Laundry):
If the laundry is on premises then the guest laundry from the rooms
is directly collected and delivered by the laundry ballet. However all
hotel linen is first collected in the linen room and then sent to the
laundry for washing. OPL (off premises laundry) is the laundry of
both the guest and linen which is done by the external laundry. All
the linen including the guest laundry is collected in the linen room
from it is sent to the external laundry for washing. The washed linen
including the guest laundry is collected at the linen from where it is
sent to the guest rooms and other service points.
e) Sanitary areas

Unit Task 3: Organizational Structures for various accommodation establishments

Unit Task 4: Duties of Accommodation Staff

In a hotel it is generally accepted that a Head Housekeeper is one who supervises three or more
assistant Housekeeper. The housekeeper may be responsible for the following members of staff.

194
Assistant Housekeeper (floor housekeepers or floor supervisors)
Supervises the maids and carry out work delegated by the housekeeper while the total number will vary
according to the type of hotel; a general rule is one assistant housekeeper for 50 rooms
Room maids
Are responsible for the servicing of the guests’ bedrooms, private sitting rooms and often private
bathrooms and are also on call for service to guests. A maid may be expected to service 10-15 rooms in
an eight-hour shift e.g. 7 am to 3 pm or 8 am to 4 pm
Staff maids
Clean the rooms of the living-in staff
Cleaners
Are usually part-time whose job is to clean offices, public rooms, bathrooms & ladies cloakrooms. In
some hotels, this work can be done by full-time housemaids or corridor maids
There are firms which undertake contract cleaning and some hotels use this service although the
housekeeper still ‘vets’ the work
Linen keeper
Supervises the work of the line room and who may have several linen maids to assist her in providing
clean, presentable linen throughout the building
Cloakroom attendant
Looks after the ladies’ powder room
House porters
They work consists of the removal of rubbish, the shifting of furniture, heavy vacuum cleaning and
other odd jobs
Valets
Usually work only in first-class hotels and are responsible for the valeting of the clothes of the guests
and may combine this with some of the less dirty jobs of the house porter
He may be a member of the uniformed staff
A florist
May be one of the housekeeping staff, but in some hotels the housekeeper or her assistants may arrange
the flowers and in others there may be contract arrangement.
The Aims of Housekeeper
 Achieve the maximum efficiency in the care and comfort of the guests and in the smooth
running of the department
 Establish a welcoming atmosphere and a courteous, reliable service from all staff of the
department
 Ensure high standards of cleanliness and general upkeep in all areas for which she is
responsible
 Train, control and supervise all staff attached to the department
 Establish a good working relationship with other departments
 Ensure that safety and security regulations are made known to all staff of the department Keep
the general manager or administrator informed of all matters requiring attraction
Responsibilities of Housekeeper
The housekeeper has the following responsibilities:

 Co-operation with other departments

 Engagement, dismissal and welfare of staff
 Deployment, supervision, control and training of staff
 Compilation of duty rosters, holiday lists and wage sheets

195
  Checking the cleanliness of all areas for which she is responsible
 Completion and/or checking of room occupancy lists
 Dealing with guests’ complaints and requests
 Reporting and checking of all maintenance work
 Control and supervision of the work of the linen room and possibly an in-building laundry
 Dealing with lost property
 Control of all keys in the department
 Prevention of fire and other accidents in the department
 Ordering and control of stores, equipment, cleaning agents in the department
 Being willing to advise on the interior design of the rooms, cleaning and associated contracts
 Pest control
 Keeping inventories and records of equipment, redecoration and any other relevant details of
the department
 Floral decorations

Unit Task 5: Stating the Attributes of a housekeeper

A housekeeper’s attributes includes:

 An interest in people and fact in handling them

 A pleasant personality and the ability to converse with all types of people
 An ability to hide personal likes and dislikes and to be fair and just
 Strictness regarding punctuality and the keeping of necessary rules
 Loyalty to the establishment and to her staff
 Critical powers of observation
 A sense of humour
 An adaptability and willingness to experiment with new ideas, use initiative and take
responsibility
 A cool head to deal with any emergencies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Charts
- Text books

Evaluation questions

9.1.02 HYGIENE DURING OPERATIONS

9.1.02 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of hygiene
c) state personal hygiene measures applicable during operations
d) state the environmental hygiene requirements during operations
e) explain the role of the Public Health Act in hygiene
f) identify common types of infections in house keeping
g) discuss control measures to minimize infections

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Defining terms

 Hygiene

196
 Hygiene refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health and healthy living.
Hygiene is a concept related to medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices
related to most aspects of living, although it is most often associated with cleanliness and
preventative measures.

The term "hygiene" is derived from Hygeia, the Greek goddess of health, cleanliness and
sanitation. Hygiene is also the name of the science that deals with the promotion and preservation
of health, also called hygienics.

 Infections

An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species. In an infection,

the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources to multiply, usually at the expense of the
host.

Unit Task 2: Stating the Importance of Hygiene

Unit Task 3: Stating Personal Hygiene Measures Applicable during

Operations

Reasons for Personal Hygiene

Personal hygiene is important for the following reasons:

 To Improve Health
Wash your hands frequently. Good personal hygiene can make you a healthier person. Regular
bathing and hand washing will prevent many illnesses by killing the unseen germs found on our
bodies.
 To Prevent Body Odor
Apply deodorant daily. Good personal hygiene will prevent body odor. Washing every day and
using a good antiperspirant or deodorant will remove the body chemicals that cause odor.
 To Improve Self-Esteem
Go about your day with confidence. Good personal hygiene also improves self-esteem and
confidence. If you know you are clean, you can go about your daily activities without worrying that
body odors may be offending others.
 To Prevent Skin Problems
Good personal hygiene may prevent athlete's foot and other skin conditions that are caused from
lack of washing.
 To Prevent Dental Problems
Brush your teeth three times a day. Good personal hygiene will prevent bad breath and tooth
decay. Brushing and flossing your teeth three times a day will keep your breath smelling clean. It
will also please your dentist.

How to practice good hygiene

1. Wash your hands after coming into contact with germs, which can be found
almost everywhere. When you are preparing uncooked meat or have gone to
the bathroom, or done anything that brings your body into contact with
germs, it's important to wash your hands. E. coli, hepatitis and other
infectious diseases can be transmitted if you bring contaminated hands into
contact with someone’s face or body. It is recommended that you use an
antibacterial soap when washing hands to ensure that you kill all, or most,
germs that could be present on your hands and forearms.
2. Brush your teeth 2-3 times a day. Brushing your teeth as recommended by
your dental professional results in a good, healthy personal appearance and
oral health. If you don't brush your teeth as recommended, you could face an
array of dental problems including: tooth decay, gingivitis, bad breath and so
on. The bacterium that form in your mouth between brushing or overnight
causes these dental problems. You are advised to brush your teeth and rinse
with an antiseptic mouthwash each day at least 2-3 times per day to fight off

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 these bacterium.
3. Bathe daily. Taking a bath is key to more than just your overall hygiene but
also results in ridding your body of bacteria. Not bathing can lead to an over
accumulation of bacteria that can cause odor and certain types of infection,
primarily in women. You are encouraged to bath at least 1-2 times per day
with an antibacterial soap. Some antibacterial soaps may cause an allergic
reaction. Ask your physician which soap you should use.
4. Wash your hair daily. If you don't wash your hair, you could develop
dandruff problems and lice. Ridding yourself of lice can be difficult. Buy a
shampoo that fights dandruff and moisturizes and improves the quality of
your hair. This is good way to maintain the overall health of your hair. If
you have a problem with dry scalp, consult with a dermatologist about the
possibility of getting a prescription shampoo.
5. Don't use anything that has come into contact with another person's body
fluids. This is a very important step in practicing good hygiene. Don't use or
touch syringes or any other type of medical or personal item that has come
into contact with another person's fluids. Using someone’s personal items
could put you in danger of contracting a very serious illness or condition.
Sometimes, even if you know someone, you should still refrain from her
personal items.

Unit Task 4: Stating Environmental Hygiene requirements during

Operations

Waste Disposal
Waste disposal is a growing problem worldwide. Although there have been recent advancements in
waste disposal, it remains an overall public safety and environmental health issue that countries around
the world continue to address.

Prevention and Reduction

The best method of managing waste is prevention and reduction, which can be achieved in a number of
ways like recycling and making use of secondhand items.
 Energy Recovery
Energy recovery is a promising form of waste disposal. It works by recycling some forms of waste
into a fuel source for heating, cooking and powering turbines.
 Biological Reprocessing
Biological reprocessing methods such as composting can be used for organic waste like food, paper
and plant material.
 Sanitary Landfill
Sanitary landfill disposal is convenient but may experience a lot of growth and require manpower
to maintain.
 Incineration
Incineration is popular due to the minimal land available for disposal, but there is some concern
about the release of micro-pollutants like dioxins from incinerator stacks.
 Ocean Dumping
Controversy surrounds ocean dumping as a waste disposal method. Although the waste may
provide nutrients for some sea life, it's widely believed that the harmful effects would outweigh any
benefits.
 Feeding animals

Guidelines for Disposal of Hazardous Waste

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Hazardous waste has immediate or long-term risks to humans, animals, plants or the environment.
Because of this, it is unsafe to dispose it with general waste and needs specific disposal methods.
Identifying the most common types of household and business hazardous wastes is the first step.
Knowing the basic guidelines of disposal will make it easier for you to protect yourself, your family
and our environment.
Household Hazardous Waste
House hold waste is considered hazardous if it is labeled toxic, ignitable, corrosive or reactive. Some of
the common ones are gasoline, brake and windshield wiper fluid, cleaning products, creosote products,
paints, paint thinners, pesticides and herbicides.
Business Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste from business is waste from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary or pharmaceutical
practices. These often include needles, human tissue, body fluids or blood, laboratory specimens or
cultures, carcasses, laboratory equipment, chemical and radioactive waste.

Identification and Packaging

Keep household hazardous waste in their original containers and do not mix it with different products.
If you are forced to move products from their original containers for storage, label the new containers
carefully for future identification.
Hazardous waste from business needs to be packed in plastic bags or containers that are easily
identified by the color coding identifying the type of waste inside them.
Biohazardous waste is packed in yellow containers or plastic bags with the black international
biohazard symbol on them.
Radioactive waste is packed in red plastic bags or containers with the black international radioactive
symbol
Cell toxic waste, also called cytotoxic waste, is packed in violet plastic bags or containers labeled with
the international cell toxic waste symbol.

Storage
Keep all flammable products out of direct sunlight and away from heat, sparks or flames.
Store all containers in an upright position in a cardboard box instead of plastic bags and place leaking
containers in a larger plastic container with a tight-fitting lid.
All hazardous waste generated by business needs to be stored in a safe and secure location. Waste
identified as high or extremely risky should not be stored with the rest of hazardous waste. This kind of
waste needs to be picked up by special arrangement, possibly outside of the regular hazardous waste
pickup.

Disposal
The safest way to dispose of household hazardous waste is to either contact a hazardous waste pickup
company in your community or bring it to a household hazardous waste collection site if one exists.
Depending on where you live both services might have a fee. It is, however, illegal to leave hazardous
waste for curbside pickup.
Hazardous waste generated by businesses is collected and disposed by an authorized waste contractor
who will collect the waste on a scheduled date from the designated location.

Control of pests and rodents

Control of Pests
Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is
perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.

Pests are beneficial as well as a curse to mankind. Animals, bacteria and some insects are beneficial to
people in many ways, but the same time they can also be pests. Pests such as rats, ants, cockroaches,
mice and flies are common in houses and apartments. There should be an effective pest control to
prevent pests in multiplying themselves in houses, which include effective pest management, pest
control and pest prevention.

Pest Management

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The best and most effective way for controlling pests is pest management which includes many steps.

The first and most important step in Pest Control is to identify the pest problem. This includes finding
out exactly what you are up against. Some pests (bacteria, animals) are really helpful to people, so it is
very important to find out any harmful pests.

The second thing is to decide how much pest control is necessary. Only the family who live in the
affected area can judge how serious it is to take action.

The third thing is to choose an available option for pest control such as chemical pest control or non
chemical pest control.

You can control pests by many means; some of the options available are:-

 Non Chemical pest control

 Chemical pest control
 Biological Methods

Non-chemical methods of pest control

The range of non-chemical options available may vary with the pest species, pest intensity or severity,
and effectiveness of the option. Several key non-chemical options that may help reduce the amount of
pesticides used in and around homes are listed below. However, it is important to realize that for
effective use of non-chemical methods, an understanding of pest biology, ecology, and behaviour is
essential. Such an understanding is not always required when using synthetic pesticides.
 Exclusion: Any measure used to prevent entry of organisms indoors through openings in the
building structure, doors, windows, or on infested plant or food materials. Some techniques
include screening openings to prevent entry of flies, mosquitoes, and beetles; caulking cracks
and crevices to remove existing or potential harborages of pantry pests and cockroaches; and
sealing or repairing exterior openings to prevent entry of bats, mice, bees, and wasps. Plants
and food products must be carefully inspected for infestations at the time of purchase and
before they are brought indoors.
 Sanitation: Maintaining clean surroundings both outdoors and indoors removes potential
areas where pests can feed, breed, and hide. Sanitary measures include: disposing of garbage
on a weekly basis during warm weather to control filth flies and cockroaches; discarding
overripe fruits to control fruit flies and fungus beetles; removing bird nests as these harbor
dermestids, clothes moths, mites, and lice; and vacuuming to reduce populations of fleas,
carpet beetles, house dust mites, and several ground-dwelling insects and insect relatives. It is
also important to keep kitchen areas clean to reduce incidence of pantry pests and
cockroaches.
 Habitat modification: Includes any method used to eliminate or disrupt areas where pests
reside. For example, removing weeds and keeping well-mowed lawns reduces incidence of
crickets and ticks. Removing debris and fallen leaves near foundations reduces bug and
centipede populations. Wood or wooden piles, where carpenter ants, ground beetles, and
spiders seek harborage, must be stored away from structures. Creating a vegetation-free
barrier around the perimeter of the building will reduce incidence of many ground-dwelling
pests such as clover mites. The use of dehumidifiers is recommended, especially in basements,
to create and maintain a dry environment to discourage incidence of sowbugs, centipedes,
firebrats, and house dust mites.
 Temperature control: Artificially manipulating the temperature of substrates infested by
pests or areas where pests reside is an inexpensive nonchemical strategy. The time from
treatment to death of a pest and numbers of the pest killed, may vary with the pest stage,
temperature, and duration of exposure. Pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles can be
eliminated by subjecting infested foods, clothes, and carpets, respectively, to extremely hot or
cold temperatures. In general, all developmental stages of pantry pests, clothes moths, and
carpet beetles can be killed within minutes to hours when exposed to temperatures below 32°
F and above 104° F.

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  Mechanical control: A rolled newspaper or magazine and fly swatters are some tools used for
killing visible and less mobile or immobile pests. On infested plants, hand-picking insects
(e.g., hornworms) is a partially effective means of pest control. Infested leaves must be
excised from plants, bagged, and discarded.
 Traps: Traps are escape-proof devices that capture highly mobile and active pests. Live traps
can be used for rabbits, pocket gophers, and squirrels. Unbaited sticky traps such as red
spheres, resembling apples, are useful for trapping apple maggot adults. Colored (yellow)
sticky traps are effective in capturing whiteflies and aphids. Sticky traps can be baited with
commercial lures (pheromones and food attractants) to enhance trap catch. For example,
sticky traps baited with lures for pantry pests, wasps, and flies are commercially available.
Traps are useful for early detection and continuous monitoring of infestations. They are not
effective in reducing populations unless the pest population is isolated or confined to a small
area. The chance of detecting the presence of pests in a given area is related to the number of
traps used. Therefore, when pests are present in very low numbers, it is advantageous to use
more than a few traps. Pests must be active or mobile to be captured in traps. Therefore, any
environmental variable (temperature, humidity, wind, light, or food) or biological factor (age,
sex, mating status, etc.) that influence pest activity, affects trap catch. Consequently, absence
of pests in traps does not imply that the pests are not present in the sampled area.

Chemical Pest Control

Another good solution for pest control is the use of chemical pesticides. It is not advisable in and
around the home and commercial premises, as it will affect people adversely. The major drawback of
this method is that the results of the chemical pesticides treatment are generally temporary, therefore
the need for repeated treatments. If used incorrectly, home-use pesticides can be poisonous to humans.
While you are using chemical pesticides for pest control, the most important thing to remember is to
take care in choosing the right pesticide product.

Biological Pest Control

Another effective way in controlling pests is using the biological method. This is the method of using
pest's natural enemies to control them. Spiders, centipedes, ground beetles and ants are some of the
beneficial bugs. This method is not harmful to people in any means and can be implemented
effectively.

Rodent Control

Rodents (rats and mice) live in the environment we create for them. They will eat almost any foodstuff,
which can include bird and pet foods, vegetables stored in outdoor sheds, peelings that are added to
open compost bins and household garbage that is not adequately secured.

It is a myth that rodents only exist in dirty environments, as all they require is a source of food, water
and a safe place to nest. Rodents usually live within 15.25 to 45.75 metres (50 to 150 feet) or their food
source. Nesting burrows are often found in areas not frequented by humans, such as:

 in and around open compost bins (even if it only contains grass clippings). Compost bins can be
screened to help exclude rodents and if properly maintained should not be a problem.

 in woodpiles.

 under storage sheds and storage piles.

 in non-maintained yard areas.

 in refuse storage areas.

The most common methods of rodent control are through the use of traps and anticoagulant baits.

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Traps: Rodents are wary of new things in their environment. Place traps against perimeter walls
(perpendicular) so that rodents will have to walk overtop of the release mechanism. Baits that work
well include hot dog wieners or peanut butter. Make sure the baits are fresh. It can be helpful to bait the
trap without setting it until rodents are used to coming to it for food. After they are coming to the trap
you can set it with more confidence.

Baits: Anticoagulant baits can be toxic to humans and pets as well as rodents. They should always be
contained in a tamper-proof bait station. Poison baits should not be used indoors as inaccessible
decaying rodents can cause odour problems that are difficult to resolve.

If you find dead rodents in the yard, dispose of them as quickly as possible by picking them up with a
shovel and placing them in a transparent green bag. It can be set out with your regular waste.

Rodent Control Responsibility

The responsibility for rodent control rests with the landowner. The pest control officer can assist with
property inspection and make recommendations for by-law enforcement if required. Tenants are
protected through minimum standards by-laws but are encouraged to cooperate with their landlords by
ensuring good housekeeping

Unit Task 5: Explaining the Role of the Public Health Act in hygiene

Unit Task 6: Stating Common Infections in housekeeping

Common infections that could be spread by incorrect hygiene practices include:

Influenza(cold)
Influenza, commonly called "the flu," is an illness caused by RNA viruses that infect the respiratory
tract of many animals, birds, and humans. In most people, the infection results in the person getting
fever, cough, headache, and malaise (tired, no energy); some people also may develop a sore throat,
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The majority of individuals have symptoms for about one to two weeks
and then recover with no problems. However, compared with most other viral respiratory infections,
such as the common cold, influenza (flu) infection can cause a more severe illness with a mortality rate
(death rate) of about 0.1% of people who are infected with the virus.

What are flu symptoms?

Typical clinical features of influenza include:

 fever (usually 100 F-103 F in adults and often even higher in children),
 respiratory symptoms such as:
o cough,
o sore throat,
o runny or stuffy nose,
o headache,
o muscle aches, and
o fatigue, sometimes extreme.

Rotavirus

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Rotavirus is a virus that infects the bowels. It is the most common cause of severe diarrhoea among
infants and children throughout the world and causes the death of about 600,000 children worldwide
annually. The name rotavirus comes from the characteristic wheel-like appearance of the virus when
viewed by electron microscopy (the name rotavirus is derived from the Latin rota, meaning "wheel").

The time period from initial infection to symptoms (incubation period) for rotavirus disease is around
two days. Symptoms of the disease include fever, vomiting, and watery diarrhea. Abdominal pain may
also occur, and infected children may have profuse watery diarrhea up to several times per day.
Symptoms generally persist for three to nine days. Immunity from repeated infection is incomplete
after a rotavirus infection, but repeated infections tend to be less severe than the original infection.

Rotavirus infection can be associated with severe dehydration in infants and children. Severe
dehydration can lead to death in rare cases, so it is important to recognize and treat this complication of
rotavirus infection. In addition to the symptoms of rotavirus infection discussed above, parents should
be aware of the symptoms of dehydration that can occur with rotavirus infection or with other serious
conditions

How is rotavirus spread?

Rotavirus infection is highly contagious. The primary mode of transmission of rotavirus is the passage
of the virus in stool to the mouth of another child. This is known as a fecal-oral route of transmission.
Children can transmit the virus when they forget to wash their hands before eating or after using the
toilet. Touching a surface that has been contaminated with rotavirus and then touching the mouth area
can result in infection.

There also have been cases of low levels of rotavirus in respiratory-tract secretions and other body
fluids. Because the virus is stable (remains infective) in the environment, transmission can occur
through ingestion of contaminated water or food and contact with contaminated surfaces. Rotavirus can
survive for days on hard and dry surfaces, and it can live for hours on human hands.

Norovirus

Noroviruses are a group of viruses that cause the "stomach flu," or gastroenteritis in people. The term
norovirus was recently approved as the official name for this group of viruses. Several other names
have been used for noroviruses, including:

 Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs)

 caliciviruses (because they belong to the virus family Caliciviridae)

 small round structured viruses.

Viruses are very different from bacteria and parasites, some of which can cause illnesses similar to
norovirus infection. Like all viral infections, noroviruses are not affected by treatment with antibiotics,
and cannot grow outside of a person's body.

What are the symptoms of illness caused by noroviruses?

Norovirus infection usually starts suddenly. The infected person often feels very sick with nausea and
vomiting and watery non-bloody diarrhea with stomach cramps. Vomiting is more common in children
than adults. Sometimes there is a low-grade fever. There may also be chills, headache, muscle aches,
and a general sense of tiredness.

What is the name of the illness caused by noroviruses?

 Illness caused by norovirus infection has several names, including:

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  stomach flu—this "stomach flu" is not related to the flu (or influenza), which is a respiratory
illness caused by influenza virus.
 viral gastroenteritis—the most common name for illness caused by norovirus. Gastroenteritis
refers to an inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
 acute gastroenteritis
 non-bacterial gastroenteritis
 food poisoning (although there are other causes of food poisoning)
 calicivirus infection

Diphtheria

Diphtheria is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This disease
primarily affects the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract (respiratory diphtheria), although it
may also affect the skin (cutaneous diphtheria) and lining tissues in the ear, eye, and the genital areas.

How is diphtheria transmitted?

Diphtheria is transmitted to close contacts via airborne respiratory droplets or by direct contact with
nasopharyngeal secretions or skin lesions. Rarely, it can be spread by objects contaminated by an
infected person. Overcrowding and poor living conditions can further contribute to the spread of
diphtheria.
Humans are the only known reservoir of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Infected individuals may
develop symptoms of diphtheria, or they may become carriers of the bacteria with no symptoms
(asymptomatic carriers). These asymptomatic carriers can serve as reservoirs for active infection and
may transmit the disease to other individuals.

What are the signs and symptoms of diphtheria?

The symptoms of respiratory diphtheria usually begin after a two- to five-day incubation period.
Symptoms of respiratory diphtheria may include the following:
 sore throat,
 fever,
 malaise,
 hoarseness,
 difficulty swallowing, or
 difficulty breathing.

E. coli

What is E. coli?
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium that commonly lives in the intestines of people and animals.
There are many strains (types) of E. coli.
Most of the E. coli are normal inhabitants of the small intestine and colon and are non-pathogenic,
meaning they do not cause disease in the intestines. Nevertheless, these non-pathogenic E. coli can
cause disease if they spread outside of the intestines, for example, into the urinary tract (where they
cause bladder or kidney infections) or into the blood stream (sepsis).
Some strains of E. coli are pathogenic, meaning they can cause disease in the small intestine and colon.
These pathogenic strains of E. coli may cause diarrhoea by producing and releasing toxins (called
enterotoxigenic E. coli or ETEC) that cause the intestine to secrete fluid or by invading and inflaming
the lining of the small intestine and the colon (called enteropathogenic E. coli or EPEC). A third strain

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of E. coli has a tendency to cause inflammation of the colon and bloody diarrhoea (called
enterohemorrhagic E. coli or EHEC).

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver

When doctors speak of viral hepatitis, they usually are referring to hepatitis caused by a few specific
viruses that primarily attack the liver. There are several hepatitis viruses; they have been named types
A, B, C, D, E, F (not confirmed), and G.

The most common hepatitis viruses are types A, B, and C.

What are the symptoms and signs of viral hepatitis?

The period of time between exposure to hepatitis and the onset of the illness is called the incubation
period. The incubation period varies depending on the specific hepatitis virus. Hepatitis A has an
incubation period of about 15-45 days; hepatitis B from 45-160 days, and hepatitis C from 2 weeks to 6
months.
Many patients infected with hepatitis A, B, and C have few or no symptoms of illness. For those who
do develop symptoms of viral hepatitis, the most common are flu- like symptoms including:
 loss of appetite
 nausea
 vomiting
 fever
 weakness
 tiredness
 aching in the abdomen
Less common symptoms include:
 dark urine
 light-colored stools
 fever
 jaundice (a yellow appearance to the skin and white portion of the eyes)

Staphylococcus (staph infection)

Staphylococcus is a group of bacteria that can cause a multitude of diseases as a result of infection of
various tissues of the body.

Over 30 different types of Staphylococci can infect humans, but most infections are caused by
Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococci can be found normally in the nose and on the skin (and less
commonly in other locations) of 20%-30% of healthy adults. In the majority of cases, the bacteria do
not cause disease. However, damage to the skin or other injury may allow the bacteria to overcome the
natural protective mechanisms of the body, leading to infection.

What are the symptoms and signs of a Staph infection?

Staphylococcal disease of the skin usually results in a localized collection of pus, known as an abscess,
boil, or furuncle. The affected area may be red, swollen, and painful. Drainage or pus is common.

Streptococcus

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Group A streptococcal (strep) infections are caused by group A streptococcus, a bacterium responsible
for a variety of health problems. These infections can range from a mild skin infection or sore throat to
severe, life-threatening conditions such as toxic shock syndrome and necrotizing fascitis, commonly
known as flesh eating disease. Most people are familiar with strep throat, which along with minor skin
infection, is the most common form of the disease.

In addition to step throat and superficial skin infections, group A can cause infections in tissues (group
of cells joined together to perform the same function) at specific body sites, including lungs, bones,
spinal cord, and abdomen.

Unit Task 7: Explaining Infection control measures

Flu

Much of the illness and death caused by influenza can be prevented by annual influenza vaccination.
Flu vaccine (influenza vaccine made from inactivated and sometimes attenuated [non-infective] virus)
is specifically recommended for those who are at high risk for developing serious complications as a
result of influenza infection. These high-risk groups for conventional flu include all people aged 65
years or older and people of any age with chronic diseases of the heart, lung, or kidneys; diabetes;
immunosuppression; or severe forms of anemia.

Rotavirus infection

Because the virus is so prevalent, it is very difficult or even impossible to prevent rotavirus infection.
Even places with excellent standards of hygiene and sanitation can become contaminated. Vaccination
is the most effective preventive measure.

Norovirus infection

One can decrease chances of coming in contact with noroviruses by following these preventive steps:

 Frequently wash your hands, especially after toilet visits and changing diapers and before
eating or preparing food.
 Carefully wash fruits and vegetables, and steam oysters before eating them.
 Thoroughly clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces immediately after an episode of illness
by using a bleach-based household cleaner.
 Immediately remove and wash clothing or linens that may be contaminated with virus after an
episode of illness (use hot water and soap).
 Flush or discard any vomitus and/or stool in the toilet and make sure that the surrounding area
is kept clean.
 Persons who are infected with norovirus should not prepare food while they have symptoms
and for 3 days after they recover from their illness (see food handler information sheet). Food
that may have been contaminated by an ill person should be disposed of properly.

Diphtheria

The prevention of diphtheria is best achieved through universal immunization with diphtheria toxoid-
containing vaccines. Immunization for infants and children consists of five vaccinations generally
given at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, with the fourth dose being administered between 15-18 months, and
the fifth dose at ages 4-6 years. At age 11-12 years, children should receive a single vaccination if they
have completed the recommended childhood vaccination schedule. Because immunity wanes over
time, subsequent booster immunization is required every 10 years thereafter to maintain protective
antibody levels.

Travelers to areas where diphtheria is endemic should review and update their vaccinations as
necessary.

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E.Coli

The following precautions are recommended to prevent infection:.

 Drink water from a well only if you know it's free from contamination.
 Do not drink untreated water from streams or lakes.
 Wash your hands
 Wash your hands with soap and water before and after handling food. It cuts the risk
of spreading E. coli
 Be sure children wash their hands carefully and often.

Viral hepatitis
Prevention of hepatitis involves measures to avoid exposure to the viruses, using immunoglobulin in
the event of exposure, and vaccines. Administration of immunoglobulin is called passive protection
because antibodies from patients who have had viral hepatitis are given to the patient. Vaccination is
called active protection because killed viruses or non-infective components of viruses are given to
stimulate the body to produce its own antibodies.
Prevention of viral hepatitis, like any other illness, is preferable to reliance upon treatment. Taking
precautions to prevent exposure to another individual's blood (exposure to dirty needles), semen
(unprotected sex), and other bodily waste (stool) will help prevent the spread of these viruses.
.
Protocol for Preventing Cross Infection
Standard precautions are necessary to assist in the prevention of cross infection of organisms or
bacteria from one person to another
Safe work practice applies to all persons, (regardless of status), in the handling of all bodily fluids
including blood (including dried blood), saliva, non-intact skin and mucous membranes.
It is important to understand that all bodily fluids carry a potential risk of infection.

 Clean the work area, using disposable paper towels with a pre mixed solution containing
hypochlorite bleach such as Quaternary Ammonia Disinfectant.
 Wash hands thoroughly with running warm water and soap and dry hands with air drier or
disposable paper towels.
 Wear disposable plastic gloves at all times – consider all bodily fluids as potentially
infectious.
 Change gloves between tasks and procedures on same person - particularly after contact with
material that may contain a high concentration of micro-organisms.
 Dispose of soiled dressings into a designated bin, which has a disposable liner inside.
 Use disposable gloves when handling soiled clothing, double bag clothing and seal the
 Dispose of plastic gloves into designated waste bin.
 Wash hands thoroughly after removing gloves.

Preventative Measures:

 Keep separate bins for general waste and soiled waste.

 Dispose of faeces in a sanitary manner, and ensure no faecal-oral transmission.
 Clean nasal discharge with paper tissues as they occur and dispose of in appropriate bin.
 Clean exposed surfaces with a product such as Quaternary Ammonia Disinfectant.
 Wash hands

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Magazines

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 - Manufacturer’s manuals
- Pest control chemicals

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.03 SAFETY DURING OPERATIONS

Theory

9.1.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of safety
c) state safety measures during operations
d) explain the role of the Public Health Act in safety
e) outline safety precautions necessary when carrying out housekeeping operations
f) explain types of fires
g) discuss fire safety measures
h) outline the fire fighting procedures

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Defining terms
 Safety
The condition of being safe; freedom from danger, risk, or injury.

Unit Task 2: Importance of safety

Unit Task 3: safety measures during operations

The main hazards associated with hotels and public buildings (the list is not exhaustive) include:

1. Injuries arising from lifting:

 In order to prevent such injuries employers are required to take precautionary measures to minimise
hazardous manual handling operations e.g. when moving crates/kegs, CO2 cylinders, luggage etc. and use
lifting, handling and assisting aids wherever practicable. Employers must also carry out a sufficient
assessment of manual handling operations.
 See also HSE "Getting to grips with manual handling" (link below).

2. Electrical safety:

 All equipment should be installed and maintained by a competent person. It is recommended (IEE
Wiring Regs BS7671) that the fixed system is inspected/tested at least every five years (or more
frequently as recommended by a qualified electrician) and that all electrical appliances are
examined/checked ("PAT" Tested) at a frequency appropriate to the risk. Regular maintenance should

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 include visual checks for general wear and tear ensuring that plugs, leads and sockets are in good
condition and that there is no exposed wiring. Any corrective actions must be carried out immediately.
 HSE publication "Maintaining portable electrical equipment in hotels and tourist accommodation" (See
link below).

3. Gas safety

 All Premises - any place of work that has a gas installation and/or gas appliances installed must be
maintained in such a way so as to prevent risk of injury to any person. The definition of what is an
appropriate maintenance programme will be determined by the installation's age, condition and usage. If
an inspector is of the opinion that the installation is not being properly maintained and may give rise to
danger, enforcement action may be taken.
 Hotels/residential care accommodation - In any room where there is a gas appliance (boiler/heater etc.),
and the room is or can be used for sleeping or dining/lounging, then that appliance MUST be checked for
safety at intervals not exceeding 12 months by a CORGI registered engineer.
 A record book must be kept in respect of the appliances including: date of the inspection, any defect
identified and any remedial action taken.

4. Safe use of machinery

 To prevent harm to employees ensure that all staff are fully trained to use the equipment provided e.g.
food preparation equipment, compactor, and passenger lift. Ensure that workplace equipment is
maintained, inspected/tested as appropriate and is safe for use and that it is the right equipment for the
job.
 See HSE publication "Maintenance priorities in catering" (see link below)

5. Floors, corridors and stairs:

 In order to prevent slips and trips these areas should be kept free from obstructions at all times. Floor
coverings and routeways should be maintained and all areas should be well lit. Kitchen floors need to
have enough grip and should be kept dry as far as is practicable. Spillages should be cleared up
immediately. Leaking equipment should be repaired. Staff should wear sensible footwear. Warning signs
should be displayed during cleaning to warn customers/residents/staff of potentially slippery surfaces.
Ensure that any change in floor level is clearly visible.

6. Hazardous substances:

 To prevent personal harm from hazardous substances e.g. skin irritation, respiratory disease, a COSHH
risk assessment is required for such substances as cleaning chemicals, beer line cleaner (corrosive), CO2
cylinders etc. Safety data sheets should be obtained from the suppliers of the chemicals to assist in
carrying out the risk assessment and providing information to staff.
 For further advice on what you need to know about the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations 2002 (COSHH) see a brief guide to the regulations which is published online (see link
below)

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7. Asbestos:

 Many premises because of age will contain asbestos containing materials (ACMs) e.g. lagged pipes in
cellars etc. There is now a statutory duty to manage asbestos in non-domestic premises. (Regulation 4 of
the Control of Asbestos Regulation 2006).

8. Smoking (effective 1 July 2007)

All premises, which are wholly or substantially enclosed and used as a place of work by more than one
person are, now smoke free. "No smoking" signs must be displayed at the public entrance to the premises.
Take reasonable steps to ensure that staff, customers etc. are aware that smoking is not permitted. Ensure
that no one smokes in smoke free premises or vehicles.

9. Water temperatures and Legionella control:

One way to minimise the growth of legionella is to store hot water above 60C and distribute it at above 50C.
However, care is needed where water runs hot. The risks of scalding should be assessed and appropriate
measures taken to prevent burns, e.g. warning notices or fitting thermostatic mixing valves on taps.

Water systems should be designed to avoid conditions that favour the growth of legionella by ensuring adequate
insulation of storage tanks and pipes, using materials that do not encourage growth of legionella and protecting
against contamination by fitting water storage tanks with lids. Water systems need to be routinely checked and
inspected by a competent person and the risk assessment should be reviewed regularly.

Water stagnation can encourage conditions that favour growth of legionella. It is therefore advisable to remove
dead runs in pipe work from the system, flush out seldom used shower heads, taps and remaining dead legs
periodically (weekly), and to remove any dirt or limescale. Other water treatment methods include chemical
disinfection.

10. Work-related contact dermatitis:

 In catering this is caused by contact with water, soaps and cleaning products. Prevention is to avoid
contact with cleaning products and water (use a dishwasher rather than hand washing). Protect the skin by
wearing non-latex gloves and checking hands regularly for the first signs of dermatitis (itchy, dry or red
skin).

11. Cellar Safety:

 This area contains some significant hazards and access should be restricted to trained and competent
staff only. Hazards include:
o Stairs: These should be of a safe design and in good condition, adequately lit and provided
with a handrail. Sometimes the access to the stairs will be through a floor hatch which will require

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 the adoption of safe working procedures and physical barriers to prohibit access to others when
raised in an "up" position. Some cellars may have low ceilings, beams and light fittings; these
should be marked, where practical, in a contrasting colour and have warning signage displayed. In
some instances it might be appropriate to provide insulation or padding etc.
o Falls from height: If deliveries are made through an external drop down, are there suitable
controls in place to prevent members of the public falling down the open flap? All external
hatchways/cellar flaps should be maintained in good condition and have adequate holding bolts or
other fastenings.
o Falling objects: Are there controls in place to prevent personal injury to persons working in
the cellar below during the time of a delivery?
o Cuts: Care should be taken when handling glass. In the event of broken glass rigid containers
should be provided for the safe collection and disposal.
o Gas cylinders: Leakage from CO2 and Nitrogen cylinders can pose a risk of asphyxiation in
confined spaces through the relative depletion of oxygen content of air and faulty gas cylinders can
explode. It is essential that in cellars there is sufficient ventilation provided by either natural or
mechanical means. In poorly ventilated areas it is strongly recommended that a CO2 monitoring
system be installed. It is important that staff are trained how to identify leaking cylinders and what
action to take should one be identified. It is essential that all relevant staff are fully trained in
connection/disconnection procedures of gas cylinders to prevent cross threading valve damage
and/or gas leakage. All empty and full gas cylinders should be suitably secured or chained in a
vertical position to ensure they can't fall from the vertical storage position and become damaged.
Cylinders must be stored away from heat and ignition sources. It is important that there is an action
plan formulated in the case of a gas leak. CO2 Cellar warning cards should be displayed near
cylinders. Gas cylinders should be checked for leakage on delivery and when connected to the
system. All damaged cylinders must be reported to the supplier and not used. Cylinders frosted
from the bottom upwards or a hissing noise may indicate a leakage. Do not drop, roll or drag gas
cylinders and cylinder valves should be closed when not in use.

Unit Task 4: Role of Health and Safety Act in safety

Duties of employers in regard to safety

Section 2 states that "It shall be the duty of every employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the
health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees", and in particular that such a duty extends to:

 Provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is reasonably practicable,
safe and without risks to health;
 Arrangements for ensuring, so far as is reasonably practicable, safety and absence of risks to health in
connection with the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances;
 Provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure, so far as
is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of his employees;
 So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work under the employer’s control, the
maintenance of it in a condition that is safe and without risks to health and the provision and
maintenance of means of access to and egress from it that are safe and without such risks;
 Provision and maintenance of a working environment for his employees that is, so far as is reasonably
practicable, safe, without risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for their
welfare at work.

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Section 3 states the duty of all employers and self employed persons to ensure, as far as is reasonably
practicable the safety of persons other than employees, for example, contractors, visitors, the general public and
clients.
Employers must also prepare and keep under review a safety policy and to bring it to the attention of his
employees (s.2(2)). Trade unions may appoint safety representatives and demand safety committees. The
representatives have a right to be consulted on safety issues (ss.2(4), (6) and (7)). Since 1996 employers have
had a duty to consult all employees on safety matters. [9][10] No employer may charge an employee for provision
of health and safety arrangements (s.9).
Duties of employees in regard to safety
Under section 7 all employees have a duty while at work to:
Take reasonable care for the health and safety of himself and of other persons who may be affected by his acts
or omissions at work; and
Co-operate with employers or other persons so far as is necessary to enable them to perform their duties or
requirements under the Act.

Unit Task 5: Safety precautions during operations

Safety Housekeeping Tips

Housekeeping is not just cleanliness. It includes keeping work areas neat and orderly; maintaining
halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of waste materials (e.g., paper,
cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas.

Here are some housekeeping tips that will help you keep your work area safe:
 Immediately clean up anything on the floor that creates a slip hazard: water, grease, paper, dust
or other debris. (Get assistance if needed or required.)
 Keep walkways clear of boxes and other obstructions.
 Close cabinets used for storage when not in use.
 Never block fire exits or fire equipment.
 Make sure stacked materials do not impede vision.
 Don’t store items in or on electrical panels or control boxes.
 Pick up and store tools in their proper location immediately after use.
 Keep ventilation systems clear of dust and debris and stored materials.
 Make sure receptacles for waste and debris are conveniently located.
 Remove combustible waste often to minimize the fire hazard.
 Set a good example for other employees by maintaining good housekeeping in your work area.

Health and safety

Fire and personal injury
These are hazards in any establishments and their prevention is of tremendous importance .While the
management is ultimately responsible for the prevention of accidents, the housekeeper, along with other
department heads, should Endeavour to see that her staff are safety conscious.
Accidents are costly: there may be serious effects on the injured person; time and materials may be lost; a new
employee may need to be trained. Employers have always been responsible if defective equipment, due to its
design or manufacture which causes accidents
Poor housekeeping accounts for many accidents and also many accidents occur in an establishment ‘s
accommodation area(in one survey taken in a group of hotels it was found there was more days lost due to
accidents in the housekeeping department than in any other department ).Therefore the housekeeper has a great
responsibility for making sure that her staff are aware of the common causes of accidents and of the necessary
precautions to be taken to comply with the 1974 Health and Safety At Work etc Act .
Under this Act the employer must provide:
And maintain equipment and provide safe working practices;
For correct storage, handling and transporting of articles and substances with maximum safety;
Information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure the health and safety of employees;
Safe exit and access to place of work;
A good working environment without risk to health and with adequate facilities (WCs, rest rooms etc);

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A written statement of general policy which should be displayed by employers with more than five employees
and it must be amended as necessary.
Employees should:
Take reasonable care of themselves and other employees and other persons on the premises;
Co-operate with their employer concerning health and safety.
There is a great variety of accidents causing personal injury which may befall guests and staff and while they are
normally caused through someone’s carelessness they are less likely to occur in a clean ,uncluttered and well
maintained department.
The following are some of the more frequent safety hazards and causes of personal injury which may occur in
the housekeeping department.
Causes of Falls
1. Frayed edges and worn patches of carpet;
2. A missing floor tile or uneven floor;
3. A missing piece from the nosing of a hard stair;
4. Slippery floors, especially in conjunction with small mats;
5. Spillages not immediately dealt with;
6. Tripping over fallen articles;
7. Trailing flexes from equipment, lamps, television, etc;
8. Cleaning equipment left about, buckets etc;
9. Faulty step ladders;
10. Stools, boxes etc used instead of step-ladders;
11. Poor lighting in corridors and on stairs;
12. A step in a usual place;
13. No hand grips on baths;
14. Over-reaching;
15. Ill-fitting or inappropriate footwear.
16. Cuts and abrasions
17. Because of:
18. Careless placing of razor blades;
19. Careless disposal of broken glass;
20. Careless opening of tins;
21. Absence of kneeling mats fro cleaners;
22. Falling objects;
23. Objects poorly stacked and shelves over laden.

Accidents
Any accident at work, either to guest or staff, should be reported immediately to management or the health and
safety officer .It is a legal requirement under the health and safety at work etc act 1974 that a record is kept of
all accidents; this is particularly important because of the industrial injuries act whereby staff may be entitled to
claim compensation .It is usual for the establishment‘s own accidents report form to be completed as well as the
statutory one.
The accident book and report form should be completed at the time of the accident or as soon after as possible
by the injured person or his supervisor .It should state:
i.Personal particulars of person injured e.g. name, address, age, occupation;
ii.Date and time of accident;
iii.Place of accident;
iv.Injury sustained;
v.Cause and /or description of the accident;
vi.What the person was engaged in at the time;
vii.Treatment given and by whom;
viii.Name of witnesses.
It should be signed by the supervisor and if possible by the injured person.
Accidents to guests should also be recorded and all staff should be aware of the fact that they should never
accept liability for an accident .Insurance can be taken out by the establishment for protection against claims
made by guests on staff.
In the case of fatal accidents ,major industries and dangerous occurrences listed in the reporting of injuries
,diseases and dangerous occurrences regulations ,the environmental health officer should be notified as soon as
possible ,preferably by telephone ,and details entered in the accident report book .A written report should be
sent to the environmental health officer within seven days .These regulations apply to guests and staff.
Prevention of accidents.

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Unless precautions are taken accidents may easily occur and the housekeeper should therefore see that her staff
are made aware of the problems and are instruction in the:
i.Use of correct working methods
ii.Need for tidiness in their work
iii.Need for storing things in their right places
iv.Dangers of floor surfaces being left wet, overpolished, etc
v.Necessity of reporting surfaces and articles in need of repair or replacement.
vi.Need for warning signs on wet floors
vii.Need for hazard spotting
A record of training should be kept and be signed by both trainer and trainee and as well as training staff to be
aware of the causes of personal injury. The housekeeper should make the necessary reports to maintenance and
follow up these reports. She should see that provision is made for:
i.Hands grips on baths
ii.Non- slip mats in showers
iii.Good lighting on stairs and corridors
iv.Help for maids when jobs are heavy or involve much lifting and stretching
v.Special marks on clear glass doors to prevent people walking into them

Fire prevention
Safety programs must include fire prevention and deterrence. Fires in lodging properties are very common but
so is the fact that most hotels, motels and resorts are equipped with state of the art equipment to suppress fires
when they occur. The executive Housekeeper can prevent fires by fireproofing guestroom furnishing. Curtains,
carpets, pillows, blankets, and upholstery should be purchased labeled as fire-retardant or flameproof, cigarette
smoking in bed by guests is the typical cause of fires in guestrooms, not reporting faulty electrical equipment,
sockets etc. Excessive accumulation of lint in dryers, paint’s supplies, and oily rugs can also start fires by
spontaneous combustion. Kitchen oily cloths should be kept in metal containers and washed or disposed of as
soon as possible. Frayed guestroom lamp cables and damaged cords, switches, or plugs may start smoldering
fires, as it’s the case with overcrowded outlets that may overload fuses or circuits.
Safety programs should include fire protection instruction, including fire drills. Fire safety programs should
train employees in combating small, controllable fires, operating fire extinguisher, closing doors to contain large
fires, keeping fire exits free of any materials, reporting immediately the smell of burning equipment or the
presence of smoke, evacuating the building in an orderly manner if the fire alarm sounds, notifying guests of fire
if asked to do so, and so on. All housekeeping workers must be told, at orientation, where the nearest fire alarm,
fire extinguisher, and fire exit are located. Employees must be trained not to panic in case of a fire but remain
calm in all cases. Panic emotion can cause people to feel disoriented, preventing them from acting rationally. In
the event of fire, staff should be instructed to operate the nearest fire alarm, attack fire if no personal risk, close
windows, switch off electrical appliances, close door and report to immediate superior, carry out instructions,
e.g. rouse guests, make sure rooms empty etc; report to assembly point for roll call and not to use lifts
The housekeeper department is also responsible for positing in each guestroom diagrams of evacuation
routes and instructions explaining what to do in case of fire
Accident prevention
Good housekeeping plays a key role in accident prevention and it only requires a little effort to cleanup after
oneself.
Good housekeeping can be achieved by establishing 3 easy steps:
 Plan ahead.
 Assign responsibilities. A person should be specifically detailed to cleanup. Ideally, each individual
should pick up after themselves and keep their work area neat.
 Implement a program. Housekeeping should be part of the daily routine, with cleanup being a
continuous procedure.
Housekeeping Tips
The following practices should help eliminate accidental injuries and prevent fires;
 Keep aisles and stairwells clearly marked and free of clutter.
 Clean up spills and leaks promptly.
 Properly dispose of oily and greasy rags.
 Keep all filing cabinets and drawers closed when not used.
 Keep tools and equipment clean and properly store tools.
 Neatly stack storage racks and bins.
 Smoke in designated areas only.
 Make sure work areas are well lighted.

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  Clean up after yourself.
 Keep fire exits, extinguishers, and sprinklers marked and free of obstructions.
 Rope off maintenance areas to minimize personnel traffic.
 Close all drawers, cabinets, etc. when not in use.

Bomb threats
Most bomb threats are made over the phone. The overwhelming majority are hoaxes, often the work of
malicious pranksters. Any bomb threat is a crime and, no matter how ridiculous or unconvincing, should be
reported to the police.
Telephoned bomb threats are frequently inaccurate with regard to where and when a bomb might explode, and
staff receiving a bomb threat may not always be those trained and prepared for it. But although they may be
unable to assess a threat's accuracy or origin, their impressions of the caller could be important.
Receiving such a threat may be the closest that many people ever come to acts of terrorism, so be prepared for
affected staff to be temporarily in a state of shock. Affected individuals may need counselling or other support.
Ensure that all staff who could conceivably receive a bomb threat are trained in handling procedures - or at least
have ready access to instructions. This applies particularly to public transport organisations, courts, banks,
hotels, hospitals, news agencies, voluntary organisations and those offering any sort of emergency service.
Switchboard operators should be familiar with procedures and rehearse them regularly.
 stay calm and listen
 obtain as much information as possible - try to get the caller to be precise about the location and timing
of the alleged bomb and try to establish whom they represent. If possible, keep the caller talking
 ensure that any recording facility is switched on
 when the caller rings off, dial 911(if that facility operates and you have no automatic number display)
to see if you can get their number
 immediately tell the designated Security Co-ordinator. It is their responsibility to decide on the best
course of action and who should notify the police. If you cannot get hold of anyone, and even if you
think the call is a hoax, inform the police directly. Give them your impressions of the caller as well as
an exact account of what was said
 If you have not been able to record the call, make notes for the security staff or police. Do not leave
your post - unless ordered to evacuate - until the police or security arrive.

Unit Task 6: Types of fires

Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a fuel is rapidly oxidized. Three things are required to
sustain a fire:

 Oxygen (more properly, an oxidizing agent)

 Fuel (a reducing agent)
 Heat

Therefore, to kill a fire, you must deny the fire one or more of these three
things. You may:

 Exclude oxygen from the fire.

 Remove the fuel on which the fire is feeding.
 Lower the temperature.

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Types of Fires
There are four classes of fires, categorized according to the kind of material that is burning. For the first three
classes of fires, there are two sets of color-coded icons in common use. One or both kinds of icons appear on
most fire extinguishers to indicate the kinds of fire against which the unit is intended to be used. There is only
one icon used to indicate the fourth (class D) kind of fire. Class D fires involve uncommon materials and occur
in fairly specialized situations. Note that any given fire can fall into more than one class; a fire that involves
both burning paper and kitchen grease would be a Class AB fire.

Class A fires are those fueled by materials that, when they burn, leave a residue
in the form of ash, such as paper, wood, cloth, rubber, and certain plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gasses, such as gasoline, paint
thinner, kitchen grease, propane, and acetylene.

Fires that involve energized electrical wiring or equipment (motors, computers,

panel boxes) are Class C fires. Note that if the electricity to the equipment is cut,
a Class C fire becomes one of the other three types of fires.

Class D fires involve exotic metals, such as magnesium, sodium, titanium, and
certain organometallic compounds such as alkyllithium and Grignard reagents.

Unit Task 7: Fire safety measures

Fire Safety

Checklist
In All Areas of Your Building
 Cover all unused electrical outlets.
 Arrange electrical cords so they neither dangle loosely nor entangle with one another.
 Matches, lighters, and all flammable materials should be kept out of the reach of children.
 Radiator covers should be made of a non-heat absorbent material.
 Wood stoves and fireplaces should have screens and a gate, so that children cannot wander too close.
 Fireplaces and, especially, chimneys should be cleaned and inspected by a reputable professional every
year.
 There should be a smoke detector installed on every level of your building and in the hallways leading
to the bedrooms. It is an extra precaution to have them installed in each bedroom.
 Set the thermostats on water heaters between 135 and 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Formulate an escape plan for every room in your building, with an alternate plan in case the first option
is blocked by fire. Practice these escapes until every member of your family can
perform them automatically.
 Set up a safe place to meet outside.
 Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
 Try to use non-flammable or fire-resistant materials for curtains and upholstery.
 Use space heaters only on noncombustible surfaces and at least three feet from furniture and walls.
 Store all flammable and combustible products in cool, well ventilated places, locked securely and/or
out of the reach of children.

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Bathrooms
 Tap water should never be hot enough to scald wrist. Run cold water in tub first, and then use hot
water to warm to desired temperature.
 Check in on children often. Never leave a child unsupervised for an extended period of time.
 Make sure all medications and chemicals are out of child's reach and/or in child-proof locked cabinets.
Bedrooms
 In case of fire, it's a good practice to keep water in plastic bottles in bedroom closets to dampen cloths
for face protection during escape.
 If you have smoke detectors in the hallways, you can sleep with the bedroom doors open.
 Keep drapes away from heat sources, including lamps.
 Keep electrical cords from dangling.
 Try to avoid the use of extension cords. If you must use them, make sure they hug the wall. Under no
circumstances should any electric wires cross over the middle of the room.
Know your Building
Each occupant should be familiar with the location of all exit stairways on his/her floor. In addition, occupants
should discuss in advance what they will do if the closest exit cannot be used during a fire emergency.
Following the above suggested steps and doing pre-fire planning, you will greatly reduce your chance of being
killed or injured in a fire in your building. Since no two fires are alike, plan carefully and learn your building
layout well so that you can change your exit plan as conditions warrant.

Fire Escape Plan

Each occupant of the building must know what to do in the event of a fire. Unless a small fire can be easily
controlled, it is recommended that fighting the fire be left to professional firefighters and that occupants escape
safely from the building.
An escape plan must be created and practiced so that each person knows exactly what to do. It also is important
to practice Exit Drills in the establishments.
Most residential fires occur between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m. Deaths from residential fires occur in greater numbers
between midnight and 4 a.m. when most people are asleep.
Regardless of the cause of the fire, a building may be filled with smoke. This is a very dangerous situation as
occupants may be unable to see very well. The smoke and toxic gases may cause dizziness and disorientation. In
the confusion, one can easily become lost or trapped in the building. Occupants must understand that their safety
depends upon quickly leaving the building. It has been proven that exit drills reduce chances of panic and injury
in fires and that trained and informed people have a much better chance to survive fires in a building.
Realize the Danger of Smoke
Each occupant of the building should understand the importance of crawling low under smoke. Smoke and heat
rise so the best place to find fresher, cooler air is near the floor. When a person is caught in a building filled with
smoke, they should drop on hands and knees and crawl to the nearest exit. Test all closed doors before opening
them. Feel the back of the door. If it is hot, don't open it. Turn and go to the second route of exit. If the door is
not hot, open slowly but be prepared to slam it closed again if there are flames.
Practice what to do if you become trapped. Since doors hold back smoke and firefighters are adept at rescue, the
chances of survival are excellent. Close doors between you and the smoke. Stuff the cracks and cover vents to
keep smoke out. If there's a phone, call in your exact location to the fire department even if they are on the
scene. Wait at the window and signal with a sheet or flashlight or something visible.
Establish a Safe Meeting Place
A special meeting place should be established a safe distance from the building. Whatever it is, it must be
something that is stationary and won't be moved (such as a car). This is where everyone meets in the event of a
fire. It also prevents occupants from wandering around the neighborhood looking for one another, or worse,
being tempted to re-enter the burning building for one thought to be trapped inside.
Once outside at the special meeting place, a person can be sent to call 9-1-1. If anyone is missing, give that
information to the fire department immediately and tell them where the probable location of the missing person
could be. Under no circumstances should anyone re-enter the burning building.
Provide for Those Requiring Additional Help
Special provisions may be required for infants, young children, disabled or the elderly who may need additional
help when escaping. These provisions should be included in the building fire escape plan and discussed with
occupants

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When afraid, children commonly seek sheltered places such as a closet or under the bed. Encourage them to exit
outside. Do not allow them to hide. Make sure children can operate the windows, descend a ladder, or lower
themselves to the ground through a window. (Slide out on the stomach, feet first. Hang on with both hands.
Bend the knees when landing.) Lower children to the ground before you exit from the window. They may panic
and not follow if an adult goes first.
Have children practice saying the fire department number, the family name, and street address into the phone.
Practice Your Fire Escape Plan
One very good step in the planning of a building fire escape plan is to make a floor diagram of the building.
Mark the regular and emergency escape routes, as well as windows, doors, stairs, halls.
A good way to practice the effectiveness of a building fire escape plan is to position each occupant in his or her
bed, turn all the lights off, and activate the smoke detector by depressing the test switch. Each occupant should
help "awaken" the others by yelling the alert. Occupants should exit their rooms according to the plan, crawl low
under smoke, practice feeling doors for heat, and meet in the designated location outside the building.
.
Exit Safely From a Structure
Jumping from upper floors of a building should be avoided. However, it is possible to hang from a second story
window and drop feet first to the ground without significant injury. A sprained ankle or broken leg is better than
dying.
When exiting such a structure, do not use the elevator. Elevators are notorious for stopping at the fire floor and
killing the people inside. A power failure may cause them to stop in between floors. Use the fire escape or an
enclosed fire resistive stairwell to exit.
As a family, explore the building so that every exit, is familiar, including those from storage, laundry and
recreation rooms. If the hallways become smoke-filled as the result of a fire, memory can help in finding the
exits.
Look for these important features in the building - enclosed exit stairways, clearly-marked exits, clean hallways
and lobbies, automatic sprinklers, fire alarm systems and smoke detectors.
Remember, Plan Ahead!
Remember, the first step toward escaping a fire is to plan ahead. Practice a building fire escape plan throughout
the year and be sure that if anything should change around the building, it is included in the building fire escape
plan.

Unit Task 8: Fire fighting procedures

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 A fire extinguisher is a must for every kitchen the place where so many building fires start. There are
different extinguishers for different types of fires. You will notice labels on the units marked A, B and
C. These letters refer to which types of fire the extinguisher is meant to fight:

o Class A extinguishers are made for fires involving paper, wood, textiles and plastics. The
material inside smothers the fire, putting it out by cutting off the oxygen that feeds it.
o Class B extinguishers are made for fires involving flammable liquids, such as grease, oil,
gasoline and paint. Two kinds of material are used: one to smother the fire and one to create a
chemical reaction that puts it out.
o Class C extinguishers use non-conductive materials to fight fires in live electrical equipment.
Each extinguisher also has a rating number indicating what size fire it can handle. Some units are rated for all
three types of fires, but they have a larger size rating for one type than for another. Choose a fire extinguisher
that is right for the types of fire that might break out in a particular area.
 A first-aid kit prepares you to treat minor injuries. Keep it stocked with clean supplies and fresh
medicines, as well as phone numbers for the local emergency services, poison control and your doctors'
offices.
 Do not store cooking utensils and dish towels too close to the range. They could melt or catch fire.
 Make sure that plugs near the sink are GFCI outlets, which are designed to monitor the current going
to and coming from the receptacle.
If electricity started flowing through an improper channel to the ground for example, your body there would be
a drop in the current on the proper path. Within a fraction of a second of detecting that current imbalance, a

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properly installed GFCI would shut that circuit down. You might get shocked, but you should be safe from
electrocution.
Most local codes now require these outlets in new construction, but older buildings might not have them in
place. Test the GFCI outlets monthly (using the test button) so you can be sure they will work when they are
needed.
 Store knives safely:
o If they are in a drawer, store them with covers to keep someone from being cut while reaching
in the drawer.
o If they are on a magnetic strip, make sure that the magnetic force is strong enough to hold
them and that the strip is fastened tightly to the wall.
Power Surge Protectors
Surge control is important because even small surges or spikes can eventually destroy or affect the performance
of expensive electronic equipment such as computers, phones, faxes, TVs, VCRs, stereos and microwaves.
Damage can occur either instantaneously or over time as smaller surges cause the gradual deterioration of
internal circuitry. The common use of microprocessors (chips) has increased the need for surge protection
because these chips are generally very sensitive to voltage fluctuations

Fire Drills
Fires can happen anywhere. A fire in a large building creates an enormous risk to everyone. Other reasons for
evacuating buildings include natural gas leaks, earthquakes, hazardous material spills and storms. Knowing
what to do is the key to surviving a fire emergency. Conducting regular fire drills will give you the knowledge
and confidence to escape a fire safely. There are two steps for a good evacuation program - planning and
practice.

Planning
Planning gives you the information you need ahead of time to evacuate safely. In the workplace, employees and
supervisors should plan together for exiting their worksite. At school, involve all school staff including teachers,
administrative and office workers, and the maintenance and food service staff.
Working together, design an evacuation plan to meet the specific needs of your building and your occupants.
Make the plan clear and concise. Review the plan and walk through the exit procedure to make sure that
everyone knows what to do.
Each building, whether it be a school, workplace or multi-family living unit, should have a posted exit diagram
(plan) and everyone should be familiar with it.
Be sure that smoke detectors are installed and maintained. Know the sound of the fire alarm. Everyone should
recognize and respond to the sound of the smoke detector or other fire alarm immediately. Immediate response
is vital for a quick, orderly evacuation.
Everyone should exit in an orderly manner to prevent confusion and minimize panic or injury. No one should
push their way out an exit. Single file lines are best in controlling traffic to the exits.
Consider special needs people. When developing your escape plan, remember that younger, older, or disabled
people may need special assistance. Anyone with special needs should be located as close to an exit as possible.
Train others to give special assistance with evacuation.
Be sure to know two ways out. There should be two ways out of every area of the building, school, or
workplace. If the primary exit is blocked by smoke or fire, use your second exit. Point out all emergency exits as
you walk through the emergency procedure.
Always use the stairways to exit multi-story buildings. Do not use an elevator. An elevator may stop between
floors, or go to the fire floor and stop with the doors open.
If a room or corridor is filled with smoke, crawl low on your hands and knees to exit. The cleaner air is closer to
the ground.
Plan your meeting place. A designated meeting place outside the building is a vital part of an evacuation plan.
Count heads. Be aware of who is there (hopefully everybody will be accounted for) and who is not there. When
the fire department arrives, you can report if there is anyone missing.
Know what to do if you can't escape. You'll need to plan your actions in case immediate escape is impossible. If
possible, for example, stay in a room with an outside window and always close doors between you and the fire.
Think about what you could use - sheets, towels, curtains, or even large pieces of clothing - to stuff around
cracks near the door and wave as a signal to rescuers. Know how to open the window to ventilate smoke, but be
prepared to close the window immediately if an open window makes the room smokier. If there is a phone, call
the fire department with your location, even if firefighters are already on the scene. Remember, stay low in
smoke until you're rescued.
Practice

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After planning, practice to make sure that everyone knows what to do. Have fire drills. Practice your fire escape
periodically throughout the year. Remember, the element of surprise simulates a real fire and adds essential
realism to your fire drill program.
Appoint someone to monitor the drill. This person will sound the alarm and make the drill realistic by requiring
participants to use their second way out or to crawl low. This could be done by having someone hold up a sign
reading "smoke" or "exit blocked by fire." The monitor also will measure how long complete evacuation takes.
Coordinate arrangements for fire drills in apartments or other multi-family buildings, in schools or in
workplaces with the local fire department.
After the evacuation, take a head count at the designated meeting place(s) to account for everyone's participation
and safe evacuation.
When everyone is back inside the building after the drill, gather everyone together to discuss any questions or
problems that occurred during the drill. Redesign the drill procedures as needed. Make the next fire drill even
more effective.
Remember, once you are outside, stay outside. Don't go back in until the proper authorities say it is okay.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Manufacturer’s manuals
- Fire fighting equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Fire drills
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.04 CLEANING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Theory

9.1.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify and identify cleaning equipment and materials
c) explain factors to consider when choosing and selecting cleaning equipment and materials
d) discuss use, care and maintenance of equipment and materials

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Equipment
the implements used in an operation or activity

Cleaning Materials

Unit Task 2: Identification and classification of cleaning equipment and materials

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 CLEANING EQUIPMENT

Efficient cleaning and maintenance are dependent upon high-quality cleaning equipment, correctly using.
Though only 5-10% of the overall cost incurred on cleaning is accounted for by cleaning equipment and agents,
selecting the ideal equipment plays a major role in the cleaning process. There will often be several ways of
carrying out any particular cleaning task and different types of equipment that can be employed for it. It is the
executive housekeeper’s responsibility to select the most appropriate piece of equipment according to the hotel’s
requirement. Most types of cleaning equipment fall under the category of recycled items, but a few large pieces
of items may be considered as fixed assets. The correct choice of quality cleaning equipment could save costs
due to breakdowns, reduce fatigue and also ensure overall efficiency in operations.

Equipment used in the cleaning of surface, furniture and fittings in a hotel building include both manual and
mechanical equipment .

Manual Equipment

Manual equipment can include all types of equipment that clean or aid in the cleaning process by directly using
manoeuvre, operation and energy of employees.

Brushes

These may be designed to remove dry or wet and/or ingrained dust and dirt from hard or soft surfaces.

Basic parts of a brush: The basic parts of a brush are as follows -

· Bristles: These may be of animal, vegetable or manmade origin. Horsehair, nylon and polypropylene are
commonly used to make bristles for cleaning brushes. In general, the finer, softer bristles are best for smooth
and hard surfaces. The harder the bristles, the softer the surface on which the brush should be used, exception
being toilet brushes and brushes found on all-purpose flour machines. Bristles, if not maintained properly, have
a tendency to bend, splay or fall out of the stock. Bristles should be closely set in tufts and the stock well
covered with tufts.

· Head stock: This is the part of the brush into which the bristles are inserted. The stock may be of wood, metal, or
plastic. A good brush is one that has a sturdy stock.

· Handle: Brush handles may be detachable or non-detachable. Detachable handles must be fixed firmly in place on
the stock when the brush is in use.

Types of brushes: Three main types of brushes are used for cleaning surfaces.

· Hard brushes: Hard brushes have bristles that are fairly stiff and well spaced out. They are most suitable for the
removal of heavy soil and litter from carpets and for cleaning rough surfaces.

· Soft brushes: Soft brushes have bristles that are fairly flexible and set close together. These help to remove loose
soil and litter on hard, smooth surfaces. Such brushes may be designed to dust carpets and furniture, too,
especially those made of cane, wicker and bamboo.

· Scrubbing brushes: Scrubbing brushes have short, coarse bristles designed for use on surfaces that have become
stained and heavily ingrained with dirt. These brushes should only be used to remove stubborn, heavy soiling
from small areas that are difficult for a scrubbing machine to access. Long handled scrubbing brushes, called
deck scrubbers or T-scrubbers, are useful for cleaning larger areas as well as corners.

Brushes are also classified on basis of their function:

· Toilet brushes: These are WC brushes, radiator brushes and Johnny mops.
· Bottle brushes: These are used for cleaning overflow vents in wash basins and tubs.

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 · Cloth scrubbers: These are used for scrubbing clothes.
· Deck scrubbers: These are used for cleaning large areas.
· Carpet brushes: These are used for brushing carpets.
· Upholstery brushes: These are used to loosen out dust embedded between the fabric fibres in
upholstered chairs and sofas
· Feather brushes: These are brushes with feathers, for light dusting.
· Hearth brush: These are used for cleaning heavy soiling and removing ash out of fireplaces.

· Flue brush: These are used for cleaning chimneys.

Care and cleaning of brushes:

Brushes should be gently tapped on a hard surface to loosen dust and debris after the cleaning process. Frequent
wash with water is avoidable since the brushes may lose some of their stiffness in this way. If they must be
washed frequently, the final rinse should be in cold saline water to help the bristles regain their stiffness.
Brushes should be cleaned of all fluff and threads before washing. They may then be rinsed in warm, mild soapy
water. A disinfectant should be added to the water used for rinsing toilet brushes. If brushes with natural bristles
(vegetable or animal origin) have been used for wax polishing, add washing soda (1 tbsp to 2 litres of water) to
remove grease thoroughly. Brushes should be washed by beating the head up and down, with the bristles facing
downwards, so that the water splashes up between the tufts. They should be rinsed well in the same way in cold
water. After shaking off excess water, the brushes should be left to dry in such a way that the remaining water
may drip off the side of the brush or the top of the head stock. Never leave brushes resting on their bristles, else
they will splay out; if left resting on their stock, water will rot the stock in time. The best way would be to hang
the brushes bristles downward. When possible, dry brushes in the sun or open air. To extend the life of the
brush, apply lacquer to the stock and handle with an oil-can and allow to harden.

Brooms

Sweeping brooms consist of long bristles gathered together and inserted into a handle. The bristles of a broom
may be made of grass, corn or coconut fibres. Depending on the type, brooms may be used for removing dust or
dirt in large areas.

Types of brooms: As with brushes, brooms may be classified into 3 main categories:

· Soft-bristled brooms: Soft bristled brooms such as corn-fibre brooms, grass brooms and whisk brooms are used
on smooth floors. A good soft broom has comparatively fewer split ends and any splits that do form are short.

· Hard/Coarse-bristled brooms: Brooms such as yard brooms and coconut fibre brooms are used on course
surfaces, especially outdoors.

· Wall brooms: These are also called ceiling brooms or Turk’s heads. They have a soft head and long handle,
usually made of cane. These brooms are used to remove cobwebs as well as dust from cornices, ceilings and
high ledges.

Electric brooms, arguably a fourth type, have been discussed under

mechanical equipment. All kinds of brooms raise and dissipate dust, so that, with the advent of the more
hygienic process of vacuum cleaning, brooms are used less often for cleaning purposes in hotels.

Care and cleaning of brooms:

Brooms should be shaken free of dust and fluff. Never store them standing on their bristles, or the bristles will
bend out of shape, resulting in inefficient cleaning. Store brooms either lying horizontally or hanging bristles
downward. Never use soft brooms on wet surfaces. Stiff brooms such as coconut-fibre brooms can be used on
wet surfaces but must be cleaned afterward thoroughly in saline water and dried in the sun before cleaning.

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 Box Sweepers

These are also called carpet sweepers and are used for sweeping up dust and litter from soft
floor coverings as well as rugs and carpets. They are ideal for the removal of spills and for light
cleaning of small carpeted areas. A box sweeper consists of a friction brush that revolves when the
equipment is pushed manually over the carpet bottom to facilitate emptying after use. Choose sweepers
with a wide base that is low enough to be pushed under furniture and that will clean close to a wall. In
sweepers meant to clean hard floors as well as soft floor coverings, the brush can be lowered to the
floor to sweep.

Care and cleaning of box sweepers:

The friction brush should be kept clean; else the efficiency of the equipment will be seriously impaired. After
the cleaning process, the dustpans should be emptied of all the collected dust.

Dry Mops

Also called dust control mops, these are designed to remove soil and debris from floors, walls and ceilings
without raising and dissipating dust. These mops generally consist of a handle to which a metal frame is
attached. The mop head is either inserted into the frame or stretched over it, according to the type.

Types of dry mops: There are 4 principle types of dry mops:

· Mops with impregnated fringes: These mops consist of dense cotton fringes, approximately 15
cm in length, inserted into a metal frame of 15-120 cm length. These mops are usually pre-
impregnated or will require impregnation by soaking in or spraying with mineral oil or a
synthetic impregnating fluid. The dust is held onto the mops by the oil.
· Impregnated mop sweepers: These mops consist of a double-hinged frame and are thus called
‘V-sweepers’ of ‘scissor-action sweepers’. The mops can be pre-impregnated or may require
impregnation before each use. Following impregnation, sufficient time must be allowed for
the mineral oil to cure the fibres; else the mop will leave a film of oil on the cleaned surface
due to improper curing. To be effective, an impregnated mop must also be manoeuvred
correctly. It should be worked in long, even strokes in a continual movement, keeping the mop
head in contact with the surface all the time. This way, maximum dust collection and
minimum dust dissipation is ensured.
· Static mops: These mops consist of acrylic, nylon or polyester strands fixed to a backing
stretched over a metal frame. When in use, the fringes splay out to form a large surface area,
holding dust by means of a static charge that builds up on the fringe. Static mops are more
easily maintained than impregnated mops.
· Disposable mops: These mops consist of a handle with a soft pad at the end, onto which a cheap
cotton or synthetic material is affixed. The material has properties enabling it to attract and
hold dust. The fabric is held in place by clips or a special tape and is usually purchased in
large rolls, from which the desired amount can be cut. The fabric is disposed off after each use
and replaced immediately. Although very expensive due to constant replacement of the head,
they are extremely hygienic and are particularly suitable when infection control is required.

Care and cleaning of dry mops:

Shake mops well after use outdoors. The mop head should be easily detachable so they can be frequently
washed in hot water with detergent. The use of soap-free detergent will prevent the formation of scum that clogs
the fibres of the head. The mop must be worked up and down in at least 2 changes of clean, hot water. The clean
mop should then be tightly squeezed out, shaken well to get rid of excess moisture and left to dry in open air.
Once dry, the mops may need to be re-impregnated.

Wet/damp mops:

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 These mops are used in conjunction with buckets for the removal of dirt adhering to a surface. The mop
heads can be made of cotton, sponge or any other fibre capable of absorbing moisture well.

Types of damp mops: There are 4 types of damp mops available:

· Do-all mops: These mops consist of strands of twisted cotton fixed to a circular metal plate, which in turn is fixed
to a stock.

· Kentucky mops: These mops consist of cotton strands fixed to a length of cotton fabric which is in turn inserted
into a flat metal stock. They are available in weights ranging from 330g to 670g. The strands may be stitched
together or unstitched. The former are less likely to tangle, can be laundered more easily and are likely to last
longer than unstitched mops.

· Foss mops: These consist of a dense cotton fringe inserted into a heavy metal stock. They are available in a wide
range of weights.

· Sponge mops: These consist of cellulose sponge fixed to a replaceable, lever-controlled head, hinged for wringing
out and attached to a long handle. Using a sponge mop is one of the easiest ways to wash a hard floor. Short
handled sponge mops are also available for cleaning windows.

· Squeegee: A squeegee consists of a long metallic handle and a wooden or rubber blade to remove excess water
from a surface being cleaned It is effective when followed by mopping with a damp mop. A smaller version
called the window squeegee is used for wiping away water from windows after washing.

Care and cleaning of damp mops:

Take mops outdoors after use and shake well to remove excess moisture. Then these mops may be washed in the
same way as dry mops. Detachable heads are easier to clean and maintain. However, drying is the most
important part of mop care as bacteria require moisture to multiply. A disinfectant to discourage their growth is
effective only for a short period of time, so leaving them damp means letting germs breed. Damp mops should
be renewed as soon as there are signs of wear. They should be stored in such a way that air is allowed to
circulate around the mop head. Never use disinfectant or bleach with a cellulose sponge head. Wash and rinse
sponge heads after use, squeeze out excess water and dry well. Store the sponge head by hanging.

Cloths

Various cloths are used extensively in wet and dry cleaning by housekeeping staff. For efficient and correct
usage, cloths may be colour-coded and the staff well-trained.

Types of cloths: A variety of cloths are available for specific purposes:

· Dusters and cloth mittens: These are meant for dusting and buffing. Soft, absorbent plain or checked cotton
material or yellow flannelette of up to 15 sq. Cm is ideal for dusters. When used for damp dusting, they must be
sprayed with a fine mist of water or dusting solution. Cloths may be impregnated with a mineral oil instead.
Dusters must be folded several times into a hand-sized pad before use so as to provide a number of clean
surfaces and avoid spreading dirt again to a clean surface instead.

· Swabs and wipes: These are all-purpose cloths made of soft, absorbent material. They are used for wet cleaning
and damp dusting of all surfaces above floor level. They are also used for cleaning sanitary fittings such as
bathtubs and wash basins. Wipes include loosely woven or knitted cotton cloths and non-woven cloths.
Synthetic sponges may also be grouped under this category. They are available in various sizes and shapes.
Sponges are better than cloths for washing walls, woodwork, glass and upholstery.

· Floor cloths: Floor cloths are bigger, thicker and made of coarser cotton material than all-purpose swabs. They are
used to wipe WC pedestals and remove spills from floors.

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· Scrim: This is a loosely woven linen material resembling fine sackcloth. Scrim, because of its high absorbency and
lint-free nature, is often used instead of chamois leather for cleaning windows and mirrors.

· Glass cloths: Glass cloths are made up of linen tow yarns and do not leave behind lint. They can therefore be used
for wiping mirrors and drinking glasses. These must not be confused with fabrics made from glass fibres
(glasscloth).

· Rags and polishing cloths: Rags are disposable cloths usually obtained from the sewing room or bought by the
sack from tailors. They are used for applying polish or strong cleaning agents are disposed off when dirty.
Polishing cloths need to have a fleecy napped surface and pieces of flannel are ideal.

· Wet cloths: Wet cloths need to be very absorbent and of a manageable size, so that they can be wrung out by hand
easily during cleaning. They are used for mopping large floor areas.

· Chamois leather: Real chamois leather is the skin of the chamois goat antelope, but now various cheaper
imitations are available. These simulated chamois leathers are usually skivers, that is, split sheepskin. Chamois
leather can be used wet for cleaning windows and mirrors; when dry; it is used as a polishing cloth for silver and
other metals. It is also ideal for wiping squeegee blades.

· Dust sheets: Dust sheets are made of any thin cotton material, being about the size of a single sheet. Discarded bed
sheets or curtains from the linen room are ideal for use as dust sheets. They are used to cover floors, furniture or
other articles during spring cleaning or decorating.

· Druggets: These are made up of coarse linen, fine canvas or clear plastic. They may be the size of a carpet square
or runner. They are placed on the floor in doorways to prevent excessive dirt being tracked in or out during bad
weather and during redecorating projects. They are sometimes placed in the passage between the kitchen and
dining area to catch spills and debris.

· Hearth and bucket cloths: These are made up of thick fabrics and used to protect the carpet and flooring when a
fireplace is being cleaned or placed under buckets to prevent marks on the surface they are kept on. They also
catch splashes of water.

cloths is important for efficient cleaning and longer life. Care and cleaning recommendations for various types
of cloths are given in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Cloth care & cleaning recommendations

CLOTH CARE AND CLEANING

Dusters and cloth mittens Wash, rinse and dry thoroughly after use. If cloth
mittens are impregnated with mineral oil after
washing, keep them covered or they will attract dust.
Swabs and wipes Wash in hot detergent water, rinse and dry thoroughly
after use. Those used on WCs should be disinfected
after washing.
Floor cloths Wash in hot detergent water, rinse, disinfect (as floors
may harbour many germs) and dry thoroughly.
Scrim Wash, rinse and dry after use.
Glass cloths Wash, rinse and dry after use.
Rags and polishing cloths Rags should be disposed off after use. Polishes with a
strong odour may contain flammable chemicals and
storing rags and polishing cloths used in their
application may prove a fire hazard.
Wet cloths Wash in hot detergent water, rinse and dry thoroughly.
Disinfect periodically to prevent them from becoming
unhygienic.
Chamois leather If not maintained properly, leather gets cracked and is
damaged easily. Remove excess dirt from it with

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 newspaper. Wash only when necessary, in plain cold
water. Rinse and either store damp or dry flat. When
dry, rub to soften the leather again.
Dust sheets Shake well outdoors after use. Wash, rinse and dry
when necessary. Fold neatly and store when not in use.
Druggets Shake well by tapping on the ground outdoors, if made
of plastic. Use a hard brush to clean away stubborn
dirt from cloth. Wash rinse and dry canvas and linen
ones frequently. Plastic ones can be damp wiped
instead.
Hearth and bucket cloths Shake well after use. Wash, rinse and dry thoroughly
after use. Use a hard brush to clean away stubborn
soiling.
Polish applicators

These are usually oblong in shape for efficiency of application. The polishing head should slide out from the
metal or plastic casing to enable easy replacement.

Types of polish applicators: There are 3 kinds of polish applicators:

a) Natural lambswool, with a built in polish reservoir or tray.

b) Synthetic wool, with a built in polish reservoir or tray.

c) Solid-wax pressurized applicators.

Care and cleaning of polish applicators:

Polish applicators should not be washed with water. Wiping away excess polish with newspaper or rags before it
dries should suffice. It is important to label the applicators with the type of polish for which they are to be used
so that each applicator is used with just one kind of polish, to avoid mixing different products.

Containers

Work becomes much easier and efficient if the staff is given appropriate containers in which to carry, transport,
collect and store supplies and other items.

Types of containers: The various types of containers used are:

· Buckets: These may be made of plastic or galvanised iron. Plastic buckets are more popular these days as they are
lighter in weight, quieter to use and easier to clean. Buckets to be used with mops may have one or two sections
and may have a wringer device that can be detached for easy cleaning. Twin buckets on a low trolley enabled
the brush to be rinsed more effectively each time. Larger buckets should have castor wheels which must be kept
free of hair, fluff and dust. Buckets should be thoroughly washed, inside and out, every time they are used and
then allowed to dry before being stored.

· Basins and bowls: These are used to carry small amounts of water, cleaning solutions and powders for cleaning
small areas.

· Dustpans: These are used in conjunction with a broom or brush for gathering dust. They may be made of plastic or
metal, plastic ones being the usual choice these days. Dustpans with long handles that eliminate stooping are
ideal. In order that the dustpans are effective, the edge in contact with the floor must be thin, sharp and flat.
They should always be emptied after use and occasionally washed. They should never be stored resting on their
flat edge, as it will wear out and warp so that the pan becomes inefficient. Store dustpans suspended from a
hook or lying horizontally, sideways.

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· Dustbins : The housekeeping department is concerned with dustbins in 5 areas:

a) In guestrooms: These bins may be made of plastic or wood. Some properties also use jute or
wicker bins. Individual dustbins in guestrooms may be lined with a disposable inner lining
made of recycled paper or plastic. These bins must be emptied and wiped daily. They should
be washed once a week.
b) In the service rooms: These are used to collect waste from guestrooms, brought in by the room
attendants’ carts. The carts contain a sack called the trash bag for guestroom trash. There
should be 2 types of bins in the service room, a metal bin for disposing of ash from guestroom
ashtrays and a plastic or thick paper bin for other types of trash. The latter can be incinerated
directly.
c) In public areas such as guest corridors and lobbies: These bins may have a creative design
since they are constantly on view. They should be emptied daily.
d) In waste-collection areas: These are usually located outside the main building and are hidden
from view. These bins should be kept covered and emptied t least every alternate day
· Sani-bins: These are metal or plastic bins with lids. They are found in toilets for the collection of soiled sanitary
towels. They should be lined with plastic or paper bags for easy cleaning. The bins must be emptied and wiped
daily for reasons of hygiene. Disposable paper bags (sani-bags) should be provided in the guests’ toilets for
wrapping sanitary towels, before disposing in the sani-bin. Some metal sani-bins may be provided with
incinerators, but these are not available in India yet.

· Spray bottles: These are lightweight containers that deliver a fine mist or cleaning solution through a fine nozzle,
particularly used for spray cleaning. It is essential that the nozzle is properly adjusted and free from any
blockage. The nozzle must be kept clean, by spraying clean, pure water through it after every use.

· Polish applicator trays: These are used in conjunction with a polish applicator mop for polishing floors with a
liquid polish. They should be labelled with the kind of polish that they hold. Cleaning them after use is difficult.
Pour any excess polish back into the polish container. Soak the tray in a small amount of solvent used to remove
that particular type of polish. Wipe with rags and store.

· Hand caddies: Also called ‘cleaners’ boxes’, these were originally made of wood or metal but are nowadays
usually made of plastic. They consist of a box with a handle and fitted tray. They are used by room attendants
for carrying cleaning supplies from room to room for guestroom cleaning. After each shift, they must be cleaned
and topped up with replacement supplies for use in the next shift.

Carts and trolleys:

These are more useful than hand caddies when a large amount of supplies and items are to be carted or replaced.
They are ideal for the efficient removal and carriage of smaller pieces of cleaning equipment, cleaning agents,
linen and rubbish. They eliminate the time wasted in assembling equipment at the work location or moving them
from one place to another. The various kinds of carts and trolleys that may be used in the housekeeping
department are discussed here.

· Maid’s cart/Room attendant’s cart: Also called a room attendant’s trolley, maid’s cart or chambermaid’s
trolley, this is perhaps the most significant piece of equipment in the housekeeping department. It is like a giant
tool box; stocked with everything necessary to service a guestroom effectively such carts available are now
made of metal, but sometimes wooden carts may be in use. The cart should be spacious enough to carry all the
supplies needed for a GRA to complete half a day’s room assignments. Since the cart is large and may be
heavily loaded, it must be easily manoeuvrable as well. The ideal cart would have fixed wheels at one end and
castor-wheels at the other. The cart should be well organised so that the GRAs do not have to waste time in
searching for supplies or make frequent trips back to the supply room. Also if the cart is not stacked neatly, it
will look very unsightly when in the guests’ view. There is usually one such cart for each room section and it is
stored in the floor pantry along with other housekeeping supplies. Fig 7.6 shows an organized room attendant’s
cart.

Most of these carts have 3 deep shelves – the lower 2 for linen and the top, partitioned shelf for small supplies.
The carts also have a sack for soiled linen, detachable trash bags, storage space for a vacuum cleaner and a hand
caddy. Many carts also contain a locked box in which to store the guestroom keys, incase a floor master key is

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 not being used. While arranging the linen on the cart, it should be kept in mind that the heavier linens must be
placed on the lowermost shelf and the smaller, lighter ones on the top shelf. Housekeeping supplies that are
usually found in the room attendant’s cart are listed in the table below:

· Janitor’s trolley: This is used for carting and storing cleaning supplies. It is used during the cleaning of public
areas or any special cleaning projects scheduled for guestrooms. It includes a detachable trash bag and a place
for storing cleaning agents and small pieces of cleaning equipment.

· Mop-wringer trolley: This piece of equipment consists of a mop and one or twin buckets with an attached
wringer, all mounted on a trolley with caster wheels. It may have provision for holding cleaning agents as well
as a trash bag.

· Linen trolley: These are used for the transfer of clean linen from the laundry to the linen room or from the linen
room to the floor pantries and so on. Linen trolleys may be made of aluminium or steel.

· Laundry sacks: These, in fact, may or may not be mobile (and hence may not necessarily be trolleys). They may
be made of wicker, fibreglass or plastic. A very popular choice is the one made of tough cotton with
drawstrings, as it can be washed frequently.

All carts and trolleys need to be kept clean, wiped daily and stored in a locked, dry, well-ventilated area when
not in use. A thorough cleaning may be done once a week. The wheels may be oiled during this cleaning. Carts
or trolleys should never become general dumping grounds when not in use.

Sundry equipment

This includes other miscellaneous pieces of equipment used in the housekeeping department – ladders, carpet
beaters, and abrasive pads, rubber gloves, airing racks, fit pumps and choke removers.

v Ladders

Ladders are generally made of wood or metals such as aluminium. These days, fibreglass ladders are also
available. The different parts of a ladder are the rungs (treads), stiles (side rails), spreaders (the hinge-and-brace
arrangement) and footpads.

When buying a ladder, one should primarily consider the following points:

ü What kind is needed for the work it is going to be used for – for occasional work, it may be
cheaper to hire a ladder than purchase one.
ü The weight that the ladder must bear.
ü The condition of the ladder.

ü The physical work environment it will be used in.

There are 5 main types of ladders used, based on hotel properties.

· Single-section standing ladders or stairladders: This is the simplest, old-fashioned ladder with
2 straight stiles and rungs fixed across them at a minimum of 254mm intervals. The ideal ones
are those with both stiles curved at the apex for safety.

· Stepladders: Various types of stepladders are available. A basic stepladder has 2 rectangular
stiles fitted with treads that are a minimum of 76 mm in width. The treads should lie
horizontal, parallel to the ground when the ladder is placed at an angle of 75 degrees. A
platform stepladder gives a more stable work position with a high-level platform for holding
tools and materials in use. It is available in various heights, or without a high-level handrail.
The platform must not be more than 3.85m above the ground. The A-type platform ladder
opens up like a pair of scissors to make a free-standing set of steps with a small platform at the

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 top, thus leaving the worker’s hands free and eliminating the need to keep getting off to get
tools and materials. It is very stable and if fitted with a handrail above the platform, extra-safe.
The steps may be folded together for easy storage of the ladder. A swing-back stepladder is
self-supporting. Locking stays are fitted together to brace the steps. When opened up, the
treads of the ladder lie horizontal.
· Extension ladders: These are used for working at greater heights. These consist of 2 or 3 parts
that can be slid along each other to add the required height. They are available with 2 or 3
extensions and in various ‘closed’ lengths of 2.5-3.5 m. A double extension ladder which can
give a long length of about 8m should be sufficient for most 2-storey properties. Longer, 3-
section ladders can give lengths of up to about 10m. In the case of smaller extension ladders,
the ladder may be extended by hand & secured by stay locks that rest on a selected rung. On
larger ladders, the sections are extended by means of a roped loop running down the side of
the ladder and secured upon a cleat.
· Combination ladders: A combination ladder offers various arrangements to give a stepladder,
an extension ladder and a stair ladder in one piece of equipment. The sections fold down to
about the same size as a platform stepladder.
· Roof ladders: This type of ladder is used when working on a pitched roof. The roof ladder has 2
wheels at the upper end, which enables it to be pushed along the slope of a roof without
damaging the shingles. On the end opposite to the wheels, the ladder forms a hook to fit over
the top ridge of the roof, which stops the ladder from slipping down.
ü Angle of inclination: Whichever ladder is used, if it leans at an angle, it should be
ensured that the bottom of the slanting section is about 1 foot away from the vertical
support for every 4 feet of ladder height between the foot and top support.

Maintenance and storage:

Ladders should be stored in a sheltered area, away from the sun and rain. Wooden ladders
especially are adversely affected by exposure to heat combined with dampness. They need a dry,
well-ventilated storage area. Wooden ladders used outdoors should be treated with shellac,
varnished or given 2 coats of linseed oil as a protective treatment. A wooden ladder should never
be painted, as this can hide any defects that may arise, making the ladder potentially unsafe.
Straight (stair) and extension ladders should be stored horizontally on racks or hooks, with support
points at the top, middle and bottom of the ladder, to prevent sagging and warping. All ladders
should be kept scrupulously free of oil, grease, wet paint and other slip hazards. Periodically
tighten the reinforcing rods under the steps of a stepladder, spreader hinges and other joints.
Despite all the precautions, ladders should nevertheless be carefully inspected for wear and
damage before each use. In case of any damage, it is always best to discard it.

v Carpet beaters:

Beating of carpets, although not recommended, sometimes becomes a necessity. Wire beaters should be avoided
as they may damage the rug. Instead, rattan beaters should be used. While beating, it is best to place carpets and
rugs with their naps down on the grass. They should never be hung up and beaten.

v Abrasive pads:

These are available in the form of non-woven, nylon netting pads, suitable for the removal of localized, heavily
impacted soiling by abrasion. Pads with different abrasive properties are produced. Wire-wool and steel-wool
pads should be used with caution as they may damage certain surfaces.

Mechanical Equipment:

The various pieces of mechanical equipment used in the housekeeping department are usually powered by
electricity or gas. The staff should be well-trained in the operation of these equipments since incorrect usage
will not only lead to inefficient cleaning but may also become a safety hazard.

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 Vacuum cleaners/ Suction cleaners:

Vacuum cleaners remove debris and soil and/or water from a surface by suction. All vacuum cleaners work on
the same operating principle. In all types, motor drives an impeller, which sucks in air through an inlet, creating
a difference in pressure between the air within and outside the machine. Air drawn in from the inlet passes
through and out of the machine. Air drawn in from the inlet passes through and out of the machine. Usually the
air is sucked in together with soil, debris or water. The dust is collected into a container provided, which may be
within the body of the machine (as in cylindrical and canister models) or on the outside in the form of a bag (as
in upright models). The dust-collecting apparatus in the heavy duty models used in hotel properties usually
consists of 2 types of dust bags. The inner bag is made of disposable paper and the outer one is made of fabric.

Types of vacuum cleaners: Various types of vacuum cleaners are available.

· Dry vacuum cleaners: These are used for removing dust and small pieces of debris from floors, upholstery,
furnishings, walls and ceilings. Those using a flexible hose come with attachments, such as a floor-cleaning
head, a power head, a crevice-cleaning head, an upholstery-cleaning head, a dusting head and extension tubes.
Many variations of the dry vacuum cleaner are in use:

v Electric brooms: These are very lightweight vacuums without a motor-driven beater brush.
They are used only for light vacuuming and for touch-ups on carpets and hard floors. In other
words, they come in handy when a full vacuuming is required.
v Dustettes: These are small, lightweight vacuum cleaners used for cleaning curtains, upholstery
edges, mattresses, computers and music systems. They clean by brushing and suction and are
very easy to handle. The may be carried in hand or strapped to the back of the operator.
v Backpack vacuums: These are very efficient to clean high, hard-to-reach areas. The vacuum
unit in these machines can easily be strapped to the back of the operator. These machines have
hand-held wands that come with various attachments for flexibility in cleaning. They are ideal
for use on curtains, drapes and ceiling corners. These vacuums are also referred to as
piggyback vacuums.
v Upright vacuums: These vacuums are the ones more frequently seen in hotels. The main body
of the vacuum lies horizontal on the floor and is driven by a single motor. The dust-bag is
outside the machine’s main body. There is a belt-driven beater brush to facilitate removal of
dust from thick-pile carpets. In an improved variation, there is a dual-motor system – one
motor drives the beater brush and the other provides the suction. The machine also has a built-
in hose for cleaning corners and upholstery. This machine is most suitable for use on large
carpeted areas.
v Cylindrical vacuums: These have no rotating brushes and work by suction only. The term
‘suction cleaner’ is generally used for these kinds of vacuum cleaners. A filter-cum-diffuser is
fitted at the outlet which removes fine dust and micro-organisms from the flow of air passing
through the outlet. The filter-cum-diffuser also reduces air disturbance and noise. The dust-
bag is inside the cylindrical body of the vacuum cleaner. A flexible hose along with the
different attachments is used to clean a variety of surfaces. These are the type commonly used
by GRAs in guestroom cleaning.
v Pile-lifter vacuums: These vacuum cleaners are used to groom long-pile carpets. They lift up
the carpet pile that has become packed down and restore their vertical orientation. It is
especially useful before shampooing the carpet, more so if the soiling is heavy.
v Centralized vacuum: In this type of unit, suction is generated at one point in the building.
Meanwhile, soiling can be removed at vacuum points somewhere else in the building by
suitable nozzles connected to detachable flexible hoses. The collected dirt is then conveyed by
a network of pipes to a central container. This unit is expensive to install and is generally done
at the building construction stage. The advantages of this kind of system are :
ü It is extremely hygienic, since all the dust is carried away from the point of cleaning.
ü Maintenance costs are usually lower.
ü Operative fatigue is lower.
ü There are no frayed flexes to repair and no individual machines to go wrong.
· Wet-and-dry vacuum cleaners: These are extremely useful in hotel housekeeping operations. They can pick up
spills and excess wash water when on the wet mode. When on the dry mode, they help in removal of dust and
debris. In hotels, these machines are usually used in their wet mode to pick up spills. They are also required
when large areas of floors are being stripped of polish and cleaned. They have a flexible hose with attachments

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 such as a squeegee head. The waste water collects in a tank that needs to be emptied after use. A variation of
this is the large tank-type vacuum cleaners. These are also called canister-type or industrial vacuum cleaners.
They can be used for dry and wet pick-up or both. The waste water is scooped up by a squeegee attachment
through a nozzle and travels back into the tank. They are used for cleaning large areas when time is a constraint.
They are ideal for cleaning lobbies, banquet halls and restaurants.

Points to consider while purchasing a vacuum cleaner:

The housekeeper needs to pose and find answers to the following questions while purchasing a vacuum
cleaner:

ü Is the suction power sufficient enough to dislodge dirt as well as remove dust and debris?
ü If the suction power on its own is not efficient enough, can a machine with a rotating brush be
selected instead?
ü Can the suction power be directed to where it is needed?
ü Is the machine portable enough for the staff and the layout of the building?
ü Does all the dust get trapped inside the air bag before the air passes out from the outlet?
ü What attachments are available along with the machine?
ü How easy is it to empty the contents of the machine?
ü What is the noise level while operating the machine?

ü Is the cost of the machine within the budget?

Care and storage:

Vacuum cleaners will give maximum cleaning efficiency when they are maintained well.
Housekeeping staff need to be trained in the care and maintenance of the machines. The
wheels of the machine need to be oiled periodically. After use, the dust bags should be
checked and emptied. If the machine is operated with the dust bags full, cleaning will not be
operated, the machine may heat up too much and the bags may get damaged. Wipe the casing
daily and check the hose and flex before use. Clean the attachment heads after each use.
Check the filter after use. If the machine is meant for dry suction only, never use it to clear
even a little amount of water, else the dust bags will get damaged.

Incase of wet vacuums, the bucket should be washed, rinsed and dried. The squeegee should
be wiped clean and replaced whenever necessary. The hose needs to be rinsed out, the casing
and wheels wiped and the filter checked after use. The wheels need oiling periodically.
The hoses should be stored hanging on hooks. The tubes and attachment heads of a dry
vacuum cleaner should be stored in boxes, drawers of shelves. The hoses and attachment
heads of wet vacuum cleaners should be stored off the ground on a rack, in a well-ventilated
place.

General-purpose floor machines (scrubbing and polishing machines)

These are designed for scrubbing, buffing, burnishing, scarifying and spray maintenance.

· Scrubbing: The bristle tips of a brush or the surface of a pad abrade and cut the soiling to remove it.

· Buffing: The bristle tips of a brush or the surface of a pad create a high-gloss finish on the floor surface. In case of
a surface on which a polish has been applied, it will involve generation of a local heat to harden waxes and
resins.

· Burnishing: The tips of a brush or the surface of a pad abrade and cut the floor surface to create a smooth surface
with a glossy finish. In case of a polished surface, it will involve the removal of a surface layer of polish.

· Scarifying: The bristle tips or edge of a cutting tool, cut into impacted soiling and remove it by means of a chisel-
like action.

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· Spray cleaning : This is similar to spray cleaning, but the term is applied to the maintenance of floors where a
buffable or semi-buffable polish has been applied and the bristle tips of a brush or the surface of a pad remove
both soiling and the surface layer of polish to leave a smooth, glossy surface. Resins and waxes in the
maintenance product form part of the restored finish. These machines consist of one large or several small
brushes that revolve and scrub the floor. Water and detergent are released from a tank attached to the machine.
These machines can be used for shampooing carpets, polishing floors and spray maintenance. Such general-
purpose machines are preferred in many establishments as the machine can be put to greater use due to its
versatility. In some machines, coloured, abrasive nylon pads replace the scrubbing brushes. For normal-speed
machines:

v Beige pads are used for buffing;

v Green pads are used for scrubbing; and

v Black pads are used for stripping.

The lighter the colour of the pad, the lesser abrasive is the action. These machines may come with or
without the suction capacity to pick up water. If the machine is one without a suction action, then the
machine will have to be used in conjunction with it while scrubbing. The usual attachments for these
machines are brushes, drive discs, coloured nylon pads, a water tank, a shampoo tank and a sprayer.

Care and storage of general-purpose machines:

The brushes and pads should never be left on the machine after cleaning. The brushes should be
detached after cleaning. The fluff should be removed from them after washing. Wash, rinse and dry wet
ones after use. The dry ones should be washed occasionally, but dust should be tapped away after use
regularly. The pads should be washed, rinsed and dried thoroughly. The tanks should be emptied,
washed and dried. The wheels and casing should be wiped after use. The wheels need oiling
periodically. The flex should be checked for any fraying before each use. Brushes and pads should be
stored in a well-ventilated area, preferably on airing racks or hooks. They should not be kept flat on the
ground. The tops of the tanks may be loosely fitted during storage.

Wet-extraction systems:

These machines are used to restore the surface appearance of carpets, upholstery and curtains. They
remove the more deeply embedded soilage not easily removed by suction cleaning. They are also
useful in the application of soil-retardant finishes on carpets.

Types of wet-extraction systems: There are various types of wet-extraction systems.

· Hot-water extraction machines: These are machines with no rotary action. They carry a tank
for hot water and detergent, which are used for deep cleaning carpets. The hot water and
detergent are shot into the carpet from high-pressure spray nozzles. The dirt is thus flushed to
the surface and this, along with the soiled water is removed by suction into a container in the
machine.

· Solvent extraction machines: These machines are primarily used for cleaning upholstery and
curtains and to a lesser extent for carpets.

Carpet shampoo machines:

These machines, as indicated by the name, are designed for the deep cleaning of carpets that are
heavily soiled.

Types of carpet shampoo machines: There are 4 broad groups of these machines:

· Steam-extraction machines: Though these machines are universally called steam extraction
machines, there is in fact no generation of steam and the cleaning agents are simply hot water

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 and detergent. Hot water containing the detergent is injected at a prescribed rate and
subsequently extracted by a wet vacuum system built into the machine.

· Cylindrical-brush dry-foam machines: This system has a cylindrical brush that scrubs that
scrubs and picks up in one pass, the foam generated by the machine.
· Rotary-brush wet-shampoo machines: A rotary brush cleaner in conjunction with a wet
shampoo is employed for the cleaning of carpets here. The machine comes with a range of
accessories including vacuum and drying equipment.

· Small rotary-brushes wet-shampoo machines: This is also a rotary brush cleaner, but employs
2 brushes instead of 1 and is somewhat smaller than the rotary-brush wet-shampoo machine.

Scrubber-drier-sweepers

These machines remove debris, soiling and/or water. They are suitable for large areas where
mechanical sweeping, scrubbing and drying are required.

Types of scrubber-drier-sweepers: The various types available are as follows:

· Power sweepers: These are self-propelled or manually propelled machines designed to remove
debris and loosen soiling from roads, pavements, carpets and large areas of hard flooring.

· Pedestrian-driven sweepers: These feature a battery or mains-operated rotating broom that

carries dirt back into a hopper. A side-broom suction unit and filters may be included.
· Petrol or gas-driven sweepers: These have petrol or a gas-powered engine to drive a suction
unit and brush. Soiling is brushed back into the inflow and collected in a large cloth sack
situated behind the motor. These machines are suitable for the sweeping of pavements, car
parks and similar heavy-traffic areas.
· Self-propelled sweepers: These machines may be petrol, gas or battery-powered. The power is
transferred to the drive wheels and a rotating broom, which carries soiling away from a
surface. Such machines typically contain:
v A side broom to carry debris from the floor edges into the path of the main broom.
v A water spray or suction with the side broom to prevent rising of dust clouds.
v A high volume suction-unit that sucks or blows air through a filter as dust or dirt is
deposited in the hopper.

v A filter shaker or air-flow reverser to prevent blockages.

High-pressure washers:

This type of equipment is designed to remove soiling by subjecting the surface to water, steam
and/or sand under pressure. Water under pressure physically dislodges the dirt. The process
can be assisted by the use of hot water, steam or sand.

Scarifying machines:

Scarifying is the process by which heavy grease, mud, wet sawdust and thick deposits are
removed from the surface of floors. The process is employed when simple scrubbing has been
ineffective. Here dirt deposits are broken up by the chisel-like action of a wire-brush cutting
tool.

Types of scarifiers: 2 kinds are available -

· Heavy-duty scrubber polishers: These single-to-three-brush machines can have a

brush weight of 65kg or more. They are used in conjunction with a scarifying
assembly. Dislodged dirt is removed by a second operation involving sweeping.

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 · Self-propelled scarifiers: These consist of a revolving tool, a hopper into which the dirt
is thrown up by the tool and suction-unit filter to remove finer particles.

CLEANING MATERIALS
There are many materials and reagents, which help in cleaning, scrubbing and polishing surfaces. Some of these
are commercial preparations for cleaning and you may be already familiar with some of them.

a)Water- Water is the simplest cleaning reagent available to us. Some dirt may be loosened and dissolved in it.
Although most of the time, some other cleaning agent is also used along with it.
b) Detergents- Detergents are available in powder, solid (soap, soap flakes etc.) and liquid form. These are used
with water to clean various surfaces.
The basic ingredients in a detergent are surface active agents, known as surfactants. A detergent may have more
ingredients to make it more effective, like alkaline salts, bleaches, foam boosters, germicides and perfumes. The
exact nature and use of a detergent will actually vary according to its ingredients.

However, there are a few points which should be kept in mind while choosing a detergent. It should –
 be readily soluble in water
 be effective in all types of water and produce no scum
 have good wetting powers so that the solution penetrates between
the article and the dirt particles
 have good suspending powers to suspend dislocated dirt and not
allow it to settle back
 be effective over a wide range of temperatures
 be harmless to the article and the skin.
 clean quickly
 be easily rinsed away

c ) Abrasives- some of the common abrasives are sand, finely powdered brick, saw dust, wheat bran, emery
paper, fine ash, filtered chalk etc. Besides these, steel wool, nylon mesh, coconut fibers are also used to scrub
dirt. Their use depends on the surface to be cleaned and the type of dirt to be removed. The extent of cleaning
will depend upon the nature of the abrasive used and on the scrubbing action.

d) Acids- strong acids are used to clean toilets (water closet and sinks) and are available in crystals or liquid
form. Milder forms of acids are also used to clean very dirty tiles. Acids should be rinsed off as soon as possible
after use and should be stored away from children. Vinegar and lemon are used to clean stains on metals like
brass and copper.

e) Alkalis- baking soda and ammonia are used as grease emulsifiers and stain removing agents.

f) Bleaches- stains on fabrics are removed by bleaches such as sodium hypochlorite, sodium perborate,
hydrogen peroxide, sodium hydrosulphite etc.

g) Solvents – solvents such as methylated spirit, carbon tetrachloride, kerosene, petrol etc; are used to remove
grease, wax and other stains from the surfaces. You should keep methylated spirit, kerosene, petrol, away from
fire as they are inflammable. Carbontetrachloride is harmful if inhaled.

h) Polishes- polishes are used on surfaces such as floors, furniture, leather and even metals. When rubbed on a
surface, they provide a protective covering to the surface and produce shine. The article also gets cleaned in the
process.
Ready-made polishes are expensive as compared to home-made ones.

Apart from these equipments and cleaning agents, there are other materials which are used in a cleaning process,
such as disinfectants, deodorants, antiseptics, etc.

Unit Task 3: Selection of Cleaning Equipment

It is the responsibility of the executive housekeeper to procure the ideal, most efficient equipment for her staff to
ensure maximum productivity.

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The choice of equipment to be purchased is made after considering the following factors:
ü Safety in operation.
ü Suitability to the type of area, surface, work, amount of obstruction and cleaning frequency.
ü Versatility to undertake various types of cleaning
ü Work performance in terms of capacity and machine and consumer reports on performance.
ü Ease of handling in terms of size, weight and height of the machine and ease of manoeuvring and operating.
ü Portability in terms of ease of transfer between floors and the provision of wheels and detachable parts and
consumer reports on life expectancy.
ü Noise level which is a more important consideration for hospitals than hotels.
ü Availability of spare parts, easy servicing conditions and lead time after booking of equipment.
ü Protective design which may feature a protective edging to prevent damage to wall furniture and fittings and
no sharp edges.
ü Ease of storage in terms of ease of dismantling detachable parts and storage space required (compactness).
ü Cost as a sum of initial costs, operating costs, maintenance and depreciation, as well as hiring considerations
as opposed to purchasing.

Evaluation questions
1. Find out and list the latest equipment and at least five cleaning materials/reagents available in the market.
2. List the cleaning tools/ equipments and materials /reagents in your house.
3. Given below is a list of reagents. Specify their role in cleaning.
i. Lemon
ii. Jewellery rouge
iii. Sand
iv. Ammonia
v. Methylated spirit

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Cleaning equipments and materials

9.1.05 CLEANING AND SPECIAL TREATMENT AGENTS

9.1.05 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify cleaning agents and special treatment agents
c) state the properties of cleaning agents and special treatment agents
d) discuss choice, use and storage of cleaning agents and special treatment agents

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definitions of terms

Cleaning agents- It is any chemical, including water, that will bring about or assist either physically or
chemically, the removal of soil from a surface.

Unit Task 2: Classification of cleaning agents and special treatment agents

Cleaning agents are classified according to the principal method by which soil or stains are removed from a
surface
The principle classes are:
 water
 detergents
 abrasives
 degreasers
 acid cleaners
 organic solvents

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  other cleaning agents

Unit Task 3: Stating the properties of cleaning and special treatment agents

Water
Limitation of water as a cleaning agent
 wetting properties
 soil suspension
 emulsification of grease
 hardness

Unit Task 4: Choice, use and storage of cleaning and special treatment agents

Choice of cleaning agents

The choice of cleaning agents will depend on the following factors:

a) Type of soil
Different types of soiling will require different types of cleaning agents
b) Types of surface
No matter how effective, a cleaning agent must not damage the surface being cleaned. Wrong choice may
damage surfaces and injure the user
c) Method of cleaning
It must be established whether cleaning agents other than water will be required. The agent selected must allow
the least labour intensive method to be used.
d) Manufacturers recommendations
Although cleaning agents are frequently recommended for particular types of soiling or surface, it must be noted
that a recommendation does not necessarily make a particular agent the most appropriate one to use.
e) Health and Safety
Always use the least harmful agent first before resolving to harsh products. If a harsh one must be used, then
thought must be given to the provision of protective clothing and training on the use of the agent.
f) Cost
Cheap products may be a false economy because they may increase labour costs considerably. Choose the best
product for the money available.
g) Testing
Before purchasing a cleaning product, it must always be tested in a work situation. Then select and purchase the
best.

Use of cleaning agents

Once a cleaning agent has been selected for use, its effectiveness, efficiency and safety will depend on the
following:
a) Manufacturer’s instructions
Generally, these should be followed particularly with respect to dilution and safety warnings
b) Dilution
It is generally related to the amount of soiling and the method of cleaning used.
c) Protective clothing
Essentially, protective clothing must be worn when handling strong chemicals
d) Training
Staff must be trained in the correct method of use of all the cleaning agents within a building.
e) Contact time
Sufficient time must be allowed for the cleaning agent to act on soil. Many cleaning agents will damage a
surface if contact is prolonged.
f) Rinsing

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Adequate rinsing is essential to remove all the soil and cleaning agents from a surface
g) Temperature
Most cleaning agents will work more effectively at a higher temperature, particularly when removing grease,
fats and oils.
h) Mixing
Cleaning agents when mixed may inactivate each other and may be hazardous. Never put cleaning agents in
dirty water.
i) Storage
Containers must be correctly and clearly labeled. When not in use, they must be kept in locked stores.

Storage of cleaning agents

The following are the points to consider when storing cleaning agents:
a) Label all containers clearly and with water proof pens or labels
b) Indicate the dilution rate if necessary
c) Ensure the tops/covers are secure and containers are kept clean
d) Store all the containers neatly to avoid damage and spillage
e) Keep aerosol containers away from hot pipes and radiators
f) Ensure that shelves are strong to bear the weight of the cleaning agents
g) Keep the store locked when not in use
h) Keep the store well ventilated
i) Do not store heavy items very high on the shelves
j) Clean the store regularly
k) Use funnels for dispensing and pre-diluting
l) Rotate stock
m) Keep bin cards up to date
n) Check stock regularly

Assessment Questions
1.

Suggested/Learning Resources
1. Housekeeping Supervision, Jane Fellows 1984, Pitman Publishing Ltd
2.

- Laundry agent
- Storage areas
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions

9.1.06 CLEANING

Theory

9.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the reasons for cleaning
c) state the types of soiling
d) explain different cleaning methods
e) explain factors that determine the frequency of cleaning a given area
f) classify and use of cleaning schedules
g) outline steps in work organisation
h) discuss types of cleaning systems

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UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Cleaning
Cleaning is a process of removing dust, dirt or any other undesirable materials like stains, spots, contents of an
ashtray, etc.

Dust collectively refers to the loose particles, which are very easily moved by air and settle on any surface. It is
easily removed with the help of a dry cloth.

Dirt refers to dust which sticks to any surface with the help of moisture or grease.
It is more difficult to remove dirt as compared to dust. Dirt has to be removed either with a detergent or any
other cleaning agent.

Unit Task 2: Reasons for Cleaning

Cleaning will be required for five reasons:

1. Prevention of the spread of infection and disease. When maintaining a clean environment prevention
of the spread of the disease- causing bacterial and their removal can be of paramount importance.
Cleaning is the most important method of achieving this.
2. Dust Control. In some situation dust control is of paramount importance. In industries manufacturing
hazardous materials or when hazardous dust and fumes are a by- product of the process involved, levels
of dust within the atmosphere must meet specific levels In other industry, e.g. pharmaceuticals and
electronics, dust may interfere with the manufacturing process.
3. Preservation of the fabrics, fixtures, fittings and furnishings. Accumulation of dust, grease and
other types of soil will lead to a progressive deterioration of a building and its furnishing. When
cleaning is neglected, this process of deterioration will accelerate and when eventually carried out may
require drastic methods which will cause further damage.
4. Provision of a socially acceptable environment. A clean and attractive environment is essential to
live and work in. guests are unlikely to return to a poorly maintained and cleaned hotel. People using a
building are more likely to respect one that is clean and well maintained. Employees are also likely to
be happy and productive.
5. Safety. Standards of cleaning and maintenance must be at least sufficient to meet the requirements of
the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

Unit Task 3: Types of Soiling

Soil in a room or building may arise from four sources:

i. Carried into a room by the air
ii. Carried in on feet and peoples clothes
iii. Carried in on equipment
iv. Caused by activities or operations carried out in a building or by persons in it.

Types of soil
 Fumes and odours
Caused by gases or particles which may enter a building through windows and doors, or may arise
within the building. They include fine soot and corrosive acid gases, or odours caused by the presence
of activities of other people.
 Dust
This enters a building through doors, windows, on clothes and footwear. Dust is one of the most
important agencies for the transfer of bacteria
 Grit
These are large particles which will enter a building on footwear or clothing and may arise within a
building as a result of manufacturing operation and deterioration of building fabrics
 Litter
It includes any large debris e.g. cartons, papers and cigarette ends.
 Tarnishing

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 Silver will react with sulphites in the air to produce a dark discoloration of silver sulphide. Copper
reacts in moist atmosphere with oxygen to produce a green discoloration.
 Stains and chemical soilage
These arise as a result of spillages, accidents, or vandalism, including localized staining of floors,
upholstery and carpets, urine and excreta.

Unit Task 4: Cleaning methods and procedures

The methods of cleaning and maintenance employed will depend on:

a) the type of surface (wall, ceiling, windows or door)
b) The nature of the surface (smooth, textured, porous, nonporous or abrasion resistant) and the
type of soil
c) The frequency will depend on the standards of frequency required

METHODS OF CLEANING

a) Dusting
When any surface is wiped with a piece of dry cloth, (duster), it
carries the loose dust with it and the process is known as dusting.

i) Low dusting
This is the removal of loose soil from surfaces within a stretched arm’s length of the worker, e.g. furniture,
doors and floors
Dust should be collected in a well folded dust control cloth or mop and should not be shaken.
Shaking and Beating
When you shake or beat any soft material, like a carpet/rug or a curtain, the dust falls out, making the article
dust free to a large extent. This is mostly done in open air so that other things do not get dusty.

ii) High dusting

This is the removal of loose soil from ceilings, ledges, pipes and fittings beyond stretched arm length.
Dry dust control mops, long brooms fitted with special soft headed bristles may be used.

iii) Damp dusting

This is the removal of dust from surfaces using a cloth wrung from plain water or water with very little
detergent, which does not necessitate rinsing. It is a quick process which follows dry dusting in daily cleaning.

b) Sweeping
When a broom or a brush is used to carry the dust laterally along the
room, the process is known as sweeping. While sweeping any vertical surface as walls, you should remember to
start from the top and sweep downwards.
Similarly for lateral sweeping as for floors, start from one end of the room and move to another, preferably a
door, and carry the dust all along or collect in a dust pan. All the movable articles kept on the floor should be
lifted, swept under, and kept back in place.

c) Mopping
Mopping is mostly done on floors. Extra attention should be paid to nooks and corners otherwise it gets tougher
to remove fixed grime later on.
i) Dry mopping
This method is used on hard floors, for example cement, terrazzo, etc.
After wet cleaning, a soft mop can be used to give the floor a shine.

ii) Damp mopping

This is the removal of light soil with a well wrung mop. The mop should be rinsed after every
section cleaned.

iii) Wet mopping

This is the removal of moderately light to heavy solid from the floor with a wet mop or floor cloth
and a detergent.

d) Scrubbing/Scarifying

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 Scrubbing is the removal of impacted soil or surface layers of polish and abrasion using a
scrubbing brush or an abrasive pad and the action of a cleaning agent.
e) Stripping/Burnishing
This is essentially the same as deep scrubbing, but involves the complete removal of polish from a
floor. A hard abrasive pad or steel brush is used.

f) Polishing/Buffing
When some reagent is rubbed on a surface to bring out the shine, the process is known as polishing
and the reagent applied is known as the ‘polish’.
Similarly, many other articles/ decorative items made of brass, wood, marble etc, may be polished.
h) suction cleaning;
This is the removal of loose soil from surfaces by use of a vacuum cleaner.different attachments will be
required for different surfaces.
i) Shampooing;
This is the removal of soil in a wet form from carpets and upholstery.

Cleaning Procedures
Dusting:
Using a dry, lint cloth or static mitten, systematically dust vertical surfaces from top to bottom; and horizontal
surfaces with straight,
overlapping strokes.
Re-fold duster as necessary to ensure that dust is not redeposited on cleaned surfaces.
Draw dust out of corners and away from the edges of horizontal surfaces.
Do not flick or shake out cloth.
Replace cloth as necessary.

Damp wiping:
Prepare cleaning solution according to manufacturer’s instructions. Using a damp cloth wrung almost dry, wipe
surface using smooth
strokes.
As necessary, rinse cloth in clean water, recharge with cleaning solution and wring out until almost dry.

Polishing:
Apply polish sparingly to a surface previously cleaned and allowed to dry.
Take care to avoid applying polish to adjacent surfaces.
When polishing small items, or items over a hard floor, spray the polish on to a cloth rather than directly on to
the item.
Do not spray an aerosol polish containing silicone onto furniture on a hard floor, as some polish may fall on to
the floor causing slippery conditions.
When dry, buff to a high sheen.

Unit Task 5: Factors that determine frequency of cleaning

 Traffic
Cleaning when traffic is lightest will have a number of benefits;
a) Dust will settle and be removed more effectively
b) There will be fewer interruptions so cleaning an be completed more quickly
c) It will be more methodical allowing operatives to progress from one area to the rest
 Occupancy
It is easier to clean an empty building. Work should be carried out when the building has been vacated,
or between one period of use and another
 Other Services
Where operatives are required to provide other services at a set time, cleaning must be scheduled around
those times.

Unit Task 6: Cleaning schedules

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The important question is how to do cleaning? You must have observed the cleaning process at your own house.
Do you clean your rooms completely by removing all the furniture etc, every day? No, because that would
require a lot of time and labour which can not be devoted everyday.

Then how to do the cleaning? For this, it is important to follow a certain schedule of cleaning. Everyday, a
general cleaning of the open surfaces like floors, furniture and other such surfaces is required. Once in a while
some more time is given to cleaning and
you probably move heavy furniture and clean beneath it or beneath the carpets. Maybe once in six months or a
year you empty the room completely and give it a complete wash, polish the floors, whitewash the walls, ceiling
etc.

Thus we can basically divide cleaning into three types of schedules:

a) Daily clean
b) A weekly clean
c) A spring clean

A daily cleaning would be a general cleaning done every day; a weekly cleaning would be a more thorough
cleaning done periodically, depending on the frequency of use. In a guest house, hotel, or a hospital, it may be
done once a week or even earlier. Spring cleaning is usually done once a year or when particularly needed. It
may be earlier in the case of a hospital.

A. General Procedure for Daily Cleaning

1. Once you enter the room, open all windows in order to let the fresh air come in.
2. Remove all unwanted articles like tea cups etc., and empty ash trays and dust bins.
3. Sweep the floor.
4. Dust all surfaces including furniture and fixtures.
5. Brush or vacuum clean the carpet.
6. Mop the whole area.
7. Replace linen wherever required, like in a bedroom, make the bed, in a restaurant cover the tables, in
bathrooms, check for towels, soaps etc.
8. In the end, adjust windows, do a general survey to see that everything is in order and to your satisfaction.

B. General Procedure for Weekly Cleaning

Special cleaning is more thorough than daily cleaning.
1. Start in the same way as in a daily clean – that is, first open all the windows for fresh air.
2. Remove all unwanted articles like trays, teacups, bottles etc. Empty the ash tray and dust bins.
3. Remove all dirty linen.
4. Remove stains from walls, doors, windows and furniture.
5. Check and clean thoroughly, all the drawers, furniture, fittings, all hangings or pictures, lights, etc.
6. Wipe, dust or polish table lamps, accessories, telephone, if needed.
7. Vacuum clean the carpets and other upholstery. If vacuum cleaner is not available, use a brush.
8. Sweep, dust and mop the surfaces.
9. Replace linen with clean linen
10. Survey the room for any discrepancy and adjust windows as desired.
20 Cleaning and Cleaning Materials

C. General Procedure for Spring Cleaning

Spring cleaning is done after long intervals, the frequency being as less as once a year. Thus, it may also be
called annual cleaning. It is the most thorough cleaning of a room.
1. Ventilate the room.
2. Take off all linen, including curtains and remove them from the room.
3. Remove all the movable articles including lamp shades, pictures, wall hangings etc., wipe and clean
everything.
4. If necessary, remove all furniture and furnishings from the room. At least remove soft furnishings like
carpets. Clean the cobwebs.
5. Sweep the floors.
6. If any maintenance work is required, this is the right time to do it.
7. Polish the furniture, decorative articles and floors.
8. Clean carpets thoroughly in the sun or send for dry cleaning.
9. Replace everything at the predetermined place, including all furniture and fixtures.

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10. If desired, rearrange the heavy furniture to give a new look.
11. Dust and mop.
12. Adjust windows, survey the room to satisfaction.

Unit Task 7: Steps in Work Organization

Unit Task 8: Types of Cleaning Systems

There are Three types of cleaning systems:

1. Unit Cleaning
This is a type of cleaning system where work is done in a given sequence. Work is carried out in one area and
after completing, one moves to another area.

Advantages
a) Increased security as you do not have to move items from one area to another.
b) Training is simplified as work is carried out systematically
c) There is better organization as one follows a sequence
d) There is more job satisfaction in this method

Disadvantages
a) The work may be monotonous because it is repetitive in the different rooms
b) There is a lot of activity in one room for a period of time, thus disrupting the occupant
c) There is need for more equipment
d) There is the possibility of incomplete work

2. Block cleaning
It is where one particular job is done in one area and then the worker carries out the same activity in another
area, e.g. window cleaning from room to room.

Advantages
a) Less equipment is required for use
b) It is cheaper to operate

Disadvantages
a) Security is weakened
b) There is more disturbance to the guest
c) It is monotonous to the staff
d) Cleaning may not be done to the required standards

3. Team Cleaning
This is where a cleaning is done by a number of people who work in one area but performing different tasks

Advantages
a) It is time and energy saving
b) It is not monotonous
c) Cleaning standards can be maintained

Disadvantages
a) The staff may not work well together
b) It is inconvenient to the staff due to lack of equipment
c) Carrying out a properly designed schedule of work may be difficult

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Internet

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 Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.07 CLEANING OF SURFACE FINISHES USED IN BUILDINGS

Theory

9.1.07 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Identify and describe different types of surface finishes
b) discuss the use, care and maintenance of surface finishes
c) identify different types of stains
d) explain and demonstrate stain removal process from a surface finish

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Identifying types of surface finishes

Interior Wall Finishes

Following are some questions that may help to get you started:

 What type of interior wall finish does the room have?

 What is it that you like about the color?

 How does the room make you feel?

 Does the room invite you to come in, or does it push you away?

 What type of material does the wall surface have? Is it smooth or textured, real or faux?

Choices to consider for your interior wall finish

Brick or Stone-Solid or veneers, both make a beautiful interior wall finish, but will need to be installed
properly to last. Check with the manufacturer for proper installation and structural reinforcement requirements.
Once it's up, you won't need to apply a wall finish-you're done.

Paint-is available in all types of colors and it even comes textured. There two basic types of paints for your
interior wall finish: oil based and water based.

Water based paint is usually less toxic and cleans up much easier. You can choose between flat, eggshell, satin,
semi-gloss and gloss finishes. The glossier finishes wash and wear better than a flat paint, but you will end up
with a shinier wall. The eggshell finish has almost no sheen and washes much better than a flat paint.

Oil based paint, especially on trim, will usually wear longer and wash better than water based paints.

Color-speaks volumes about a room. Where specific colors can make you feel calm, energetic, or nervous. The
perfect colors and tones for your home should be researched wisely in order for your rooms to reflect the
feelings you want them to.

Faûx Finish-a French term meaning a false finish. This finish can be made to look like brick, stone, marble,
granite, wood grain, leather, crackled paint, rusted iron, or verdigris and much more.

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 Texturing Compound-is manufactured by many different companies. However, there are specific types for
different applications. If you are going to add texture to your walls, then you need to make sure that it is
compatible with the surface material you are applying it to.

Wall texturing is fun and the interior wall finish results can be quite astonishing. There are endless design
patterns that can be created. In addition, you can add other materials such as: color tinting, glazes, and objects to
the compound to make your walls truly unique.

There is a great non-toxic plaster product that utilizes natural clays, aggregates and pigmentations that can be
used in a number of different design styles. Whether you are wanting to add that Tuscan, French Country,
Southwest, or other, this clay plaster is versatile in any décor.

Straw Thrown Plaster-is very popular in French Country walls. All you do is trowel on wet plaster to your
walls and literally throw a hand full of straw onto the wet plaster. Lightly tamper the straw so that it embeds into
the plaster with a clean trowel. Once it's dried apply either one or two coats of an aged yellow tinted glaze to age
and seal the wall at the same time.

Sand, Pebbles, Glass, Artifacts-to give an artistic quality to your interior wall finish. Get creative and be
artistic! One of a kind walls can be created by just using your imagination. But, before you attempt it-take a
piece of scrap gypsum board and practice, practice, practice to come up with the look that is uniquely yours.

Pigment-If you are looking for a true Old World textured wall, an easy way to achieve it is to add pigmentation
to your compound. Once it's put on the wall with a trowel and let dry, either a glaze, or a wax is used to seal and
age the wall.

Tile-comes in either porcelain, ceramic, terra-cotta, metals, glass, and natural stones, marble, or granite. There is
just about as wide of price range for tiles as there is different designs available on the market. If you can't find
what you are looking for you can have your own designs custom made, or even make them yourself via a
ceramic or pottery shop.

Wood-composed of either solid wood, plywood or veneers. It can be purchased in board dimensions, flat or
raised panels, shingles, or in large sheets. It is "WISE" to remember that if you are wanting to install any type of
wood product over a combustible wall system that an approved fire stop is used between the wall structure and
the wood surface for additional fire protection.

Wall paper
Types
Vinyl coated paper —- As its name indicates, this wallpaper has been treated with acrylic vinyl or polyvinyl
chloride. These wallpapers are easy to clean and unaffected by long-term exposure to humidity or grease. Vinyl
coated wallpaper is especially recommended for bathroom, kitchen and even basement walls for specifically this
reason. This type of wallpaper is scrubbable and strippable.

Coated fabric —- This type of wallpaper has an underlying layer of fabric also coated with a liquid form of
vinyl. This is not a good candidate for humid rooms such as bathrooms or walls that will be exposed to grease,
such as those in a kitchen. Coated fabric wallpaper works best in low-humidity areas.

Paper backed vinyl or solid sheet vinyl —- This type of wallpaper has a layer of paper or pulp backed to a
decorative vinyl surface. Because of its vinyl surface, this is another good candidate for high humidity areas. In
fact, this type of wallpaper is good for almost any climate. It's also easy to clean, scrubbable and peels off easily
from the wall when it's time for removal.

Fabric backed vinyl —- This wallpaper consists of a layer of fabric laminated to a layer of solid vinyl. There are
two types of wallpaper included in this category. Solid vinyl is simply a layer of paper or fabric laminated to
vinyl film. Since the applied vinyl is solid and not liquid, it is considered more durable than most other
wallpapers. If you're looking for wallpaper that cleans easily and lasts for a long time, this type of wallpaper is
for you. Paper wallpaper consists of a layer of decorative paper that doesn't necessarily have a protective layer
laminated to it. Before purchasing this type of wallpaper, check the manufacturer's instructions to be sure it
works best for your situation.

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FLOORING
There are so many choices in the floor covering industry that choosing the right floor covering for your home
may be a challenge. By looking at all the choices available and weighing the pros and cons of each product, you
should be able to pick a covering that works best for each room in your home. Keep in mind that each room in
your homes serves a different function, so your floor covering should compliment each room’s function and
style.

The first decision you will need to make is whether you want to have your room done in a soft surface such as
carpeting or a hard surface such as hardwood, laminate or ceramic. Then you will need to consider these factors
- durability, longevity, cleaning ability and moisture resistance.

Here are a list of today’s most popular surfaces:

Carpeting
Carpet comes in a wide variety of styles and constructions to fit almost any decor from formal to casual, ranging
from berbers, saxonies, textures, friezes and patterned cut/uncut styles.

Berbers are made-up of a loop pile construction that are available with a pattern or without, and patterns can
range from small graphic designs such as diamonds or squares to larger, more intricate patterns that resemble
floral motifs.

Cut pile style carpets range from velvety saxonies, which are very formal and elegant, to more popular textured
styles, which are more casual in appearance. A characteristic of a saxony is that it shows a natural shading of
light and dark streaks - the kind made by footprints and vacuum cleaners. Some people are fond of this natural
shading, because it adds a rich lushness to the overall appearance. There are a lot of casual styles on the market
which minimize these characteristics if you are not fond of seeing these marks.

One is a textured cut pile, which at first glance has a two-tone appearance to the yarns, but what you are actually
seeing is the reflection and absorption of light on the tips of the yarns. The results is you see less tracking and
vacuum marks. For even less shading, you might want to check out a frieze style of carpeting. Frieze means
"coarse, shaggy, woolen," and is characterized by tall, thin yarns that are curled. It has a very casual, textured
look, which minimizes the tracking marks. This is a great texture for high traffic rooms, because it is very
durable and full of twists (the term used for what makes a carpet resilient). As for style, frieze range from solid
colors to jewel tone multi-colors, as well as "cut berbers," which are generally offered in off whites with earth-
toned flecks.

Fibre Facts
Before you make your final decision, you will need to understand some fiber facts. The most widely used fiber
is nylon because of its durability and resilience. The drawback to fiber is that it can fade if exposed to direct
sunlight and it is not naturally stain resistant. Most nylons are treated with a topical stain to help resist stains, but
overtime it will wear off. Brand name fibers such as Anso, Wear-Dated and Dupont have a line of carpets that
have added soil protection.

Olefin is very stain and fade resistant and a good choice if you have children or pets. The disadvantage to this
yarn is that it is not a very resilient fiber and will pack down quicker. For longer durability, pick one with a loop
construction.

Polyester has a built in, permanent stain and fade resistance. It comes in variety of colors and has a soft feel.
However, the drawbacks are it is not very resilient and it is the most oil absorbent fiber, which means it is
difficult to clean. If you opt for polyester make sure it is been treated with Scotchguard or a similar treatment for
soil protection - otherwise plan on having your carpet cleaned regularly.

The top fiber is wool because it is the most resilient (not to mention soft to the touch and luxurious) and the only
fiber that ages well. Because wool naturally has low absorption, spills generally stay on the top - making
cleanup a breeze.

The cost of carpet averages around $18 a square yard, but varies depending on the manufacturer and
construction.

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Hard Surfaces

There are endless possibilities when it comes to hardwood, ceramic, laminate and vinyl. Since they are generally
considered permanent floor coverings – you will want to consider durability, maintenance and noise levels.

Hardwood Floors
If you want to give your home the look of natural beauty than wood is definitely something you should consider.
With its many species and variety in color and grain, you should easily find a wood that fits your decor. Feeling
exotic - then check out the wide range of exotic woods like Brazilian walnut and eucalyptus, Australian cypress
or bamboo from China. Then there are the species native to North America like maple, red and white oak,
cherry, birch, beech, ash and pecan. If you are looking to create a one-of-a-kind floor (and you have the time),
you can find reclaimed hardwood flooring from historic warehouses and barns in species that are no longer
available like heart pine, yellow pine and chestnut.

Generally all of these solid wood floors can be purchased unfinished or pre-finished and are 3/4 inch thick.
Thanks to newer finishing technology (using aluminum oxide) pre-finished hardwood floors are actually more
durable and retain its natural beauty better than the sand-and-finish variety. It will be hard to find an installer
that will be able to apply a better finish on-site than what a manufacturer can put on your pre-finished hardwood
floor.

If you really want the look of solid wood, but not the weighty price tag, you should look into engineered wood
floors, which consists of two or more layers and a top layer (called the wear layer) which is 1/8 inch thick and
generally made of oak, maple or cherry, but can be stained to match your decor.

Other economical alternatives are wood laminates which are plywood based with a layer of veneer on top. Keep
in mind that these floor are not nearly as thick as the real thing and can only be sanded and refinished several
times - after that you will need to have it replaced. It is no wonder manufacturers only warranty the finish for
five years. It is hard to beat the look of wood, but it does have its drawbacks - it requires periodic refinishing, it
can be scratched and gouged and it does not resist water well. These floors tend to be noisy, so you might want
to consider using area rugs to muff some of the sound.

Finishing Your Floor

After you chosen your wood species, now it is time to finish it off. There is no limit to the unique looks you can
create using stains, glazes, paints and finishes. You can get really creative by having your floor faux painted,
distressed or stenciled. Be sure no matter what finish you choose that it is well protected by a sealer and multiple
coats of polyurethane - how much shine is up to you.

Laminated Floors
The surface of a laminate floor is actually a plastic composition that is applied to the core using heat and
pressure. The core is usually made of high-density fiber or particleboard, and the backing can be paper, or
another layer of laminate. Laminate flooring comes in a variety of styles that try to mimic the natural look of
wood, stone, and tile. Some types are glued together, while others have a mechanical locking system where you
just snap the pieces together. The wear layer is made of zinc oxide, which makes it almost impervious to
scratches and very durable, making them an ideal choice for high traffic areas. Picture this: If you look closely at
the pattern you’ll notice each pattern is identical – that’s because it’s actually a picture of the real thing. You
cannot sand or refinish these floors so when they wear out (ten years or so) you need to replace them.

Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tile is a natural product made of clay, minerals and water that are designed and formed into a multitude
of shapes, sizes, colors and textures. They are very durable and easy to clean, but beware the grout lines and
scratching.
Most ceramic floor tiles have either a glazed, or unglazed surface.
The glazed tiles have a special ceramic coating that is applied to the body of the tile and then fired under
tremendous heat so that the glazing becomes hard and non-porous. The benefits of glazing is that it creates a
floor that is resistant to stains, scratches, slippage and fire.

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An unglazed tile is simply one that retains the same color on its face as it does its back. The most popular
unglazed tiles are red quarry tiles or porcelain. The benefits of not glazing is that dirt and other effects of daily
living do not show up as vibrantly as they do on a glazed tile.

Terrazzo is a mixture of marble and cement mixed together; two parts marble to one part cement. When it is
installed, marble chips are sprinkled on the surface so that a majority of the surface is marble. Terrazzo was
most popular during the 50's and 70's but is making its come back over the past few years.

Vinyl
Vinyl is a very versatile choice for floor covering and is most commonly used in kitchens, bath and laundry
rooms. It comes in rolled sheets or one-foot-square tiles and is available as an inlaid vinyl (pattern and color
throughout the entire material) or rotogravure vinyl (knobby texture with colors and patterns printed only on the
finished surface). There are many designs and patterns to choose from in each category, but they all have the
same drawback - they can dent, tear or become unglued.

Floor Trends

The trend in flooring these days is high performance - floors that can handle vigorous day-to-day traffic and still
look beautiful. Topping the durability list are concrete, cork, bamboo and a limestone and vinyl composite.
Concrete slab floors (usually used in basements and garages) are finding their way into other rooms of the
house. Not only are they durable, but they come in an array of new colors. Limestone and vinyl composite is
available in about 30 different colors and patterns. It has a lifetime wear and stain guarantee.

Another hot trend is cork tiles with a hi-tech finish that comes directly off of the tree bark after the wine
industry has harvested its grapes. Cork is installed piece by piece over an adhesive and is said to last forever.
The drawback to this soft, quiet and inexpensive covering is that there is limited color and style choices and
unless properly treated is susceptible to water damage.

Bamboo is a new flooring option just beginning to grow in popularity because it is a nice alternative to
hardwood floors. Besides its aesthetic value, bamboo is very strong and stable, even more so than many
hardwoods because they will not swell or shrink.

Unit Task 2: Use, care and maintenance of different surface finishes

Floors

1. Cleaning of linoleum surfaces

Low degree of contamination and/or loose-lying dirt

• Remove by vacuum cleaning/ brushing and/or by moist mopping
Heavy, strongly sticking contamination
• Smaller areas: Spray until moist and collect loosened dirt with cleaning cloths
• Larger areas: use the twin-bucket mopping method or a suitable scouring vacuum cleaning machine Scuff
marks, heel marks
• First treat affected floor covering areas with spray cleaner
• Then machine polish

2. Cleaning Thermoplastic floors

They should be swept rather than vacuumed, as the end of some vacuums can scratch the surface. Use undiluted
cleaner to remove scuff marks. Do not use solvent products on this surface. Wash with water and liquid floor
cleaner and treat with water-emulsion wax.

3. Cleaning Ceramic Tile floors

Tile floors are both practical and beautiful. Here's how to care for and clean ceramic and porcelain tile.
Dry Surface Tile Floor Cleaning

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Sweep your floors frequently to remove loose dirt and dust. If possible, keep a pair of shoes for house use only.
Small stones and debris brought indoors on the bottoms of shoes can scratch tile floors.

Spot Cleaning Floors

Clean spills immediately. Although most tiles are glazed and stain-resistant, the grouts are porous.
Dry small drops and splashes since even clean water can leave dull marks.
To spot clean water marks and smears, wipe with a damp cloth and dry.
Keep a scraper handy to gently remove crayon marks, grease smudges and food droppings that adhere to the tile.
Always be careful to avoid scratching the tile.

Mopping Tile Floors

Many floor cleaners and bleach can leave a film on your tile floor’s surface. This may be apparent when you
view the floor from certain angles or under certain lighting conditions.
To avoid this dull residue, use only warm water when mopping and dry the floor afterwards. If you do insist on
using a cleaner, select a product which doesn’t require rinsing, and add only a tiny amount to your bucket of
water.

Tougher Stains
Sometimes stains or marks are resistant to mopping. A residue is especially common after a new tile floor has
been installed. Spot cleaning with a mild acid solution, followed by a prompt and thorough rinsing, helps
remove such residue and other stains.
Acid solutions can eat away grout, so rinse well. Remember to keep the room ventilated.
For floor grout stains, use a toothbrush to target the problem area. Use a mild acid solution and rinse
immediately. Resistant stains might require replacement of a small section of grout.

Other Tile Care Tips

Ceramic and porcelain tile can chip. Be careful when moving furniture and handling heavy objects.
A sealer applied to tile grout will help protect from stains and preserve color.
Keep a small squeegee in the bathroom to wipe excess water from tile walls after showers. This helps prevent
water marks and soap scum buildup.

4. Cleaning Marble
Marble Tile Floor Cleaning
If your polished marble is protected with floor finishing sealant, the finish should be buffed or burnished in and
reapplied periodically to keep the surface optimally protected and looking good.
Because marble is so sensitive and very porous, only clean it with a neutral pH cleaning solution. Wipe it dry to
remove water spots.
Revive your scratched and dull marble surfaces with a neutral pH marble restorer.

How Should I Clean Marble?

Marble is very delicate and it does require maintenance to look its best.
Marble is a very soft stone and it is much softer than granite. It is also highly porous, so it is very easily etched
by acids. (vinegar, tomato juice, orange juice, etc) It's also prone to develop water stains or spots, such as marks
left by drinking glasses, or water spots after mopping.
 Clean your marble stone surface with a soft cloth or mop using pH neutral cleaning solution.
 Always wipe off any spills immediately as they happen.
 Never, ever clean this floor with vinegar, as you will destroy the finish.

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  For stains, always seek professional help. Marble specific cleaning products are available for removing
stains.

5. Terrazzo Floor Cleaning Tips

To be able to clean the terrazzo floor you have to understand what it is made of. The marble part of its surface is
almost non-absorbent; however the cement binder is very porous and absorbs stains easily. This is the part of the
flooring which will cause you the most grief. In older floors this seems to be the biggest problem; however if
you are having a new terrazzo floor installed, the last step of installation is to apply a penetrating sealant
approved for terrazzo. This sealant will be absorbed by the concrete pores, greatly reducing the absorption
quality of the concrete.

If you have an existing terrazzo floor that is stained, you will have to use several steps to restore it.
 First you will want to remove the existing build-up with a plastic scraper (do not use metal scrapers)
 Apply your floor cleaner over the surface with a mop. For stubborn yellow stains, use a soft-bristled
scrub brush.
 You will need to rinse the floor with a mop and water, rinsing the mop often. Be sure to rinse well so
that the floor can be sealed.
 Once your floor is rinsed, then dry, apply an approved sealant with a roll paint brush. Allow plenty of
time to dry.

If you have new terrazzo being installed, most of the work is done for you. With today's products, the sealants
will provide a beautiful and long lasting look for your floors. Terrazzo is easy to clean as long as the installation
process was performed according to the installation instructions.

 It is important to keep sand and debris off the floor. Sweep the floor often as this debris acts as an
abrasive and can damage the floor.
 Use a cleaner designed or approved for a terrazzo floor.
 Wet mop the floor allowing the cleaner to remain on the floor for several minutes.
 For the best results, rinse the cleaner off the floor thoroughly. You may need to change your rinse water
a few times.
 Once the cleaner has been removed towel dry the floor to prevent water streak marks from appearing
and to restore the floors natural shine.
 Do not use any types of wax on your terrazzo floor.

As with any hard flooring you can use carpet mats to trap dirt from coming into your home onto your clean
terrazzo floor. You may also want to place carpet rugs in high traffic areas and high use areas such as your
kitchen. With daily sweeping, and weekly mopping, your terrazzo floor will look as new as the day it was
installed.

6. Cleaning Wood Floors

The very best thing for any wood floor is to always vacuum and dust mop it regularly. This will prevent dirt
from building up and scratching and allowing the dirt to settle and damage the floor.
Never soak the floor with your cleaning solution. Always use the least amount of water to remove the grime.
We usually use a vinegar and water solution by mixing 1 cup of plain white vinegar to 1 gallon of warm water
to make a mild deodorizing cleaning solution that does not need rinsed and leaves no streaks or residue.
1. Work on one small area at a time
2. Dip a cotton cleaning cloth or mop into the mixture and squeeze out most of the liquid.
3. Wipe or mop the floor without spreading the liquid and getting it soaking wet.
4. Immediately dry with another cloth or towel bring out the shine and luster.
5. Do not allow your wood floors to get too wet and by wiping it dry you will not have any water spots.
If you have Swedish finished wood floors, the finish will come off with time and wear. Do not wax these floors,
do not use wood polish. Call a specialty company and have the floor surface refinished.

Waxing Hard Wood Floors

By hard wood, we mean older wood floors that have not been finished with an epoxy type resin (called swedish
finish wood) These floors are found in older buildings and though incredibly beautify if properly maintained
require a different type of cleaning than the newer epoxy coated wood.

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If your vacuum or dust mop does not restore the shine and luster to your wood floor, (again not Swedish finish)
try buffing the floor to restore the shine rather than applying more wax. Buffing should always be tried first as it
will often restore a nice shine and luster without adding another layer of waxy build-up.
If buffing does not work, you will need to first apply a specific wood floor cleaner such as murphy oil soap
cleaner or other hardwood floor cleaner and a liquid wax that is made specifically for wood floors. After the
wax is applied, let it dry, and then buff it again.

Walls
1. Painted walls
They may be vertical surfaces, but your walls get dirty, too. When you get the notion, get your wall cleaning in
motion.

Things You'll Need:

 Dry-sponges
 Liquid Dish Soap
 Soft-bristled Brush
 Sponges
 Terry Cloth Towels
 Old Newspapers
 2 Buckets
 Ladders
 Sponges
 Terry cloth towels

1. Protect your floors with newspapers or towels.

2. Brush cobwebs and dust from the wall with a soft-bristled brush.
3. Remove any remaining dirt with a dry-sponge - a rubber sponge available at most hardware stores. Rub
the dry-sponge along the wall to lift dirt from it.
4. Fill a bucket about three-quarters full with warm water.
5. Add a small amount of dish soap - about as much as it takes to clean a sink full of dishes - to the bucket.
This will be the cleaning bucket.
6. Place a second, empty bucket near the cleaning bucket. (You'll use this when you wring out the cleaning
sponge.)
7. Dip a small portion of the flat face of a sponge into the cleaning bucket until it is damp.
8. Spread the cleaning solution on the wall with the sponge, beginning at the top and working toward the
bottom. Use a ladder to reach the high spots on the wall.
9. Squeeze - but do not wring out - the sponge over the empty bucket after wetting the entire surface of the
wall.
10. Blot the surface of the wall you've just cleaned to lift any further dirt from its surface.
11. Repeat this process until you have covered the wall.
12. Dry the wall using a terry cloth towel.

2. Use, care and maintenance of wall paper

Some wallpaper simply cannot be washed, especially that found in an older house that’s been on the walls for
many years. The key is in the surface material. If your wallpaper is simply plain, old fashioned paper, it can’t be
cleaned with water. If you are unsure, test your wallpaper in an inconspicuous place, like behind furniture or in a
dark corner.

 Wipe the paper with a fairly damp cloth; if the color or appearance doesn’t change, it can probably be
washed carefully with water. Hardware stores carry helpful materials for cleaning older or paper
wallpaper. One is a dry sponge that can be wiped along the surface in long, gentle strokes.

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  Another option is to buy a commercial wallpaper cleaning product. This material is like play dough,
and it doesn’t involve water. There are clear manufacturer’s directions on how to use it, but always test
an area first in an inconspicuous location.

Nowadays, wallpaper is made for easy clean up. Many newer wallpaper materials include vinyl or plastic, which
are much easier to clean, but still delicate, so be careful. You won’t want to simply start scrubbing, as you
would on a painted wall.

To clean vinyl wallpaper, first vacuum the walls and remove any cobwebs, insects, or anything else that doesn’t
belong. You’ll need a soft towel, two sponges, and two buckets: one with warm water and a bit of dish washing
detergent, and the second with cool water for rinsing.

Simply wipe the walls with the sponge dampened with the detergent mixture. It shouldn’t be sopping or
dripping; even though vinyl wallpaper can be cleaned with water, it’s still paper underneath and can be damaged
with too much water. Scrub gently, if necessary, but wiping will usually be enough.

After cleaning with the detergent solution, follow up immediately by rinsing it with a damp sponge of cool
water. Then pat dry with a clean, soft cloth. This process must be done quickly or the detergent solution will dry
on the walls or the water will sit there too long. If the wallpaper is extremely dirty and requires a second
cleaning, wait until it is completely dry after the first washing, and then begin again.

Never use abrasive pads or powdered cleansers, even on vinyl surfaced wallpaper. These will certainly clean the
walls, but will often leave a dull mark or take of color, making the area look worse and eliminating any chance
of removing the spot. Remember, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Keep pets clean and remind
children to wash their hands often and keep their hands off the walls. But when your wallpaper does get dirty, as
it ultimately will, wash it carefully and gently, and it will be sparkling clean in no time.

3. Care and maintenance of Tiled walls

Soap Scum on Bathroom Tile Walls

The easiest way to remove soap buildup from ceramic tile is to use a dry, slightly abrasive cloth on a dry tile
surface. Try a plastic kitchen scrubber, plastic bristled brush, or even extra fine steel wool pad. Test an
inconspicuous area first to be sure the tile won’t scratch, and then work in a circular motion The dry soap scum
should fall to the floor as a powder which can be rinsed away.
If you are worried about scratching, vinegar also works well, but it requires more elbow grease and you'll need
to ventilate the bathroom.

Cleaning Tile Grout in the Bathroom

Before buying commercial products or using bleach, try these solutions.
Vinegar is a safe, eco-friendly cleaner. Use a sponge to apply vinegar to the grout, and a toothbrush to scrub
stubborn areas. You can also try using a paste made from baking soda and water or cleaning the grout with
hydrogen peroxide.
Kitchen Tile Backsplashes
Wipe tile walls near the stove, sink and work areas frequently. When frying, clean the tile before grease splatters
have dried.
A scraper is helpful for gently removing dried-on grease and food splatters. Follow up with a cleaning product
safe for ceramic tile.
For general cleaning of large wall surfaces, dust the tiles with a dry or damp cloth. If tiles are dirty or smudged,
try a mild cleaning product. Buff dry.
Unit Task 3: Types of stains

Unit Task 4: Stain removal procedures

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Removing Blood Stains
Cover the blood stained with paper towels and blot up as much as possible. Then pour some liquid detergent or
disinfectant and cold water on the paper towels. You should let the solution sit for 30 minutes.
Use cold water and scrub to wipe up and remaining stain, then wipe the area dry with clean paper towels.

Burn Marks
Gently rub the burn mark or spot with fine grade steel wool along with either cold water or a detergent solution..

Ink Marks
Ink marks will come off easily with fine steel wool and an all-purpose detergent solution. If the stain remains,
try using ammonia on it for about 15 minutes and wipe it dry.
You can also try using denatured alcohol to remove ink stains if the tile is vinyl. There are also ink stain
removers commercially available, but be sure to check the product instructions along with the recommended
surfaces first.

How to Remove Carpet Stains

Water dissolves many stains, so you can remove them without hiring a carpet cleaning professional or buying a
commercial stain remover

Here are two important things to know about removing every type of carpet stain. The longer you wait, the
harder it is to remove the stain. Blot the stain; don’t rub it. Rubbing can damage the carpet fibers and set the
stain permanently.
Try These Methods First
For most liquid stains, blot the stain with a clean white cotton cloth or plain white paper towel until you remove
most of the liquid. Rinse the spot with water and blot again. Repeat this step as many times as necessary.
For semi-solid spills such as peanut butter, scrape gently with a spoon to remove as much of the solid material
as possible. Then follow the steps above to remove the rest of the stain.
Vacuum dried solids first; then follow the steps above.
For stubborn stains, pour club soda on a clean white cloth and blot until the stain is removed.
Stepping It Up
If the water and club soda methods don’t work, use a commercial carpet stain remover. Read the directions
carefully and test it in an inconspicuous area. Always apply the cleaner to the cloth instead of the carpet. Blot
the stain starting at the outside and work toward the center to prevent the stain from spreading. Rinse the cloth
thoroughly, add more solution and blot again. Repeat until the stain is gone.
For some common but stubborn stains, an alternative cleaning solution works best. Try these solutions on the
following stains:
Specific Stains
Coffee. Heat the area with a hot, wet cloth. Pour white vinegar on the cloth and blot. Rinse the cloth and repeat
until clean. Dry the carpet thoroughly when you're done.
Fingernail polish. Apply non-acetate fingernail polish remover to a clean white cloth and blot, working from
the edges toward the center. Rinse the cloth and repeat until clean.
Red wine. Blot as much of the red wine with a clean white cloth as possible, rinsing often. Apply white wine to
the stain. Blot, rinse and repeat until clean. Dry the carpet thoroughly when you’re done.
Removing stains from Painted walls

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These can easily be removed using scouring powder indirectly on cleaning cloth. Work round the stain from the
outside towards the centre to prevent spreading the stain.
Rinse the area thoroughly after stain removal.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- cleaning materials and agents

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Cleaning
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.08 METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR CLEANING DIFFERENT AREAS

9.1.08 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain and carry out correct methods and procedures of cleaning different area
b) State the factors to consider in the choice of cleaning methods for a different area
c) Prepare and use a plan of work

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Procedures of cleaning different areas

1. Guest Rooms
CLEANING OF DIFFERENT GUESTROOMS

CLEANING A VACATED GUESTROOM AND BATHROOM

Trolley
Clean and neatly arranged.
NECESSARY AGENTS, MATERIALS, EQUIPMENTS AND MACHINES.
1. Cleaning Agents.
(a) Scouring powder
(b) Liquid soap
(c) Disinfectant
(d) Deodorizer/air freshener
(e) Furniture polish
(f) 3-way toilet cleaner
(g) Methylated spirit(for stain removal)
NOTE:
Insecticide should also be available
Cleaning materials
(a) Sponge cloths
(b) Floor cloths
(c) Yellow dusters
(d) Glass cloths
(e) Special cloths
(f) Drying cloths
(g) Scotch brite
(h) Newspaper (for steeping on when cleaning high areas)
(i) White rags
3. Cleaning equipment

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(a) Deck scrubber
(b) Bath brush
(c) Bucket
(d) Hand broom
(e) Dust pan
(f) Sweeping broom
(g) Cobweb brush
(h) Room attendants box

Cleaning machines
1. Vacuum cleaner
5. Necessary supplies
a. D.N.D .cards
b. Toilet rolls/balls
c. Guest soap
d. Laundry bags
e. Water glasses
f. Ashtray
g. Curtain hooks
h. Shower curtain hooks
i. Coat hangers
j. Vape tablets
k. Laundry and dry-cleaning lists
l. Curtain runners and stoppers
m. Curtain stoppers
n. Hotel brochure and tariff
o. Candle-holder and candles
p. Matchboxes
q. Stationery
r. Door knob menu
s. Room service menu
t. Guest commentary card
u. Sunday buffet reservation sheet
v. T.V. programmes sheet
Procedure of work
1) Knock twice at the door (using knuckles) pause in between.
2) Open the door and place the door wedge.
3) Draw the curtains and ventilate the room.
Look at the condition of the room .If the linen, waste baskets, T.V., e.t.c. are missing or furniture is damaged or
broken report to the housekeeper immediately.
4) Check for any item the guest might have left behind;
i. In the balcony
ii. In the desk drawer
iii. In the fridge
iv. In and underneath the beds and pillows under the mattress
v. In the wardrobe
vi. Behind the bathroom door
vii. Other parts of the bathroom
viii. Behind the main door

5) Switch off all the lights, T.V., air conditioner and vape device left on .If not on, check whether they
are in good condition and switch off.
6) Remove waste and trays from bedroom, bathroom, clean ashtrays and waste containers.
7) Strip the bed gently (remove them item by item) shaking it carefully off the bed .Check for
valuables .Remove dirty linen from the bathroom .Take it to the trolley .Remove any bed board at
this time.
8) Bring clean linen and place on clean surface i.e. the other bed.
9) Bring all the necessary cleaning materials and place near the balcony.
Agents.
(a) Methylated spirit( for stain removal mainly grease)

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(b) Disinfectant
(c) Furniture polish
(d) Liquid detergent
(e) Scouring powder
(f) Deodorizer(air freshener)
(g) Scotch brite
Materials
(a) Floor cloths
(b) Glass cloths(2)
(c) Yellow duster
(d) Cleaning cloths( different colors)
Equipment
(a) Dust pan/dust pan brush
(b) Bucket with warm water
(c) Sweeping broom
(d) Deck scrubber
(e) Bath brush
(f) Room attendant’s box
1. Balcony
(a) Clean the inside of the balcony windows
(b) Clean the balcony furniture .Place in room.
(c) Clean the outside of the balcony widows.
(d) Clean the ceiling, walls, air conditioning unit.
(e) Sweep, clean and dry the balcony floor.
(f) Replace balcony furniture
(g) Place the cleaning materials, agents and equipment in the bathroom.
2. Make the bed.
(a) Pull out the bed –to have enough room
(b) Turn the mattress –to avoid sagging
(c) Place the under blanket .It should be clean and in place.
(d) Spread and tuck in the bottom sheet, smooth side up, middle fold along the centre of the bed .Mitre
the corners neatly .It should be tightened.
(e) Spread the top sheet .Should fall short by about 10” to 12” from top mattress.
(f) Turn the top sheet over the blanket .Tuck in the bottom side. Mitre the corners neatly then tuck in
all around.
(g) Insert pillow into pillow case .Fluff it up.
(h) Place pillow with the open side facing away from the view .The edge of the pillow should be in line
with the edge of the mattress.
(i) Spread the bedcover- level, straight, right side up, rounded edge to the bottom and same level with
the second bed. If too long tuck in at the head side. Iron it out with your hand.
(j) Push bed back into position .It should not be too close to the bed side table.
(k) Neaten the second bed.

NOTE; All bedding should be clean without stains, tears and creases. Replace burnt blankets and bedcovers.
3. Dry-dusting.
Dry dusting the following areas with a folded yellow duster-;
i. Systematically round the room.
ii. High to low
(a) Main door frame
(b) Door stopper
(c) Wardrobe doors and top shelf
(d) Skirting board and the wooden wall
(e) Connecting door frame
(f) Wallboard
(g) Pictures
(h) Luggage rack
(i) Bulbs and lamp shades
(j) Fittings,sicket and plugs in the bedroom
(k) Dressing table drawers
(l) Behind the refrigerator

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(m) Chair frames, legs and underneath the cushions.
(n) The TV. screen and the rest of the body
(o) The top of the coffee table and legs.
(p) Bedside table – inside, back, and front.
(q) Bed frames
(r) Shelves .Do not forget the telephone directory and the Bible
(s) Bathroom door
4. Damp -wiping
1. Damp wipe and polish the following areas using a damp soapy sponge and a glass cloth/white
duster.
i. Work systematically around the room
ii. High to low
(a) Main door handles
(b) Wardrobe shelves, hanger rail, door hinge and hand grips
(c) Connecting door handle
(d) Dressing table top
(e) Vape machine- (may be cleaned with scotch brite pad)
(f) Inside and outside the fridge
(g) Coffee table and legs (if stained)
(h) Bedside lampshades (if stained)
(i) Telephone-disinfect it too
(j) Bedside table top
(k) Light switches
(l) Walls
2 Replace the supplies and change the unpresentable ones
(a) D.N.D card (behind the main door)
(b) Laundry bags(2) with 1 laundry and dry-cleaning list
(c) Coat hangers (6)
(d) Ash trays
(e) Candle in the candle holder plus a match box
(f) Folder
(g) Writing papers(6)
(h) Envelopes(3)
(i) Breakfast cards(2 in folder and 2 on the bedside table)
(j) Guest commentary card(1)
(k) Hotel brochure(1)
(l) Room service menu(1)
(m) Sunday buffet reservation information sheet.
(n) Hotel tariff
(o) T.V. programmes information sheet.
3. Note any repairs to be done
4. Replace missing curtain hooks, runners and stoppers.
5. Clean the bathroom
1. Equipment placed in the bathroom should include;-

(a) A bucket of water at least ½ full disinfectant, a floor cloth and 2 sponge
Cloths of different colours
(b) Deck scrubber
(c) Bathbrush/scotch brite pad
(d) Glass cloths
(e) Special cloths
(f) Methylated spirit
(g) Liquid soap
(h) Scouring powder
2. Flush the toilet and sprinkle the cleaning agent.
3. Clean the bathroom and surrounding.
(a) Clean the bathtub inlay, and hang to dry.
(b) Clean the tub, walls and soap dish using scotch brite and liquid detergent.
(c) Clean chain and plug
(d) Remove hairs and threads from the drain

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(e) Clean the taps using liquid detergents
(f) Rinse, dry and shine the drying rack, walls shower head, tower rail, chromium taps, bathtub and
soap using a sponge cloth and polish with a glass cloth.
(g) Clean the shower curtain and rail using a sponge cloth and liquid detergent .Dry using a glass cloth.
(h) Clean the bathroom door and its handle( The inside part)
4. Clean the wash hand basin and surrounding.
(a) Clean and rinse the wash hand basin, the taps ,chain plug,
overflow and the drainage.
(b) Clean, rinse and dry the left side of the side shelf and the nearest wall.
(c) Clean, rinse and polish the water glasses place them on the clean and dried shelf.
(d) Clean, rinse and dry the remaining side- shelf and the nearest wall.
(e) Dry the wash hand basins, the drain, and the overflow and polish chromium.
(f) Clean an polish the mirror
(g) Clean and dry the shaving socket.
(h) Clean and dry the pipes, the towel ring and rail beside and underneath the wash hand basin and the
wall.
5. Clean the toilet and the surrounding.
(a) Clean the inside of the toilet bowl, and underneath the rim. Flush the toilet and clean the toilet
brush.
(b) Clean rinse and dry the outside of the toilet bowl, seat, lid water pipe, and flush handle.
(c) Clean the toilet brush holder
(d) Clean and dry the wall near the toilet including the vent
6. Replace the supplies in their proper positions .This should include;-
(a) Bath towels (2) )
(b) Hand towels (2) )
(c) Bath mats (1) )
(d) Face towels (2) if applicable )One should be able to read
(e) Soap (2) ) the Hotel’s name.
(f) Toilet rolls (3) )
(g) Water glasses (2) )
7. Replace any missing shower curtain hooks.
8. Scrub, rinse and dry the bath room floor paying attention to corners and the drain.
9. Remove cleaning materials, equipment and agents .Take them to the trolley
10. Give the bathroom a last glance, switch off light
11. Note down any repairs to be done.
Vacuum clean the carpet. (Use the hose to clean corners).
Move furniture to clean underneath.
(a) Beds
(b) Coffee table
(c) Fridge
(d) Luggage rack
(e) Cushions
Sometimes it may be necessary to sweep corners with a hand broom first.
12. Re-arrange the furniture neatly
13. Lock the balcony door, leave the curtains open.
14. Give the room a last glance
15. Remove the wedge and lock the main door.
Key points as you work
1) Observe quietness as you work.
2) Be alert and have an eye for details
3) Use systematic procedures to save time and steps. Avoid unnecessary steps.
4) Have respect for the responsibility which is yours to care for the most expensive investment your
management has-the guest room.
5) Concentrate on one room at a time and do your best with it before going to the next one.
6) Change the cleaning up water after using it at the balcony.
7) Equipment should be kept together and out of the way
8) Work without spillages
9) Radio,t.v. and lights should be off and in working order
10) The door should be left open while working in the guest room
11) Furniture and equipment should be handled with care

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12) Avoid the use of too much cleaning agents
13) All linen should be without tears ,creases, and stains
14) Remember to report any repairs noted immediately
15) The toilet paper in use should roll from the top .(Fold ends of the paper into a ‘V’ shape.
Additional information
Vacant rooms (unoccupied)
The vacant rooms in the hotel have to be dusted, aired damp-wiped and checked daily. Some establishments
have all their beds turned down in the evening .Whether the rooms are going or not.
Occupied rooms
Daily cleaning procedure of occupied rooms is the same as the one used for checkout (vacant) rooms. The only
difference is that in a departure room, thorough cleaning must be done and some of the supplies
replaced i.e. soap, Depending on the policy of the hotel, bedlinen in occupied rooms may or may
not be changed daily. The actual method of cleaning departure or occupied rooms varies from hotel
to hotel.
Not slept in rooms
This room must be aired, dusted damp wiped and checked daily. The bedcovers must be replaced as soon as
possible –i.e. when taking the room report at 9:00 a.m. Draw the curtains and switch off the bedside
light.
V.I.P .Rooms
1) Change the water in the flowers everyday
2) Remove eaten fruits, the peels and clean the cutlery ,crockery, e.g.
3) If a guest has his own private fruits or flowers in the room do not remove anything before asking
whether you can do so or not.
Priority for cleaning rooms
1) Guest and supervisor requests
2) Checkouts
3) Vacant
4) V.I.P.’s
5) Not slept in ‘s (sleep outs)
6) Make ups
Cleaning service areas
All areas which fall under this group must be kept clean at all times .They are areas where guests do not
normally come into contact with but for the safety of the employees who are just as equally
important, they should be thoroughly cleaned every day .This is so because of:
1) Hygienic reasons
2) Avoidance of accidents
3) Work simplication and
4) For creating a good impression
NOTE: The responsibility of the housekeeping department not only comprises cleaning, but also their
maintenance, repair, refurbishment and eventual replacement .It is therefore, the duty of the
housekeeping staff to report any areas needing minor or major repairs to the engineering
department immediately
NOTE- ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ROOM ATTENDANTS TROLLEY
The room attendants’ trolley is the ideal equipment for the room attendant to use in transporting all the
equipment required during the process of the cleaning guest rooms.
The trolley is on constant display to guests who pass by it when moving along the corridors, it must therefore be
CLAEN and TIDY at all times

POINTS TO REMEMBER.
1. Arrange the clean linen neatly on the shelves provided .Take enough for the number of rooms to be
cleaned.
2. Make sure that all cleaning equipment i.e. deck scrubber and materials i.e. special cloths are placed
in their correct position on the trolley and in an organized manner.
3. All equipment must be clean i.e. the caddie box .It is not acceptable to see buckets which have
grease rings inside them or full or dirty water ,or bits of used soap scattered around.
4. Ensure that the rubbish container is clean .Empty it whenever necessary.
5. Remember to take the sack for soiled linen for washing in the laundry regularly .It should be
repaired whenever it s torn.
6. Remove soiled linen to the dirty linen trolley in the pantry as often as required .Do not leave the
soiled linen sack on the trolley “over flowing” with dirty linen.

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7. Always keep the supplies i.e. soap, toilet paper, stationery, laundry bags, candles, candle holder,
vape mats, ash trays, coat hangers etc.on top of the trolley in an orderly fashion .Remember that
this is not the correct place to put used glass cloths, sponge cloths, newspapers and magazines etc,
should not be left to fill up this part either .Take them to the House keeping office.
8. When pushing the trolley from one place to another, take care not to knock it on walls, doors and
corners .It scratches them.
9. Remember to position the trolley in a manner that you can be able to spot would be thieves.
10. Do not leave the trolley in the corridor unattended .When going for break i.e. lunch, tea etc ,or
when going to the laundry ,remember to lock up the trolley in the pantry.
The store or pantry.
This is where standards begin. An untidy or dirty store reflects the standards which may be expected in the guest
rooms. The guests may even wonder into these areas .It is therefore essential that he /she forms a
good impression .See to it that all areas are not on general display to the front of the house e.g.
guests and public .The cupboards and trolleys MUST be neatly arranged at all times.
Cleaning methods.
1) Dusting-high dusting
-low dusting
2) Sweeping /vacuuming cleaning
3) Damp wiping
4) Mopping-dry
-damp
5) Scrubbing
6) Polishing
7) Shampooing
8) Stripping(extra polishing)
9) Buffing(shining surface)
Preparing a guest room for the night (Turning down)
This a practice performed in most hotels. It is usually done in the evenings between 6.00p.m and 8.00 p.m or
specifically when the guest(s) are out for dinner. Its purpose is to freshen up the room and prepare
it in readiness for the guest (s) to sleep.
The room attendant’s trolley should be stocked with bath linen, bed linen, glass cloths, a bucket of water
with 2 sponge cloths and floor cloth, a special cloth, supplies, vape mats and a carpet sweeper.
Procedure
1) Knock twice at the door
2) Wedge the door open
3) Switch on the dressing table light
4) Close the windows and draw the curtains
5) Remove waste trays and bottles if any from bedroom, remove waste from bathroom, clean ash trays
and waste containers.
6) Remove soiled linen from bathroom .Bring in clean linen and place it on convenient place
7) Remove the bedcover, fold it carefully and place on the top shelf of the wardrobe.
8) Unstuck one convenient side of the top sheet and blanket fold them back to form a right –angled
triangle or according to the hotel’s policy.
9) Place any night attire neatly on top of the bed and any slippers placed neatly by the side of the bed.
10) Switch on the bedside light.
11) Place a breakfast card on the pillow
12) Open the mosquito net and tuck it in round the bed neatly if any.
13) Place the vape mat onto the machine and switch it on
14) Replace or change the supplies if necessary
15) Fold any clothing lying around and tidy up any other objects if necessary
16) Switch on the bathroom light, enter and flush the toilet.
17) Clean and dry the bath tub, wash basin, and toilet if necessary.
18) Replace the bath linen ,soap and toilet paper if necessary
19) Dry any wet patches which may be present on the floor
20) Spread the bath mat on the floor beside the bath tub
21) Give the bathroom a last glance and switch off the light .Leave the door ajar
22) Carpet sweep or vacuum if necessary
23) Close and lock the balcony door .Close the curtains neatly
24) Give the bedroom a last glance.
25) Switch off all the lights, expect the bedside light.

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26) Remove the wedge and close the main door gently.

2. Cleaning Public Areas

Public areas include the reception area, lounges, restaurants, bars, reading rooms, banquet rooms and halls,
conference and meeting rooms, circulation areas (lifts, corridors and staircases) and sanitary areas
The well cared for entrance and reception area gives a good first impression to anyone entering the building.
When corridors, staircases, lifts and sitting areas also look pleasant and properly maintained, the work that goes
into keeping the bedrooms, wards, leisure areas and so forth clean, will be all the more appreciated and so will
every service offered by the establishment, from the food prepared in the kitchens to the medical treatment.
In general, the cleaning procedures for public areas will take into account three factors:

1. They are used by a greater number of people than any other room or area .This means surfaces and
furnishings get spoiled more quickly .Wear and tear will be considerable, but even more rapid if soil is
not removed effectively and regularly.
2. They should always look attractive and inviting and be safe to be in. (On the other hand, hygiene
considerations are not as important as they are in sleeping, washing and food preparations areas.)
3. They have to be accessible at all times. This is particularly true of the entrance and circulation areas
such as corridors and staircases .Fortunately there are usually times when all the building’s users are
asleep ,or out ,or it is possible at quiet periods to close parts of the area temporarily(for example ,by
roping off half the foyer ,corridor or staircase )or shut a room altogether (for example, a lounge) or take
one facility out of service (for example ,a lift).

Frequency and Method of Cleaning.

The heavy use that public areas receive and the importance attached to their appearance means firstly
that weekly cleaning routines will include items that in a bedroom, for example, might only be cleaned
periodically, such as

o damp-dusting picture frames ,skirting boards ,tops of door frames and high shelves
o suction –cleaning carpet edges
o cleaning backs of furniture

Secondly the more intensive cleaning methods will be used more frequently for example:

o Upholstered furniture may require suction –cleaning daily.

o Alkali detergents may need to be used weekly on metal and glass surfaces of main entrances
door
o Windows ,mirrors, and picture glass may need to be cleaned weekly
o Carpets may have to be shampooed every month ,curtains and upholstered furniture every six
months
o Hard floor surfaces will need to be suction –cleaned and damp-mopped daily scrubbed or
spray –cleaned weekly ,and stripped and polished every 3 to 6 months
o Walls may need to be washed every six months

Points to watch during routine cleaning.

1. Follow carefully all safety procedures

2. Think of the needs of guests and other staff on duty and keep to the minimum any
disturbance or inconvenience to them.
3. Follow as far as possible the general procedures for reducing the movement of dust
and dirt .Start by collecting rubbish, emptying ashtrays and waste bins, then damp-
dust surfaces, then suction –clean floors.
4. Keep the area free from unpleasant odours .If there is no air –conditioning system,
this will mean opening windows and doors for short time.
5. Check thoroughly for:
 damaged ,faulty or missing items :report these in the appropriate way

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  stains on carpets, furniture and soft furnishings :deal with as soon as they
are noticed
 Lost property, particularly between cushions and under furniture in sitting
areas: hand this in with a note of the circumstances in which it was found.
6. Pay attention to areas and items that will get soiled more quickly as a result of heavy
usage, for example door handles and armrests and furniture.
7. Consider carefully the appearance of items:

 keep brass plates, knockers ,handrails and stair rails looking bright and tarnish free
 Keep notices, direction signs and such things as menu display panels free of finger
marks, smears and accumulated dust.
 Where possible remove graffiti written or drawn on walls, signs, posters Ector report
it so that the defaced item can be replaced or re-decorated.

8. Pay particular attention to areas where rubbish might be dropped or accumulate or be

deliberately hidden by a naughty child ,for example:

 behind curtains
 down the backs chairs and under cushions
 in flower vases and ornamental pots

9. when cleaning has been completed ,check carefully that :

 all furniture is in its proper position

 cushions are plumped up an attractively arranged
 fittings are left as they should be, pictures level ,lamp shades straight with the seams
out of sight
 electric cables to light fittings are not caught under furniture or tangled and plugs are
properly pushed into sockets.
 sufficient ashtrays are available
 flower arrangements and indoor plants are looking their best
 curtains are hanging straight

10. follow specific cleaning procedures as necessary for door mats ,lifts ,staircases and
corridors

Cleaning of Corridors and staircases

Corridors
Corridors and staircases must be cleaned in such a way that anyone who has to use them while
cleaning is in progress can do so safely with the minimum of inconvenience and without
spoiling the appearance of the cleaned surface:

 Divide the corridor or staircases in half (lengthways) and clean one half first .This
means people can proceed safely down the other half and their footmarks will not
spoil the appearance of wet floors.
 If the corridor or staircases is a long one ,divide it into sections and clean one half of
each section first
 Start at the highest point of each stair landing and work down paying attention to the
skirting board and the wall hangings

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 The cleaning of staircases
Stairs may be closed carpeted, or the carpet may only cover about two –thirds of the
stair, in which case there are two surfaces to clean .By using suitable attachments to a
vacuum cleaner the two surfaces and skirting board may be cleaned together.
Uncarpeted stairs should be swept daily and cleaned and /or scrubbed according to
the material, when necessary .If a staircase has to be cleaned, while people are using
it, then, provided that it is wide enough, half should be done at a time, enabling the
people to walk up and down on the dry part of the staircase.
It should be remembered that where the side of any staircase is open, dust and dirt
may fall through, therefore when sweeping the dust and dirt should be swept towards
the wall on each stair.
All bannisters and handrails should be dusted before vacuum cleaning, or after
sweeping, and washed or polished occasionally according to material.
Stair rods of brass or polished wood may be still used but nowadays the stair carpet
may be held firmly in position by the use of the ‘tackles gripper’ which eliminates
the use of rods and makes cleaning much easier.

Cleaning Lifts
In hotel, cleaning of the lifts is rarely the concern of the housekeeping staff but is
usually done by the uniformed staff.
The call button panel and outside lift doors should be damp-dusted as part of the
corridor cleaning programmed .Check that no finger marks remains.
The door track at each floor should also be suction –cleaned to remove rubbish and
cigarette ends which have collected in it. Call the lift, and then turn it off with the
doors open.

1. Place a notice on each floor to warn anyone wishing to call the lift that it is
out of service for cleaning.
2. Turn off the lift using the control key
3. Remove any rubbish and empty ashtrays
4. Damp-dust the control panel ,any pictures ,mirrors ,display cases and the
walls of the lift (unless they are upholstered or carpeted)
5. Suction –clean the floor (and the walls if they are carpeted).Damp –mop
hard floors.
6. Close the lift doors and damp-dust the inside of the doors.
7. Return the lift to service and remove the notices.

PRINCIPLES OF CLEANING

The order of the cleaning tasks carried out should reflect the following:

 The job should be completed as quickly as possible, with the minimum amount of
effort. So, for example, the items to be carried in and out of the bedroom on each
journey may be specified: ‘take the rubbish out, return with the clean linen’.
 Methods should be standardized as far as possible, to establish uniformity and
consistency.
 The varieties of equipment and materials required in the establishment should be kept
to the minimum to help keep down maintenance and supplies costs.

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  Any tasks that will cause dust, for example, stripping the bed should be completed
first, and soiled items and rubbish which may carry bacteria removed.
 When cleaning, start with the cleaner areas: if they are cleaned first and the dirtiest
last, then dirt is less likely to be transferred from dirty to clean areas.

WHEN TO CLEAN
The frequency of cleaning, both routine and periodic, depends on three interrelated factors:

1. The amount of soil that builds up

This will depend on the type of usage (for example, washing in the bathroom, food preparation in kitchens) and
frequency of usage (for example, busy corridors and entrance halls). It will also depend on the age, condition
and design of the various areas and location of the building. If it is in an industrial area, the atmosphere is likely
to be polluted and by the sea it is likely to be salty.

2. The required standard of cleanliness

Special areas such as bathrooms, toilets kitchens, operating theatres and intensive care units will
require a very high standard of cleanliness (referred to as clinical standard) Five- star hotels will aim
for higher standards of cleanliness than economy tourist hotels. Corridors and administration offices
will not require such high standards as wards and bedrooms.

3. The cost of cleaning

Almost every type of accommodation establishment has to operate within certain budgets and so the
staffing, equipment and material allocated to cleaning will be limited.
Normally it is only the proprietors or the senior management of the establishment that can decide the
balance of priorities. They will set the standards of cleanliness which will reflect the customers’
expectations, ensure hygiene and safe conditions, help prolong the life of decorations and furnishings,
and keep with the financial resources.
It is usual practice, for management to specify how often a task is carried out, by stating, for example ,
whether it is daily, weekly, monthly, three- monthly, six-monthly or annual task
There may be occasions when it may be necessary to vary the frequency of cleaning, for example if a
room has had extra- heavy usage or it has been raining a great deal and more soil than has been carried
into the building on shoes.
Sometimes, however, a task can be carried out too often, to the detriment of the item being cleaned, For
example, if furniture is polished too often, the surface may become sticky and attract excessive dust.
Money has to be wasted through using too much polish and the time might have been spent to better
purpose cleaning something else.

3. Sanitary areas
Toilets
There is a right way to begin cleaning a toilet. The right way prevents the spread of bacteria and viruses. The
right way of cleaning a toilet also saves time and energy.

Remove everything from around the toilet.

Cleaning the toilet is a messy job, and there's always the chance of splashing cleanser or toilet water outside of
the actual toilet. Prevent extra cleanup by removing all excess items from around the toilet. Don't forget to
remove anything on top of the tank to prevent dropping items into the bowl during cleaning.

Flush and add cleaning solution.

Flush the toilet with the lid down to prevent splashing or spraying. Add your choice of powdered, liquid, or gel
cleanser to the bowl. Try to apply the cleaner as close to the toilet rim as possible to prevent diluted cleanser.

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Clean the exterior of the toilet.
While the cleansing solution soaks into the toilet grime in the bowl, clean the outside of the toilet. Start at the
top to prevent dripping on already clean surfaces. Spray the tank, handle, and tank edges with cleaner and wipe
down. Next do the outside lid of the toilet. Finally wipe down the entire bowl. Start with the sides and front
before cleaning the bottom edges of the toilet where it meets the floor.

Clean the toilet seat.

The toilet seat should never be neglected. It is the part of the toilet that comes into actual contact with people,
and it needs to be cleaned thoroughly. Raise the seat. Spray the seat, inside lid and the rim of the toilet with
cleanser. Wipe down the lid, seat, and hinges at the back of the toilet seat. Some toilets have hinges that will pop
open to allow better access for cleaning.

Clean the inside of the toilet bowl.

Begin cleaning the bowl from the top down. Always begin scrubbing under the rim first. Look under the rim to
get all the stains and grime scrubbed away. Next scrub the bowl. Finally scrub the hole at the bottom of the
toilet. Flush the toilet with the lid down.

Wipe up any drips or spills.

Wipe up any drips of cleanser or water that may have occurred. Put away tools and trash. Replace the items
removed in step 1. Enjoy a clean toilet.

Tips:
Wear eye protection when cleaning a toilet. It prevents splatters of toilet water and cleaner. You may also want
to use gloves to prevent contact with your hands.
Flush the toilet with the seat lid down to prevent splattering and splashing.
Do not use sponges when you scrub a toilet. Sponges are a great way to breed bacteria, and there are already
enough in bathroom. Paper towels are a great options because they are thrown away. If you use reusable cloths,
wash them immediately in their own load on hot water with bleach.

Bathrooms
Bathrooms get dirty very easily and can require a great effort to clean up. The following tips will guide you
through how to clean your bathroom in the most effective way.
Firstly, remove any bathmats, towels and body care products out of the area to avoid damage by the cleaning
products used. It's very important for you to wear protective gloves, a mask and apron as some chemical is very
harmful to your body as well as your clothes, particularly mould killers and bleach.
Start cleaning from shower room. Spray mold-killer on the tile wall and shower glass before you scrub the
whole surface with sponge. Do not use too hard scrubbing material as it may leave some mark on the tile wall
and shower glass. Make sure you also scrub the soap holder, shower hose and its holder as well. Then pour
bathroom floor cleaner all over the floor and scrub the area with a brush.
Then it's time to clean the hand basin. rub cleaning cream all over the basin and tap, use a small toothbrush to
brush around the base of the tap and any hard to reach areas. Leave the cleaning cream on the basin while you
move to the toilet bowl. Put toilet bowl liquid all around the bowl and spray the outside surface with some
disinfectant.
Next is the bathtub. Rub the cleaning cream all over the bathtub and the tap as well. If there's a soap holder
nearby. Make sure you also scrub it thoroughly as well.
Now it's time to wash the cleaning products off all of the areas. For the shower room, it can be easier just run the
shower hose and rinse the whole area. With the hand-basin, use a soaking small piece of towel help you wash
the chemical away. You can do the same thing for the bath tub - rinse the major area with a bucket of water and
use an old soaking towel on the edge of the tub as you may not want get too much water on the floor. Dry the
edge and outside area of the tub with a piece of cloth.
Use the toilet brush and brush all around the toilet bowl and inside before you flush it away. Then get a piece of
dry cloth to wipe the toilet bowl surface dry and clean.
To clean the mirror and shower glass, spray glass cleaner on the mirror and/or shower glass, scrub the surface
with a window cleaner wiper or a sponge. To wipe the surface dry & clear, scrape the rubber side of the window
wiper down the surface by holding it 45 degree against the surface. Wipe the rubber side dry with a piece of

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cloth before you start another round of surface scraping. For the perfect touch-up, rub a piece of soft dry cloth
on the surface again. You can also use a piece of newspaper as it has some chemical in the printing ink that
will bring brightness to the mirror and glass surface. However, please be aware that newspaper will leave a
black stain on your hand. Make sure you wear protective gloves to avoid getting black stains on your hands that
you could then leave elsewhere.
After finishing with the mirror and shower glass, wipe the vanity top & tidy up. Use multi-purpose cleaner or a
disinfected spray on the surface before you wipe it dry and clean. Use another piece of cloth to wipe the tap and
basin to produce a nice shine.
Distill floor cleaner liquid into a bucket of hot water at an appropriate measurement and mop the floor all over.
Use a piece of dry cloth to wipe the floor dry if you prefer your bathroom floor to be dry and ready immediately.
Lastly, fold the end of the toilet paper into triangle shape for the perfect presentation. This is also a subtle sign
that you have been there and cleaned the room.
4. Cleaning a sickroom
Before beginning to clean the room, collect all your equipment and materials and place them near the door on
the outside.
The worker should protect himself with an overall or a dust coat, preferably, one who has been immunized
against the disease.

Making the patient’s bed

If the patient is very weak, the bed can be made while he is still lying in it. If the patient is able to sit up, he can
be placed on a chair on one side of the room, but must be warmly dressed.
If it is a daily routine, straighten out the sheets under the patient, tucking in the ends well.
Straighten out the top sheet and then the blankets, turning them back just below the chin of the patient and
tucking in the sides.
When changing the sheets while the patient is in bed, first remove the ends of the bottom sheet from under the
mattress and fold back the sheet lengthwise, till it is in line with the patient’s body
With the right side of the clean sheet uppermost, place the sheet neatly up to the fold of the old one. Tuck in the
bottom and the top parts that are clear and make mitred corners on the top corners.
Tuck in the one side, smoothening out the sheet.
Gently roll the patient to part of the bed with the clean sheet while still covered with the top sheet.
Move to the other side of the bed and pull out the old sheet. Straighten the clean one out, tucking in the other
ends.
Roll the patient back to the middle of the bed and place the clean top sheet over him with enough to fold back
but all gathered just below the chin.
Gently pull out the old top sheet and tuck in the new one neatly.
Place blankets gently and neatly, ensuring that none covers the head of the patient.
Finally, fold back the sheet and blankets neatly below the chin and tuck in well. The bed cover should be folded
back to the bottom of the bed and left as a neat panel.

Procedure for cleaning the room

After making the bed, the room should be cleaned quickly and quietly.
Throughout the cleaning process, effort should be made not to raise any dust that may make the patient
uncomfortable. Avoid draught caused by the windows and doors open at the same time.
1. Use disinfected warm water in a bucket or basin and a clean floor mop
2. Wipe the floor systematically towards the door, picking up as much dirt as possible with the mop. If the
mop is not available, a floor cloth can be used.
3. Use clean disinfected water and a soft cloth for damp dusting the rest of the surfaces in the room
4. Wring out the water from the cloth and wipe carefully and methodically like for dry dusting.
5. Polish surfaces such as the furniture.
6. Tidy the room and articles used by the patient.
7. Provide a small attractive arrangement of flowers to make the surroundings more pleasant
8. Place the little things required by the patient close by for convenience e.g. books, play things, magazines,
etc.
9. Place a container of clean drinking water with a cover on a small tray.
10. A basin with clean disinfected water should be placed on a stool or stand near the door for washing hands
by the person who is attending to the patient. A mild household disinfectant or antiseptic will do for this
purpose, as well as a hand towel and soap.

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Unit Task 2: Factors to consider in selection of cleaning methods
 Type of surface
 Degree of soiling
 Type of equipment available
 Manpower available
 Time available to clean
 Type of cleaning, e.g. daily or weekly

Unit Task 3: Plan of work

The following is a sample plan of work for cleaning a guest room.

Contents
 Previous preparation
 Work to be covered
 List of equipment and materials and list of others
 Actual plan of work/order of work and timing

Previous preparation activities

 Collect cleaning equipment and materials
 Set up work centre
 Remove excess furniture from the room
 Open windows for ventilation
 Strip and air the beddings
 Erect cleaning and warning signs
 Identify cleaning areas
 Change into housekeeping uniform
 Writing a plan of work

Work to be covered
 Carry out previous preparation activities
 Make the beds
 Sweep the room
 Low dusting of the surfaces
 Damp dusting of the surfaces
 Mopping/Scrubbing the floor
 Tidying the room
 Cleaning equipment, wiping material containers and setting them up for final checking

List of equipment and materials

Equipment Number
Brooms 1
Mops 3
Mop buckets 3
Dust pan 1
Dust Pan brush 1
Buckets 2
Cleaning cloths 4
Yellow dusters 1
Basins 3

Materials Quantities
Warm water Enough
Cold water Enough
Detergent 200ml

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 Others
Newspapers
Masking tape
Labels
Cleaning/Warning signs

Actual Plan of Work

Time Activity
8.00-9.00 Carry out previous preparation activities
9.00-9.15 Make the bed by turning the mattress to give it even wear.
Place the bottom blanket and bottom sheet right side up and mitre
the corners
Place the top sheet and top blanket wrong side up and mitre the
lower corner
Turn down the top beddings to leave a space of about 60cm for the
pillow
Place the pillow in position
Place the bed cover to cover the beddings and leave the sides loose
for easy turn down
Place newspapers or old sheet to protect the bed from dust during
cleaning

9.15-9.25 Sweep the room using a long handled broom with short even strokes
from the furthest corner towards the exit.
Collect dust and dispose appropriately

9.25-9.40 Dry dust all the horizontal surfaces using a yellow duster folded into
a pad, starting from high to low areas, using the L-stroke motion
portion by portion

9.40-9.55 Damp dust the dry dusted surfaces using a cloth wrung from clean
water or water with little detergent, followed by drying with a dry
cloth

9.55-10.05 Mop the floor using a mop wrung from warm soapy water using the
figure 8 motion, portion by portion, followed by a thorough rinsing
and drying
10.05-10.15 Rearrange the room and leave it ready for use
10.15-10.30 Clean and dry the equipment used, wipe material containers and set
them up in readiness for final checking

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Cleaning materials and equipment
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.09 INTERIOR DECORATION

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms in interior decoration
b) discuss the principles of interior decoration

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 c) explain the function of plants and flowers in interior decoration

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definitions of terms of interior decoration

Interior decoration
Interior decoration is the art of decorating a room so that it is attractive, easy to use, and functions well with the
existing architecture. The goal of interior decoration is to provide a certain "feel" for the room; it encompasses
applying wallpaper, painting walls and other surfaces, choosing furniture and fittings, such as light fixtures, and
providing other decorations for the area such as paintings and sculptures. Interior decorating is done
professionally by interior decorators. It is considered a design field.
There is a distinct difference between interior decorating and interior design. Interior decorating is generally
focused on finishes, such as wallpaper, paint, window coverings, and furnishings. Interior design involves
manipulating the architectural integrity of the interior space as well as the creation of a lifestyle experience
through the study of environmental psychology.

Unit Task 2: Principles of Interior decoration

PROPORTION and SCALE

Proportion is about the relationships of one object to another, and how they look when placed near each other.
Some items of furniture, or paintings look good next to each other, and some don't. The reason why some rooms
"feel right" is often because some simple guidelines about proportions were used.

HARMONY - The overall result

A well-decorated room is a unified whole that encompasses all the other elements and principles of design. Put
yourself in a visitors shoes and try and decide whether they would feel relaxed and at home in your room. This
is the ultimate goal.
There should be a consistency of sizes and shapes, and a harmony of color and pattern. The feel of a room will
be right, if it reflects unity, harmony and a sense of rhythm. Repeating the elements, and balancing them
throughout the room, accomplishes this.

EMPHASIS - A Focal Point

Emphasis is the focal point of the room. The focal point should be obvious as you enter the room; it is the area
to which your eye is attracted. Without a focal point a room will appear disorganised or maybe even too busy.
Examples may be a fireplace, a window with a beautiful view, a large brass bed, a piano, or an entertainment
area. Whatever is featured, as the center of interest, must be sufficiently emphasized so that everything else
leads the eye toward the featured area. You can add emphasis to a natural focal point or create one in a room
through effective use of line, form, color and texture.

RHYTHM
This is about pulling a room together by using color, pattern, shape or motif. It is the visual equivalent of the
beat associated with music. Rhythm is the important quality that results in the feeling of harmony. It helps your
eye move easily about the room, and give the impression that everything in the room belongs to a unified whole.
Planning in advance is the key here.

A THEME AND A PLAN

These are the two most important things in decorating a room or your home. It applies whether you are starting
from scratch, or doing a makeover. If you don't have a co-ordinated plan, the end result will reflect an unplanned
look.
Balance is about giving a room a visual equilibrium. It gives a sense of repose and a feeling of completion.

Symmetrical balance
Nature gives us symmetrical balance in abundance. We have two arms, two, legs, two eyes, and so on. In
decorating, this refers to arrangements where the majority of the objects within the grouping are placed in even
patterns about a focal point. When you draw an imaginary line down the center of a symmetrical grouping, each
side mirrors the other.
This is the balance that comes more naturally to us, the grouping of things in pairs. There are some "built in"
examples of symmetrical balance which we accept as normal. For example, a window has a pair of curtains.
Two ornaments on a mantlepiece, or a pair of wall lamps on either side of a display cabinet, are both examples
of symmetrical balance. This type of balance is regarded as more formal and conservative.

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It is quite in order to have a different theme in different rooms, but within one room, the aim is that the interior
decor should look as if it were part of an overall harmonious plan. A room should project a relaxed atmosphere,
and make your visitors feel at ease, and at home.

Asymmetrical balance
This is more interesting to the eye. However, asymmetrical groupings must still appear to be balanced. If we
were to draw an imaginary line through the middle of the group, each side must be of similar size, even though
the sides are not mirror images of the other. An example would be a console table with a floral arrangement on
one end, and a grouping of candlesticks on the other.
SCALE is how the size of the items in a room relates to the size of the room. A lot of home decorating is
common sense when it comes to Proportion and Scale.
For instance a grand piano would be out of scale in a small sitting room. A delicate side table with spindly legs
would be out of proportion, if it were placed next to a large chunky sofa.
Large heavy pieces of furniture should not be grouped together on the same wall, as this will give the room a
'lop-sided' appearance. Give a room more balance by spacing larger items of furniture. If you have two large
items of furniture, try placing them opposite each other. This will appear to have more balance, than placing
them in random positions.

Balance is about the placing of objects according to their visual weight.

Here's an example of common sense, but it does illustrate a proportion rule. Say you have a painting, but it is
narrow and must be hung vertically.
It will look out of proportion hung above the sofa. Rather hang another painting which has the correct
dimensions in relation to the sofa, as the drawing on the right illustrates. If you have quite a number of items,
don't fall into the trap that you have to find a place for everything. Your room may look cluttered, and have an
uncoordinated feel.

Rhythm - repetition
Perhaps this is best illustrated by some examples.
Color repetition. Cover a few scatter cushions for your sofa in the same material as your curtains. Or pick the
dominant colour from your curtains, and cover some scatter cushions in material of the same color.
Shape repetition. If your windows were to have an arched top, then this shape can be repeated by incorporating
round back chairs in your room.

You can achieve a feeling of harmony in rhythm, by "echoing" a color, pattern or shape in another part of a
room. Using the same or recognizably similar table lamps and shades in different parts of a room, will probably
look better than two totally different lamps.

Rhythm - graduation
This is also known as Progressive Rhythm. It is about using the same object in different sizes. Some examples
might be the use of different sizes of framed mirrors, pictures or candlesticks. You may also use graduation in
colour, by using two colours of the same hue.

HANGING AND GROUPING PICTURES

The rule used to be that the center of the picture should be at the "nose" height of a standing person.
A more modern guideline is that pictures can be hung lower than that - about 5cm (2 inches) above a table, for
example.
When you group pictures, hang them at least two inches apart so the eye can take in each separate object, and
can see that there is a grouping at the same time.

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Unit Task 3: Functions of plants and flowers in interior decorations

Interior Decorating with Houseplants

Plants bring movement and life to every room in your home. However, you will be pleased by the
whole picture only if there is harmony in the arrangement and color of the plants you have chosen. Once
you have learned how to take these things into account when choosing your indoor plants, you can let
your taste and imagination plan the plant decor you have living in your home.
The larger the room you are working with, the bigger and more numerous the plants can be. Let’s face it, a
single small green plant looks lost in a large empty space. Several flowering plants in a basket or arranged in
small pots on the same table can serve as a beautifully colorful accent to a room. Treelike plants have great
importance in the sense of decorating. Large-leafed species like dracaena, philodendron or the banyan tree
(Ficus benghalensis) can really fill up a sparsely furnished room or entrance hall and leave their mark.
In a small room, large plants are oppressive and take up way too much space. To get the best effect, you should
choose mid-size or small plants with large delicate leaves. Put the plants where they are going to be visible.
Don’t put too many plants in a small space or it will get too crowded and your individual plants won’t make
their full impact on the room.
Plants always look best against simple backgrounds. If they have large foliage they should be placed in front of
wallpaper with a small pattern. Large patterned wallpaper calls out for filigreed leaves or ferns. Even the
umbrella sedge (Cyperus) would work for that. Wood-paneled walls like climbing plants arranged on a wood
or bamboo support. These also look great by brightly painted walls.
Make sure your decorative scheme takes into account the way light enters your room. If you put the plants in
front of a bright, sunny wall, their shadows can create interesting and unusual patterns on the wall or ceiling or
even plain carpeting.
Make sure the colors of leaves and flowers you choose don’t clash with your decor. You don’t want to take
expensive furnishings and wall coverings and reduce them by the wrong colored flowers in your pots. Place
your plants by each other where they can compliment each other. Put larger plants in the background of smaller
plant groupings. A little bit of ivy (Hedera helix) growing over the edge of a pretty bowl looks nicely casual.
Not only do plants affect your decorating sense and help you pretty up your home, they all have some sort of
way of improving your room climate. Abutilon hybrids, Aphelandra, Asplenium nidus, Cissus rhombifolia,
Cyperus papyrus, Fatsia japonica, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Musa oriana, Nephrolepis exaltata, Pandanus veitchii,
Rhododenron-simsii hybrids, Schefflera and Sparmannia africana all increase the humidity in your home.
Some plants reduce the chemicals in the air. Aglaonema, Aloe barbadensis, Aphelandra, Asplenium nidus,
Chamaedorea, Chrysanthemum morifolum, Dracaena, Epipremnum pinnatum, Ficus benjamina, Gerbera
jamesonil, Hedera helix, Musa oriana, Philodendron, Sanseveria trifasciata, and Spathiphyllum all reduce things
like benzol, TCE, and formaldehyde.
Different furnishing styles take on different plants. It’s important that you put the right plants into your decor
to “complete the picture”. Yucca, Schefflera and rubber trees (Ficus) fit in well with wooden furniture.
Flowering plants look great with a country style decor. Bulbs and primulas in the spring and special geraniums
in the summer work great here. If you like the straight or gently curved forms of steel, glass, marble and
varnished wood, things like the snake plant (Sansevieria trifasciata), Swiss cheese plant (Monstera deliciosa),
Dracaena and Guzmania work wonderfully.
Plants with simple gently curving lines work in art nouveau and art deco settings. The flamingo flower
(Anthurium) and peace lily (Spathphyllum) are perfect. Furniture made of bamboo and rattan and oriental style
shapes are perfect for exotic hanging plants like string of pearls (Senecio royleyanus) or wax plant (Hoya).
Traditional English or French styles go well with bushy, vigorously flowering plants like the cyclamen,
carnellias, gloxinias (Sinningia hybrids) or begonias.
All you have to do is play around creatively with plants and figure out what enhances your style. It’s really not
that hard. Once you start placing plants, you will know what goes with what and what doesn’t.
.
How to maintain Silk flowers?
Silk Flowers are a good investment. They add beauty to a room and make it look prettier. They last way longer
than natural flowers and are extremely low maintenance. However, they do need to be cleaned at regular

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 intervals to make them look cheery and last longer. While purchasing silk flower arrangements, be sure to select
an item pre-treated for dust-resistance to minimize maintenance effort.
Here are some ways in which you can take care of artificial flowers in your house:
 Clean the flowers every 1-2 months, so that they do not need a thorough cleaning after 3-6 months.
 Never clean silk flowers with hair spray. It may do more harm to your arrangement than help clean it.
 Commercial spray cleaners exist, in both aerosol and pump varieties. You can get them at craft stores.
It is not suggested that you blow your silk flower arrangements with a compressor blower, a hairdryer, or
even an aerosol can as that will only send the dust and dirt in a hundred other directions, and it can also
disrupt the shape and arrangement of your flowers.
There are some other methods by which you can clean silk flowers. Here are a few ...
Cleaning with Rice or Salt
You can clean an artificial flower bouquet by putting it in a paper bag along with handful of rice grains. Put the
flowers in head first and shake vigorously. In just a few minutes, your arrangement will be sparkly clean.
After fluffing the bouquet, make sure all the flowers are in the right position. Using the back of your hand
lightly push the flowers back into position, to plump up the bouquet.
You can also substitute rice with salt to the same effect. Just remember to dust of the salt properly.
All the best!
Do's and Don’ts in an arrangement
Do's
 DO use inexpensive, in season flowers..
 Do match the body of the container/vase to the body of the flower..
 Do give the arrangement a correct position in the house..
 Do give flower food according to the type of the flower..
Eg., Rounded gerberas fits best in round rather than square vases. Pretty Peonies, fragrant sweet peas and
scintillating roses look wonderful in pretty vases such as cut glass or delicate ceramics. Buds like lily buds can
stand up but not lily flowers, they ought to sit in the vase. The flowers cannot overflow the vase.
Dont's
 DON'T mix myriad colours..
 DON'T supplement greens just for fun..
 DON'T overwater the arrangements..
Eg., Do not use plenty of colors which emits gaudyness. Just do not fill up the empty place with foliage, but be
meaningful in arranging.
Flowers and arrangements
Flowers are used to make special occasions beautiful. But they can also form an integral part of day-to-day
beautification of the house.
Arranging flowers can be a really fun activity. There are some basic patterns in an arrangement. They include
vertical, horizontal, triangular, crescent, and oval arrangements, S and free-standing arrangements.
The basic raw material used can also vary from one design to another, like 1. line materials, which are the first
pieces placed in a design to establish the overall width and height. 2. Dominant flowers which can be flowers,
such as lilies, irises or peonies. 3. Filler flowers or mass flowers, placed in between the dominant flowers, such
as moss or vines.
Tape, clay, and floral wire, floral tape covers wire and flower stems, Clay anchors foam, Wire supports flower
heads help in completing an arrangement.
A suitable vase is also important. It need not be expensive but simple and elegant will do.
Decorating a Living Room
Bright flowers in yellow best suit a living room, as yellow color is associated with the sun, the source of life and
warmth. Sunflower, Daisies, Gerberas etc. add cheer to a living room space. Anthuriums symbolize hospitality,

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happiness and abundance and are a lovely flower. A Birds of Paradise flower arrangement looks exotic and adds
a tropical ambience.
A square shaped table can have a circle shaped flower arrangement, whereas if it is a rectangular shaped table, it
an arc shaped flower arrangement would be suitable.A fireplace in a living room, can accommodate 2 mini
topiaries on the mantle, or even a corner of a living room can have a topiary.
Decorating a Bedroom
A bedroom is a very special, personal intimate place. To decorate the same, a lot of factors need to be taken into
consideration, like a person's likes and dislikes in colors, and shapes.
Roses are considered as the symbol of love. Though roses are universally used for almost all occasions, they are
highly preferred for adorning bedrooms. Peonies can also be used as they symbolize a happy life and happy
marriage, good health and prosperity. A dressing table can be adorned with an arc shaped or circle shaped
arrangement, with Roses and Peonies. Mini topiaries on side tables create a romantic atmosphere.
Decorating a Dining room
A dining table can accommodate different types of arrangements, but especially broad based arrangements with
distinct colored shortly arranged flowers are most suitable. A round or a square dining table can have a rounded
flower arrangement while a rectangular table calls for a an arc shaped flower arrangement at the centre.
Decorating a Kitchen
Windowsills can be adorned with lush greens. One can place terra cotta pots on a windowsill planted by
combining herbs and sun loving plants like primroses, African violets and kalanchoe. Even old pitchers, teapots
or clay pots can substitute a proper container in a flower arrangement.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Flowers
- Tools and equipment for flower arrangements
- Linen
- Magazines
- Internet

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.10 FURNISHINGS

Theory

9.1.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainees should be able to:
a) define terms in furnishing
b) state the factors to consider when selecting different furnishings
c) discuss the choice, use and care of different furnishings

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Unit Task 2: Factors to consider in selection of furnishings

Unit Task 3: Use, care and maintenance of:

- furniture
- fittings
- fixtures

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 - soft furnishing

Caring for Your Upholstered Furnishings

Furnishings turn rooms into a comfortable home. Proper care will also keep your furnishings looking
good while they add enjoyment to your home. Although families with young children and houses pets
often have extra work to maintain upholstered furnishings in particular, prudent care is worth the effort.
It is also worthwhile to note that it may be fairly simple to avoid some types of damage to upholstered
furniture. To reduce fabric fadin, for instance, avoid letting full sun shine on textiles. Control the light
with shades, blinds, or draperies. In addition, stashing a few paper towels or a small terry towel
underneath seat cushions will give you a quick way to deal with spills.
Vacuuming
Frequent vacuuming is the best way to clean and maintain upholstery. Vacuuming helps prevent dust,
dirt, and stains from embedding in the fibers of upholstered pieces and keeps them looking new.
Here are a few quick tips on vacuuming:

 Check for loose buttons and threads, weak spots in the fabric, or debris that could clog the
vacuum.
 Clip threads and repair or tighten buttons before vacuuming.
 Use the soft brush attachment on the vacuum. Be sure to keep it clean and free of oily residue.
Or, buy two of these attachments and label one for use only with upholstery.
 Use a crevice tool for corners and tight spots.

Deep Cleaning

 Important Tip: Read and carefully follow the furniture manufacturer's and cleaner label
directions before applying any product to upholstery.
 Deep-clean upholstered furniture every year or two, depending on the use, color, and pattern.
Commercial cleaning, do-it-yourself cleaning, and foam cleaners all work.
 Do not soak the fabric or furniture structure with upholstery cleaners.

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  Remove all soap residue to avoid attracting dirt to the clean upholstery.
 Use a cleaning product that contains a soil retardant to prevent future staining. If in doubt,
check label directions or consult a professional cleaner about soil retardants.
 If frequent soiling is a problem, use a spray-silicon soil retardant to prevent dirt and stains
from setting. If your fabric was treated at the time of manufacture or purchase (with a finish
such as Teflon or Scotchgard), it is important that you use compatible products whenever
cleaning the piece.
 See spot cleaning tips on the following page.

Spot Cleaning

 Spills are inevitable, especially when there are children in the house. Look at furniture labels
for care instructions or keep printed instructions in a household notebook.
 Always test your cleaning method first on an inconspicuous spot. If a ring remains around
the stain after cleaning, you'll need to deep clean the entire cushion or chair.
 Gently blot spills -- don't rub -- as quickly as possible with a white towel or paper towel.
Don't use colored towels or printed paper towels because they may transfer dye or ink to the
upholstery.
 If a large amount is spilled, remove as much as possible with clean toweling, a scraper, or
spoon; blot up the rest, then treat the remaining stain.
 It's generally best to remove slipcovers to spot-clean, to make sure the upholstery underneath
is not affected. Or, place a clean folded towel under the slipcover to protect the upholstery
while you work on spot-cleaning the slipcover. >

Removing Pet Hair

 Use a clothes brush with either a bristle head or napped fabric head to collect pet hair.
 Use a clothes lint remover with a refillable sticky tape to pick up pet hair. Or look for a similar
brush sold in pet stores.
 In a pinch, wrap masking tape around your hand, sticky side out, to pick up loose hair and
fuzz.

Choosing Fabrics

Cotton fabrics are commonly used for upholstery, however their durability depends on the weave and
finish. If a cotton fabric has been pre-washed (as is often the case with slipcovers), then it should be
fine to clean with soap and water, however, it is always wise to check the manufacturer's
recommended cleaning method. Cotton fabrics will fade in direct sunlight.

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 Cotton Blends can be a sturdy, family-friendly product. A stain-resistant finish should be applied for
everyday use.
Canvas can be a good choice for family rooms because it is especially durable. The flat surface shows
grime and holds dirt particles, however, so frequent vacuuming is a must. Pre-washing before
fabrication can make it easy to pop smaller canvas slipcovers into the washing machine for cleaning.
Damask weaves are formal. They should be brushed and vacuumed gently to avoid breaking threads.
Linen is best suited for formal living rooms or adult areas. Have soiled pieces professionally cleaned.
Keep linen out of direct exposure to sunlight whenever possible.
Microfibers are a new addition to home furnishings. Offering a soft hand and a vast color range, they
also resist most stains and can easily be cleaned with soap and water. This fabric is a good choice for
households with children.
Wools and wool blends are sturdy and durable to use for sofas and chairs. Blends can be spot cleaned
when necessary. Check manufacturer's recommended cleaning method.
Silk is a delicate fabric only suitable for adult areas, such as formal living rooms. It must be
professionally cleaned if soiled. Keep silks out of direct exposure to sunlight whenever possible.
Sunbrella fabrics are being seen both indoors and out. They offer superior resistance to stains and
fading which makes them a good choice for busy families.
Leather furniture should be gently vacuumed and damp wiped as needed, using as little water as
possible. Clean with leather conditioner or saddle soap, buffing thoroughly to remove residue.
Suede can be vacuumed with a soft brush attachment. Use only made-for-suede leather cleaners.
Remove small spots with art gum erasers. Never clean with water.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Furnishings
- Magazines
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Observing
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.11 SECURITY IN HOUSE KEEPING

Theory

9.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term security
b) state the importance of security
c) state the security measures applied in housekeeping

9.1.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) practice security measures during operation
ii) identify and use security devices
iii) keep audit trails

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 UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of security
11. Freedom from risk or danger; safety
12. Measures adopted, as by a business or institution to prevent a crime such as burglary or
assault.

Unit task 2 Importance of Security

 Protection of guests and associates

 Protection of the business
 Protection of the brand
 Investor confidence
 Shareholder value

Unit task 3 Security measures applied against

- pilferage
- forgery
- attacks
- murder
- fire
- accidents

SECURITY IN THE HOTEL

Security

Security is not the prerogative of any one person an establishment; all staff should be Security minded and
report anything of a suspicious nature. Staff should realize the necessity of not giving information regarding
internal matters to such persons as enquiry agents, newspaper reporters, etc.

Most large establishments ,e.g. hotels and hospitals ,have one or more security officers on their staff to prevent
crime and to protect guests and their staff from such dangers as theft, bomb threat ,fire or assault .In smaller
hotels the responsibility fro Security will be the manager’s and in other establishments will be that of the
manager’s equivalent.

A Security officer, often an ex –policeman ,keeps in touch with other Security officers and any information
gained is shared among them .He should have sufficient seniority to command respect from the staff and to
ensure that the necessary measures are carried out .The Security officer moves inconspicuously among the guest
and is responsible for the arrangements regarding:

1. Suspicious persons or behavior;

2. Keys, electronic locks and window locks;
3. Bomb threats, fire precautions and the evacuation of the building if necessary;
4. Inspection tours of the building to check for Security hazards, suspicious objects and to deal with them
accordingly;
5. The number of unlocked entrances and exits;
6. Closed TV for identification of persons entering the building;
7. Searching of staff bags and body searches;
8. Adequate watch on the premises to prevent prostitution;
9. Lost property procedures;
10. Investigation of reports of guests’ loses;
11. Provision of safety deposit boxes in guests’ rooms and ‘peep’ holes in the doors;
12. The safeguard of money when large amounts are being moved from place to place e.g. to and from the
bank.

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The Security officer may or may not also be the safety officer and so may or may not be responsible for safety
precautions.

Good hall porters, by experience, get to recognize people with furtive air or remember those who have given
trouble in the past .Head hall porters in a hotel may belong to an association through which they exchange
information regarding undesirable characters.

Entrance halls of all establishments are vulnerable places .In large places ,hotels, hostels, hospitals etc, there can
at certain times be many people about and thieves and terrorists may take advantage of this ,e.g. picking up
unguarded articles or taking the opportunity of getting further into the building .In small establishments the
entrance hall is often not ‘manned’ and unless the door is locked ,anyone may enter .The time –keeper keeps an
eye on the back door and staff comings and goings, and at times may inspect parcels an cases according to house
custom.

There should be as few unattended doors to the street as possible, and at night all outside doors, except fire
doors which should only operate from the inside, should be locked and late staff should enter by the front door
.Ground floor windows and French windows should have safety catches, and these should be firmly secured at
night.

The housekeeper and her staff are about the building perhaps more than many other staff an dust be aware of the
ways in which they can be Security minded .If a thief wants to get into a room ,he may gain admittance by
telling the maid he has;

1. A repair to carry out;

2. Come to collect the television set or other articles;
3. Flowers to deliver to a certain room;
4. Forgotten his key.

Therefore ,a maid should be instructed to keep a look out for ,and report as soon as possible ,any suspicious
characters and be warned against opening doors for strangers ;when such requests are made she must say that
she cannot unlock the door ,but will fetch the housekeeper who should check the name of the guest with the
reception .Maids should be instructed to lock all doors immediately they are seen and hand them to the
housekeeper who will return them according to house custom.

Keys

Since management has certain responsibilities for the safety of the guests’ belongings, the proper care of keys is
a very important aspect of Security.

Individual heads of departments are responsible for all the keys in their areas and the housekeeper probably has
control of more keys than any other departmental head .In a hotel there are grandmaster, master, sub master and
individual room keys.

Grandmaster key

This key opens all doors and, in addition, double locks them against all other keys;

Overrides the catch put on by the guest for privacy in the room –a precaution necessary in case of an emergency,
e.g. illness or injury;

i. Is used when access to a room has to be prevented, e.g. in the case of death;
ii. Is used when a guest leaves his belongings in his room and goes away for a night or two;
iii. Is used when a guest does not leave his key at the reception and the guest needs to be seen by
the manager for some special reason;
iv. Is held by the Security officer, general manager, duty manager and sometimes by the
housekeeper.

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 Master key

This key opens all rooms in the house,

Is carried by the assistant housekeepers and floor service waiters while on duty, and sometimes by maintenance
staff.

Sub-master Key

This key opens all rooms in a maid’s section;

i. Is signed for at the start of the work;

ii. Is attached to a belt round the maid’s waist and should never leave her person;
iii. Should never be lent to anyone;
iv. Is handed in when the maid goes off duty.
v. Last thing at night, the duty housekeeper checks the return of all keys and locks them away for
the night.

It is generally written into staff terms of contract that the loss of any master key will lead to dismissal of the
employee.

Individual room key

On being shown to a room a guest is given a key with a room number and the name of the hotel on the tag.
Guests are asked to hand in their keys when they go out and the keys are then put on a key-board which should
be out of view of passers-by as another security precaution .A key not on the key-board should indicate that the
guest is in the hotel ;this information can be useful in the case of an emergency.

The mastering of locks is necessary but it should be realized that when locks are mastered a certain amount of
security is lost and great care should be taken in the allocation of keys to responsible persons, emphasizing the
need for the utmost care in their protection and use at all times .It may be possible to zone rooms so that not all
parts of the establishments are in jeopardy should a master key be lost.

Key thefts

The locks in hotels are generally spring operated mortise locks but to overcome the problem of key thefts
,keyless lock systems have been devised .They are expensive but are in use in some hotels .They may be
computerized but there is also a less expensive battery-powered lock system, with an infra-red device which
reads the guests’ cards. A disposable plastic card about the size of a conventional credit card replaces the normal
metal room key. One of these cards is given to each guest on checking in .In the computerized system the card is
coded by perforations at random from a pool of more than four billion potential codes available from a master
computer console at the front desk .The random code is then transmitted electronically to the specific guest’s
room lock an only this particular card can open that room door. When the guest checks out ,the code on that
room is changed and a new guest will receive a new code on his new check –in card; the old card automatically
becomes useless .Similar cards may be coded as master keys fro the maids and housekeepers and changed at
frequent intervals at reception.

Re-keying lock systems may also help to overcome the problem of key thefts and a new system allows the lock
to be changed quickly and easily without having to take the tumbler apart, without removing the lock from the
door and without entering the room .The lock is changed by using a special key which instantly changes the
tumbler.

Lost property

It is general practice that any lost property found in rooms should be handed in to the housekeeper’s office
immediately (or other place according to house custom),and the appropriate details should be entered in a lost
property book, after which the articles should be labeled and will usually be kept for a period of six months

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.Great tact should be exercised in dealing with lost property and it is advocated that guests are not notified of the
articles found in rooms unless they are still in the building .Precautions need to be taken to ensure that articles
are only handed over to the rightful owner and not to any would –be claimant.

Valuables

Hotels have a safe or a safe deposit boxes and notices are displayed asking guests not to leave their valuables in
their rooms but to have them locked away in the safe .Should a maid come into an occupied room and find
valuables left there ,she should inform the housekeeper who will deal with them according to house custom .It
is less likely that guests will leave valuables about when personal safes are provided in their rooms .Peepholes
which allow guests to see who is outside their door are considered standard security equipment in some hotels .

On being admitted to hospital unexpectedly a patient may have valuables or a large sum of money which should
be put into safe keeping .Similarly on the death of a patient there may be articles to be kept until claimed by the
next of kin, so suitable security arrangements need to be made in all places .In some establishments (e.g. college
halls of residence) residents are advised to take out personal insurance against theft.

Other security measures

The housekeeper is responsible for the reporting of faulty window catches etc and at night should ensure that all
French windows and balcony doors are securely locked and that panic bars on fire exit doors are adjusted to
enable no entry from outside. In hotels baby sitters may be arranged by the housekeeper and may be members of
the staff or from an agency and both should have a written permit from the housekeeper authorizing them to be
‘on the floors’; those from an agency will normally collect the permit from the hall porter as they come into the
hotel.

Inventories, stock lists e.t.c. kept by the housekeeper should help in discovering the loss of items, e.g. linen,
cleaning equipment e.t.c through pilfering and as a result investigations should take place. The housekeeper and
her staff should co-operate fully with the security officer over house security regulations. All should realize the
need to refrain from gossiping to outside friends and from giving information regarding internal matters to such
persons as enquiry agents, newspaper reporters e.t.c.

For security reasons the housekeeper selects her staff carefully and prospective new members of staff should be
asked for the names and addresses of one or two persons to whom reference can be made, and testimonials
should not be relied on. In taking up references, it is wise, if possible, to talk on the telephone rather than to
expect former employers to commit themselves on paper

Identifying and using security devices

Keeping audit trails

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Magazines
- Internet
- Security devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Research

Evaluation questions

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1. Explain in detail about lost and found procedure. (10)
2. Explain the role of key control in front office department. (10)
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Electronic key.
(ii) No show.
(iii) House count.
(iv) Master key. (10)

9 .1.12 INTRODUCTION TO FRONT OFFICE

Theory

9 .1.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) describe types of offices
c) describe the layout of front office
d) list the functions of the front office
e) sketch the organisational structure of the front office in different establishments
f) state the qualities of front office personnel
g) state the duties and responsibilities of front office staff

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1: Definition of terms
Front office: Marketing, sales, and service departments that come in direct contact with the customers, and liaise
with the back-office (administrative) departments to maintain a two-way flow of information.
Lobby : 1. A hall, foyer, or waiting room at or near the entrance to a building, such as a hotel .

Hotel Front Offices

The Front Office Department comprise of the Reception, Guest Service Offices, Bell Services, Reservation,
Operators, Executive Club, Health and Recreation Center and Business Center. The purpose of the Front Office
Department is to provide guests assistance with luggage, transportation, information concerning the hotel and
the city, and any other service arrangements needed during their stay.
Employees of the Front Office Department often provide the first and last impression of the hotel to our guests.
It is therefore vitally important that employees display a prompt and courteous attitude to all guests and
demonstrate the excellence in service.
The Front Office Manager who comes under the direct supervision of the Director of Rooms and supervises the
Front Office Department
Important of Front Office Department to the Hotel
.Hospitality, warm welcome
.Often provide first and last impression.
.Often have longest contact with guest.
.Continuity: Long term service, recognition of repeat guests, remember names, guest histories.
.Acquaint guest with hotel.
.Sell hotel food and beverage outlets.
.Upsell: Suggest deluxe and suites.
.Smoother over disgruntled guests.

Unit task 2 Types of offices

Unit task 3 Layout of offices

Unit task 4 Functions of the front office

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The main function of the Front Office is to support and facilitate guest transactions and services.

The FRONT OFFICE is the nerve center of a hotel. Members of the front-office staff welcome the guests,
carry their luggage, help them register, give them their room keys and mail, answer questions about the
activities in the hotel and surrounding area, and finally check them out. In fact, the only direct contact
most guests have with hotel employees, other than in the restaurants, is with members of the front-office
staff.

The front office functions can be divided into five general areas:

1. reception
2. bell service
3. mail and information
4. concierge
5. cashiers and night auditors

Two major departments are represented in this list. The employees staffing the first four areas are in the
rooms department. The fifth is the financial area, where guest charges are accumulated and posted to the
bills, and all cash transactions are consummated. These are all accounting-department functions, and so
the cashiers and night auditors are in that department.

The Front Office function of a Hotel is to act as the public face of the hotel, primarily by greeting hotel
patrons and checking in guests.
It also provides assistance to guests during their stay, completes their accommodation, food and beverage,
accounts and receives payment from guests.
Department is typically composed of
1. Reception
2. Reservation
3. Concierge
4. PBX (phone service system)
5. Telephone
a) Front Office: Sell guestrooms; register guests and design guestrooms
Maintain accurate Provide information  Coordinate guest services guestrooms Maintain guest
account statementsroom statistics, and room key inventories and complete proper financial settlements
Receive and process reservation requests for futureb) Reservation: With technology development, the
Reservationovernight accommodations. Department can, on real time, access the number and types of
rooms available, various room rates, and furnishings, along with the various facilities existing in the hotel
Edgar Dsouza Goa
It also provides assistance to guests during their stay, completes their accommodation, food and beverage
accounts and receives payment from guests.

Unit task 5: Organizational structure

The Front Office is one of the most important departments in a hotel, as it often offers the only contact
between guests and staff. A hotel’s Front Office is where guests are greeted when they arrive, where
they are registered and assigned to a room, and where they check out.
Usually, the telephone operator, other guest communications functions, and the bell staff or those
employees responsible for delivering luggage and messages and attending to special guest requests also
fall under the Front Office umbrella. The reservations department takes and tracks the hotel’s future
bookings. The housekeeping department is responsible for cleaning guest rooms and public spaces.

ORGANIZATION CHART.

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Unit task 6 Qualities of front office personnel
The Front Office personnel should have the following attributes
 A high sense of personal grooming `
 Personal hygiene
 Self confident
 Communication must be correct and clear
 Diplomacy is the greatest attribute required
 Ability to remember names and faces
 Ready smile
 Physical fitness
 Quick decision making ability

Unit task 7 Duties and responsibilities of front office personnel

Duties and responsibilities of a front desk are as follows:

1. To welcome the arriving guests.
2. Providing information service.
3. Receiving and processing reservations
4. Filling of the arrival and departure register.
5. Dealing with complaints and handling them.
6. Communication and coordination with other departments.

Specific Duties:
Receptionist
The front desk receptionist, has to play a very important role vis-a-vis the clients in not only selling
rooms and services but also the image of the hotel as well.
When checking in guests, you should perform these tasks:-
 assign rooms and issue room keys;
 check with the housekeeping departments that rooms are ready for occupation;
 liaise with the bell desk to deliver luggage to the rooms;
 note requests for wake-up calls, transport arrangements and other general enquiries;
 settle guests’ complaints with tack and diplomacy;
 communicate with other departments regarding group and VIP check-ins.

Reservations Clerk
The reservations clerk has to handle and process reservation requests and maintain reservation records.
Main duties:-
 keep a record of guests’ arrivals, day and time of check-in, length of stay, and their special
needs and preferences;

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  liaise with other departments such as housekeeping, restaurants and security, regarding VIP
and group check-ins;
 manage the booking of rooms.

Cashier
The cashier has to maintain accurate account balances for hotel expenses and collect payment from
guests. Hotel expenses include room charges, overseas telephone calls, meals and laundry.
Should be able to:-
 transact foreign exchange, for example, converting foreign currencies and travelers cheques
into local currency;
 settle bill payments and expenses quickly and accurately for guests who are checking out;
 maintain safe deposit boxes.

Practice

9 .1.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify types of offices and their functions
b) identify areas of front office
c) sketch a front office layout
d) draw the front office organisational structure

UNIT TASKS
9 .1.12P 1 Identify types of offices and their functions
9 .1.12P 2 Identify areas of front office
9 .1.12P 3 Sketch front office layout
9 .1.12P 4 Draw front office organisational structure

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Offices
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Front office records
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Evaluation Questions

1. Name the major functional sections of the Front office.
2. List the different categories of staff involved in the reception section of the Front Office
3. Distinguish between the duties of a reservation clerk and a receptionist
4. Explain the duties of a head hall porter

9.1.13 FRONT OFFICE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

Theory

9.1.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify front office equipment and supplies

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 b) state factors to consider when selecting front office equipment and supplies
c) explain the use, care and maintenance of front office equipment and supplies

9.1.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify front office equipment and their components
ii) operate, care and maintain front office equipment
iii) identify types of supplies used in the front office

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Types of front office equipment and supplies

Unit task 2 Factors to consider when selecting front office equipment and supplies

Unit task 3 Use, care and maintenance of front office equipment

Practice

9.1.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify front office equipment and their components
b) operate front office equipment
c) care and maintain front office equipment
d) identify types of supplies used in the front office

UNIT TASKS
9.1.13P 1 Identification of front office equipment and supplies
9.1.13P 2 Operating front office equipment
9.1.13P 3 Care and maintenance front office equipment and supplies
9.1.13P 4 Identify types of supplies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Manuals
- Resource persons
- Office records
- Magazines
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Visits
- Using equipment and supplies
- Role playing
- Report writing

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.14 SECURITY IN FRONT OFFICE OPERATIONS

Theory

9.1.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

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a) identify the role of the front office in the security of premises
b) explain the confidentiality of information in the front office
c) discuss the protection of guests property in an establishment
d) discus ways of minimizing pilferage

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: The role of Front Office in the Security of premises
A security program is most effective when all employees participate in the
hotel's security efforts. Front office staff plays a particularly important role.
Front desk agent, door attendants, bell persons, and parking attendants have the opportunity to
observe all persons entering or departing the premises.
Suspicious activities or circumstances involving a guest or visitor should be reported to the hotel's
security department or a designated staff member.

Several procedures front desk agents should use to protect guests and property have already been
mentioned. For example, front desk agents should never give keys, room numbers, messages, or
mail to anyone requesting them without first requiring appropriate identification. Front office staff
may also inform guest's of personal precautions they may take. For example, front desk agents may
suggest that guests hide and secure any valuables left in their cars.
Bell persons accompanying the guest to a room generally provide instructions on the operation of
in-room equipment. The bell persons may also review any decals or notices in the room relating to
guest security. This should always include emergency evacuation paths and procedures.

Unit task 2: Confidentiality of information at the Front Office

The front desk agent should not announce an arriving guest's room number. Guest's may be further
protected if the front office prohibits staff members from providing guest information to callers or
visitors.
Generally, front desk agent should not mention guest room numbers. People calling guest's at the
hotel should be directly connected to the appropriate guestroom without being informed of the
room number. Conversely, someone asking for a specific room number over the telephone should
never be connected until the caller identifies whom he or she is calling and the hotel employee
verifies the identity of the person in the room requested.
A person inquiring at the front desk about a guest may be asked to use the house phones so that
they connect only to the hotel operator. The caller can then be properly screened to provide
additional security.

Unit Task 3: Protection of guests’ property

The Hotel Proprietors Act states that the hotel management is liable for the safety of guest property
while they are resident. Depositing guest valuables in Safe Deposit boxes is one method of security.
The security of guest clothes and luggage in the guest rooms is also of great importance. Therefore,
a well controlled system of handling guest keys is essential at the Front Office.

Unit Task 4: Ways of minimizing pilferage

 carrying out spot checks
 installing cctvs at the front office
 stock control
 inspection of staff when they check out
 Staff identification

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Office records
- Communication devices
- Internet
- Television

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 Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.15 FRONT OFFICE PROCEDURES

Theory

9.1.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of front office procedures
c) explain front office procedures

9.1.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) perform front office tasks
ii) identify different systems in the front office
iii) carry out simple work study
iv) design front office document

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1: Definitions of terms
Check in
Check-in is the process of announcing your arrival at a hotel
At hotels, Check-in is normally required in order to obtain a room key and provide a credit card
guarantee to cover potential costs such as Room Service for the duration of the stay.

Check out
This is the process of settling one's account in a hotel and leaving

Reservation
This is an agreement to have some accommodation at a hotel held for one's future use

Unit Task 2: Importance of front office procedures

Unit Task 3: Front office procedures

 Advance booking

To complete a booking request, you have to provide the following information on the Hotel
Request Form:
• Your name, email, and contact phone number.
• Guests' names, at least one name per room required.
• Hotel name. (You may simply put in "any one" if you don't have the
name.)
• City and country of the hotel.
• Room category.
• Room type.
• Number of rooms requested.
• Check-in and check-out dates.
 Check in and related issues
Guest checking-in procedure.
- Guests are greeted and welcomed on arrival by the guest relation officer and receptionists
- Guest luggage is taken to the lounge by the porters
- Guests are issued with face towels at the reception lobby

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 - Guests are escorted to the bar lounge by the guest relation officer
- While seated they are issued with welcome drink, requested to register, thereafter issued with
room keys
- Guest officer briefs them about meals time, available hotel facilities and activities
- Guest relation officer wishes them a good stay and introduces them to porters who escort them
to their rooms.

Guest Accounting
A guest account is a record of all financial transactions between the hotel and the guest. Front
Office accounting procedure can be divided into three main phases:
 Creation of accounts
 Maintenance of accounts
 Settlement of accounts

 Security

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Office records
- Internet
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Visits
- Role playing
- Perform front office tasks
- Researching
- Report writing

Suggested Evaluation Method

Define the term reservation.
Explain in detail about types of reservation.
Explain the procedure for basic check-in
activities.
Write short notes on :
(i) Room status.
(ii) Guest history card.
(iii) Credit card.
(iv) Group reservation.
Explain in detail about the duties of
reception department.
Write short notes on the following :
(i) Discrepancy report.
(ii) Skipper.
(iii) Bill to company.
(iv) Late charges
Explain basic check-out procedure.
Draw the neat sketch of ‘C’ form. (10)
Explain briefly about arrival and departure lists

9.1.16 COMMUNICATION

Theory

9.1.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the importance of communication in front office
c) explain forms of communication

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 d) identify communication devices used in front office

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1 Definition of relevant terms

Communication
Communication can be defined as the exchange of information, thought and emotion between
individuals of groups, in other words, communication plays a fundamental role in balancing
individual and organizational objectives.

Unit Task 2 Importance of communication in front office

Unit Task 3 Forms of communication

Unit Task 4 Communication devices in front office

o Telephones- They may be fixed or mobile
o Walkie talkies
o Pagers

Practice
9.1.16P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice communication skills
b) use, care and maintain communication devices

UNIT TASKS
9.1.16P 1 Practice communication skills
9.1.16P 2 Use, care and maintain communication devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role playing
- Practice use of devices
- Browsing
- Researching
- Report writing

Evaluation questions

9.1.17 WORK CONTROL

Theory

9.1.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of work control measures
c) explain measures applied in work control

9.1.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) perform front office tasks within the time allocated

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 ii) practice work control measures in performing front office tasks

UNIT TASKS
9.1.17T 1 Definition of terms
9.1.17T 2 Importance of work control
9.1.17T 3 Control measures in front office procedures
9.1.17T 4 Work control measures

Practice

9.1.17P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) perform front office tasks within the time allocated
b) practice work control measures in performing front office tasks

UNIT TASKS
9.1.17P 1 Perform front office tasks
9.1.17P 2 Practice work control measures

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Manuals
- Resource persons
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Office records
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Using equipment and supplies
- Role playing
- Practice use of devices
- Browsing
- Perform front office tasks
- Researching
- Report writing

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.18 INTRODUCTION TO LAUNDRY

9.1.18 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in laundry
b) outline the scope of the laundry
c) state the importance of laundry
d) describe the layout of a laundry plan
e) explain the factors to consider when planning the laundry layout

UNIT TASKS

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 Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Laundry
This is the process of washing and finishing or articles.

Washing
This is the process of using water, detergent and action in the removal of dirt from articles

Dry cleaning
This is the process of ‘washing’ articles in solvents and absorbents.

Spot cleaning
This is the process of removing dirt from a soiled part of an article. It is also known as local
treatment.

Sponging
This is the treatment given to articles using various laundry agents that happen to be soiled on the
surface.

Finishing
This is the process of removing creases from articles by either ironing or pressing.

Unit Task 2: Scope of laundry

 Valeting
 Pleating
 Carpet cleaning
 Dyeing

Unit Task 3: Importance of laundry

 To preserve the article
 For hygiene reasons
 For aesthetic purposes

Unit Task 4: Laundry plan layout

Unit Task 5: Factors to consider when planning the laundry layout

 Ventilation
 Space
 Drainage
 Lighting

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry room
- Charts
- Text books
- Laundry equipment and tools
- Magazines
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions

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 - Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.19 HYGIENE AND SAFETY

Theory

9.1.19 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain hygiene requirements in the laundry area and linen room
b) explain the importance of safety in the laundry area
c) explain safety measures applied in the laundry area

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1: Hygiene requirements in the laundry area and linen room

Definition of terms

 Hygiene

Hygiene refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health and healthy living.
Hygiene is a concept related to medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices
related to most aspects of living, although it is most often associated with cleanliness and
preventative measures.

 Safety

This is the condition of being safe; freedom from danger, risk, or injury

General Hygiene Practices

 Staff should wear gloves when in contact with any used or worn laundry items, whether obvious
contamination is visible or not.
 Gowns or aprons should be worn whenever it is likely that a staff person’s clothing could come in
contact with laundry.
 The staff should be made aware of the basic principles of personal hygiene to help reduce infection
among staff. To achieve this, the following rules should be observed:
a) Keep fingernails short and clean
b) Wash hands after going to the toilet, sneezing or smoking.
c) Use paper handkerchiefs and dispose of them immediately.
d) Keep cuts and abrasions covered with suitable dressing.
e) Never smoke while working.
f) Wear rubber gloves if skin is sensitive.

Unit task 2: Importance of safety in the laundry area

Unit task 3: Safety measures in the laundry area

1. All cleaning agent containers should be clearly labeled as to their contents and dilution ratios.
2. Stain removal agents should be kept locked in a metal cupboard or box.

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 3. Electrical equipments should be inspected regularly for worn or frayed flexes and damaged plugs.
4. Aerosol containers should be stored away from heat and disposed off with care (not incinerated)
5. Cleaning materials should be stored well and the store kept clean, tidy, well ventilated and locked when not
in use.
6. Staff should be well instructed on any new equipment they are issued.
7. All staff should know the whereabouts of the nearest first aid box
8. Every first aid box should be well supplied with waterproof adhesive tape, scissors, safety pins, antiseptic
cream, eye bath, pain killers, cotton wool, gauze and roller bandage.

Dryer
Your clothes dryer looks safe enough but it can turn into a real killer if you do not watch out. Whether electric
or gas, dryers collect lint, which is highly combustible. Lint buildup--on the inside of the exhaust pipe, where
the pipe connects at the back of the dryer and outside at the vent--also reduces air flow and the drying efficiency
of the appliance. Preventing disaster though is easy.
A simple check out and cleaning of your dryer can often make it safe to use. The first area to clean is the lint
trap. It should be cleaned after every load. Peel lint from the screen and wipe the edges and the trap drawer with
a damp cloth. A shop vacuum is handy for sucking out any lint stuck inside the trap drawer.
Next, unplug the dryer. Check the back, where the exhaust pipe connects to the appliance. The pipe is held in
place by a clip or a steel clamp that can be loosened by pliers or a screwdriver. After removing the pipe, reach
inside the dryer opening to remove as much lint as possible. Again, use a damp cloth to wipe away lint.

Clean the inside of the exhaust pipe, too. Reach in to wipe away any buildup. Replace the exhaust pipe if it is
made of vinyl or foil. Building codes usually prohibit vinyl and foil exhaust pipes, which can ignite and cause
fires. Instead, use flexible metal pipe, which includes snap-lock fittings, and comes in a variety of lengths.
Flexible metal is more durable, too, so it won't puncture or rip. Don't allow dryer exhaust to vent inside your
home or attic; dryer exhaust contains too much humid air and can cause problems with mold and mildew.
Also, don't store flammable materials--paints, solvents, household cleaners and paper--near your dryer. Some
liquids can emit vapors that can ignite.
Further, clean the exterior vent which might entail using a step ladder because some dryers vent upward from
ground-level floors. The cleaning process is similar to the interior, except you might need a screwdriver or
scraper blade to hold the vent flap open. Wipe away as much lint buildup as possible. A shop vacuum can be
used to suck out any excess lint.
And, remove lint and visually inspect the exhaust pipe at least once a year, more often if you use your dryer
twice weekly.

General Laundry Safety

Wherever you install your washer and dryer - whether it's in the basement or another room - make sure you
install a smoke alarm as well. Like all major appliances, your washer and dryer should be properly grounded.
Ensure you have the proper sized fuse or breaker switch installed. Washing means water, of course, and if not
already in place, you should install an outlet with a ground fault circuit interrupter.
If your laundry room shares the basement with the furnace, avoid hanging clothes, or storing laundry products,
such as bleach near the furnace where they can create fire. Water, electrical appliances, tight spaces are all
present dangers to children, so make the laundry room off limits as a play area. Also, the iron should also be
kept out of reach of children - young tots can pull on the cord and pull a heavy iron down on themselves causing
injury. When finished ironing, unplug the iron, and never leave a hot iron unattended.
And, watch your step while carrying laundry, especially if you have to take the stairs. It's better to take two
small loads so you can see where you're going over the top of the laundry basket and avoid tripping. It's also not
a good idea to locate the laundry hamper or basket on the stairs.

Use of fire fighting equipment

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9.1.20 LAUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

9.1.20 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify laundry tools and equipment
b) state factors to consider in the selection of laundry tools and equipment.
c) discuss use, care and maintenance of laundry tools and equipment

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1 Classification of laundry tools and equipment

Laundry equipment can be classified into four different categories
a) washing equipment
b) drying equipment
c) finishing equipment
d) storage equipment

a) Washing equipment

Washing machines
This is a real necessity where a lot of washing is done to save time and energy. There are different types in the
market, ranging from simple washers to fully automatic ones. The cleaning action is either by agitation or
pulsator.
The machines are either top loading or continuous batch machines.

There are a variety of sizes in the market ranging from 45kg to 450kg for industrial machines.

Laundry sinks
This should be located at a height that allows worker to work with the back straight.
They should not be too deep as this leads to waste of water and detergent.

Basins
These are used for hand washing of clothes and articles. They should be large enough to hold the washing water.
Buckets
These are used to store/hold washing water.

b) Drying equipment

Spin drier
It is an equipment used to extract water from articles. It is very gentle to fabrics and extracts about 50% of
moisture from articles.
The machine stops quickly and automatically where the lid is opened.

Tumble dryer
This is used to dry the articles completely. It has three heat settings – low, medium and high. The choice of right
timing is very important to completely dry the articles. The machine consists of a perforated drum through
which hot air blows to dry the articles.

Pegs
These are used to hold articles on the line firmly to prevent them from being blown by the wind

Clothes line
Clothes are hang outdoors on the line to dry. There are different types of materials used to make clothe lines. It
includes metal, nylon and sisal.

c) Finishing equipment

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These include:

Calenders
This is a device used to finish flat articles. It is a real necessity in large establishments where a lot of flat articles
are handled. There are two types of calenders;
-the bed ironer
-the roller ironer

Steam presses/Foamers
These are used to finish dust coats and uniforms. They make use of heated steam which is blown to remove
creases.

Irons
These are used for finishing items with details. These are two types of electric irons in the market:
-Dry iron
-Steam iron
Both are thermostatically controlled

Folding Machines
This machine does not actually fold the laundry, but holds one end of the item to be folded so that he staff can
fold it more easily.

Unit task 2 Factors to consider in the selection of laundry tools and equipment

1.Possible savings on energy and power

Another consideration to keep in mind when it comes to front loading machines is that in most specimen these
appliances are far more energy efficient than their upright machines.
2. Features/Benefits
A decision can be made on a specific model after considering their features and price. The energy saving is a
major advantage because it translates to huge savings on cost over time. Also, front loading washing machines
are preferred not only because of the power savings but because it uses only 60% of water consumption
compared to the older models. Thus, people will be happy to realize a great keep on energy bills after their
research.
3. Popular brands/models
4. Budget.
You need to keep in mind that there are varieties of these types of equipment in a wide spectrum of prices.
Initial cost, running, maintenance and depreciation should be considered.

5. Size

6. Portability

Unit Task 3: Use, care and maintenance of laundry tools and equipment

1. Wash, rinse and dry the equipment and tools thoroughly after use.
2. Use the tools and equipment for the correct purpose.
3. Service the equipment regularly.
4. Plastic tools and equipments should be stored away from heat and direct sunlight.
5. Metal tools and equipment should be stored in a dry place to avoid rusting.

9.1.21 LAUNDRY AGENTS

Theory

9.1.21T Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify laundry agents
c) explain the properties of laundry agents
d) state the factors to consider in selecting laundry agents
e) discuss the preparation, use and storage of laundry agents

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Laundry Agent
This is an active substance that is capable of effectively removing dirt.

Unit Task 2: Classification of laundry agents

Types of laundry agents

Water
The contents of water are determined by their source. Rain water is soft if collected directly before passing
through rocks and soil collecting minerals that harden it. Water is the simplest cleaning agent and some form of
dirt will be dissolved by it.
Water can be classified into hard and soft water. Soft water is the best for laundry work because it lathers easily
and does not stain articles
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling or use of chemicals like borax, ammonia or washing soda.
Permanent hardness can be removed by addition of washing soda or commercial agents like Calgan

Detergents
These are substances used with water for easy removal of dirt. They enhance the wetting of clothes and improve
the emulsification of grease and other dirt by holding it in suspension so that it is not re-deposited back into the
fabric.
Detergents can be classified into two groups - soaps and soapless detergents.

Soaps
These are made from animal fat or vegetable oil and an alkaline substance such as strong caustic soda, water and
salt .They can come in form of powder, flakes ,cake bar or liquid.

Soapless detergents
These are synthetic soaps or syndets. They are manufactured from chemical substances and certain ingredients
added during the manufacture to improve the performance. They are available in form of powder and liquid.

General properties
 should have good wetting power to lower the surface tension of water
 good emulsifying power to break up grease
 good suspending power to prevent re-deposition of the soiling
 must be soluble in cold water
 should be effective in hard water
 should be economical in use
 should rinse easily without leaving streaks or scum
 should be harmless to the user and fabric

Bleaches
They are either natural or chemical substances used on an article to improve their colour, remove stains and
disinfect. These are the most damaging of all laundry agents hence careful use in laundry is very important.
There are two categories;
 oxidizing bleaches
 reducing bleaches

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Fabric conditioners
These have special agents which adhere to the surface of clothes and articles with the following advantages
 they help to revitalize fabrics
 They give fabrics a softer feel
 They reduce the amount of creasing on fabrics
 They reduce the electrostatic effect generated by synthetic fabrics
 They give fabrics a softer feel
 They have a sanitizing effect on baby wear
They are added in the last rinsing water.

Laundry Starch
This is a laundry agent made from natural or synthetic material. They are available in the market in powder,
liquid, and spray form. It is used to;
 Improve the appearance of fabrics
 Restore natural stiffness of fabrics
 Stiffens fabrics
 Gives a glossy finish which prevents the fabric from catching dirt easily

Laundry Blue
Blue is a solid powder produced in form of a cube, block or liquid form. It is mixed with cold water to form a
light blue colour and stirred continuously because if left to stand, the blue settles in the water.
It is used for white cottons, linen and silk fabrics to improve the colour of the fabrics. It has also qualities that
help to hide unpleasant discoloration, but if used too much, will leave a blue stain. Blue is always used in the
final rinse.

Unit task 3: Properties of laundry agents

Unit Task 4: Selection of laundry agents

Unit Task 5: Preparation, use and storage of laundry agents

Preparation of boiling water starch

Requirements
1 heaped teaspoonful of starch powder.
2 teaspoonfuls of cold water.
½ Litre boiling water.

Method:
1. Measure starch in a bowl.
2. Add cold water to the starch and mix with a wooden spoon or a smooth stick till smooth.
3. Add boiling water while stirring all the time to prevent lumps forming.
If there is no appropriate measure for 1/2litre available just pour the boiling water slowly while stirring until
the water changes. The colour change is an indication that the starch grains are cooked and the solution
thickened in the process.
Starch grains absorb moisture to start with, then swell and on coming into contact
with the heat, they burst open thus letting out the granules which mix with water and
consequently form a thick solution.
This process is called gelatinization of starch. In making boiling water starch therefore the water must be
boiling and not just hot to ensure that the starch grains are properly cooked.
4. The solution obtained after the addition of boiling water is referred to as full strength
starch. This too strong and is not suitable for stiffening any article. It requires some
degree of dilution to obtain a suitable strength. Therefore measure this starch solution
using any container and mark the level. Pour into a large bowl or basin.
5. Add the same amount of warm water as the starch solution to dilute. This is referred to 1:1 strength i.e. one
part of starch to an equal part of water. To make 1:2 strength add the same as original amount of water again
to the solution. Continue with this method of diluting until the required strength is obtained which depends on
the article being stiffened.
If the starch is not to be used immediately, leave it covered in 1:1 strength.

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A guide to the use of boiling water starch.
1 part starch to 1 part water (1:1 strength) – too strong for use
1:2 strength – articles made of thin fabrics required very stiff but this strength is hardly used
1:3 strength – articles required very stiff e.g. table mats, aprons, overalls, etc
1:4-5 strength – table linen e.g. napkins, tablecloths, tray cloths, chair backs, etc
1:6-7 strength – curtains
1:8 strength – bed linen and personal garments

Note
The above strengths may be varied depending on the stiffness required, the type and use
of the article to be stiffened. Starch first the articles required to be very stiff, and then continue to dilute as
necessary. Remember however that after each article has been immersed into the solution, the starch becomes
weaker and therefore the amount of water used towards the end may be reduced. After immersing the article in
the starch solution, squeeze the starch into the fabric to ensure even distribution. Then wring the article out and
dry in the normal manner

Cold water starch

This is often referred to as instant starch and is used for articles required to be very stiff, e.g. belts, caps and very
thin muslin articles. It is also suitable for men’s collars and cuffs.

Requirements
2 Tablespoons starch (preferably rice starch)
½ teaspoon borax
1 tablespoon boiling water
½ litre cold water

Method
1. Measure the starch and put in the bowl
2. Dissolve the borax in the boiling water then mix with starch. Stir to mix.
3. Add cold water to the starch, stir well, cover and leave for at least 30 minutes to enable the starch grains to
soften.
4. Stir well before use and then immerse the article and squeeze starch into the mesh of the fabric.
5. Remove and squeeze out the starch. Rub lightly with a cloth to remove starch grains from the surface of the
fabric. Thicker fabrics may be rolled in a cloth for a few minutes before ironing.
6. Iron immediately with a hot clean iron, applying even pressure all through. The heat bursts the already
swollen starch grains and immediately sets it into the fabric. The articles become very stiff and feel like paper.

Preparation and use of laundry blue

1. Make blue solution in a white enamel or plastic container which will show the true colour of the solution.
2. Tie the block of powdered blue in a piece of clean white cloth or blue bag before putting it into the water to
prevent sediment in the solution.
3. Squeeze the blue in water until it is pale blue in colour.
4. Test a small piece of white cloth in the solution before using it in the garment.
5. Rinse garments one at a time; open out the garment, immerse it into the water and see that it is evenly blued.
6. Turn out pockets so that blue does not settle in folds or seams
7. Squeeze out as much moisture as possible
8. Stir the solution well before putting another garment in.
9. To get good results, hang white fabrics out in bright sunshine.

Note
Never rinse coloured garments in blue.
If accidentally is badly blued or over-blued, rinse it in water to which you can also add colourless vinegar.

9.1.22 FIBRES AND FABRICS

9.1.22 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:

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 a) define terms
b) classify textile fibres
c) state the properties of textile fibres
d) discuss the methods of fabric construction
e) explain types of fabric finishes
f) discuss the procedure of laundering fabrics

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definition of Terms

Fibre
This is a slender and greatly elongated substance capable of being spun into yarn
It can also be defined as a natural or synthetic filament that may be spun into yarn, such as cotton or nylon.
A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often referred to as thread or
yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw wool fibres, linen, cotton, or other material on a spinning wheel to
produce long strands.
Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together (felt).
The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms
for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any
material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to any material made through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or
bonding. Cloth refers to a finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose such as covering a bed.

Unit Task 2: Classification of textile fibres

Natural Fibre.
a) Vegetable Origin:
1. Bast Fibres like Jute, Flax, Hemp, Kenaf, Sunn, Urena, and Nettle.
2. Seed & Fruit fibres like Coir, Cotton.
3. Leaf Fibres like Sisal, Manila.

b) Animal Origin:
1. Wool and Hair Fibres,
2. Silk and other filaments.

c) Mineral Origin:
Asbestos

2. Man-made Fibre/ Chemical Fibre/ Artificial Fibre:

a) Natural Polymer Based.

1. Cellulose
2. Cellulose Ester
3. Protein
4. Miscellaneous.

b) Synthetic Polymer Based.

1. Polyamides
2. Polyesters fibres
3. Polyolefins
4. Poly-urethanes
5. Polyvinyl Derivatives like Poly-acrylonitrile (PAN), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyvinylidence
Chloride

Unit Task 3: Properties of textile fibres

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Properties of silk fibres
Silk fibers are smooth, translucent, rod-like filaments with occasional swellings along their length. The raw silk
fiber actually consists of two filaments called fibroin bound by a soluble silk gum called sericin. Fibroin and
sericin are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.

Silk has several important qualities:

(1) It is lower in density than wool, cotton, or rayon.
(2) It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
(3) It is capable of soaking up to 30% of its weight in moisture.
(4) It is extremely strong, with a breaking strength as high as 65,000 psi.
(5) It will stretch to as much as 20% of its length without breaking.
(6) It is thermally stable; it is able to withstand temperatures as high as 284°F (140°C). (7) It becomes smooth,
lustrous, and luxurious when processed.
(8) It is remarkably resilient, and shows excellent wrinkle recovery.

Properties of cotton fibres

Cotton, as a natural cellulosic fiber, has a lot of characteristics, such as;

 Comfortable Soft feel

 It readily absorbs moisture which makes it suitable for clothing
 Absorbs dyes readily and will take a variety of special finishes
 It is not damaged by alkalis
 Machine-washable
 Dry-cleanable
 Stronger when wet than when dry
 It is very hard wearing (durable)even in its finest form.
 Cotton fibres have little resilience therefore fabrics made from them tends to crease badly
 Drapes well
 Easy to handle and sew
 If stored while damp, it is easily attacked by mildew
 It shrinks, unless it has been sanforised
 It rots due to long exposure to sunlight
 It is a good conductor of heat

Production of cotton:
When cotton arrives at a textile mill, several blenders feed cotton into cleaning machines, which mix the cotton,
break it into smaller pieces and remove trash. The cotton is sucked through a pipe into picking machines.
Beaters in these machines strike the cotton repeatedly to knock out dirt and separate lumps of cotton into smaller
pieces.
Cotton then goes to the carding machine, where the fibers are separated. Trash
and short fibers are removed. Some cotton goes through a comber that removes
more short fibers and makes a stronger, more lustrous yarn.
This is followed by spinning processes which do three jobs: draft the cotton, or
reduce it to smaller structures, straighten and parallel the fibers and lastly, put
twist into the yarn. The yarns are then made into cloth by weaving, knitting or
other processes.
After inspectors check the cloth, it is passed through a gas flame that singes the
fuzz off its surface. Boiling the cloth in an alkaline solution removes natural
waxes, coloured substances or discolorations. Then the cloth is bleached in
hypochlorite or peroxide. The cloth may then pass through a machine that prints
designs on it. Cloth intended to be solid-coloured goes through a dye bath.

End Uses of Cotton:

Apparel - Wide range of wearing apparel: blouses, shirts, dresses, children’s wear, active wear, swimwear, suits,
jackets, skirts, pants, sweaters, hosiery, neckwear.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, bedspreads, comforters, sheets, towels, table cloths, table mats, napkins

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Linen fabric characteristics
Linen is one of the oldest textiles sorts in the world which is produced from linen fiber. Linen is an annual and
perennial grasses and sub-shrubs; the stem is vertical up to 150 cm. Linen is stronger and more glossy than
cotton.
 The linen fabric does not turn yellowish, it becomes whiter and gentler after time.
 Linen fibre goes damp and dry very soon, that is why the fabric warms during cold night and cools the
body during hot midday.
 Linen fibres are firm
 The fibres are lustrous
 Linen is strong – it is three times stronger than cotton fabrics.
 Linen fabrics are five times more resistant to rubbing than cotton fabrics.
 Linen fabrics absorb dampness and sweat better than cotton fabrics.
 Acids and alkalis affect linen as they do cotton
 Over-bleaching weakens the fibre
 It takes dyes readily
 It has low resiliency and therefore creases readily unless treated
 Under damp conditions, it is easily attacked by mildew
 It is a good conductor of heat
 It is absorbent
 It is a durable fabric

Wool
Woolen fabric is made from the fleece of sheep.
There are 40 different breeds of sheep in the world producing a rough estimate of 200 types of wool with
varying standards. The major wool producers in the world are Australia, Argentina, China and South Africa.

Production of Wool:
The processing of wool involves four major steps.
First comes shearing, followed by sorting and grading, making yarn and lastly, making fabric. In most parts of
the world, sheep are sheared once a year, in early spring or early summer. The best wool comes from the
shoulders and sides of the sheep.
This is followed by grading and sorting, where workers remove any stained, damaged or inferior wool from
each fleece and sort the rest of the wool according to the quality of the fibers. Wool fibers are judged not only
on the basis of their strength but also by their fineness (diameter), length, crimp (waviness) and colour.
The wool is then scoured with detergents to remove the yolk and such impurities as sand and dust.
After the wool dries, it is carded. The carding process involves passing the wool through rollers that have thin
wire teeth. The teeth untangle the fibers and arrange them into a flat sheet called a web. The web is then formed
into narrow ropes known as silvers.

After carding, the processes used in making yarn vary slightly, depending on the length of the fibers. Carding
length fibers are used to make woolen yarn. Combing length fibers and French combing length fibers are made
into worsted yarn.
- Woolen yarn, which feels soft, has a fuzzy surface and is heavier than worsted. While worsted wool is lighter
and highly twisted, it is also smoother, and is not as bulky, thus making it easier to carry or transport about.
- Making worsted wool requires a greater number of processes, during which the fibers are arranged parallel to
each other. The smoother the hard-surface worsted yarns, the smoother the wool it produces, meaning, less
fuzziness. Fine worsted wool can be used in the making of athletics attire, because it is not as hot as polyester,
and the weave of the fabric allows wool to absorb perspiration, allowing the body to "breathe".

Properties of the wool:

1. It is a bad conductor of heat, therefore can maintain body temperature.
2. The fibres have an inner part or core enclosed in an outer skin which is made up of
several irregular overlapping scales. These are capable of holding pockets of air in
them which act as insulators. They also give the fibre a natural crimp.

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3. It is water-repellant, owing to the natural oil in the fibre.
4. The elasticity and resilience of the fibres make the finished cloth naturally crease
resistant.
5. Wool is non-inflammable. Therefore it is a safe material for children wear.
6. When wet, the fibres become soft and will easily stretch if not carefully handled.
7. Shrinkage is brought about by extremes of temperature, rubbing when wet and by the
use of alkalis.
8. Wool is attacked by moths and insects unless it has been treated.
9. It can also be attacked by mildew, if kept moist and damp.
10.Wool does not wrinkle easily.

Uses:
Wool is used to make sweaters, dresses, coats, suits, jackets, pants and the lining of boots. It can also be made
into blankets and carpets.

Silk
Silk is the fine strong soft lustrous fiber produced by silkworms.

Production of silk:
Silkworms are cultivated and fed with mulberry leaves. Some of these eggs are hatched by artificial means such
as an incubator.
Silkworms that feed on smaller, domestic tree leaves produce the finer silk, while the coarser silk is produced by
silkworms that have fed on oak leaves.
From the time they hatch to the time they start to spin cocoons, they are very carefully tended to. Noise is
believed to affect the process, thus the cultivators try not to startle the silkworms.
Their cocoons are spun from the tops of loose straw. It will be completed in two to three days' time. The
cultivators then gather the cocoons and the chrysalis are killed by heating and drying the cocoons.

Properties of silk:
1. It is very lustrous – has a luxurious appearance
2. It is warm
3. It drapes well
4. It is soft to handle and slippery
5. It is very strong
6. It is very elastic
7. It absorbs moisture.
8. It is resistant to mildew
9. It is resistant to moth attacks
10. It does not felt
11. It is damaged by long exposure to sunlight
12. It is not resistant to high temperatures

Uses:
Silk is used to make blouses, dresses, scarves, pants and ties. It can also be made into curtains, draperies,
cushion covers and sofa covers.

Polyester
Polyester is the general name for any group of widely used synthetic products. Polyesters are strong, tough
materials that are manufactured in a variety of colours, shapes and sizes.
Production of polyester:
Polyesters are made from chemical substances found mainly in petroleum. Polyesters are manufactured in three
basic forms - fibers, films and plastics.
Polyester fibers are used to make fabrics. Poly (ethylene terephthalate, or simply PET) is the most common
polyester used for fiber purposes. This is the polymer used for making soft drink bottles.

Properties of the polyester:

1. It is strong, tough and wears well.

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2. It is strong both when wet and when dry.
3. It resists bleaches and alkalis.
4. It is not absorbent.
5. It is thermoplastic and can be permanently pleated.
6. It is flame- resistant
7. It is resists wrinkling.
8. It can be dry-cleaned safely.
9. It is not attacked by moths, mildew, fungi or bacteria.
10. It is not harmed by sunlight, and is therefore suitable for curtains.
11. It resists abrasion.
12. It is not easy to dye unless special methods are used.
13. It is resistant to stretching and shrinking.

Uses:
Polyester is used to make most forms of clothing like shirts, running shorts, track pants, windbreakers, and
lingerie. It can also be made into curtains and draperies.

Nylon
Nylon is a strong, light synthetic fiber. It is a man-made.

Production of nylon:
Nylon is made by forcing molten nylon through very small holes in a device called a spinneret. The streams of
nylon harden into filament once they come in contact with air. They are then wound onto bobbins. These fibers
are drawn (stretched) after they cool.
Drawing involves unwinding the yarn or filaments and then winding it around another spool. Drawing makes
the molecules in each filament fall into parallel lines. This gives the nylon fiber strength and elasticity.
After the whole drawing process, the yarn may be twisted a few turns per yard or metres as it is wound onto
spools. Further treatment to it can give it a different texture or bulk.

Properties of the nylon:

1. It is strong and elastic.
2. It is easy to launder.
3. It dries quickly because it is not absorbent.
4. It retains its shape – it neither shrinks nor stretches.
5. It is resilient and responsive to heat setting. It can therefore be permanently pleated
6. It is resistant to abrasion
7. When rubbed, nylon materials acquire static electricity
8. It rots due to long exposure to sunlight.
9. It is crease resistant therefore requires little ironing
10. It can be dry-cleaned safely with benzene and carbon tetrachloride
11. It is not affected by acids and alkalis, but bleaches can harm it.

Uses:
Nylon is popular for hosiery and is used to make track pants, shorts, swimwear, active wear, windbreakers,
bedspread and draperies. It can also be made into parachutes, flak vests, combat uniforms, tires and life vests, or
used as the netting of bridal veils, umbrellas and luggage.

Regenerated Fibres
Regenerated fibres are produced from raw materials that form fibres naturally, for example wood pulp or cotton
linter. These raw materials are reformed to produce fibres or filaments suitable for making into yarns. The first
commercial regenerated synthetic fibre was rayon, also known as ‘artificial silk’, and was made from modified
cellulose / wood pulp, later known as viscose. Acetate is a regenerated fibre made from cotton linters (very short
cotton fibres) combined with acetic acid.

Characteristics of Rayon
Rayon’s cellulosic base contributes many properties similar to those of cotton or other natural cellulosic fibers.
 Rayon is moisture absorbent (more so than cotton), breathable, comfortable to wear, and easily dyed in
vivid colors.

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  It does not build up static electricity, nor will it pill unless the fabric is made from short, low-twist
yarns.
 Rayon is comfortable, soft to the skin, and has moderate dry strength and abrasion resistance.
 Like other cellulosic fibers, it is not resilient, which means that it will wrinkle.
 Rayon withstands ironing temperatures slightly less than those of cotton.
 It may be attacked by silverfish and termites, but generally resists insect damage.
 It is attacked by mildew
 One of rayon’s strengths is its versatility and ability to blend easily with many fibers—sometimes to
reduce cost, other times for lustre, softness, or absorbency and resulting comfort.
 Rayons readily take finishes such as mercerization, Sanforization (shrink resistance), and permanent
press.
 Rayon has moderate resistance to acids and alkalis and generally the fiber itself is not damaged by
bleaches; however, dyes used in the fabric may experience color change.
 As a cellulosic fiber, rayon will burn, but flame retardant finishes can be applied.

Unit Task 4: Fabric construction methods

Fabric may be constructed by three basics methods: knitting, weaving, and the interlocking of fibers by felting
or bonding. Lacemaking and netting are two less frequently used methods of producing cloth.

Knitted Fabrics
Knitted fabrics are made from one continuous thread. Knitting consists of rows of interlocking loops done by
hand or machine. Knit fabrics are comfortable and wrinkle-resistant, but they snag. They give or stretch as you
wear them. They must be stretched as you sew them so they keep this "give."

Woven Fabrics
Weaving is the interlacing of yarns to form fabrics.

There are some terms which are frequently used in weaving. These include:
Selvedge: When you examine a fabric, you see two long finished edges, one on
each side along the length of the fabric. These edges are called selvedge and give
strength to the edges which is important in further processing of the fabric.
Warp: They are the yarns along the length of the fabrics or parallel to the selvedge.
They are also called ends.
Weft: When you see a woven fabric, besides warps, another set of yarns move
perpendicular to warps. They are called wefts. They are interlaced with warps in
a crosswise direction to make a fabric. They are also called picks or fillings.
Thread Count: You must have noticed that some woven fabrics look dense and
compact whereas others open. This difference is due to the thread count which
refers to the total number of warps and wefts per square inch of a woven fabric.
Thread count tells us about the fabric quality and durability. Fabric with a higher
thread count is better than fabric with lower thread count. Also, for good quality
fabric, warps and wefts should be more or less equal in number.

Process of Weaving
The weaving process is carried out on a loom. Warp yarns are laid parallel and very close to each other. Then,
with hands or some other device some warps are lifted and others remain as such and the weft on a shuttle is
then passed through them to complete the interlacement. For example alternate warps could be lifted to get a
plain weave fabric. To make the weave compact, the wefts are beaten with a comb like device called reed.

There are several weaves of fabric.

The plain weave is the most basic of all weaves, with one weft yarn going over and under one warp yarn. Many
fabrics are produced in the plain weave. These weaves have no right and wrong side unless they are printed.

Characteristics of the plain weave

 It has more warps than wefts per inch.
 It has no right or wrong side unless if printed.

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  It is compact and feels firm unless if loosely woven.
 It is cool to touch.

The hopsack weave is a variation of the plain weave where two weft yarns pass over and under to warps,
producing a firmer cloth.

The twill weave is made by passing thread over one or more warp threads and then under a group of weft,
skipping or stepping one yarn in between to the right. This gives a definite diagonal ridge across the fabric.

Characteristics of the twill weave

 It has diagonal ridges that run from the left to the right and are more prominent on one side.
 It has a right and wrong side.
 It is compact, firm and durable.
 It is warm.
 It is decorative.

The satin/sateen weave is made by floating several warp or weft threads over the surface of the fabric under
one.

Characteristics of the satin/sateen weave

 The warp floats in satin, while the weft floats in sateen
 Filament yarns are used in both, hence both are lustrous and have a soft feel.
 They have a luxurious appearance.
 They are smooth and do not get dirty easily.
 They are not very strong as the floating threads can easily be pulled out, thus damaging the appearance
of the fabric.

Nonwoven Fabrics
These type fabrics are formed when heat, moisture, and pressure are applied to fibers, forcing them to interlock.
Sometimes chemicals are used to maintain this process. Many interfacings, fleece, and felt are examples of this
process

Bonded fabrics
These are made up of two separate cloths, namely a face fabric and a lining, held together with an adhesive.
Fabrics made by this method are used for various purposes e.g. interlining materials, surgical goods, etc

Nets
They are open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes. These yarns may be knotted at the point of intersection.

Laces
Yarns are criss-crossed to create intricate designs. Yarns may be interloped, interlaced or knotted to give open-
mesh structure. Beautiful decorative designs can be created through lace making. Laces are very important
trimmings that are used to decorate a garment.

Unit Task 5: Fabric Finishes

A fabric finish is a treatment that changes fabric behavior and appearance. The finish may be temporary or
permanent.

Regular or basic finishes (such as napping, brushing, shearing, or calendaring) make fabric suitable to sell.
Functional or special finishes contribute a special feature to the fabric. Permanent press, stain resistance, and
water repellency are functional finishes.

Remember the following points about finishes when selecting fabrics:

 Finishes may be applied for beauty or service.
 Finishes may be durable or nondurable.

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  Each finish means added cost.
 Proper care prolongs finish life.

Unit Task 6: Procedure of laundering fabrics

Care of your cotton garment:

For fabrics made of 100% cotton:

1) Set your washing machine to the low setting.
2) Wash the cloth in cold water.
3) Set your iron to Medium to iron it.
4) Do not bleach the cloth.
5) Hang to dry but do not tumble dry.

50% Cotton and 50% Polyester:

1) Turn it inside out and machine wash with warm water.
2) Wash with fabrics that are of light colours.
3) Use only non-chlorine bleach to bleach the cloth.
4) Tumble dry with a medium setting.
5) Set your iron to medium for ironing.

Linen
Washing is recommended because the more linen is washed, the softer, more absorbent and more luminous it
becomes. One can use either hand or machine washing, but observe the following points:
 Be gentle when laundering linen: use a gentle wash cycle or hand-wash and use just a little gentle soap.
Whatever you use, follow the package directions. Place delicate, embroidered or fringed linens in a lingerie
bag before putting them into a washing machine.
 Use cool to warm, not hot, water. Wash colored linens in cool water. Soft water is important because hard
water forms a soap scum that make linen stiff and dull.
 Launder stains when fresh. If allowed to set, stains may be permanent.
Use oxygen bleaches (hydrogen peroxide) for white linen. Chlorine bleaches can cause yellowing.
 If hand washing, rinse very thoroughly. Removal of all soap will help prevent large brown spots on linen,
which are caused by oxidation of cellulose by residual soap.

Drying
Several drying methods are recommended for linen
 Line drying,
 Machine drying ,
 Rolling in terry towels
Whatever method you use, bring the linen in while it is still damp. If linen dries thoroughly, it may become
brittle, taking several hours to recover its natural moisture and flexibility. Don't wring wet or damp linen before
drying, it breaks the fibers.

Rejuvenating
Linen is more difficult to dye than other fibers, especially in dark shades. We have found that you can renew the
color and sheen of black linen by washing black linen with a good dose of fabric bluing (normally used to
brighten white cottons) in the rinse water. Then give it a final rinse in clear water before drying. You can still
find bluing in the laundry detergent section at many grocery and dime stores.

Ironing
Ironing is often optional when dried flat or tumbled at low heat. Ironing linen is a great deal easier if you do it
when the linen is damp. And if linen is removed from drying while still damp and ironed immediately, it is
easier still. Steam ironing dry linen is less effective and requires more effort
Use spray starch (if desired) and iron with lots of steam at a medium-to-hot setting. Starch provides extra
crispness, particularly for folded napkins.

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Iron on the wrong side first, then on the right side to bring out the sheen, especially damasks and light-colored
linens. Iron dark linens on the wrong side only. Heavier fabrics may need a slightly higher temperature setting.
Pure linen can withstand the highest temperature setting on your iron, but test an inconspicuous corner first.

Iron linen until smooth but not dry. Once wrinkles are gone, hang the linen item until it is bone dry.
When ironing embroidered linen, keep the embroidery stitches rounded and dimensional by pressing item on the
wrong side atop a soft towel. Use a press cloth to safeguard delicate lace and cutwork. A press cloth also helps
to avoid press marks over seams, hems and pockets. Place a table next to the ironing board when ironing large
tablecloths. Roll finished sections of the cloth over the table rather than letting it pile up under the ironing board.
Minimize creasing ironed tablecloths by rolling them around a tube or hanging them.

Storing Linen
 Always clean linen items before storing: dirty linen encourages mildew.
 Good ventilation, light and lack of available bacterial food discourage mildew growth.
 If you discover mildew on your linens, brush the mold off outdoors to avoid scattering spores in your
house. Then soak the linen item in a weak solution of hydrogen peroxide and water before laundering.
Wash as above, dry in the sun, then store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area.

Care of your woolen garment:

It is better to hand wash your woolen products.
Be careful of what softener you use because softeners may add products to your wool. Some types of softeners
may leave a coating on the fiber making it feel softer and smoother, but at the same time causing your wool to
lose its absorbency.

Care of your silk garment:

It is best to dry clean your silk garment either by individual or bulk method, in order to maintain the
characteristic of the silk.

Dry clean: Sending it to the dry cleaners may be done but make sure that you inform the dry cleaner that your
garment is made of silk.

Hand wash:
1) Make sure you wash in cool water.
2) Use a small amount of soap or mild detergent to wash the silk.
3) After washing it, rinse in cold water.
4) Hang it or lay it flat in a shaded area to dry.
5) If pressing is needed, use an all cotton iron board cover, a low or moderate steam setting, and press on the
wrong side of the fabric while ironing.

Other Tips:
 To keep white silk white, add peroxide and ammonia to the wash.
 Do not use bleach or any washing detergent with bleach
 To remove yellow from white silk, add a few teaspoons of white vinegar to the wash.

Care of polyester:
1) Machine-wash your fabric in cold water.
2) Wash with light colours.
3) Use a gentle cycle while washing.
4) Tumble dry with the setting low.
5) Do not bleach.
6) If needed, iron with a cool iron.

Care of your nylon garment:

1) Machine wash in cold water.
2) Wash it separately from other types of fabric.
3) If needed, use only non-chlorine bleach to bleach your nylon garment.
4) Turn the setting to low before tumbling dry.
5) Remove your nylon garment promptly from the tumbler.

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Other Tips:
 Extensive washing and drying in an automatic dryer can lead to piling.
 White nylon should be washed separately to avoid it turning grey.
 To avoid yellowing of your white nylon, you should bleach it frequently with Sodium Perborate bleach.

Rayon
Consumers should be aware of several cautions in relation to proper use and care of fabrics made from rayon
fiber. Regular or viscose rayon has low wet strength, resulting in loss of stability or the tendency to shrink or
stretch easily when wet. Although resin-treated rayons can sometimes be hand or machine washed with success,
regular rayon normally requires dry cleaning to maintain appearance and shape.
There is a finish that can be applied to make viscose rayon fabrics washable and limit shrinkage to 3 percent. It
is formaldehyde-free and will not affect the hand, width, or length of treated fabrics.

Care of Rayon
The critical element in successful care of rayon is the type of fiber.
- Regular or viscose rayons usually require dry cleaning for best results
- High wet modulus, high wet strength or polynosic rayons, will normally machine wash and tumble dry
satisfactorily
The low wet strength of untreated viscose rayon is likely to cause shrinkage and loss of body if fabrics made
from these fibers are hand or machine washed. Viscose rayons are usually labeled “dry clean only.”
Since many dyes and finishes applied to viscose rayon are moisture-sensitive, consumers should protect
garments from contact with moisture
Avoid spilling acid or alkali, such as foodstuffs or perfume, as certain dyes used on rayon are especially
sensitive to these substances.
Use caution or avoid treating stained areas with water. Take the garment to a dry cleaner for stain removal.
When viscose rayons can be hand washed, do so with care.
 Always support wet fabrics, since rayon has low wet strength and is unstable when wet.
 Avoid wringing moisture from fabrics. Gently squeeze out moisture and roll in a towel.
 Smooth and shape, then lay flat to dry.
 If the garments are not too heavy when wet, they can be hung on a non-rusting hanger.
 When pressing regular rayon garments at home, guard against spitting by steam irons that may cause
water spots. Also, if possible, press on the wrong side or use a press cloth on the right side to avoid
shine or iron imprints.
 Use a rayon or synthetic setting on the iron.
 When pressing blends, use the iron temperature for the most heat-sensitive fiber. Normally, a synthetic
setting will be satisfactory.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Laundry articles
- Laundry agent
- Textile fibres
- Magazines

Evaluation questions
1. Enumerate the various methods of fabric making.
2. Discuss how designs can be created by weaving.
3. Compare and contrast weaving and knitting.
4. Why are knitted garments considered appropriate for winter wear?
5. Why is satin weave not as strong as plain or twill weave?
6. Why is twill weave used for your jeans?

9.1.23 LAUNDRY PROCESSES

9.1.23 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:

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 a) define the terms in laundry process
b) explain the laundry process
c) state the aims of a given laundry process
d) state the qualities of a well laundered article
e) explain the procedures of costing and pricing a given laundered article

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Unit Task 2: The Laundry process

The relationship between chemical action, detergents, water, hot and cold, and time taken for the wash process,
affects the final outcome of your wash process.

Mechanical Action the number one factor for cleaning in how-to-do-laundry

1 The First and most important in how-to-do-laundry is Mechanical Action, this could be physically
brushing, beating, squeezing, to remove dirt particles from any desired surface or object. Any physical
method of removing dirt is mechanical action.
In a Front Loading automatic washing machine the mechanical action is created by the drum rotation. The
paddles on the inside of the drum lifts the washing to the top of the drum from where it falls to the bottom of the
drum with a thump.
This creates the squeezing action on the fabrics in the washing machine which removes the dirt and soiling from
the fibres.
These particles and grease globules are then held in the wash water and detergent in solution, until the drain
cycle.
If you were to observe your machine during its program, you would hear a thump as the washing falls to the
bottom of the drum during the cottons wash.
This will be much less evident during a delicates or woollens wash where the mechanical action is reduced to
just movement in the drum, with a high level of wash water and a diluted detergent mix.
Next time you have your washing machine on a cottons hot wash take a look inside the porthole to see how
much of a squeezing action is taking place and how small the amount of suds in the drum.how-to-do-laundry,
brings you the insider knowledge on everything Laundry & Dish-washing.
Time Factor, the length of any one process.
2 The second factor in how-to-do-laundry is Time, the longer you beat, sweep or squeeze, the cleaner the
object.
In a modern washing machine "Time" is controlled by either a mechanical clock timer or a modern micro-
processor, which can be updated with the latest programs at any future date, which also means you always have
the latest machine.
In a cottons wash, the time taken to complete the main wash portion of the wash process is normally ten
minutes after reaching the desired temperature chosen on your front panel temperature selector switch.
How-to-do-laundry shows you the way.
Chemical Action the third factor for all cleaning problems in how-to-do-laundry.
3. Chemical Action is the third factor in how-to-do-laundry, this can be adding water, detergents, solvents
etc.,
As in most wash processes with water and detergent, bleach etc.
The chemical action in the modern washing machine removes the soiling and holds it in suspension until being
drained out at the end of the wash and rinse cycles, so that it is not re-deposited back onto the fabric.
The modern fully built biological detergent has brighteners that are held in the wash water unused until the
temperature goes over 60 degrees Celcius.
So if you use a lot of low temperature programs you may get a build up of unused detergent in the pipes and
pump of your machine.
It is best to use a hot wash on a regular basis to clear out any unused detergents lurking in the bottom of your
machine.
The temperature is the most important element in the disinfecting and killing any nasty pathogens that may be in
the laundry.
This is most important when dealing with foul laundry in the nursery or in hospital and care operations.
There are now special sluice programs available on commercial machines to deal with this type of soiling so that
everything that is washed is thermal-disinfected at a temperature of at least 65 degrees Celcius held for at least
two minutes.

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This provides the time to kill most known bacteria and viruses, but in certain circumstances a boil wash of at
least 82 degrees C is required, Hepatitis A & C for example.
This is a specialist subject and the rules differ depending on where in the world you are. how-to-do-laundry
shows the way.
Temperature the final factor for the cleaning process in how-to-do-laundry.
4 Temperature is the final and in some circumstances the most important factor in how to do laundry,
but they are all dependent on each other.
Where grease or wax soils are concerned a high temperature will be needed to dissolve them so that they can be
held in the detergent solution.
Think of the steam cleaner for degreasing kitchens and kitchen equipment or engines.
High temperatures are required in all medical and care based cleaning operations to kill pathogens and bacteria.
In clothing, bedding, dressings, instruments, crockery etc., high temperatures will be the order of the day.
All these four factors in the cleaning process can be represented in a diagrammatic form, which we call the
"Sinners Vector Diagram".
See below.
The length of the line indicates the amount of any one factor in the cleaning process. And if you need to reduce
any one factor and end up with the same cleaning power you will have to increase one or all of the others to
compensate for the reduction.
Always check your laundry wash care labels, for extra guidance go to Wash Care Labels and Symbols a Quick
Guide
Henry the Happy Hippo shows you the Four Factors of the cleaning process at bath time

As you can see Henry is demonstrating all Four of the Factors of the cleaning process, involved in his bath time
ritual.
The Brush is the Mechanical Action, the Water and Soap are the Chemical Action, the Temperature is the the
hot African Sun heating his pool. And finally the Time is how long Henry the Happy Hippo spends doing his
ablutions.
The Sinners Diagram shows how for a hot cottons wash for heavy soiling all lines are of maximum length.

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Cottons, Boil Wash or Heavily Soiled Washing
how-to-do-laundry,
If we think of the wash program for Cottons or heavily soiled, robust fabrics, we will require Maximum
Mechanical Action, with the strongest Chemical solution, for the longest Time, at the Highest Temperature, say
a boil wash for cottons.
All four factors at maximum setting on your washing machine.
All the lines in the Sinners Diagram will be the longest or at their maximum.
This wash may be incorporated into a boil wash for thermal disinfecting foul laundry. More on this later.
For Bedding, sheets, pillows for men, women, teens, kids and babies as well as bedroom furniture and decor go
to one of our SBI partner sites at ......Bedding sets
Luxury bedding collections dot com

The Front Loading washing machine in how-to-do-laundry brings you the best insider knowledge.
how-to-do-laundry. In a Front loading washing machine this is easily achieved by bringing in just enough water
to wet the clothes inside the drum and cover the heater elements.

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A modern machine will take cold water in first, to release the stains before taking the temperature up slowly to
the high temperature. which could even be a boil wash.
Never put hot water on stained fabrics it will fix many of the stains permanently, especially blood.
At the end of the main wash cycle cold water should be brought in to reduce the temperature inside the drum
and dilute the detergent liquor.
This will prevent heat shock on the way up and down during the move from wash to rinse cycles.
Frequently when you look inside your washing machine porthole during the main wash cycle of your machine
you wil notice how little water is in the machine.
This means a strong chemical liquor of low suds detergent at high temperature.
The drop height from the top of the drum to the floor is maximum to provide the maximum mechanical action.
Because a small amount of water is used, it is cheaper to heat to the high temperatures required than perhaps
using a high water level delicates program on its highest temperature selection.
This type of program if provided by a high quality machine will be very efficient and ecologically sound, as all
the energy, water, and chemicals are kept to a minimum.
There is no better way of dealing with heavily soiled items than in a modern, front loading, high spin, washing
machine.
A top loading washing machine has to be filled with water for all types of wash process, so for a hot wash with
high detergent mix this would be very expensive to run, and would normally cost in the region of five times the
cost per wash.
Which is why the top loader machine encourages the use of low temperature detergents, warm washes, and the
use of stain removers and pre-treatments, with biological detergents.
The Top Loader has a fraction of the control over the wash process that is built into the modern front loading
machine.
It is not safe to put woollens or delicates in a top loading washing machine as the mechanical action is too
vigorous and would damage the fabric with shrinkage and felting. Go to my Woollen wash page now for a quick
guide In how-to-do-laundry and Laundry and dish-washing info, I hope we bring you useful stuff to help your
understanding of the cleaning process you may wish to have a quick look at my Washing Silk page It will give
you a quick run down on the criteria for washing silks and delicates in some detail.
The Front Loading washing machine on a Woollens or Delicates Program

How to do Laundry the Woollens and Delicates program

how-to-do-laundry, for woollens.
For a woollens and a delicate wash, all that has to be done to the wash program in the machine to accommodate
the non iron, synthetic, delicate, and woollen materials is to increase the level of the wash water in the tank
incrementally, so that the water is cooler, the chemicals are diluted, and the drop from top of the drum to the
bottom is reduced, which ensures the mechanical action is reduced.
At the same time the rotation of the drum is also slowed and shortened until a wool wash agitates for 2.5
seconds and rests for 28 seconds for a 5 minute main wash.

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This means you can safely place your favourite cashmere and lambswool sweaters in the wool wash program of
your modern front loading washing machine with complete confidence.

Care Labels
To help you understand the reason for wash care symbols and labels you have to understand how the wash
process works and what to expect from your washing machine. It's worth taking the extra time to read this page
through to understand how the wash care labels work.
Or you can go straight to the symbols explanation below.
I hope it helps if you have questions or comments please make contact using contacts page.
The fundamentals of cleaning.
Sorting the clothes.
Laundry-Symbols aims to bring you all the information on wash care labels and symbols in most common use.
What ever you need to know about Laundry-Symbols, Wash, care, Label, Detergent, cleaning, program, pre-
spotting, solvents,stain remover, here at Laundry-Symbols I will bring you the answers.
You will understand them and be able to match them to the cleaning process best suited to the fabrics and dyes
in your garments or soft funishings.
All clothes and items to be washed should be sorted into like products and colours.
White cottons heavily soiled items which will require the hottest wash with the most mechanical action should
be collected and placed in the washing machine with enough space left in the drum to allow for the maximum
drop from top to bottom of the drum.
If they are not too bulky they will settle when water is brought in to the machine which will give them extra
space to get the mechanical action they require.
Heavily soiled items may be improved by pre-spotting with a proprietary stain remover for the particular type of
soiling.
Coloured items or dark fabrics should be washed separately, and depending on the type of fibres and soiling
should be washed as cottons, non-iron, delicates, after checking on the wash care label.
Wash items with similar labels together after separating them.
Pre Spotting
Laundry-Symbols
Heavily soiled items may be improved by pre-spotting with a proprietary stain remover for the particular type of
soiling.
Pre-spotting can be as simple as brushing caked mud or spraying a solution of detergent and water to help the
wash process.
By brushing and spraying the liquid into the stain before the wash process the detergents can start softening the
soiling so that it can be removed and floated off during the wash process in the machine.
Where there are stains of blood, ink with a wax base, tar oil from the beach or garage and paint you will require
a spotter containing a solvent, these can be purchased and kept in the cupboard ready for the day that you need
them.
Grass stains are one common stain which will be removed more easily in the wash if it has been pre-spotted
with a light brushing to get the softening process started.
With blood always try to wash out with cold water before it dries hard, dried on blood is quite difficult to
remove and may leave a rust mark after washing which will be fixed permanently by the hot water in the wash.
Always Check your Laundry-Symbols for the correct program.
If you have some knowledge or expertise you would like to share with the world wide web that would help
someone, click on the link and take a look at how easy it is with site build it and all their free books to
download, Share my knowledge with the web the easy way.
If in doubt always use your Pre-wash selector button on your machine.
Laundry-Symbols If you are in any doubt about a stain always use your pre-wash button on your machine.
Always check your Laundry-Symbol first.
This is normally an add-on program at the front end before the main wash and is normally a very cool wash with
light mechanical action with quite a high water level.
This is important for blood stains, grass stains, and any stain of an unknown origin.
Use a biological detergent in this section so that the enzymes can set to work on the stain.
Then you can drop back to non-biological for the rest of the wash program if you wish, but biological detergents
will always deal with stains better than a non-bio, especially blood. Learn more about detergent basics
Soiling can be put into groups:
Laundry-Symbols
What this means is that 10% of soiling is water soluble -salts, sugars, sweat-
15% is solvent soluble-oils, greases, waxes, finishing agents.

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The bulk of the soiling or 75% are insoluble-soot, dust, pigments these have to be held in suspension during the
wash then rinsed out and drained away during the wash process.
This means that a modern detergent has to dissolve or remove the soiling from the fibres of the material being
washed and then hold the greases and insoluble particles in suspension so that they do not get re-deposited back
onto the garment before rinsing and draining.
This is why clothes are fresher smelling after washing than when dry cleaned.
This is because a lot of the soils are diluted and not removed completely during the draining and filtering of the
cleaning fluid, which means a small amount is retained within the fibres.
This is prevalent when dealing with urine and sweat on clothing such as trousers which have been dry cleaned.
Where there is a regular problem with bladder weakness it is always best to wear washable clothing, which can
be washed thoroughly and left fresh and free from any odour.
This also applies for sports clothing which is best washed to rid the garment of sweat as opposed to just diluting
it across the garment.
In fact where sweat has stained the underarm area of a garment washing is the best policy in the long term.
There are now available chemical additives for washing woollen suitings which enable the protection of fibres
during the wash process from the swelling and felting.
These silicon products adhere to the fibres which allows them to slip past each other without the damage which
would cause shrinkage in a normal wash.
An analogy we can use is, if you take a fresh cabbage leaf - which is after all vegetable fibres in the raw- after
placing a leaf in boiling water for a short time the fibres swell and become soft and malleable.
This is exactly what happens to the fibres of your garment, and if the wash is too harsh the damage is
permanent. So a balance has to be drawn so that the soiling can be swollen and desolved without permanent
damage to the fabric of your garment.
Laundry-Symbols follow the guidelines all the time and you will not go wrong.
Wash Care Labels
This is where the Laundry-Symbol comes in, these are the labels on garments or soft furnishings which will help
you decide the correct wash cycle for the fabric being washed, detergent, softener/fabric conditioner, tumble
drying, ironing temperature that you can safely use.
The Circle Symbol for Dry Cleaning guide

The circle sign is the guide for which Dry Cleaning fluid to be used or if at all.
An A within the circle means cleaning with all conventional solvents is OK.
A P within the circle means use Perchlorethylene and mild solvents.
An F within the circle means cleaning only in mild solvents (the old CFC113) or a white spirit.
An X through the circle means do not dry clean.
The Hand Ironing Symbol

The Next symbol is the Iron Sign, this includes rotary irons and presses.
One dot means low temperature ironing for delicates or synthetics 120°C
Two dots means Woollens and silks 150°C
Three dots means Cottons and Linen at 200°C
A large X through the Iron means non Iron or do not Iron.
The Bath Symbol or wash temperature label

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The next and most important sign in Laundry-symbols is for laundry care is the washing vat or bath sign.
This is the most important Laundry-Symbol when it comes to choosing your wash program for your washing
machine.
This gives the different temperatures for wet wash processing which will effect the dyes and fibres of the fabric.
If there is a line underneath the bath sign or the circle sign it means low mechanical action is required or a deep
water level like a woollens program on your washing machine.
It means that for woollens the fabrics are gently agitated for short times with long rests between agitation so as
to allow the fibres to recover. This prevents shrinkage and felting. felting is where the garment tightens up so
that the material changes from normal cloth to felt as in a felt hat.
For More Information on How to do Laundry
Follow the links for How to do laundry for more useful information on the wash process Use this link for more
information on how to do laundry
The Triangle or chloride bleach Laundry-symbols

The next item Laundry-symbols is a triangle sign on the label with the letters CL inside which means chloride
bleaches can be used without damaging the fabric.
If there is large X through the triangle this means do not use bleaching agents in the wash or penultimate rinse
which is where the bleach is normally introduced into your washing machine. Care should be taken that
undiluted bleach does not touch the clothing or damage to the colour and fabric wil be permanent and final.
If you follow all these guidelines your wash day blues will all be golden, and your fabrics will last for many
years longer than they would have if you had ignored the advice.
The Tumble Dryer Symbol
Laundry-Symbols Tumble Dryer
There is also a tumble dryer symbol which will show the temperature or may have a large X through it which
means do not tumble dry.
Laundry-Symbols Here is a Typical washcare label for a Woollen Garment.

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Laundry-Symbols.
As you can see this typical wash care label ia for a woollen garment, which means if you look at the symbols
starting at the top right hand side the wash bath symbol. This says hand hot water with a picture of a hand in the
wash bath.
The Triangle with a cross through it means no bleaching agents and the text adds that a non biological detergent
should be used.
The Cross through the Tumble dryer means dry on the line which also explained in the text, preferably flat.
The iron sign with one dot means low temperature or minimum setting 120 degres Celcius on your steam iron.
The drycleaning symbol with the P in the middlle means cleaning with Perchlorethylene or mild solvents.

Unit Task 3: Qualities of a well laundered article

Unit Task 4: Costing and pricing a laundered article

Practice

9.1.23P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice the laundry processes
b) practice costing and pricing of laundered articles

UNIT TASKS
9.1.23P 1 Practicing laundry process
9.1.23P 2 Practicing costing and pricing of laundered articles

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry room
- Text books
- Laundry articles
- Laundry agents
- Storage areas
- Laundry equipment and tools

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports

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 - Tests

9.1.24 STAINS AND STAIN REMOVAL PROCESSES

9.1.24 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify different types of stains
c) classify stain removal agents
d) state the general rules for stain removal
e) explain the methods and procedures of removing different stains

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

A stain is dirt or discoloration which may be present on a fabric but does not yield readily to the normal
washing methods. It is not like the ordinary dirt which attaches itself to the fabric. It is more like a dye which
penetrates into the fabric. Many common stains can be removed during soaking and washing using ordinary
detergents.

There are some stains which cannot be removed during above processes and therefore require treatments. Such
stains are best removed BEFORE washing or dry-cleaning. This procedure is technically known as Pre-
spotting.

Unit Task 2: Types of stains

Stain removal is also known as Spotting. It calls for a high degree of skill and knowledge of fibre content.
Agents employed in spotting must be very carefully selected. They must not affect the colour of the fabric,
damage, weaken or change the appearance of the fibres and must not leave a residual mark or swells after the
stain has been removed.
The spotter requires a good understanding of the constituent of stains to be able to determine the correct method
and procedure of removal.
A few stains will always be found that cannot be removed. This is usually because of the limitations of the
fabric. Examples include Oxidation, rendering the stain insoluble, or limitations in the dyed fabric properties.

Types of Stains
Stains are usually encountered in three main forms:
a) Built up stains
Here, the main substance is on the surface of the fabric like a crust, but adheres
very firmly. Dried solid food stains and many paint stains, together with some adhesives are put in this
class.

b) Absorbed stains
In this case, the staining substance has been absorbed by the fabric and has penetrated into it or even
through it. This type of stain is generally caused by liquids, e.g. beer, tea, ink, etc, which have come into
contact with the fabric and have been absorbed or blotted up by it and then dried.

c) Compound Stains
This type of stain is a mixture of the above two, with part of the staining substance penetrating into the
fabric, whilst another part remains as a layer on the surface. Some paint stains are often blood are in this
category.

Identification of Stains
The efficient removal of stains requires not only the use of appropriate equipment and the application for the
correct temperature, but also care in the preliminary stages before stain removal is attempted.
It is important to consider what the staining matter is and what type and colour of fabrics is involved. Adequate
examination of the garments and detection of the staining matter is essential. It is also necessary to understand

316
the general nature of the stain which may be present on garments and the methods that are available for its
removal.

To summarize the stages involved in the identification of stains, the mnemonic word FOCAL is used to
memorize the stages. This reminds us of Feel, Odour, Colour, Appearance and Location.
a) Feel
It should be noted whether the stain feels hard or soft, sticky or smooth, gritty of tacky; as this will often give
a good indication as to the nature of the stain. For example, hardness may indicate lacquer or certain glues;
tacky or slightly soft stains may be toffee or even sugar stains.

b) Odour
Many substances have characteristic odours, e.g. Perfume, salad dressing, fish paste, beer, urine, etc.
These odours may become more evident if the stain is steamed before spotting.

d) Colour
Colour is not always as useful as it may seem to be. Many staining materials, although having recognizable
colours, will not always exhibit them because of the colour of the fabric on which they appear. Never jump to
a conclusion or make an assumption based only on the stain colour as this can be misleading.

e) Appearance
Stains can often be categorized by their appearance. The stain may be in the form of splash marks or a smear,
it may be shiny or dull, absorbed or built up. These observations can often suggest the nature of the staining
and the manner in which it was applied.
Many stains exhibit dark perimeters e.g. beer. It is relatively easy to establish by looking at a stain whether it
has been caused by a liquid, whether the staining material has been smeared on, or whether it has been applied
accidentally. Appearance therefore is an extremely important point and must not be overlooked.

e) Location
The position of stains on a garment should always be noted since it may often be a guide to the origin of the
stain. E.g. mud and road tar are found on lower hems and trouser turn-ups. Perfume is often found on the bust
area or underarms of dresses. Small food stains and drink splashes are usually observed on the front of
garments and quite often, hair dye on the back of dresses, blouses, etc.

Unit Task 3: Classification of stain removal agents

Stain removal agents can be classified into the following groups:

i) Alkaline agents.
a) Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
It is employed in treating cotton and linen as follows:
i) to remove vegetable or slight scotch stain - The fabric is treated for 15mins in a hot solution of 1-4
tablespoons of soda to 1pint of water.
ii) to facilitate the removal of grease stain by emulfsying the grease - Steep overnight in a bath
containing 2 tablespoons of soda to 1 gallon of water.
iii) to neutralize after treatment with acid - Saturate in a solution containing 1-4 teaspoons of soda.

b) Sodium sequicarbonate
It is a mixture of soda and sodium bicarbonate.
It is suitable for coloured fabrics and useful when soda cannot be employed and used in the same
proportion.
i) Borax (sodium tetraborate) - it is a milder alkali than washing soda. It can be used on any fiber. It is
often used in concentrated form for spotting.
ii)Sodium bicarbonate- it is only used when a stronger alkaline agent might damage a delicate fabric.
iii) Rock ammonia (ammonia carbonate) - it is a mild alkali and can be used as a substitute for borax
in washing new woolens.
iv) Ammonia (ammonia hydroxide) - it is an aqueous solution of ammonia gas. If is concentrated it
has a strong pungent smell. It is used for treating vegetable, grease and slight stains of scotch on animal
fabrics. The solution should be 1-4 teaspoons to 1 pint of warm water.

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ii) Acid agents
 Oxalic acid is used to remove iron rusts and ink and to clean straw bats. It also removes obstinate fruit
stain and the browning stains left after the potassium permanganate bleach. Oxalic acid is poisonous so
the jar containing it should be labeled and stored and used with great care. A wooden spoon and
wooden, enameled or glass vessel should be used as it wears metals. Solution- 1 table sppon to 1 pint of
water.
 Salts of lemon- it is a comound of potassium oxalate and oxalic acid. It has the same use as oxalic acid
and poisonous and should be stored in a safe palce and well labeled.
 Acetic acid- it has the same characteristic as vinegar . it decomposes ultra marine blue and may be
used to remove overblueing. It dissolves acetate rayons.
 Vinegar- it is a suitable solvent for medicine, varnish and grass stains. It can be used in place of acetic
acid as it contains 6percent of acetic acid.

iii) Solvents
These can be used for – dry cleaning, spotting or removing stains.
 Cleaning benzene- removes stains containing grease. It is inexpensive but highly inflammable. It must
not be kept or used to indoors and must never be used near in a fire.
 Carbon tetrachloride- is non- flammable and removes stains containing grease.
 Acetone- suitable for cellulose paint stains. It must never be applied to acetate rayon as it destroys the
fiber and dissolves it. It is inflammable. One part of acetone well mixed with 2 parts of warmed
glycerin can be safely used as a spotting agent for acetic rayon because the addition of glycerin
counteracts the property of the spirit to dissolve the fibre. Other substances that destroys the rayon can
be employed in the same way.
 Methylated spirit- removes wax. It is however not very effective solvent. It can sometimes be used
with soap.
 Paraffin- removes paint stains. Used also to clean rubber fittings in laundry appliances.
 Turpentine- removes paint stains and grease stains. Used to clean rubber rollers and more expensive
than paraffin.

iv)Absorbent
Are not widely used in stain removal except when the treated article which can only be cleaned satisfactorily by
the method e.g. tapestry , furs and hats. At time they are used effectively with solvent.
The absorbents that are commonly used are:
 Common salts
 Bran ( the outer husk of wheat )
 Fullers earth
 Magnesia
 French chalk
 Blotting paper

Unit Task 4: General rules on stain removal

The following are the general rules to be followed when removing stains:
a) Remove stains when they are fresh as they become fixed with time and more difficult to treat.
b) If the nature and composition of the stain is unknown, try the least harmful method first, e.g. steeping in
cold water, warm water steep, normal washing. Etc.
c) Use specific stain removal agents that are clearly identified e.g. a solvent for grease solvents.
d) When treating stains, try several weak application of the agent rather than one full strength application, e.g.
household applications. The weak applications will be less harmful to the fabric.
e) Stain removal agents must be in solution when used on coloured fabrics of all types as some have the
tendency to fade and sometimes remove the colour.
f) When fabric is immersed in solution, it should not be allowed to stay longer than is necessary as some
solutions may weaken the fibres.
g) Once the stain is removed or it is believed that enough treatment has been done, the garment should be
washed immediately to remove all traces of the agent. If the agent is allowed to dry on the fabric, it will
have a harmful effect.
h)When acid stain removal agents or solutions are used to remove specific stains, their effects should be
neutralized by the use of alkaline rinse, e.g. oxalic acid should be neutralized by the use of household
ammonia or soap.

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 i) If the agent is suspected is suspected to be strong for the fabric, first try it on a hidden part of the garment
such as the wrong side of a seam. Whatever the agent used, the colour of the fabric must not be affected,
neither should it leave another stain after the original one has been removed.
j) Before stains are removed, one must study the general appearance of the stain and the manner in which it is
fixed on the fabric.

Unit Task 5: Methods and procedures of removing stains

S/No STAIN AGENT METHOD OF REMOVING

STAIN
1 Coffee, Tea, Fruit Juice, a) Hydrogen Soak for more than 30 minutes.
Wine Peroxide White articles may be soaked
overnight.
Use correct proportion (as per
manufacturers’ directions e.g.1:4
Hydrogen peroxide/cold water

b) Bongo Direct application

c) Borax Soak for 10-15 min in a solution

of 103 dessert spoons of borax to
½ pt. warm water on cotton,
linen and nylon. It is possible to
use a more concentrated solution
2 Blood, Egg, Milk, a) Hydrogen
Cream, Cocoa, Peroxide +
Chocolate, Gravy, Ice Ammonia Soak first in cold water, and then
cream treat as per directions for the
b) Qwikgo agent used

c) Grease
Solvents
3. Ball point Ink, marking a) Methylated As the agent Chart
Ink, Felt tip pen, Spirit
Carbon Paper and b) Targo As the agent Chart
Ordinary Ink c) Castor Oil Direct Application
4. Shoe Polish soot a) Targo Direct Application
b) White Spirit Direct Application
c) Methylated Direct Application
Spirit
d) Grease Direct Appplication
Solvent
5. Lipstick a) Grease According to directions given by
Face Cream Solvent the manufacturers
b) Targo Direct Application
6. Eye brow Pencil Grease Solvent Apply solvent and a few drops
+Ammonia of Ammonia
7. Nail Varnish a) Acetate To remove hair lacquer from a
Hair Lacquer b) Acetone mirror, wipe with a clean rag
c) Methylated and Methylated Spirit
Spirit
8. Grass Methylated Best results are achieved if the
Spirit garment is moistened with
glycerine first. For bad stains,
warm the spirit before use by
placing in an open container in a
bowl of hot water.
9. Perspiration Hydrogen Wash normally. If the stain does

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 Peroxide not come out, treat with
hydrogen peroxide. Colour
removed by perspiration cannot
be restored
10. Urine a) Acetic Acid Wash immediately. If the stain is
b) Hydrogen set, treat with either acetic acid
Peroxide + or hydrogen peroxide followed
Ammonia by a dilute solution of ammonia
c) Qwikgo
11. Rust a) Salt + Lemon Cover the stain with salt, then
Juice squeeze lemon juice over the
salt. Leave for an hour and rinse.
b) Oxalic Acid Used on silk and wool – weak
c) Hydrochloric solution
acid
d) Hydrogen + As a last resort if all the methods
Ammonia fail.
12. Scorch a) Glycerine Moisten with water and soak in
b) Hydrogen glycerine, then wash. If the stain
Peroxide remains, soak in hydrogen
peroxide and ammonia. Wash
sponge with a warm solution of
Borax.

13. Mildew Hydrogen Brush to remove mildew dust.

Peroxide Treat as per the manufacturers’
directions
14. Metal Polish Ammonia Sponge with water plus a few
drops of Ammonia. Brush when
dry to remove powdery deposit
wash.
15. Candle wax Methylated Scrub away the excess wax.
Spirit Take two pieces of blotting
paper. Place the fabric between
the two pieces of blotting paper,
pressing using a hot iron. When
the wax has melted and has been
absorbed by the paper, use a
clean paper and repeat the
procedure. Damp with
Methylated spirit to remove any
wax remaining.
16. Paint a) Turpentine Scrub off the excess. Apply one
b) Methylated of the agents directly.
Spirit
c) Bufa
d) Targo

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Storage of Stain removal Agents

9.1.25 SPECIAL LAUNDRY PROCESSES

9.1.25 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in special laundry processes
b) state reasons for special laundry processes
c) explain the procedures of carrying of special laundry processes

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1: Definition of terms

Dry cleaning – it is the process of washing articles and garments in special solvents

Sponging- it is the cleaning of articles in special solutions. It is meant to cut down on dry cleaning bills.

Unit task 2: Reasons for carrying out special laundry processes

 To maintain colour of articles and garments
 To maintain texture of fabrics
 To retain size of articles and garments.
 To preserve fabric finishes

Unit task 3 Procedure of special laundry processes

Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning is a process that cleans clothes without water. The cleaning fluid that is used is a liquid, and all
garments are immersed and cleaned in a liquid solvent -- the fact that there is no water is why the process is
called "dry."
The Process
 Tagging and inspection - Some method, whether it is small paper tags or little labels written on a shirt
collar, is used to identify your clothes so they don't get mixed up with everyone else's. Clothes are also
examined for missing buttons, tears, etc. that the dry cleaner might get blamed for otherwise.
 Pre-treatment - The cleaner looks for stains on your clothes and treats them to make removal easier and
more complete.
 Dry cleaning - The clothes are put in a machine and cleaned with a solvent.
 Post-spotting - Any lingering stains are removed.
 Finishing - This includes pressing, folding, packaging and other finishing touches

Pre-treating Stains
Pre-treating stains is similar to the procedure used at home when you apply a stain remover to stains prior to
washing them. The idea is to try to remove the stain or make its removal easier using chemicals.
Simply apply water for wet stains (a stain that had water in it) and solvent for dry stains (a stain that has grease
or oil in it). Then, gently tap and blot both sides of the fabric with a soft cloth so the stain "bleeds off" onto the
cloth. Then, rinse the fabric, let it dry and your cleaner will do the rest.
Spot Treatment Technique (Sponging) for Apparel Fabrics
A spot treatment confines the stain to a small area and keeps it from spreading. This method is sometimes called
"sponging." For spot treatment you need a supply of absorbent material such as, clean rags or paper towels, and
a dry-cleaning solvent, spot remover, or aerosol pretreatment spray.
Follow these steps:
 Pad the working surface with clean rags or paper towels that can be stained as you work.
 Place the stained area or spot on the garment face-down over the padded surface.

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  Dampen a small white cloth with solvent.
Use the dampened cloth to pat the stain from the wrong side. Feather the edges of the stain working
from the outside toward the center to keep the stained area from getting larger.
As the stain transfers to the absorbent material beneath, move it to a different place on the absorbent
material so the stain has a clean place to exit into.
 Repeat this procedure until all traces of stain are gone. Launder to remove any ring that might be left by
the solvent.

9.1.26 LINEN ROOM

9.1.26 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in linen room
b) list the equipment found in the linen room
c) state the qualities of a good linen room
d) explain methods used in exchange of linen
e) explain the importance of linen room documentation
f) calculate the linen requirements for a given establishment
g) state points to consider in the storage of linen
h) state the importance of linen control
i) explain points to consider when buying linen

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of terms

Linen room- it is the central depot for all linen.

Unit task 2: Linen room equipment

Equipment found in the linen room are:
 trolley or basket on wheels to move linen around
 sewing machines for repairing
 steps for reaching high surfaces
 electric irons and ironing board
 baskets for placing soiled linen
 table used as a working surface
 Telephone
 Chairs for those who may work seated
 Broom, dustpan and brush

Unit task 3: Qualities of a good linen room

 Be large enough for necessary work to be carried on without overcrowding
 Have an easily cleaned floor
 Walls and ceilings of light color
 Have windows if possible
 Lighting should be free from glare
 Have a counter or a stable type door
 Slatted wooden shelves
 Door that is strong for security reasons

Unit task 4: Methods of linen exchange

Linen can be exchanged in the following ways:
 Clean for dirty – where the staff from different departments bring in dirty linen and in exchange get
clean ones.
 Requisition – where the members of staff write a requisition list and they as issued the linen as per
their requisition.

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Unit task 5: Linen room documentation

Unit task 6: Calculation of Linen requirements

The amount of linen required will depend on the type and size of hotel and trade carried on.
The frequency in which the laundry collects and deliver will also affect the amount of linen required.
Re-sheeting will also affect the amount of linen needed. If a hotel re-sheets every day then the linen required
will be more

Calculate the linen requirements, putting in mind the following points:

a) Calculate the number of beds and the amount of linen on each.
b) Decide the number of times per week the linen will be changed.
c) Allow for at least one set of linen to be at the laundry, one set in the linen room or cupboard and
one set on the bed.
d) In many establishments there is a quick changeover of one- night guests, so it could be necessary to
allow 5-8 sets of linen per bed. This then makes allowances for delays in delivery due to bad weather,
holidays or strikes.
e) Towels allowed are usually one or two per day.
f) Hospitals have 4-6 sets of linen per bed, plus an emergency stock including uniforms. The
allowance is not so critical as in other establishments, as linen is laundered on the premises and therefore
a quick turnover ensures clean linen is always available.
g) Non-residential establishments calculate linen needs according to the number of guests, standards
required, and the type of operations carried out.

Unit task 7: Points to consider in linen storage

 Linen should be stored on slated shelves. The large linen should be stored on the lower shelves and
light linen stored on high shelves.
 Allow linen to rest between uses to allow even wear.
 Store linen so that they are easy to remove from the shelves.

Unit task 8: Importance of linen control

Linen is controlled to minimize theft, to control stocks and ensure that the all discarded linen is documented thus
facilitate stock control.

Unit task 9: Buying linen

When buying linen consider the following points:
 Obtain samples and test the quality and strength by:
- Rubbing the material between the hands over dark materials and noting the amount of dressing
e.g. starch which falls on it. If too much falls it means it is poor quality.
- Looking at the material under magnifying glass to note the closeness and evenness of the
weave
- Noting the firmness of the selvage and finish of the machining especially the corners.
- Sending a sample of material to the laundry to be washed a given number of times and
comparing it with a once washed sample.
 Buy the best quality for the purpose.
 Buy as a large quantity at one time as possible in order to get the cheapest rates.
 Place orders in good time so that exact requirement can be met, particularly regarding size and marking
.
9.1.27 HANDLING INFECTED LINEN

9.1.27 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain hospital laundering procedure
c) explain the protective measures to be taken when handling infected linen

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 UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of Terms

Unit Task 2: Hospital laundering procedure

Handling Arrangements for Infected Linen

Isolation Room
 Carefully remove dirty bed linen from bed.
 Bagging of linen should be carried out immediately on removal from the bed.
 Dirty linen should be carefully handled and not shaken prior to bagging.
 Carefully place infected linen into a hot water soluble bag.
 The bag should then be sealed using the cold water soluble tie attached to the bag

Staff Changing Room

 Staff changing rooms should have designated dirty/clean areas if possible.
 Carefully place Scrubs into a hot water soluble bag immediately following removal in the dirty area.
 The bag should then be sealed using the cold water soluble tie attached to the bag.
 A RED colour-coded bag in accordance with HSG(95)18, supported by a suitable bag holder, will be
kept in the staff changing room dirty side.
 Place the sealed bag in the RED colour-coded bag. The RED colour- coded bag shall be securely
fastened when it is two-thirds full and an identification tag attached.
The RED colour-coded bag shall remain in the staff changing room to await collection by support staff.

Collection at Staff Changing Room

Support staff will collect RED colour-coded bags from the staff changing facility and handle carefully on to the
open mesh type trolleys.

Isolation Room Lobby/Anteroom

 A polythene or nylon/polyester laundry bag, RED colour-coded in accordance with HSG(95)18
supported by a suitable bag holder will be kept in the isolation room lobby/anteroom.
 The sealed bag shall be placed in the RED colour-coded bag.
 The RED colour- coded bag shall be securely fastened when it is two-thirds full and an identification
tag attached.
 The RED colour- coded bag shall remain in the lobby/anteroom to await collection by support staff.
 If the isolation room does not have a lobby, the member of staff who is working in the isolation room
should place the water soluble bag into a RED colour-coded bag that is being held open by another
member of staff who is directly outside the room. The RED colour-coded bag shall then be securely
fastened and tagged and taken to the ward infected linen holding area.

Collection at Storage Area

If a vehicle is used to transport infected linen to the laundry, simultaneous transport of clean linen (or other
goods) and infected linen is not permitted.
The loaded trolleys will be transferred to the vehicle for onward transfer to the laundry with trolleys being
restrained in the vehicle to restrict movement

Laundry Process at the Infected Linen Area

 The loaded trolleys will be transferred from the vehicle directly into the laundry.
 Under no circumstances should RED colour-coded bags be opened in the laundry and laundry sorted.
 The RED colour-coded bag must be transferred to the designated washer extractor before opening. This
can be achieved by tipping the inner bag/s out of the outer colour-coded bag directly into the machine.
The RED colour-coded bag (if washable) can then be placed in the machine followed by the trolley
covers. If polythene RED colour-coded bags are used, these should be disposed off as Clinical Waste.
 After each transfer, the vehicle interior and trolleys must be disinfected by an approved infection
control technique i.e. steam cleaning, at a suitable cleaning station.

Unit Task 3: Protective measures

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  Staff handling used, unwashed linen should wear protective clothing e.g. disposable, waterproof aprons
and gloves.
 Any exposed lesions on the body should always be covered with a waterproof dressing.
 Effective hand hygiene must always be implemented.
 Staff should be fully trained in all laundry operations

HOME NURSING AND FIRST AID

9.1.27 INTRODUCTION TO HOME NURSING

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of home nursing and
functions of a home nurse
Specific Objectives
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of home nursing
c) State the reasons for caring for the sick at home.
d) state the factors to consider when recommending home nursing
e) state the qualities of a good home nurse
f) identify the duties and responsibilities of a home nurse
g) identify challenges in home nursing

UNIT TASKS
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS
Nurse: this is a healthcare professional who, in collaboration with other members of a health care team, is
responsible for treatment, safety, and recovery of ill individuals; health promotion and maintenance within
families, communities and populations; and, treatment of life-threatening emergencies in a wide range of health
care settings.
Home nurse: this is a health care professional trained to take care of patients in their home settings. He or she
performs a range of clinical and non clinic al work to ensure the recovery of the patient concerned in a familiar
environment.
Home nursing: this is a profession where a skilled individual engages in the taking care of patients in their
homes instead of a hospital or other institutions. There is a wide range of reasons why home nursing would be
preferred in some cases including severity of disease being low, lack of money for hospitalization e.t.c.
Clinical care: These are the activities done by a health care professional specifically targeting the elimination or
reduction in severity of the disease. This could include dispensing medicine, cleaning and dressing wounds e.t.c.

TASK 2: EXPLAINING THE SCOPE OF HOME NURSING

Home nursing involves the following :-

 Assessment of nursing requirement

 Assist in discharge of waste
 Assist in feeding
 Assist in leaving and returning to the house
 Bathing
 Consultation and coaching in special handling skills
 House calls
 Mobilization
 Morning / evening toilet
 Night attendance
 Positioning in bed (bedsore prophylaxis)
 Post-natal nursing (domiciliary after care – penjagaan selepas bersalin)
 Nursing of HIV/AIDS patients

(REFER TO THE TABLE BELOW)

Basic Nursing Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed. Shower or lapping, washing of

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 hair, cleaning and cutting of finger nails, assistance in leaving and returning to bed,
dressing and undressing with special consideration to medical conditions or
handicaps, oral hygiene, combing and shaving.

2 Complete Toilet Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed. Shower or lapping, washing of
hair, cleaning and cutting of finger nails, assistance in leaving and returning to bed,
dressing and undressing, oral hygiene, combing and shaving.

3 Partial Toilet Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and undressing,
shower or bath, oral hygiene and combing.

4 Bathing Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and undressing,
preparing the long bath (bath tub), assisting in bathing and leaving the long bath,
oral hygiene, shaving and combing

5 Assistance in Includes: Dressing and undressing, support in the discharge of urine or faeces
Discharge of Waste inclusive of emptying of urine bag or stoma bag, removing and replacing of diapers
or pads, cleaning the intimate area

6 Positioning in Bed Includes: Organising the bed sheets, positioning as required, prevention of pressure
ulcer, eventually with skin care.

7 Mobilisation Includes: Specific movement of the limbs as prophylaxis in the prevention of

contractures.
(Integrated)

8 Mobilisation To be carried out: On special advice of a physician, or according to a specific

mobilisation plan.
(Special service)

9 Assistance in This includes: preparation of the food (not cooking), assisting in the intake of food
Feeding and drink, as well as all hygienic measures pertaining to it.

10 Enteral Feeding Includes: The preparation and the dispensing of the enteral food preparation,
via PEG supervision of apparatus if applicable.

11 Assistance in Includes: Dressing and undressing, supporting at staircases, and assisting to the
transporting vehicle and transportation of walking aids.
Leaving the House

12 Assistance in Accompanying Includes: The constant presence near the patient, his safety,
Leaving Outside the assistance in discharge of waste, assisting in the transport, handling of walking or
House transport aids, accompanying to home, and safe handing over to the home care
taker.

13 Changing of Bed Includes: The stripping and replacing of bed sheets and pillow covers, discharging
Sheets the dirty clothing for recycling according to hygienic practise.

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14 Attendance by Includes: The continual supervision of the patient, attends to the normal needs,
Nurse/Nurses Aid registers observations and communicates the same as appropriate. Takes care of the
safety of the patient and intake of nourishment and medication (Other services are
excluded).

The Nursing person shall keep a detailed report of any special happenings during the nursing attention period. In
case of any unusual occurrence or conflict, sudden worsening of patient's condition, etc. inform the Home
Nursing Providers Director/Nursing Officer

TASK 3: IMPORTANCEOF HOME NURSING SKILLS

 It saves on funds :-Lack of enough funds for hospitalization may necessitate home care which is
cheaper.
 It eases congestion in hospitals:-
a) Diseases that are not life threatening or patients are nearly healed for example minor wounds could
be taken care of at home
b) Disease states that are long term but not requiring constant attention from doctors in hospitals e.g.
already fixed fractures can be take care of at home
 One may chose home care to avoid the inevitable contracting of infections from long stays in hospitals.
 People who are emotionally vulnerable and part of their therapy requires emotional support will benefit
more with home care than hospitalizations.
 Terminally ill patients in cases of cancer and AIDS spend their last days at home receiving palliative
care.

TASK 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF HOME NURSING

Basic nursing skills include the knowledge necessary for a nurse to perform the basic duties of obtaining vital
statistics, changing bandages, cleaning wounds, bathing patients, and performing CPR.

a) Vital Signs
The basic skills that a nurse will learn include how to take patients' temperatures, how to take their blood
pressure readings, how to find and measuring their pulses and take their respiration readings.

b) Changing Bandages

A nurse must learn the basic skill of how to remove and correctly apply bandages.

C) Cleaning Wounds

Cleaning wounds properly is another basic nursing skill. This basic skill includes the knowledge of how to treat
different types of wounds.

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d) Bathing Patients

Basic nursing courses cover proper methods of bathing patients including how to be gentle, make patients feel
comfortable, and how to bathe patients who suffer from different ailments or have special bathing needs.

e) CPR

Learning to perform cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, or CPR, is a basic skill that nurses must learn.

f) Hygiene

Nurses also must have basic skills in proper hygiene, not only for patients but also for themselves. Nurses must
learn how to properly protect themselves from infection from sick patients, and also to prevent spreading disease
from patient to patient

TASK 5: QUALITIES OF A HOME NURSE

 Honesty: the home nurse is entrusted with taking care of individuals who may not be in a position to
take care of their valuables and he/she is expected to take care of them. They are also entrusted by the
family with the home as they take care of their patients. The home nurse therefore has to be an honest
person who will not steal from the patient or harm the patient.
 Sympathy/ empathy: the home nurse should be a person capable of putting themselves in the suffering
patient’s shoes. He/she should treat the patient like they would want to be treated when they are most
vulnerable and helpless. This applies in performing clinical or non clinical duties to help the patient
feel that someone cares for them.
 Politeness: calmness when talking to the patient, not raising ones voice even when the patient becomes
annoying is a quality that helps the patient compliant in terms of taking medications, being cooperative
with the home nurse and also helps calm an agitated patient.
 Patience: the patients, most of them in pain need a person who will not be in a hurry to complete their
tasks in caring for them. The home nurse needs to perform his duties taking into consideration the
feelings of the patient. Other patients especially the mentally ill, the elderly and children may be
uncooperative or non responsive to instructions one gives. The home nurse has to cultivate tolerance
with these patients so as to serve them.
 Cheerfulness: a dull home nurse makes the patient retreat to themselves and their illness. Being
cheerful influences the patients to also be cheerful and for a while forget their illness. It aids in
recovery of the patient especially in patients with mental disorders especially depression.
 Carefulness: this is an important quality. This is more so in dispensing of drugs. One who will give a
dose of medicine without looking at the label on the bottle; or will spill out twenty drops when ten were
ordered; or will upset a. breakfast tray on the bed; or leave a vessel under the bed for hours uncovered:
or oversleep when the patient should have food or medicine, or let the fire go out; such an one is
entirely unfit to have charge of a sick person.
 Exactness in carrying out the orders of the physician is the first duty of a nurse. The doctor is
responsible for the treatment of the case, and the patient and family are responsible for the choice of the
doctor. The nurse should follow strictly the instructions of the doctor whether in dispensing of drugs or
in diet since the doctor id better trained. Any suggestions on hoe to improve the patient’s condition
should be made to the doctor and family to make a decision on.
TASK 6: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A HOME NURSE
The home nurse is employed to fulfil the needs of a patient. This will include:
 Feeding the patient: this also includes ensuring the meals are of the right quality, balanced diet or
recommended diet is given.
 Grooming the patient. Keeping the patient clean and smart is part of the job of the home nurse. They
will be required to dress and undress the patient and keep the patient covered and warm.
 The home nurse is expected to provide a secure environment for the sick. Unnecessary disturbances to
the patient should be avoided, and the room should be free of hazardous materials that could injure the
patient.
 The home nurse should also provide emotional support to the patient as this enables the patient to
achieve quick recovery.

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  Administration of drugs, cleaning of wounds and other simple medical procedures are in a home setting
performed by the home nurse.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Journals
 Magazines
 Video shows
 Resource persons

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms
a) Home nursing
b) Clinical care
c) nurse
2. Explain the scope of home nursing.
3. Discuss the importance of home nursing skills.
4. Explain the fundamentals of home nursing.
5. List qualities of a home nurse
6. Discuss the duties and responsibilities of a home nurse.

9.1.28 UNDERSTANDING THE SICK AND THE INFIRM

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of the needs of the sick and
the infirm.
Specific Objectives
a) define terms
b) explain the basic human needs and their fulfillment
c) Explain effects of illness on an individual
d) State the importance of patient motivation
e) Explain patient motivation techniques

UNIT TASKS
TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS
Infirm: This includes the elderly, the weak and the handicapped.

Patient: The word originally meant 'one who suffers'. A patient is any person who receives medical attention,
care, or treatment. The person is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a doctor or other health
care professional. However, one who is visiting a physician for a routine check-up may also be viewed as a
patient.

Invalid: this is a person with an illness (patient) or a disability even if not currently ill.
Convalescent: this is a person recovering from an illness. The patient is in the final stages of recovery from the
illness.

Terminal illness: this term describes an active disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated and that is
reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient

Palliative care: is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of disease
symptoms, rather than provide a cure. The goal is to prevent and relieve suffering and to improve quality of life
for people facing serious, complex illness.

Motivation: It is a general term referring to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces.

TASK 2: BASIC HUMAN NEEDS AND THEIR FULFILLMENT

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 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50's USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs
theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal
development. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970)
introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book Toward
A Psychology Of Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which has been revised in recent times by
Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a leading academic in the field of motivational psychology.

Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of
years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals
with the most obvious needs for survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the
higher order needs of influence and personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about
the maintenance of our higher order needs.
Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely published in
Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This
original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.

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TASK 3: EXPLAINING EFFECTS OF ILLNESS ON AN INDIVIDUAL
- low productivity:- a person becomes less productive they do not have the energy to work due
to the effects of the illness
- increased expenditure: this will accrue from the cost of accessing medical care
- Poor feeding due to lack of appetite which can lead to malnutrition and poor health
- Trauma: the trauma that accompanies some illnesses may make one to be socially withdrawn
- Reduces life-expectancy of an individual:-severe, recurrent or prolonged illnesses may reduce
ones life expectancy

TASK 4: STATING THE IMPORTANCE OF PATIENT MOTIVATION

a) Compliance
The patient’s cooperation with the home nurse and doctors will mostly depend on how well they are motivated.
Making the patient comfortable and promptly providing aid when required makes them respect the health care
giver and will also want to play their role in restoring their health. This includes taking medication as
prescribed, being courteous to the home nurse and doctor and taking care of injuries e.t.c.
b) Quick recovery
Motivating the patient helps in recovery from illness faster. Providing the medication in time and as required,
providing a balanced diet, providing emotional and social support all go a long way in helping cure the patient
of physical and emotional illnesses.
c) Psychological health
A patient feeling that they are a bother to those taking care of them will make them hide their discomforts and
complaints and this affects them adversely in recovery. The patient needs to feel loved by those around them.
Apart from compliance, it will also help the patient relax. For patients with depression, anxiety and other mental
illnesses, this is paramount.

TASK 5: EXPLAINING PATIENT MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

Patients motivation can be achieved by taking care of the following:
- Physical needs
- Nutritional needs
- Emotional needs
- Social needs
- Psychological needs
- Spiritual needs
A) Physical needs
These include rest and sleep in a comfortable well made bed and a clean environment, bathing and dressing,
caring for the mouth and dealing with excretion.
1) Rest and sleep
The patient spends a lot of time in bed and therefore needs to be as comfortable as possible. The bed should be
made daily and the bedding changed frequently.
Items required for bed making
 2 clean bed sheets
 2 blankets
 1 or 2 pillow cases
 A draw sheet
 Mackintosh: this is a form of waterproof garment made out of rubberized fabric. The Mackintosh is
named after its Scottish
 Bed cover

Procedure for making a bed

 Open the window and strip the beddings from the bed fold into three or four screens, place onto a chair
and leave to air
Picture
 Turn the mattress
 Replace the underblanket
 Place the bottom sheet, right up and tuck in all round making a mitre at all four corners.
How to make a mitred corner

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  Tuck in along the head of the mattress
 Lift a flap of sheet from a point along the side about 30 cm from the corner and tuck in.
 Drop the flap and tuck in along the side.
 Place the mackintosh on the lower side of the bed.
 Place a draw sheet on the mackintosh and tuck.
Picture
 Put on the top sheet, wrong side up, to reach just beyond the head of the mattress.
 Put on blankets separately, to reach just short of the top sheet.
 Make a fold at the centre, along the length of the bed and tuck along the bottom
 Fold back all the bedding from the top sheet down to the width of the pillow.
Picture
 Tuck in the sides. Leave one side untucked for ease of putting the patient to bed.
 Place the pillow in the pillow cases
 Put the pillow on the bed with open ends away from the door.
 The patient lying on a pillow on his back is a resting position allowing turning from side to side.

Resting positions in bed

The recovery position
This position is used for the unconscious patients who lies with his lower leg stretched out behind him, and
his upper leg bent infront of him. His shoulders are tilted so that the lower arm is behind him while the
upper arm is bent infront of him. His head is turned to prevent the tongue from blocking the airway.
Note that there are no pillows. This is to prevent the patient from chocking on his own vomit and to keep
the neck comfortable.
Picture
The prone position
The patent lies face down supported with pillows. This position is used for a sore back or buttocks.
Picture
The recumbent position
The patient lies flat on 1 or 2 pillows. This is a restful position allowing turning from side to side.
Picture
The semi-recumbent position
3 or 4 pillows support the patient’s back. This is a comfortable position that allows the patient to see
surroundings, to eat and drink and converse without straining.
Picture
The upright position
Here the patient sits up with the back supported by several pillows and a backrest. Two of the
Pyjama suits can be adjusted to ease movement
Pyjamas to be worn for a long time should have a U shaped crotch and raglan sleeve to make movement
easier.
Picture
Helping with trousers
For a patient needing assistance to wear trousers, slide the t rousers over one foot, then the other with the patient
lying on the bed.
Pull them up, helping the patient lift his buttocks off the bed while you try ease the trousers up the waist. Tuck
in the shirt and fasten trousers.
Picture
Garment over the head
If patient is lying down, slip her arms into the garment first, then ease the neck opening over the head.
Picture
If the patient’s arms are strong enough, slip the garment over the head first then help her into the sleeves.
Picture
4) Caring for the mouth
The patient’s mouth should be cleaned regularly to remove food particles that can bring an unpleasant taste and
odor which cause mouth infections.
 Provide the patient with a toothbrush and toothpaste of his choice. Also provide a glass of water (warm
or cold) and a bowl to spit in.

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  Provide a jug of water and encourage the patient to drink regularly unless the doctor indicates
otherwise
 Use mouthwashes to refreshing the mouth. Alternatively, especially with children give juices with
sharp tastes like grape juice or orange juice to cause secretion of saliva which is an antiseptic that keep
the mouth clean.
Patient who is too ill and young children will need the home nurse to do the cleaning of the mouth for them.
Requirements
 A tray and towel
 A child’s soft toothbrush
 Toothpaste
 A small container holding bicarbonate of soda solution (one 5ml spoonful of powder to 600ml of
water).
 A small container of water or mouthwash.
 A bowl to spit into.
 Vaseline, lip saline or cream for dry lips.

Procedure
1. Help the patient into a comfortable position and tell him what you are going to do.
2. Wash your hands before tucking the towel under the patient’s chin
3. Tuck the towel under the patients chin
4. Using toothbrush and toothpaste, or bicarbonate of soda solution, clean all the surfaces of the mouth.
5. Help the patient to rinse the mouth with water or mouthwash.
6. Apply the lip saline, if lips are dry.
7. Return the patient to a comfortable position.

5) Helping the patient deal with excretion

This is usually a difficult and embarrassing procedure for the patient to accept. He or she therefore should not
sense that the home nurse is finding it difficult or embarrassing to help. One should provide privacy and be
decent even for patients who are unconscious. Ensure the doors are locked in the lavatory the sickroom if the
patient has to have a bowel movement there.

It is important to know what the patient can do for themselves and only assist when necessary. The aids to help
in the lavatory can be bought or rented from hospitals.
Picture (pg 12 kioko 3)
a) Lend a hand to steady the patient and give support to the toilet.
b) One may be required to help the patient in cleaning themselves up after using the lavatory.
c) Encourage the patient to cleaning hands after using the toilet and help where required.
d) Cover the pan or aid used and empty down the lavatory.
e) Always use gloves when helping the patient in this exercise. Wash your hands too when you are
through.
f) Use a freshener to rid of the smell and rearrange the sickroom to be as normal as possible.

b) Nutritional needs
General guidelines on healthy feeding of patients
Unless a doctor has prescribed a special diet, the food should be nutritionally balanced (i.e. containing body
building, energy and protective foods).
Reduce sugars and other carbohydrates since the patient is not very active and thus not requiring a lot of
energy.
Fat intake should be reduced since they are difficult to digest and assimilate. The food may be boiled or
steamed rather than fried.
Increase fibre intake to improve bowel movement.
The food should be tender to avoid too much chewing
The food should be served attractively and in small amounts at a time. Food served untidily and in large
portions often makes the patient to hate eating.
Offer varieties to avoid monotony which would make the patient lose appetite.
Give freshly cooked foods whenever possible.

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 Do not overfeed the patient to avoid them becoming overweight.
Reduce salt intake especially in patients with high blood pressure since excess salt intake increases blood
pressure.
The patient should be supplied with plenty of fluids to drink e.g. water, juice, porridge. Fresh fruit juice is
preferable and nutritional than sodas and squashes.
The utensils used in a sick room should be sterilized to prevent the patient from spreading infection to other
family members.
Diets prescribed by the doctor should be adhered to strictly.

Special diets
Special diet are prescribed either temporarily to help the patient recover from an illness they have presently
or permanently, usually to avoid diet related diseases. They include:
a. Foods for the obese and overweight:
They should contain less fats and simple sugars and starches like potatoes and replaced with more fibre,
salads and fresh fruit. Too much fat in the blood can cause heard diseases and diabetes mellitus. Too much
weight can result in back aches, joint aches and limitations in movement and work.
b. Foods for diabetics
They should contain negligible amounts of simple sugars like cakes and instead replaced with fibre and low
amounts of starch. This is because their bodies cannot utilize a lot of sugar in the blood. Heavier starches
will take time to be digested and thus the release of sugar into the blood will be slower. Fruits, vegetables,
protein and more fluids are indicated (diabetics lose a lot of water through urine)
Larger portions of protein are indicated for patients being treated with kwashiorkor, and those who have
had fractures and other injuries. This is because protein will be required for the repair of the injured
areas.
Helping the patient to eat
Eating should be done in a well lit, pleasant and agreeable surrounding
 The table and tray should be thoughtfully and conveniently laid so as to appeal to the patient. Include
an appropriate flower arrangement.
 Make the patient as comfortable as possible. Give the patient an opportunity to empty the bladder and
wash hand s before the meal.
 For the blind, explain where what food is using a clock face i.e. ugali at 12 o’clock, sukuma at 6
o’clock, soup at 3 o’clock. Most of them can feed them selves.
 Carry out conversation to avoid tension during the meal.
 The toothless should have a very soft serving.
 For patients who cannot get out of bed, serve their food on a tray. Ensure you protect the bedding and
support the patient to a comfortable position with pillows. Encourage the patient to feed themselves and
only assist if necessary.
C) Social needs
The patient like everyone else needs to socialize with other people. Adequate interaction with other people;
whether relatives, other patients or pastors will help in the process of recovery. The home nurse should therefore
strive to:
a) Allow the patient to meet visitors and also spend time with the relatives. This should however be
restricted to avoid exhaustion of the patient. The home nurse should discuss with the family members
on the number of visitors allowed to see the patient depending on the patient’s condition.
b) Television and radio stop boredom. They should be placed on a convenient position easily accessible
and not too far or in a difficult angle such that the patient strains to see.
c) For school going children, one can arrange with their teachers when they could see the child and cover
with the child some work. This is especially so for disease states that are disabling and take a long time
to heal but still allow for such an interaction to take place.
d) Emotional needs
Sickness of any nature places some emotional distress to the patient and sometimes to the family members. It is
imperative that a home nurse takes steps to address the emotional needs of their patient as emotional distress can
derail the healing of the patient. Note the following:
 The patient feels vulnerable and needs to feel valued, recognized and respected. Maintain the patient’s
self esteem by encouraging as much independence as is possible.
 Consider the patient’s age, background and both physical and mental condition. This will help you
adjust your approach to the patient accordingly in providing care to the patient.

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  Ensure privacy whenever the patient requires it e.g. when he needs to talk to his lawyer, pastor or close
friend.
 Be alert to the patient’s feeling of insecurity or any other emotional state e.g. depression, apprehension,
fear e.t.c
 If the patient needs to talk, be a keen listener not appearing to be in a hurry or bored. Show concern and
care. Specialist help can be offered by counsellors.
 Reliability is a key element when giving home based care. Information given to you by the patient is
confidential and can only be discussed with the doctor if it is relevant to their medical care.

e) Spiritual needs
During illness, most people’s religious and spirituality is rekindled. It is important to respect and facilitate these
needs.
 Visits by a pastor, kadhi or any other religious leader should be arranged if the patient requests so. A
quiet environment should be offered in these sessions.
 The patient should be facilitated to watch or listen to their favourite religious shows.
 If a religious group wants to visit an underage patient, the parent’s consent should be sort.
 If the patient does not want visits by religious people, this should be respected

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons (nurse).
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Define the following terms
 Patient
 Infirm
 Invalid
 Convalescent
 motivation

2) Explain the basic human needs and their fulfillment

3) Explain the effects of illness on an individual

4) State the importance of patient motivation
5) Explain patient motivation techniques.

9.1.20 THE SICK ROOM

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of the importance of a sick
room, how to set it up and how to take care of it.

Specific Objectives
a) Explain the essential features of a sick room
b) state the essential equipment and furniture in a sick room
c) explain the use and care of essential equipments and furniture in a sick room
d) outline the procedures of cleaning and preparing a sick room

TASK 1: EXPLAINING ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF SICKROOM

Sick room
This is a room where a person is confined due to illness. At home it normally is the bedroom which is slightly
modified to cater for the sick person.

Essential features of a sick room are:-

Ventilation
This is the movement of air within a room, house or any other building, which is achieved naturally by opening
windows and doors and artificially by use of fans and air conditioners.
Reasons for adequate ventilation

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 1. Extracts stale air from the sick room especially if patient is having aided excretion in the sick room
2. Allows for circulation of fresh air with extraction of carbon dioxide. This facilitates smooth non
laboured respiration.
3. Provides for cooling on hot days.
4. Proper air circulation and reduced moisture ensures that air borne infections like TB are not easily
spread.
5. Discourages the infestation of household pests that thrive well in poorly ventilated damp conditions.
6. If carbon fuels are being used to warm the room, carbon monoxide, a toxic gas, is produced if the
ventilation is poor.
7. A stuffy environment causes increased sweating and thus loss of water from the body.

Lighting
Good lighting in a sick room is essential. Natural light from the sun will be preferred by most people. It also has
the advantage of being free unlike light from electric bulbs and kerosene lamps. The natural light can be got
though keeping windows and doors open. Houses with rooftops that are translucent (light can pass through them
partially) will provide natural lighting too.
Reasons for good lighting in a sick room
1. To provide for clear vision so as to minimize the occurrence of accidents and ease of movements.
2. To avoid contrast with the background that can cause a glare and strain the eye.
3. To provide a pleasant atmosphere. This reduces fatigue.

Cleanliness
Cleaning the sick room regularly is essential. This is made necessary for the following reasons
1. To prevent spread of infections like typhoid, cholera, diarrhoea and other diseases that spread in dirty
environments.
2. To keep the room smelling fresh and thus making the patient feel relaxed.
3. Disorganized rooms are not pleasant to the eye and could keep the patient uncomfortable
Accessibility
The sickroom should be easily accessible by the patient and also the home nurse and the family members. When
the patient for example goes out, he/she should easily be able to go back or is taken back to the room.
Preferably, the room should not require the climbing of stairs or negotiating many corners to get to.
Inside the room, the most essential items and equipments used by the patient e.g. bed pans, clothes, radio should
be in places that do not require too much effort to reach and manipulate e.g. opening of wardrobes, starting the
radio e.t.c.

TASK 2 : STATING THE ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT AND FURNITURE IN A SICK ROOM

A well organized sick room should have the following items to be able to keep the room clean and serve the
immediate needs to the patient.
 A bed
 Bed sheets
 Blankets
 Mackintosh
 Bedcover
 A draw sheet
 A bed pan to assist in excretion
 Furniture

TASK 3: EXPLAINING THE USE AND CARE OF ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENTS AND FURNITURE IN
A SICK ROOM
It should be noted the sick room could be contaminated with many infections. In the care of the equipment in the
sick room, the general procedures in house keeping should be followed.
 The most important addition is the consistent use of protection and the use of disinfectants to avid
spread of infection either from patient or to the patient.
 The bed pan should be cleaned immediately it is used and disinfected.
 The mackintosh should be wiped too often especially is the patient is incontinent and thus wets the bed.

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  The bed and furniture should also be disinfected since the patient could be touching them and thus
transferring the infectious agents. He/ she could also be getting infections from the furniture if visitors
leave infectious agents on the furniture. Note that the immune system of the patient could be very low.
 The bedding must be aired daily. The bed sheets should be changed everyday or as soon as they are
soiled. They should be washed and thoroughly disinfected and left to dry in direct sunshine.
 The blankets should also be occasionally washed and disinfected most importantly before any one else
uses them after the sick person has recovered.

TASK 4: OUTLINING THE PROCEDURES OF CLEANING AND PREPARING A SICK

ROOM

1. Collect all materials and equipment needed to clean the room and gather them neatly outside the door.
2. Put protective clothing such as overall, good flat soled shoes and gloves
3. If the patient can sit up, let him/her to do so on a comfortable chair outside the room. Cover them well
to protect from chills and draught.
4. Make the bed methodically and proceed to the cleaning process ensuring you thoroughly clean every
surface
5. Do not raise dust. Use damp dusting and mopping in removal of dirt and dust.
6. Avoid having doors and windows open at the same time to keep out draught.
7. Use warm disinfected water to clean and rinse systematically
8. After cleaning, tidy the room and rearrange items used by the patient. Provide a suitable flower
arrangement to make the room look attractive.
9. Ensure that things the patient may require are placed close and conveniently
10. Place a basin with clean disinfected water, a hand towel and antiseptic soap on a stand or stool near the
door for use by those attending to the patients.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN THE SPREAD OF INFECTIONS

When caring for patients with infectious diseases, it is important to take precautions to avoid being infected as
the home nurse or even spread to family members. The following should be observed.
1. Wearing of protective clothing like overalls, gloves nose and mouth masks when attending to a patient.
2. Turn away if the patient sneezes or coughs when attending to him or her. A respiratory disease like TB,
cold can be transmitted in this manner.
3. Provide the patient with disposable handkerchiefs that can be put in a paper bag and burned.
4. The room should have proper ventilation to prevent warm and moist environment which promotes
infection spread.
5. Take bed pans and urinals to the toilet and flush away their contents immediately. Wash your hands
using soap and a disinfectant after this exercise.
6. Food left over by the patient should be disposed off immediately to avoid attracting flies which spread
diarrhoeal diseases.
7. Use a fly repellent spray to keep the room and toilet free from flies and other insects.
8. Children should use toys that are clean and can be cleaned regularly.
9. The patient’s bedding should be cleaned and disinfected regularly and more so before anyone else uses
them.
10. Only those people immune to some diseases like chicken pox, measles should be allowed to visit the
sick room.
11. Destroying reservoirs of the infective agents e.g. rats in the house.
12. Destroying breeding places of infective agents and vectors e.g. stagnant water where mosquitoes breed
and thus spread malaria.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Textbooks
 Sick room in an institution e.g. those caring for the elderly.
 internet

EVALUATION

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 1. Define the following terms
a) Sick room
b) Ventilation
2. Explain the essential features of a sick room
3. State the essential equipments and furniture in a sick room
4. Explain the use and care of essential equipment and furniture in a sick room
5. Outline the procedure of cleaning and preparation of a sick room

8.1.07 INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID

This module is designed to provide competence relevant to understanding first aid, principles of first aid, the
guidelines and responsibilities of a first aider
Specific objectives
- Define the terms
- Explain the importance of first aid
- State the principles of first aid
- State the scope of first aid
- List the responsibilities of a first aider worker
- State the qualities of a first aid worker.

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 - Definition of terms
- First aid:First treatment given to a patient before being taken to a doctor to reduce pain and to
save life.
- First aid kit: it is a kit that contains first aid equipments and requirements
- First aider: The person who offers first aid to a patient or casualty injured person

Task 2 - Importance of first aid

- Saving life
- Prevention of further injuries
- Helping the casualties to recover from the injury
- Carrying out measures to relief pain or reduce pain to the patient
- Presenting of the injured to a medical practitioner for treatment

Task 3 - Scope of first aid

i. Assessing the situation
a. Appear calm
b. Take charge
c. Ensure safety
d. Use bystanders
ii. Diagnosis
a. Listen
b. Smell
c. Look
d. Touch

iii. Treatment
a. Calm the person and be sympathetic
b. Reduce pain and discomfort
c. Handle gently to avoid more harm and pain
d. Protect from cold and damp

iv. after treatment dispose the casualty to hospital

Task 5 - qualities of a first aider

- Observant: Symptoms and signs

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 - Tactful: Find history and symptoms
- Resourceful: Use whatever is at hand
- Dextrous: Handle person gentle and use equipment efficiently
- Explicit: be clear in your instructions to the casualty and or bystanders
- Discriminating: choose priorities
- Preserving: Keep on trying to help the casualty
- Sympathetic: Encourage and comfort the person

LEARNING RESOURCES
- Text books
- Resource person (e.g from St. John Ambulance)

EVALUATION
i. Define the following terms
a. First aid
b. First aid kit
c. First aider

ii. Explain the importance of first aid

iii. Explain the principles and scope of first aid
iv. Give the qualities of a first aider

8.1.08 First aid supplies

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of first aid supplies, the use
and care of first aid supplies, the improvisation of first aid supplies.

Specific objectives
- List first aid supplies.
- Explain the use and care of first aid supplies
- Describe how to improve first aid supplies

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 - First aid supplies

- Bandages, cotton wool, gauze pads, safety pins, scissors, adhesive tape, antiseptic tape,
triangular bandage, pain relievers, petroleum jelly, tweezers ointments, dissecting forceps

Task 2 - Use and care of first aid supplies

- Cotton wool, antiseptic are used for cleaning the wound
- Bandages: used for wrapping wounds
- Safety pins, tweezers: used for removing anything logged in the skin
- Pain relievers e.g panadols: used to relief or reduce pain on the patient
- Triangular bandage: supporting the arm to prevent more pain
- Razorblades, scissors, surgical blades: used for cutting
- Petroleum jelly, ointments

CARE: All the first aid supplies should be stored in a clean place e.g a lockable box to protect them
from dust and other services of germs

Task 3- Improvisation of first aid supplies

- Clean cloths can be used for bandages
- Sharp strong thorns for safety pins
- Tree backs and banana fibres for strings

LEARNING RESOURCES
- First aid kit

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 - Text books
- Charts
- Resource person

EVALUATION
i. give the components of a first aid kit and explain their uses.
ii. Explain the care given to the first aid supplies
iii. Explain ways in which one can improves first aid supplies

8.1.09 common accidents and ailments in the home

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of first aid.

Specific objectives
- define terms
- list common accidents in the home
- state cause of common accidents
- explain prevention of common accidents
- outline first aid procedures for common ailments in the home
- identify common ailments in the home
- describe the management of common ailments
- explain prevention of common ailments

UNIT TASKS
Task 1- Definition of terms
i. ailments: an illness that is not very serious
ii. Accidents: A sudden, unexpected and planned occurrence which results in an injury of
one form or another

Task 2 - Common accidents in the home

i. Sprains: This is when the ligaments and tissues at a joint are wrenched or torn

Symptoms & signs:

- Pain and tenderness at the joint which increase the movement. Swelling and later bruising
ii. Choking: caused by a large lump of food which sticks at the back of the throat thus
stopping breathing. It blocks the air passage making one unconscious.

Signs: Victim cannot talk or breathe and may not be able to explain what is happening. A
person who is choking will look faint and become unconscious due to lack of oxygen.

iii. Nose bleeding; it can occur after a punch, sneezing, blowing or picking the nose. The
person can swallow or breath the blood

iv. Cuts and bruises: wounds are abnormal break in the skin which lets blood escape. If
wound is on outside germs can get in and cause infection.
- Bruises are caused by a fail or punch.

v. Fainting: brief loss of consciousness caused by the person temporarily not having
enough oxygen flowing to the brain. Caused by sudden pain, fright or emotion, lack of food,
or standing still for a long time.
Signs: Pulse slow and weak and the person looks pale

vi. Fractures: A broken or cracked bone. A closed fracture has no physible wound where
as an open fracture has a wound close to it.
Signs: Pain on the injured part especially when touched
- Swelling of the injured part
- Lack of control if fractured part is limb

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- Some deformity such as a depression on the skull or limb, shortening or abnormal rotation of
the limb.

vii. Burns and scalds: burns are caused by dry heat while scalds are the result of stream or
boiling liquids on the skin.
viii. Objects in the eye, nose and ears.
ix. Epileptic fits: problems with the normal electrical activity of the brain.
Signs: day dreaming staring blankly in the distance.
- person behaves strangely
- loss of memory

x. Bites and stings: insects cause stings which are more painful and alarming. Dogs bite and
cause wounds.
Signs
 Unexpected sharp pain
 Swelling around the area with central reddened puncture point. Some people who are allergic
may have severe shock or difficulty in breathing.

Task 3- causes of common accidents

- Sharp objects or tools in the house especially those found in the kitchen such as knives, razer
blades, edges of utensils etc
- Hard or sharp objects in the compound such as stones, broken bottles and glasses, old tins,
splinters, thorns etc
- Wet floors can be slippery and therefore cause sudden falls.
- Fires started accidentally or unguarded open fires used in or outside the house can cause
damage not only to people but also to properly.
- Steam from boiling liquids or food can cause serious scalds
- Insect bites or stings from some pets such as spiders, bees and ticks
- Dog bites are common where dogs are kept as pets and watch dogs as well as from stray dogs
in the neighborhood
- Snake bites in the area where snakes are found
- Exposed electric wires or some house hold appliances or faulty wiring system in the house.
- Poisoning by chemical substances used or stored in the home such as medicines as well as
gases and contaminated foods.
- Suffocation through lack of adequate air with a pillow on the face, charcoal jikos are left
burning in a room without adequate ventilation or plastic bags pulled over heads by young
children.
- Improper use of kitchen tools and utensils and other equipments

Task 4 - Prevention of common accidents

- Ensure that all sharp objects and tools such as knives, pangas and needles are used and
stored correctly and out of the reach of children. Edges of utensils that are likely to cut
should be blunted or smoothened appropriately.
- The house and the compound should be cleared of all sharp objects such as broken
bottles, glass, pieces of wood etc. All these should be collected and disposed of
appropriately. Holes and pits not in use should be filled up or covered
- Fires should be used correctly and guarded as much as possible. Avoid starting fires
unnecessarily. Keep lighters and match boxes safely, out of the reach of young children.
Cigarettes should be properly extinguished. Fire extinguishers are essential in buildings
- Children should be taught the ganger of fires
- Floors in the house should be kept clean and dry all the time. Wet and slippery floors can
cause nasty falls. Special attention should be given to kitchen and bathroom floors. Wipe
and spill off food, water and other liquids immediately.
- Hot boiling water should be covered. Boiling or cooking foods should be well covered
and when removed from heat containers should be placed in a safe place. Handles of pans

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 and pots should be turned to the side of the cooker to prevent tipping over due to
accidental handling.
- Protect the house and its surrounding from harmful insects and animals. Keep the house
and the surrounding clean to discourage pets. Clear undesirable vegetation to discourage
mosquitoes, rats and snakes. Train and control dogs in the homes
- All substances that are likely to cause poisoning should be stored separately and out of the
reach of children. These include medicines, home chemicals and insecticides as well as
some cleaning substances such as paraffin, turpentine, bleach etc. They should be stored
in well labeled containers with fitting covers.
- Inflammable substances such as paraffin petrol and mentholated spirit should be sealed
when not in use and stored away from food. Cooking gas should be used correctly and
turned off when not in use.
- Insulation on electric cords should be checked and repaired regularly to prevent shock and
electrocution. All large electric equipment should be properly earthed. All electrical
switches switched off when not in use.
- Ventilate rooms well and discourage use of incomplete burning charcoal in closed rooms.
Discourage children from using pillows or cushions, to cover their faces when playing or
sleeping. Keep polythene bags out of children reach and teach them not to slip them over
their heads.

Task 5 First aid procedures for the common accidents in the home.
i. Sprains: Rest and support the joint and if the sprain is recent apply an ice
bag or a cold compress for 30min or a firm bandage over a good layer of cotton wool.
- elevate the injured limb
- if symptoms persist, seek medical aid

ii. chocking:
- Cough with some force to expel choking object. Lean forward on the back of chair the
edge of a sink to produce a quick upward thrust on the upper part of the abdomen to expel
the object.
-
- If the victim is conscious ask him or her to cough forcefully to dislodge the food or
whatever is causing the obstruction.
- If coughing does not help stand behind the affected person and place your closed fist at
the abdomen where the ribs divide. Grasp the fist with the other hand and press suddenly
and sharply into the patient’s abdomen using an upward throst as well. Repeat this several
times if necessary. These dislodge the obstruction.
- If the victim is unconscious, turn him or her to one side , kneel across the victim and put
your hand on top of the other over the upper part of the abdomen. Then press suddenly
and sharply into the victim’s abdomen. Repeat several times if necessary.
- When the food is dislodged, remove it carefully from the victims mouth.
- Finally turn the victim into the recovery position as treat as unconsciousness
- If the obstruction does not dislodge, call for help immediately and send the victim to the
hospital.

iii. Nose bleeding

- Get the person to sit with the head forward
- Loosen the tight clothing around the neck and chest
- Get casualty to breath through the mouth and pinch the soft part of the nose firmly
- Advice not to swallow any blood
- Do not let the person lift the head
- Do not plug the nose but clean around it.
- When bleeding stops tell the casualty not to blow the nose for at least an hour.
- Get the medical help if bleeding starts again
- If bleeding does not stop within an hour, seek medical help.

iv. Cuts and bruises

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- Bleeding of small wounds usually stops as the blood clots at the part where the skin is broken
- If clotting does not occur, make an effort to stop bleeding by pressing where the blood comes
from lift up limbs and kept the injured part at rest.
- Prevent infection by not touching the wound and using sterile equipment and dressing to clean
and dress the wound
- Clean the wound with cotton wool dipped in sterile, weak salt solution and clean boiled water.
Remove only the dirty that must be removed. Clean outwards and away from the wound.
- Cover the wound with clean gauze and then bandage carefully but correctly avoiding pressure
on the wound. Elastoplasts may be used for small wounds.
- For more serious wounds whose bleeding will not stop, place a pad and bandage on the side of
the wound nester of the heart of the patient. If pad is not available use a handkerchief or
anything that will apply pressure to reduce bleeding. Take the patient to the hospital
immediately for further attention.
- Grazes and bruises may not need to be covered with bandages. Cover bruises with cols pad
and raise the affected limb. If there is a swelling seek medical advice.
v. Fainting:
- If the person feels unsteady advise to sit and lean forward with the head between the knees.
Get the person to take deep breaths.
- If the person is standing in a crowd advice to tighten and relax the leg muscles and move the
toes until air circulation improves.
- If unconscious lay the person down raise the leg muscles and open airways
- Loosen and tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist.
- Make sure they have enough fresh air around them and if necessary place in the shade.
- Check breathing rate, pulse and levels of responsiveness

vi Fractures
- Do not move the patient as movement could cause more damage.
- If there is bleeding, stop it and cover the wound with sterile dressing to prevent infect ion.
- A splint or sling may be used depending on the part of the limb or body affected for easier
transportation to hospital. The split also ensures that the injured part is well supported thus
inducing chances of further damage.
- Put patient on the stretcher and take him or her to the hospital

vi. Burns and scalds:

- Prevent further damage by removing affected person from the source of the burn or scald
- Cool the burned areas as quickly as possible after burning by pouring cold water in the burn
using a tap, bucket, basin or any other suitable container
- In the case of chemical burns, wash the burns immediately under a running tap or shower so as
to remove the chemical and dilute any remaining chemical.
- To prevent infection cover the burn quickly with a sterile dressing which covers more than the
affected area. Sterilized and well ironed handkerchiefs or sheets can also be used.
- Do not burst or break blisters and do not apply lotion grease or antiseptic
- Minor burns and scalds can be covered with sterile gauze and bandaged lightly with clean
bandage
- Do nor touch the burned area with your hands
- Avoid handling or undressing the patient on the burned or scolded area with your hands.
- Avoid handling or undressing the patient on the burned or scolded area unless it is absolutely
necessary
- Help minimize the effects of loss of fluids from affected tissues by giving plenty of fluids and
drinks.
- Conscious patients with burns should be given water or milk regularly until they are at
hospital for treatment. No drinks should be given to unconscious person
- Remain calm and keep reassuring the patient from time to time to relieve anxiety.
- Take the patient to the hospital as soon as possible.

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NB. All heat burns must be cooled immediately for at least 10 minutes.

vii. Objects in the eye, nose and ears.

Eye
- Tell the person not to rub the eye. Ask to sit facing the light and lean back. Stand behind and
hold chin steady with one hand use thumb or fore finger of the other hand to separate the eye
lid. Ask person to look right, left, up and down. If the foreign body is seen use sterile water
solution. Tilt the head towards injured side so that water drips. If the foreign body do not wash
away or if no water is available then lift it with a wet swap or corner of a wet handkerchief.

Ear
- Reassure the person, seek medical advice. If an insect, pour water through the ear.

Nose
- Make the person blow their nose hard for the object to come out. If it doesn’t come out, take
the person to the hospital.

Epileptic fits
Minor:
- Keep the person safe
- Keep other people away
- Talk calm and quietly to the person
- Stay with the casualty until the person has recovered and can get home.
- Advice to see a doctor
- Watch for symptoms and signs of a major fir

Major
- Help the person down if falling
- If possible loosen cloths round the neck and something under the head
- Do not move the person unless there is danger
- Do not try to hold the person down
- Do not put anything in the mouth or try to open it.
- When the jerking movements (convulsions) have finished, place the person in the recovery
position
- Do no t wake the person.
- Stay with the person until they have recovered

x. Bites and stings

Stings:
- remove stings using a tweezers holding them near the skin. To relief pain apply cold
compress, surgical spirit or solution of bi-carbonate of soda.
- If pain increase the person should seek medical advice
- Dog bites and other animal bites should be attended to immediately at a hospital by a doctor.

Task 6 common ailments in the home

i. Common cold:
Lasts for a few days
Signs:
- runny nose
- loss of appetite cough
- begins with fever

ii. Highly contagious respiratory infection. Airborne disease covered by droplets from infected people.
Signs
- sore throat

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 - weakness
- fever
- chill
- muscular pain
- coughs
- sudden on set

iii. Coughs
Trouble cough indicates bronchitis which is infection of the bronchial tubes
iv. Tonsillitis
Causes the swelling of tonsils. The person has difficulty swallowing
v. Asthma
The person may be very anxious and have difficult breathing out and have blueness of face
vi. Diarrhoea
Frequent passage of loose watery stool and is usually a symptom of a disease. Stool may have abnormal
crumps and general body weakness. Caused by micro organisms that get into the child’s body through the
food or drinking water.

vii. vomiting
it is the expulsion of stomach contents through the mouth. The content may contain blood
viii. worms
These are the parasites which live in the intestines where they feed on the food eaten or suck on blood e.g.
hook worms, tape worms, round worms.
ix. jigger infestation
These are parasites caused by fleas. They enter the body especially toes and such blood of the victims.
x. fungal infection

Task 7 prevention of common ailments

- Practicing proper hygiene measures that is personal, food and environment.
- Dressing according to weather especially dressing warm during cold weather
- Ensuring that there are no dusty areas in the surroundings.

Task 6 - Management of common ailments

i. Common cold:
- give the child plenty of fluids
- give the child enough rest
- keep him warm
- If the baby develops fever, persistent coughing, vomiting, loss of appetite, laboured breathing,
he or she should be taken to a doctor.
ii. influenza
- bed rest
- adequate fluids
iii. coughs
- the child should be taken for medical attention when there is fever and lack of appetite.
iv. pneumonia
- give plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration
- spounge to reduce fever
- consult a doctor immediately
v. Tonsillitis
- seek medical advice
- gurgle salt to relief the pain
vi. Asthma
- reassure and calm the person
- get the person to sit down and lean forward resting on a support
- provide good supply of air
- let casualty take any medication they have to treat an attack.
vii. Diarrhea

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 - give plenty of fluids
- give the child water with sugar and salt
- consult a doctor
viii. vomiting
- give plenty of fluids
ix. worms
- a person infested with any of these worms should seek medical treatment immediately.
x. jigger infestation
- wash the infested area with disinfectant water and soap for a few minutes until the jiggers float
in the water.
xi. fungal infections
- keep the toes dry all the time.
- Air the feet
- Use antifungal cream or powder

LEARNING RESOURCES
- text books
- journals
- magazines
- first aid supplies
- resource person

EVALUATION
- define the terms
 ailments
 first aid
- give the management of
 common accidents in the home
 common ailments
- explain how to prevent common ailments in the home

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10.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL I

10.1.1 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes conducive to
effective control of operations within the hospitality industry.

10.1.2 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) appreciate the importance of position and sales control
b) understand the process of purchasing, receiving, storing and issuing
c) acquire knowledge in use, care and maintenance of materials and equipment.

10.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO COST CONTROL

10.1.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define catering and accommodation cost control
b) explain the importance of catering and accommodation cost control
c) describe the process of cost control
d) explain the role of the control office
e) describe the cost control cycle

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1: Definining catering and accommodation control

Catering and accommodation control is the guidance and regulation of the costs and revenue of operating the
catering and accommodation activities in hotels, restaurants, hospitals, schools, employee restaurants and other
establishments.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the importance of catering and accommodation control

 Objectives
- Analysis of income and expenditure
- Pricing and Quotation
- Prevention of waste
- Prevention of fraud
- Data for Management report
 Problems in Catering Cost control
- Unpredictability of volume of sales
- Perishability of supplies
- Daily variation in production
- Short cycle of operations
- High degree of departmentalization
- Multiplicity of low value transactions

Unit Task 3Describing the process of control
 Phase 1-Basic Policy Decisions
- Financial Policy
- Marketing and Catering Policy
 Phase 2-Operational control
- Buying
- Receiving
- Storing and Issuing
- Preparing
- Selling
 Phase 3 – Control after the Event
- Catering reporting

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 - Accommodation reporting
- Assessment of results
- Corrective action where appropriate
Unit Task 4Explaining the role of the control office
 Formulation of Budgets
 Formulation of Marketing Policy
 Formulation of Catering & Accommodation Policy
 Preparation of Catering and Accommodation reports
 Analysis of Catering and accommodation reports
 Taking corrective action where appropriate

Unit Task 5 Describing The Control cycle

The control cycle of daily operation

Suggested questions
1. Explain what you understand by food and beverage control
2. Explain the objectives of food and beverage control
3. Enumerate the main obstacles to food and beverage control.
4. What are the three main phases of food and beverage control

10.1.02 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED IN COST CONTROL

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Identify equipment and materials used in cost control
b) Explain the use of equipment and materials

Unit task 1 Identifying equipment and materials used in cost control

 Calculator
 Weighing scales
 Measuring jugs

Unit task 2 explaining the use of cost control equipment and material

10.1.03 PURCHASING

10.1.03T Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of purchasing function
c) state the duties of the purchasing personnel
d) explain standard purchase specification
e) discuss methods of purchasing.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining terms
 Purchasing
This is a function concerned with the search, selection, purchase, receipt, storage and final use of goods in an
establishment.
 Purchasing Officer
This is the person employed by the establishment to purchase, receive, store and issue commodities.
 Purchasing Research
- Market and materials
- Cost analysis

Unit Task2 Explaining the Importance of purchasing function

Policies - determine what market segment is aimed at.
Determines price to be paid for purchases (re-quality)and prices that items are to sold
at.
Determines the quality to be purchased

Menu - Determines the choice of items available to customers

Volume forecasting determines the quantity to be purchased

Requisition - Indicates the particular requirements of each outlet

Purchasing - Selects suppliers, contracts, quantities to be purchased,

specifications for individual items
- Ensures continuity of supply

Receiving - Inspects for quantity and quality

Storing - Correct storage for each item

- Maintenance of stock records
- Security of items
- Correct stock levels
- Correct issuing

Production - Preparation of items purchased

Selling - Provision of satisfactory products at the correct selling

Price/cost
Control - The measurement of performance of all outlets involved.
- Feedback of information to management.
Unit Task3 Stating the duties of the purchasing personnel
Purchasing Officer
1. Responsibility for the management of the purchasing office, the receiving, storage and cellar areas
2. the purchasing of all commodities
3. Ensuring continuity of supply of all items to user departments
4. finding cheaper (for same quality) and more efficient sources of supply
5. Keeping up to date with all the market being dealt with and evaluating new products
6. Research into products, markets, price trends etc.
7. Co-coordinating with production department to standardize commodities and therefore reduce stock
levels

350
 8. Liaising with production, control, accounts and marketing departments
9. Reporting to senior management.

Unit task4 Explaining standard purchase specification

 Definition
A concise description of the quality, size and weight or count factors required for a particular item
 Objectives
- To establish a buying standard for a particular commodity for an establishment
- To inform the supplier in writing precisely what the purchaser requires
- To establish a common denominator between the purchasing officer and the approved suppliers
for settling the price of a commodity
- To inform the receiving clerks and the store man what to accept
- To obtain a standard product for the production and selling departments
- To obtain a standard product so that the measurement of performance of department can be more
accurate.

SAMPLE: Standard Purchase Specification

Ref. No. Name of Operation Date
(for easy (State name and address) (When prepared)
reference)
1. Product Name…………………………………
This must be the exact and specific name as used in the trade e.g. Red Cabbage

2. Product Use(s)
Clearly indicate the product use, e.g. to be used for making red cabbage salad

3. Product General Description

Provide general quality information about the desired product. For example, Red Cabbage:
Heads to be deep red in colour, firm, without spoilage, excessive dirt or damage.
4. Detailed Description
State other quality factors that help to clearly identify the desired product. Specific factors
may include some or all of the following:
 Geographical origin – a particular country or region in the same country
 Variety or type- specify where different varieties are available
 Brand name – applicable for processed products with several brands in the market
 Package size e.g. Red cabbage heads of medium size, packed 12 heads per case

5. Product Test Procedures

Specify to the supplier what procedures will be used to test for product quality and
quantity at the time of receiving or when the product is being prepared or used. Thus Red
cabbage packed 24 heads per case can be counted, while products delivered under
refrigeration can be checked for temperature using a thermometer.
6. Special Instructions and Requirements
Include any additional information to clearly communicate to the supplier the quality
expectations of the product, e.g. labeling, packaging and delivery requirements like
delivery date after placing order.

Unit Task5 Discussing methods of purchasing

 The Purchasing Procedure

- The initiation of a request to purchase goods by an authorized member of the staff
- Determining of the source of supply from which goods are to be purchased and the price to be
paid
- Entering into a contract with the firm/supplier selected
- Obtaining a satisfactory delivery performance from the supplier with regard to time, date and
place of delivery

351
 - The acceptance of goods ordered and the adjustment of any discrepancies in quality or quantity
of goods delivered
- The transfer of commodities to the ordering department or to the stores or cellar.

 Selection of a supplier
- Price performance
- Quality performance
- Delivery performance
- Supplier rating

 Methods of purchasing
- Cash and carry
- Purchasing by contract
- Daily quotation sheets (daily market lists)
- Weekly/fortnightly quotation sheets
- Purchasing by paid reserve
- Total supply
- Cost plus
 Documents used in purchasing
- Purchase order form
- Purchase requisition sheets
- Price Quotations/ Price Lists
- Purchase Specification

352
SAMPLE OF A PURCHASE ORDER FORM

PURCHASE ORDER

TO: (supplier) Order date: -------

Address-------------------------- From/Deliver to: ---------------------
(Name of F&B operation)
Address-------------------
Please Supply: Delivery date--------------
No. Description Qty Required unit Size Unit Price Amount

Total Cost

Important
This purchase order expressly limits acceptance to the terms and conditions stated above, and
any additional terms and conditions affixed hereto or otherwise referenced. Any additional
conditions proposed by seller are objected to and rejected.

-------------------------------
Authorized Signature

SAMPLE FORMAT OF A QUOTATION

From ----------------------- Quote No. -------------------

(Supplier)
Address --------------------- Date ------------------------
To: -----------------------------
----------------------------------- Terms:

No. Description Quantity Unit Size Unit 10% Net Unit Price
Price Trade
Discount

Total

Conditions e.g.
1. All prices quoted are valid for 30 days.
2. Prices are inclusive of 10% VAT

353
 SAMPLE: PURCHASE REQUISITION FORM

FOOD PURCHASE REQUISITION

Name of F& B Operation

---------------------------------------------------- Serial No. --------------

From: ------------------- To: Purchasing Date ------------- Date Required -----------------

(Kitchen or food stores)
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. Col. 4 Col. Col. 6 Col. 7 Col. 8 Col. 9 Col. 10 col. 11
3 5
Previous Product Size On Qty. Suggested supplier previous purch
price Description Unit hand required
name name name
paid
price price price Qty Date

Purchase Stores Bin Kg,Lt, Store Stores Purchasing: Name of Name of Purchase Purch
index& Cards& Ml,pc Bin or dept. Former alternative alternative supplier suppl
quotes Price Lists card need supplier index index

Prepared By ----------------------------------------------------------------- ---

------------------------------

Head of Dept./ Storekeeper Signature

PURCHASING OF BEVERAGES

The purchasing of beverages is similar in many ways to the purchasing of food, that is, buying
the best possible products for the established standards as laid down in the catering policy. As
beverages can frequently contribute more to profits than food does, it is essential that adequate
attention is given to this area.
When operating a wine list of any standard, it is important to ensure beforehand that suppliers
are able to guarantee the caterer continuity of supply for at least six months, or else the wine
list need to be printed too frequently.

The major sources of supply of beverages are:

a. Wine shippers: these are firms that buy wine in the country of origin and supervise the
shipment of it to the country in which it will be sold. The Shipper is often a specialist of
just one region, and so is an expert for that region. To the purchasing officer, a Shipper is
able to offer a limited range of high quality products as well as specialist advice. The
accepted drawbacks to using Shippers are that normally they will only deal with the large
catering companies or prestigious establishments, the product range is limited, the
minimum order level is too large for the storage facilities available to most catering
establishments, and the frequency of delivery and post-sales service is limited.
b. Wholesalers: these are either independent or subsidiary companies of a large brewery.
They will usually sell any proprietary beverage product that is required, but as a first
preference will sell their own label products. Wholesalers offer a very wide range of
products, a good and regular delivery service, a good after sale service and also offer

354
 fringe services such as free printing of wine lists and promotional material for both bars
and table service. The accepted disadvantage to this method is the anonymity of the
service, as usually only a sales representative is seen by the caterer as a lack of specialist
knowledge and prices not being as competitive.
c. Cash and Carry: these establishments offer a limited range of wines, spirits, and beers at
very keen prices, but do not offer any specialist advice on the products or any post-sales
service. Cash and carry establishments are useful in emergencies, or for catering units
with a limited demand for beverages.
d. Suspended Debt: This method is operated by some wine and spirit companies. The
company invoices the caterer for his initial opening stock, but requests payment only on
subsequent invoices, the first being “suspended” until the account is closed. This method
is useful to small catering concerns when opening up in business or new units, as it frees
cash which would otherwise have been tied up in stock. The main disadvantage is that of
being tied to one supplier.
e. Cellar Stocks and Suspended Debt Accounts: this method is similar to the one above.
The supplier agrees with the caterer as to what his monthly par stock should be. The
supplier then stocks the cellar free of charge, all opening stock levels being recorded in a
cellar ledger. Stock is then taken at the end of the month, and all items issued from the
cellar are charged to the caterer. The par stock is then made good by the supplier. The
main advantage is that the initial cellar stock is not charged against the caterer, only that
part of it that is issued during the month. The main drawback is that of being tied to one
supplier.
PURCHASING SPECIFICATION FOR BEVERAGES

The purchasing specifications for beverages are much simpler to understand due to the fact that
beverages are sold and purchased by the brand name label of the product, each having a consistent
quality and quantity standard of content for each selling unit e.g. bottles, barrels. As the
specification is brief, it can always be written in full on a purchase order. However specifications
for wines would also include details of vintage and supplier. It should be noted that as the quality,
consistency and quantity are virtually guaranteed, the price to pay for the product is important as it
is one factor that is not constant. It is for this reason that close attention is given by the purchasers
to offers by suppliers of special discounts

Sample Purchase Specification for Beverages

Pointer Hotels (UK) ltd

Beverage Purchase specification
year: 2008

Size
V Specification Magnum Bottle Half
i Bottl
n e
t
a
g
e
Champagne:

1 Bollinger, extra quality, brut √ √ √

9
7
0
1 Moet & Chandon, Cuvee √ √ -
9 Dom Perignon
6
9

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1 Tattinger, Blanc de Blancs, - √ -
9 brut
6
9
---------------

Suggested Questions

1. Explain the importance of the purchasing function in a catering control system

2. Prepare a job specification for a purchasing officer for a new large luxury hotel.
3. Explain the objectives of preparing a standard purchase specification.

10.1.04 RECEIVING

10.1.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the aims of receiving goods
c) describe the records and documents used in receiving goods
d) outline the procedures of receiving goods
e) explain the importance of time tabling deliveries
f) describe the process of tagging

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1Defining terms
 Receiving.

Administrative function that involves checking of the quality, quantity, and condition of the incoming goods
followed by their proper storage.

Point at which the possession (but not necessarily the title) of goods is transferred from the seller to the
buyer

 Blind receiving
Is a method of receiving whereby the receiving clerk is compelled to count and weigh all goods coming into
the establishment. He uses a purchase order which lists all the goods purchased but does not show the
quantities of such goods.

 Returnable containers
They are reusable containers that must be returned to the supplier failure to which the establishment is
surcharged.

Unit Task2 Explaining aims of receiving

 To ensure that:
-The quantity of goods delivered matches the quantity which has been ordered.
-The quality of goods delivered is in accordance with the specification stated on
the purchase form
-The prices stated on the delivery note are in accordance with the prices on the purchase order form
-When the quality or quantity (or both) of goods delivered is not in accordance with the purchase order or an
item is omitted from the order a request for credit note is raised by the receiving clerk.
-An accurate record is made in the goods received book recording details of the delivery

Unit Task3 Describing records and documents used in receiving goods

-Purchase orders

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 -Delivery note
-Goods received books
-Credit note
-Meat tag

Sample format of Delivery Note

DELIVERY NOTE
From: ________________________ Serial No. ___________
(Supplier)

Address: ______________________

______________________ Purchase Order No. ___________

To: ________________________
(Name of F&B Operation) Date: _______________

Address: ______________________

______________________

NO. Product Description Unit Size Qty Unit Price Date Delivered

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Remarks:

Goods Received By: ______________________ __________________

Name Signature

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Sample format of Goods Returned Form

GOODS RETURNED NOTE (FORM)

(REQUEST-FOR-CREDIT MEMO)
________________________
(Name of F&B Operation)
Serial
Address: ______________________ No. _______________

______________________

To: ________________________ Date: _______________

(Supplier)

Address: ______________________

______________________

Invoice No. _______________ Invoice Date: _______________

Unit Amount
NO. Product Description Unit Size Qty Price (P) Reason(s)

Total

Delivery Person: ______________________ __________________

Authorizing Officer: ______________________ __________________

Name Signature

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 Sample format of Delivery Invoice

DELIVERY INVOICE

From: ________________________ Serial No. _______________

(Supplier)

Address: ______________________

______________________

To: ________________________ Purchase Order No. __________

(Name of F&B Operation)

Address: ______________________

______________________ Date: _______________

NO. Product Description Unit Size Qty Unit Price Amount (P)

Total

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A SAMPLE OF A FOOD TAG
Item: --------------------
Cut: ----------------------
Total wt. ----------------
Price per kg. ------------
Total value --------------
Dealer -------------------
Date ---------------------

Food control copy No: 11970

--------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Item: --------------------------
Cut: ---------------------------
Total: -------------------------
Price per kg. -----------------
Total value -------------------
Dealer -------------------------
Date ---------------------------

Food store room copy

Return to Food Control on
Issues from stores
No: 11970

Unit Task 4 Outlining the receiving procedure of goods

-A quick check is made against the delivery note and a copy of the order to check that majority
of the goods has been delivered. If there is a major difference between the delivery note and the
order placed, this must be queried immediately.
-The goods, on being unloaded are checked for quantity.
-The goods are checked for quality in accordance with the purchasing specifications wherever
possible.

Unit Task5 Explaining the importance of time tabling deliveries

- To ensure the delivery staff do not waste time queuing up to make a delivery.
- To ensure that the receiving clerk has a succession of delivery being made instead of
several being made at the same time
- To ensure the receiving clerk has more time to do his job thoroughly
Unit Task6 Describing the tagging process
 Definition
- Tagging refers to the process of identifying expensive food commodities (animal proteins)
through labelling
 Reasons for tagging
- It aids the control of expensive foods
- It requires the receiving clerk to weigh and record each item and to check against the
specific purchase specification weight range
- It assists in obtaining a more accurate daily food cost percentage figure
- It assists in controlling the stock level of these items
 Procedure of tagging
- on receiving the item they are checked against the purchase specification as to being
acceptable or not
- If suitable a tag is made out for each item received with the main information being taken
from the invoice or delivery note. The weight recorded on the tag is obtained by actually
weighing each item individually
- The tag is then separated along the perforation with control office copies being sent direct
to the control with the invoice or delivery note and the kitchen copy being attached by
string or wire to the food item

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 - When the item is issued at a later date to the kitchen for use the tag attached to the item is
removed and sent to control with the date of issue filled in.
- The control office will usually operate a reconciliation of meat tags form, recording the
tags received from the receiving department and from the kitchen.

Suggested Questions
1. Prepare a purchase order for a three course meal for 25 people.
2. Explain what is meant by the term blind receiving
3. Given examples of situations that may require the receiving clerk to reject the delivery or part
delivery of goods.

10.1.05 STORING AND ISSUING

10.1.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe types of stores
b) explain stock-taking
c) explain stock levels
d) explain methods of pricing issues
e) describe details of records and documents used in issuing goods

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1 Describing types of stores
 Centralized Stores
This is whereby materials are kept in one central warehouse and are issued from one central point only.
 Decentralized Stores
This is whereby materials are held and issued by sub-stores in each department or branch
 Imprest stores
This is whereby the materials are received and held by the central stores but some of them are issued to
some sub-stores on the basis of imprest system. This system operates in a similar way to a petty cash
imprest system. A specific quantity of each item of material is issued to the store keeper of a specific
department at the start of any period. At the end of his period the storekeeper will inform about the number
of items of any material used for production.

Unit Task2 Explaining stock taking

o Definition
Stock taking means to physically check the stock item in order to ensure that stock quantities shown on
stock records and actual quantities are the same.
o Methods of stocktaking
Perpetual Inventory
Periodic stocktaking
Continuous Stocktaking
o Stock Control
This means making sure that the business has the right quantity of goods, in the right place and at the right
time. Stock control has the following objectives:
-To ensure the availability of goods when required.
-To account for the goods which have been purchased
-To reduce the storage costs as much as possible.
-To minimise the risks of deterioration, waste and theft.
-To maintain accurate records.
-To avoid overstocking or under stocking.

Unit Task3 Explaining stock levels

o Definition
This is the level at which any item of stock is to be held. Stock levels should neither be too high nor
too low.

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 o Main determinants of stock levels
1. The maximum and minimum forecast usage figures for the trading period, which would based on the
forecast volume of sales and past histories
2. The re-ordering time for the item.
3. The economic ordering quantity.
4. Market trends, including changes in delivery, price and scarcity.
5. The storage space available.
6. The shelf-life of the item.
7. Budget available for purchasing.

o Setting stock levels

Some stock levels are set up by an enterprise as a policy matter. These are as under:
1. Maximum stock level – This is the level beyond which the stock should not be allowed to rise. It is
desirable that the level should be as low as possible but it must be adequate according to the
requirements of the enterprise.(MAXIMUM STOCK LEVEL= MINIMUM STOCK LEVEL + RE-
ORDER QUANTITY + (RE-ORDER QUANTITY + MIN CONSUMPTION x MIN RE-ORDER
PERIOD)
2. Minimum stock level _ this is the level below which stocks should not be allowed to fall. If stock falls
below this level then there is possibility of production stoppages due to lack of material. This level is
also called a buffer stock. (RE-ORDER LEVEL – (NORMAL CONSUMPTION x NORMAL RE-
ORDER PERIOD)
3. Re-order level – This is the point at which a purchase order must be sent to the supplier for the supply
of more materials. This level is higher than minimum stock level but lower than the maximum stock
level. (Max CONSUMPTION x MAX RE-ORDER PERIOD)
4. Re-order quantity – This is the quantity for which a purchase order is placed.
5. Average stock level – This is the average of maximum and minimum stock levels. (MAX STOCK
LEVEL + MIN STOCK LEVEL/2 )

Unit Task4 Explaining methods of pricing issues

1. First in first out (FIFO)
This method assumes that the goods issued are those which have been longest on hand and that those
remaining in stock represent the latest purchases or production. The stocks whose cost is to be carried
forward were acquired most recently. The materials are normally issued at the cost price of that
consignment which was received first. When this consignment is finished then the cost price of the next
consignment is charged to value the material issues. This procedure is followed continuously.

2. Last in First out (LIFO)

This method assumes that the goods issued on any particular date are those which were most recently
acquired and therefore stocks whose cost is to be carried forward are those which were acquired earliest.
The procedure of this method is exactly reverse of the FIFO method. Materials are issued at the cost price of
that consignment which was received most recently.

3. Simple Average
In this method, a simple average of prices of all consignments in stock is calculated and this average price is
used to value material issues. When the first consignment is exhausted then the price of that consignment is
eliminated and a simple average of the remaining prices is calculated.

4. Weighted Average
This means weighted average price. Under this method, the total value of goods in stock is divided by the
number of unit of stock. The resultant figure is the weighted average price.

5. Base Stock
Under this method, a fixed quantity is carried as base stock. It is assumed that a fixed minimum stock of the
material is always carried at original cost. This minimum stock is also known as base stock because it is
kept for emergencies. The stock is not allowed to fall below this level

6. Replacement Cost

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This method is also known as Next in First Out (nifo). Under this method, material issues are valued at
replacement cost or market value. It means that materials issued are valued according to cost incurred to
replace those materials. This method ensures the valuation of material issues at market or current prices.

7. Standard Price
This means a pre-determined price. A standard price is ascertained taking into consideration a number of
factors e.g. consumption of materials and expected changes in the price of the materials. Under this method,
all material issues are valued at a standard price.

Unit Task5 Describing records and documentations used in storing goods

o Stores ledger
This is a record that shows the quantities and the monetary value of items held in stock. There are three
main columns in this ledger. These are for receipts, issues and stock balance in hand
o Bin cards
A bin card is a stiff card which is kept where the relevant stock item is stored. Goods/materials are stored in
drawers, shelves or racks. A separate bin card is used for each kind of goods. The bin card shows the details
of all receipts, issues and stock in hand. The bin card helps to find out the number of various items in stores
on a particular date.
o Perpetual Inventory Records
Perpetual inventory means the checking of stock items from one day to another. An inventory control card
or record is maintained in the control office for each item held in stock. All quantities of the item received
and issued are recorded with the appropriate date. The information is obtained from the invoices of suppliers
which have been checked for accuracy against the purchase order, delivery note, goods received sheet and
signed requisitions from the departmental stores.
o Transfer Notes
This is an internal form of requisition note which is used when a department requisitions something from
another other than the stores or cellar e.g. the kitchen may make out a transfer note to the dispense bar for
items such as white wine and sherry. The dispense bar may make out a transfer note to the kitchen for
oranges and lemons
o Empties Outward Book
This is a record used to strictly control containers of commodities e.g. crates, barrels, bottles e.t.c. a record
on such containers is kept and updated once they are returned to the suppliers

ADD FORMULAE

Suggested Questions
1. What is meant by storekeeping?
2. Explain the main features of effective storekeeping
3. Distinguish between centralized and decentralized stores
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of centralized stores
5. The following information was obtained from the books of Samaki hotel with regard to the
consumption of wheat flour
Consumption per week: Minimum 600 units
Normal 800 units
Maximum 1200 units
Re-order period Minimum 2 weeks
Normal 3 weeks
Maximum 5 weeks
Re-order Quantity 5000 units
Calculate
i) Re-order level
ii) Minimum stock level
iii) Maximum stock level

10.1.06 PORTION CONTROL

10.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define portion control
b) explain the importance of portion control

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 c) explain portion control techniques.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1 Defining terms
 Portion control
This is the process of controlling the amount of food or beverage served to a customer in
relation to the food or beverage cost and the selling price of an item.
 Standard recipe
This is a written formula for producing a food or beverage item of a specified quality or
quantity for use in a particular establishment.
 Standard portion size
This is the established amount of a food or beverage item to be served to customer
in relation to the food or beverage cost and the selling price of an item.
 Standard yield
This is the edible part of a food or beverage product after preparation and cooking.

Unit Task2 Explaining the importance of portion control

- To maximize profit
- To avoid wastage
- To prevent customer dissatisfaction due to under portioning
- To aid food costing as once the standard portion size has been established the gross profit
may be calculated for that dish.
-

Unit Task3 Explaining portion control techniques

- Use of standard recipes in production
- Use of portion control equipment e.g. soup ladles, scoops, glasses etc
- Use of pre-portioned commodities e.g. sugar sachets, coffee sachets, butter pats e.t.c

Suggested Questions

1. Discuss the role of each of the following in food and beverage control:
 Standard Yield
 Standard recipe
 Standard portion size
2. Explain the importance of portion control to a commercial catering establishment

10.1.07 COSTING AND PRICING

10.1.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain elements of costs
b) discuss methods of pricing products and services

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1 Explaining the elements of costs
 Material cost - It consist of cost of food, beverages and sundry sales such as cigarettes and
tobacco. Food cost consists of the cost of food consumed less the cost of staff meals.

(Material Cost = Opening Stock + Purchases – Closing Stock – Staff Meals)

 Labour Cost – It consist of all the remunerations of the employees both in the form of cash and in kind,
e.g. wages, salaries, bonuses, commissions, staff meals, staff accommodation

 Overhead Cost – These are all other costs apart from material and labour costs e.g. rent, rates,
depreciation, insurance, repair, stationery etc.

 Total Costs – this is the total of material, labour and overhead costs.

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 Gross profit – is the excess of sales over the cost of materials

G.P. = Sales – Material Cost

 Net Margin – This is the excess of sales over the cost of materials and labour

N.M. = Sales – (Material + Labour Costs)

 Net Profit – This is the excess of sales over the total costs

N.P. = Sales – Total Costs

Unit Task2 Discussing methods of pricing products and services

 Methods of pricing
- Pricing based on cost
- Pricing based on the market

 Factors to consider when pricing

-The nature of the demand for the product/service
-The level of the demand for the product/service
-The level of the competition for the product/service
 Pricing objectives
-Maximize profit on the short and long run.
-To increase sales volume
-To increase market share
-To obtain the targeted rate of return on investment
-Stabilize the market prices.
-To maintain market leadership

 The pricing problems

- The basic price level of the establishment and the overall percentage gross profit on
products and services.
- The overall gross profit margin for each revenue producing department.
- The gross profit differentials within departments, menus and wine lists.
- Other related matters such as cover charges, minimum charges, service charges e.t.c

Suggested Questions
1. Explain what you understand by :
-Material cost
-Labour cost
-Overhead cost
-Gross profit
-Net margin
-Net profit

2. The following information was obtained from the books of a restaurant in respect of June 2009.
Sh Cts
Sales 26 000 00
Opening stock_1 JUNE 09 2500 00
Closing stock_30 JUNE 09 3200 00
Purchases 12300 00
Wages and salaries 5600 00
National insurance 300 00
Gas and electricity 800 00
Repairs and renewals 1000 00
Rent and rates 1800 00

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 Insurance 400 00
Postage and telephone 200 00
Printing and stationery 300 00
Depreciation 2000 00

You are required:

-To calculate the elements of cost and to express each as a percentage of sales, assuming Ksh.800 of the
food consumed has been used for staff meals.
-To calculate the gross profit, net margin profit and net profit.
-To calculate the average spending power per customer, assuming that 5900 customers were served in
June 1979

10.1.08 CATERING COST CONTROL

10.1.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of control in food and beverage production
b) discuss control measures during preparation, production and presentation

Unit Tasks
Unit task 1Explaining the importance of cost control in food and beverage production
The principal purpose of food and beverage planning and control systems is
• To avoid excessive costs by reducing waste and other forms of loss to a minimum,
without sacrificing the quality or quantity of the food which goes to the customer
An effective control procedure will serve other purposes as well:
• aid in developing popular menus
• aid in improving the quality of the product
• aid in pricing for profit

Unit task2 Discussing control measures during preparation, production and presentation
 Control measures during preparation
- Accurate weighing
- Use of standard recipes
- Correct preparation methods
- Use of correct tools and equipment
 Control measures during production
- Use of standard recipe
- Use of efficient equipment e.g. non-stick pans
- Strict observation of cooking duration
- Strict observation of cooking temperature
- Choice of the correct production methods
 Control measures during presentation
- Use of correct service equipment
- Use of portion control aids
Suggested Questions
Discuss by use of specific examples the control procedures that chefs should employ when preparing and
cooking foods to avoid wastage thus control food costs.

10.1.09 ACCOMMODATION COST CONTROL

10.1.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of control in housekeeping, laundry and front office

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 b) discuss cost control measures used in housekeeping, laundry and front office

Unit Tasks
Unit task1 Explaining the importance of cost control in housekeeping, laundry and front office
 to make operations more efficient and cost effective
 to evaluate the degree to which departmental objectives are being met
 to take preventive measure against theft, pilferage and misuse of material and equipment
 to prevent wastage of materials

Unit task 2 Discussing cost control measures

 Costs of cleaning and maintenance
- Careful selection, induction and training of all staff
- Standardization of surfaces, furniture, fittings, equipment and cleaning materials
- Use of mechanization- providing sufficient equipment for all staff so that time is not
wasted waiting for equipment to be available.
- Good planning and layout of premises
- Good planning and organization of staff
- Good supervision and means of checking work standards
- Use of standard times for various tasks-- use of job analysis
- Use of work study, method study and work measurement
- Careful purchasing, stores and stock control procedures to prevent abuse and wastage of
materials e.t.c.
- Use of contract services especially for very specialized work.
- Use of preventive and planned maintenance
- Effective use of preventive devices – e.g. mats, bin liners, ashtrays, seals, e.t.c.
- Good communications system
- Keeping up to date with modern technology – being prepared to accept change

10.1.10 CONTROL OF SALES

10.1.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain checking methods
b) describe the distribution of cheques
c) explain billing methods
d) describe methods of payment.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Explaining checking methods
 Importance of checking systems
o To provide the cashier with the information to make up the bills
o To keep a record of all food and drinks used
o To keep a check on stores so that wastage can be minimized and pilferage discovered
o To store information so that the cost of each menu item can be calculated accurately and
the profit made on it worked out
o To provide a breakdown of sales and financial statistics

 Checking methods
o Triplicate checking system
o Duplicate checking system
o Electronic billing machines
o Computerized checking systems
Unit Task2 Describing the distribution of checks
 For control purposes the following information must filled on a food check
-Table number
-Number of covers

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 -Date
-Signature of the waiter/waitress taking the order

Sample food check before and after order is taken

(Name of Establishment)
Table No. --------- No. of Covers --------------

Top copy

Date ----------------- Signed ----------------------

(Name of Establishment)
Table No. ----------4------------- No. of Covers -----------2-------

1 Tomato juice
1 Crème Dubary
*****
1 Beef stew
1 Roast chicken
2 P.fondant
Date 2/02/2010 Signed Joy

 Distribution of checks in the triplicate system

- The top copy of the food order goes to the kitchen and is handed to the aboyeur
- The duplicate goes to the cashier who makes out the guest’s bill.
- The third copy is retained by the waiter at his/her sideboard as a means of reference.
 Distribution of checks in the duplicate system
- The top copy of the food order goes to the kitchen and is handed to the aboyeur at the hotplate.
- The duplicate goes to the cashier who makes out the guest’s bill.

Unit Task 3 Explaining billing methods

1. Bill as check Second copy of order used as a bill

2. Separate bill Bill made up from duplicate check and presented to customer
3. Bill with order Service to order and billing at the same time e.g. bar or takeaway
method
4. Prepaid Prepaid customers purchase tickets or cards in advance either for
specific meal or specific value.
5. Voucher Customer has credit issued by third party for either specific meal
or specific value e.g. luncheon voucher or tourist agency voucher.
6. No charge Customers not paying i.e. credit transaction
7. Deferred Refers to, for example function-type catering where the bill is paid
by the organizer
Unit Task4 Describing the methods of payment
1. Cash
The amount of cash received by the operator should always be checked in front of the customer and
change given be counted back to the client. It should be accompanied by an itemized and receipted bill.
2. Cheque

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 This payment should always be accompanied by a cheque card. The cashier should confirm the
following points in the cheque;
- Dated correctly
- Made payable to the correct company
- Filled in with the correct amount.
- Signed by the person indicated on the cheque.
The operator should also check that the card is valid.
3. Credit cards
On receipt of a credit card it should be checked for validity. A voucher is then made out and the
appropriate details filled in. The customer is then requested to sign the voucher, which is then counter
checked with the credit card. The customer receives a copy of the voucher as a receipt. Credit cards
also be checked for validity by passing it through an electronic machine after which details of the
transaction are printed.
4. Debit cards
Used in a similar manner to credit cards but results in the amount due being immediately deducted from
the customer’s bank account.

5. Charge cards
Here the customer is normally invoiced once a month for all services rendered during that month. The
account must then be paid up in total and no is allowed. Examples include Diners club card.

6. Vouchers and tokens

Vouchers such as luncheon vouchers may be offered in exchange for food in those establishments
accepting such vouchers. These vouchers have an expiry date. Should food be purchased over the
value of the voucher the difference would be paid for in cash.
Tokens may be exchanged for specific meals or for certain values. If food purchased is more than the
value of the token, then the difference is again paid in cash.

Suggested Questions
3. Explain the importance of revenue control in a market oriented catering
establishment
4. What are the functions of a restaurant checking system?

10.1.11 EMERGING TRENDS

10.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify trends in catering and accommodation cost control
b) identify challenges in catering and accommodation cost control
c) explain ways of coping with challenges in catering and accommodation cost control.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identification of trends
Unit Task 2 Challenges
Unit Task 3 Coping with challenges

10.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss challenges in catering and accommodation cost control
b) outline ways of coping with challenges in catering and accommodation cost control

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11.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PREMISE

11.1.1 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart in the trainee knowledge skills and attitudes that are
necessary for the location of catering and accommodation premises. It will also enable the trainee
to utilize such premises for maximum benefit without compromising their care and maintenance.

11.1.2 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) appreciate the catering and accommodate layout
b) handle and care catering and accommodation equipment and facilitate appropriately.
c) maintain catering and accommodation premises and equipment
d) acquire and source for appropriate catering and accommodation equipment
e) appreciate good organisation and control of catering and accommodation premises and
equipment

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11.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION
PREMISES

11.1.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms used
b) classify catering and accommodation premises

Unit tasks

Unit task 1: Defining relevant terms used premises

Premises are land and buildings together considered as a property. This usage arose from
property owners finding the word in their title deeds.
A building or facility, including the fenced or walled (or demarcated or segregated) space surrounding it
Unit task 2: Classification of catering and accommodation premises
The classification falls under two categories i.e. commercial and non-commercial catering and
accommodation operations

A. Commercial Catering and accommodation Operations

1. Hotels
They offer food, drink and accommodation. Their standards vary according to the type of hotel
and type of customer that it intends to attract. Many hotels offer additional Facilities to their
guests such as office services.

2. Motels
It is characteristic of motels that customer stay only for a night or two. The motel may provide
meals in a restaurant attached to the operation and/or supply self catering facilities

3. Guests houses, bed and breakfast and farm houses

These tend to cater for much smaller number of people than hotels, and the services they
provide are likely to be somewhat limited

4. Holiday Camps
Many holiday camps are only open for part of the year, usually the summer season. Their
customers often stay for set periods such as a week or a fortnight. The food is often self service
or cafeteria style. The type of accommodation may range from basic to good.

5. Public Houses
Licensed houses and inns are all licensed to sell alcoholic beverages within the law. Very many
of them also sell food and operate restaurant within the premises. Some licensed houses also
offer accommodation

6. Restaurants
The aim of a restaurant is to sell food and drinks. Many restaurants are also licensed to sell
alcoholic beverages. Some restaurants limit their opening hours to coincide with meal times
while others are open all hours. A restaurant may be a member of a chain of restaurants owned
by the same company

7. Fast-Food Outlets
It is common for these to have a very restricted menu, to enable the food to be dispensed
quickly. If they form part of a chain, they are likely to have the same menu and the same décor
and restaurant layout as the other members of the chain. Some of them have takeaway facilities

8. Wine and Cocktail bars

These tend to sell a wide range of alcoholic beverages but most of them do also provide food,
although the choice may be limited.

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 9. Transport Catering
Food and drink may be provided while the customer is on the move – as on trains, boats or
aeroplanes – or at appropriate stopping point such as stations, ports or airline terminals.

10. Conference Centres

They provide the space and facilities for addressing a large number of people and/or a number
of small groups of people at the same time. Food and drink are usually provided, and many of
the purpose-built centres are also able to offer residential accommodation

11. Clubs
The main purpose of clubs is to provide sporting or social facilities and/or entertainments to
those who have paid a membership fee. In addition, most clubs provide drinks. Some will
provide food as well, and a few provide accommodation.

12. Leisure Complexes

As with clubs, their main aim is to offer a variety of leisure activities, but membership is not
usually required. They may also supply food and drink to their patrons

B. Non-commercial catering and accommodation operations

1. Hospital and welfare catering

Hospitals have to provide food, drink and accommodation for a constantly changing range of
people within a strictly controlled budget.

2. House of residence and Hostels

These provide accommodation for people living away from home for educational or training
purposes. Food and drink may be available, or self catering facilities may be provided

3. Education Establishments
The schools meals service is the responsibility of the local education authority and is
responsible for supplying reasonably priced lunches in schools

4. Industrial Catering
This sector provides food and drink to employees while at work.

Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the different types of catering premises

11.1.02 PREMISE’S LOCATION AND LAYOUT

11.1.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting location of catering and accommodation premises
b) explain factors to consider when planning the layout of catering and accommodation
premises
c) state the legislation governing catering and accommodation premises.
d) describe furniture fittings and equipment

Unit tasks

Unit task 1: Explaining factors in the selection of location of catering and accommodation premises
Below are the factors to consider:
i) Security
ii) Accessibility
iii) Availability of raw materials
iv) Infrastructure
v) Availability of the main services i.e. water, electricity, gas

Unit task 2: Explaining factors influencing layout of catering and accommodation premises

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 i) Type of establishment.
ii) Cost implications
iii) Space available
iv) Type of clientele

Unit task 3 Stating the legal aspects of catering and accommodation premises

CHAPTER 494 - Hotels and Restaurants Act

An Act of Parliament to make provision for die licensing of hotels, hotel managers, and restaurants; for the
regulation of hotels and restaurants; for the imposition of a levy for training persons to be employed in
hotels and restaurants; and for matters incidental to and connected with the foregoing

PART I—PRELIMINARY

1. This Act may be cited as the Hotels and Restaurants Act.

Interpretation
12 of 1984,Sch.
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires—
"the Authority" means the Hotels and Restaurants Authority established by section 3;
"charge" means a charge made for accommodation, food or drink, or any combination thereof, in a hotel or
restaurant, and a service charge imposed in respect of the supply of the accommodation, food or drink;
"hotel" means premises on which accommodation is supplied or available for supply, with or without food
or services, to five or more adult persons at one time in exchange for money or money's worth, and includes
premises known as "service flats", "service apartments", "beach cottages", "holiday cottages", "game
lodges", and "bandas"; but does not include premises on which the only accommodation supplied or
available for supply is under a lease or licence of not less than one month, unless by prior arrangement the
occupier may, without penalty, terminate that lease or licence on less than one month's notice;
"hotel licence" means a licence to keep or use any premises as a hotel;
"hotel manager's licence" means a licence to exercise overall control over the day-to-day operations of a
hotel;
"licence" means a licence granted underlie provisions of section 5, and "licensed" shall be construed
accordingly;

"licensee" means the holder of a hotel licence, restaurant licence or hotel manager's licence as the context
may require;
"Minister" means the Minister for the time being responsible for matters connected with tourism, and
Ministry" shall be construed accordingly;
"restaurant" means any premises on which is carried on the business of supplying for reward any food or
drink but does not include—
(a) a bona fide works or staff canteen maintained, for the use of persons employed in any particular
undertaking. by that undertaking; or
(b) any premises where food or drink is supplied only to persons who reside or board at, or work at, such
premises; or
(c) any portion of a licensed hotel;
"restaurant licence" means a licence to keep or use any premises as a restaurant;
"tariff order" means an order fixing maximum charges made under section 14;
"the Tribunal" means the Hotels and Restaurants Appeal Tribunal established by section 10.

PART II—THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS AUTHORITY

Establishment of Authority
3. (l) There is hereby established an authority, to be known as the Hotels and Restaurants Authority, which
shall consist of the following members—
(a)a chairman appointed by the Minister;
(b)not less than seven and not more than nine persons appointed by the Minister, of whom—

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(i) at least one shall be appointed by reason of his knowledge of the hotel industry and international tourism;
(ii) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of hotel keepers;
(iii) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of restaurant keepers;
(iv) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of hotel and restaurant employees; and
(c) the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry, or a person deputed by him in writing to take his place as a
member of the Authority.
(2) Before the Minister makes an appointment under this section, he shall require the person to be appointed
to declare whether he has any, and if so what, financial interest in any hotel or restaurant.
(3) It shall be the duty of. the Authority to keep under review the standards of hotels and restaurants and to
advise the Minister on the improvement and development of hotels and restaurants and on any other matters
which may be
referred to it by the Minister.
(4) The Authority shall have power—
(a)to issue licences in accordance with section 5;
(b)to investigate and determine complaints in accordance with section 7;
(c)to vary, suspend and cancel licences in accordance with section 8;
(d )no person shall exercise overall control over the day-to-day operation of the restaurant, whether is the
owner or the manager of the restaurant, unless he is the holder of the restaurant licence.
(5) In the exercise of its functions under this Act, the Authority shall be guided by the consideration of
promoting the well-being and development of the hotel and restaurant industries as a whole, as well as the
interests of persons using hotels and restaurants.
(6) The First Schedule shall have effect with respect to the Authority.

PART III—LICENSING

Licences required

4. (1) After the appointed day—

(a) no premises shall be used or kept as a hotel unless there is in force a valid hotel licence in respect of
such hotel;
(b) no person shall exercise overall control over the day-to-day operation of a hotel, whether he is the owner
or the manager of such hotel, unless he is the holder of a hotel manager's licence;
(c) no premises shall be used or kept as a restaurant unless there is in force a valid restaurant licence in
respect of such premises.
(2) In this section, "the appointed day" means such date as the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette,
appoint for the purposes of this section, and different dates may be so appointed in respect of different
licences or in respect of different areas or of different classes of premises.
(3) In the event of any contravention—
(a) of paragraph(a)or(c)of subsection (1), the owner, and manager (if any) of the premises concerned;
(b) of paragraph(b)of subsection (1), the person concerned, shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine
not exceeding ten thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve months or to both.
Application for, and grant of, licences
12 of 1984,Sch.
Cap.242.

5. (1) Any person desirous of obtaining a licence, or of obtaining any variation of a licence held by him,
shall make application to the Authority in such form, accompanied by such information, as may be
prescribed.
(2) An application for the grant of a licence which is in continuation of an existing licence shall be made at
least two months before the expiry date of the existing licence.

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(3) On receipt of an application under this section, the Authority may make such investigation or require the
submission of such declaration or further information as it may deem necessary in order to enable it to
consider the application.
(4) The Authority shall not consider an application under this section for the grant of a hotel licence or a
restaurant licence unless the application is accompanied by a certificate, signed by a medical officer of
health (as defined in the Public Health Act) and dated not more than three months before the receipt by the
Authority of the application, to the effect that—
(a) where food will be supplied proper provision has been made of the sanitation of the premises in respect
of which the application is made, for the storage, preparation, cooking and serving of food and drink on the
premises, and for the health and comfort of persons using the premises; and that the premises conform in all
respects with the provisions of any written law relating to sanitation and public health which apply thereto.
(5) After considering an application under this section and all matters appearing relevant thereto the
Authority may, subject to the succeeding provisions of this section, grant to the applicant the licence or
variation applied for or may refuse
such grant, and may attach to any licence so granted such conditions as the authority may deem expedient.
(6) The Authority shall not grant a hotel licence or a restaurant licence unless it is satisfied that—
(a) the premises in respect of which the application is made are structurally suitable for the use proposed;
and
(b)either—

(i) where no tariff order has been made which is applicable to the hotel or restaurant concerned the charges
are reasonable having regard to the standards of accommodation, food and service, and to such other matters
as the Authority considers relevant; or
(ii) where such a tariff order has been made the charges are not in excess of those authorized by such order
(7) The Authority shall grant a hotel manager's licence unless it is satisfied that the applicant is not a fit and
proper person to manage a hotel, proper
(8) Any person who makes or causes to be made either orally or in writing, any declaration or representation
which he knows or has reason to believe to be false for the purpose of obtaining a licence or the variation of
a licence shall be guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to
a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or both.
Provisions concerning licences
14 of 1974,Sch.

6.(1) Every licence shall expire on 31st December of the year in respect of which it is issued.
(2) A hotel licence or restaurant licence shall state the precise name, location and extent of the premises to
which it relates, shall be endorsed with every condition imposed by the Authority, and shall be displayed
prominently on such premises in a part thereof to which public have access, and where a licence is not so
displayed the holder thereof shall be guilty of an offence.
(3) Where hotels have been classified by regulations under section 29, a hotel manager's licence shall state
the class of hotel which the licensee is licensed to manage.

(4) A licence shall not be capable of being transferred from the licensee to any other person, and any person
who attests or purports to transfer a licence shall be guilty of an offence.
(5) On the cancellation of a licence, the Authority shall forthwith notify the licensee thereof and the licensee
shall, within fourteen days of the receipt by him of the notification, surrender his licence to the Authority,
and if without reasonable cause he fails to do so he shall be guilty of an offence.
(6) A person guilty of an offence under subsection (2), (4) or (5) shall be liable to a fine not exceeding two
thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two months or to both.
Complaints

7. (1) Any person who is dissatified with the manner in which a hotel or restaurant is conducted may make a
written complaint in that behalf to the Authority:
Provided that no such complaint shall be accepted by the Authority unless it is made within twenty-eight
days after the matter complained of first came to the notice of the complainant.
(2) Upon receipt of a complaint under this section, the Authority—
(a)if it is satisfied that the complaint is frivolous, vexatious or merely trivial, shall reject the complaint
summarily; or

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(b)otherwise shall investigate and determine the same.
(3) In any investigation under this section—
(a)the Authority shall inform the licensee concerned of the nature of the complaint and afford him the
opportunity of being heard in person;
(b)the Authority may act on general evidence or information relating to the manner in which the business of
the licensee is conducted, and shall not be confined to receiving and considering only evidence admissible
in a court of law;
(c)the chairman or other person presiding shall have power to administer oaths;
(d)the chairman may, by notice under his hand, summon any person to attend and give evidence and to
produce any relevant document.
(4) Any person who, after payment or tender to him of his reasonable expenses, without reasonable excuse
fails, when summoned by the Authority, to attend and give evidence or to attend and produce any document
which he is required to produce shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand
shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.
(5) Where, as a result of a complaint made against a licensee the Authority finds after investigation that the
complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the Authority may order the person making the complaint to pay to the
Authority or the licensee such sum as the Authority considers equitable in relation to expenses incurred and
attributable to the complaint, and any sum so ordered shall be recoverable as a civil debt.
Authority may require licensee to remedy matters and may suspend or cancel license for default.
8.(1) Where it appears to the Authority that—

(a)the holder of a hotel manager's licence has ceased to be a fit and proper person to manage a hotel; or

(b)a hotel or restaurant is being conducted in an unclean or unsanitary manner; or

(c)a hotel or restaurant is not being conducted in an efficient manner; or

(d)a hotel or restaurant is being so conducted as to constitute a nuisance or annoyance to persons in the
neighbourhood or in an improper manner; or

(e)the food served in a hotel or restaurant is not properly prepared, cooked or served; or

(f)any condition specified in subsection (6),or attached to a licence under subsection (5), of section 5 is not
being, or has ceased to be complied with; or

(g)any notice given under section 23 is not being complied with, the Authority, after giving the licensee the
opportunity of being heard, may give notice in writing to the licensee concerned specifying the matters
which it considers require to be remedied, and requiring him to remedy them to its satisfaction before a
specified date.

(2) If a licensee fails to comply with the requirements of a notice given to him under subsection 1), the
Authority may without prejudice to any liability on the part of the licensee to be prosecuted for an offence
under this Act, call upon the licensee to show cause why his licence should not be suspended, varied or
cancelled, and thereafter, if the licensee fails to show good cause, the Authority may suspend, vary or cancel
the licence.

(3) Where an employee of a licensee has his employment prematurely terminated by reason of a
requirement made under this section, no action shall lie in any court against the Authority in respect of the
termination.
Appeals
9.(1) Any person who is aggrieved by—
(a)the refusal of the Authority to grant or vary a licence; or
(b)the attaching of any condition to a licence; or
(c)the variation, suspension or cancellation of a licence, may, within fourteen days of the notification of the
act complained of being received by him, appeal in writing to the Tribunal, whose decision shall be final.

(2) Where the Authority has suspended, varied or cancelled a licence, the suspension, variation or

377
cancellation shall not have effect until the end of the time within which an appeal may be made to the
Tribunal or, if an appeal has
been made, until the appeal has been heard and determined.

(3) Where a person's application for a licence or for the variation of a licence is refused, or where a person's
licence is suspended, varied or cancelled, or a person is aggrieved by the decision of the Authority, that
person may in writing require the Authority to give the reasons for its decision, and the Authority shall give
its reasons in writing accordingly.
Appeal Tribunal
10. (1) There is hereby established an appeal tribunal, to be known as the Hotels and Restaurants Appeal
Tribunal, which shall consider and determine appeals under section 9.

(2) The Tribunal shall consist of—

(a)a chairman appointed by the Minister; and
(b)not less than two and not more than four other members appointed by the Minister.

(3) A person shall not be qualified to be appointed a member of the Tribunal if he is a member of the
Authority.

(4) There shall be an assessor to the Tribunal, who shall be an advocate of not less than five years' standing,
appointed by the Tribunal with the approval of the Minister, and the assessor, when the Tribunal so requires,
shall attend the proceedings of the Tribunal and advise it on questions of law.
(5) For the purposes of the hearing and determination of appeals by the Tribunal—
(a)the chairman or other person presiding may administer oaths;
(b)the chairman may, by notice under his hand, summon any person to attend and give evidence and to
produce any relevant document.

(6) The costs of an appeal shall be in the discretion of the Tribunal, which may make such order as to costs
as appear to it just; and any such costs shall be recoverable as a civil debt.

(7) Any person who, after payment or tender to him of his reasonable expenses, without reasonable excuse
fails, when summoned by the Tribunal, to attend and give evidence or to attend and produce any document
which he is required to produce shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand
shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.

(8) The Second Schedule shall have effect with respect to the Tribunal.

PART IV—DUTIES, LIABILITIES AND PRIVILEGES OF HOTEL KEEPERS

Register and book to be kept by licensee

11.(1) Every holder of a hotel licence shall keep a register in his hotel and shall enter or cause to be entered
in the register the name and address of every guest who stays at the hotel and such other particulars as may
be prescribed.
(2) Every holder of a hotel licence shall enter or cause to be entered regularly in a book kept for the purpose
all such particulars (other than particulars prescribed in respect of the register required by subsection (1) to
be kept) as may be prescribed.
(3) Any person who fails to comply with this section, or who makes or causes or permits to be made in any
register or book required by this section to be kept any entry which he knows or has reason to believe to be
false, shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.
Liability to guests

12.(1) The liability of an innkeeper at common law shall be subject to the modifications hereinafter
contained in this section.

(2) Without prejudice to any other liability incurred by him with respect thereto, the holder of a hotel licence

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shall not be liable to make good to a guest any loss of or damage to property brought to the hotel except
where—
(a)at the time the loss or damage occurred, sleeping accommodation at the hotel had been engaged for the
guest; and
(b)the loss or damage occurred between the midnight immediately preceding and the midnight immediately
following a period during which the guest was entitled to use the accommodation so engaged.
(3) Without prejudice to any other liability or right of his with respect thereto, the holder of a hotel licence
shall not be liable to make good to a guest any loss of or damage to nor shall he have any lien upon, any
vehicle, or any property left in a vehicle, or any live animal or its harness or other equipment.
(4) Where the holder of a hotel licence is liable in the circumstances described in paragraphs (a) and (b) of
sub-section (2) to make good any loss of or damage to property brought to the hotel, then, subject to section
13, his liability to any one guest shall not exceed five hundred shillings in respect of any one article or one
thousand shillings in the aggregate, except where—
(a)the property was stolen, lost or damaged through the default, neglect or wilful act of the licensee or a
person in his employ; or
(b)the property was deposited by or on behalf of the guest expressly for safe custody with the licensee or a
person in his employ authorized, or appearing to be authorized, for the purpose and, if so required by the
licensee or the person in his employ, in a container fastened or sealed by the depositor; or
(c)at the time after the guest had arrived at the hotel, after the property in question was offered for deposit as
aforesaid and the licensee or a person in his employ refused to receive it, or the guest or some other guest
acting on his behalf wished so to offer the property in question but, through the default of the licensee or a
person in his employ, was unable to do so.

(5) Every holder of a hotel licence shall cause a notice in the form in the Third Schedule, printed in plain
type in Kiswahili, English, French, German, Italian and any other language which may be prescribed, to be
displayed prominently at a place where it can conveniently be read by the guests at or near the hotel
reception office or desk or where there is no reception office or desk, at or near the main entrance of the
hotel; and he shall be entitled to the benefit of this section in respect of property brought to his hotel only
while such notice is so displayed.
Right of sale
13.(1) The holder of a hotel licence shall, in addition to the ordinary lien of an innkeeper at common law
have the right absolutely to sell by public auction any property deposited or left with him or in his hotel or
in any premises appurtenant or belonging to the hotel, where the person depositing or leaving the property is
or becomes indebted to him for accommodation, food or drink at the hotel:
Provided that—
(i) no such sale shall be made until after the property has been for a period of six weeks in his charge or
custody or in or upon his premises, without the debt
having been paid or satisfied;
(ii) the debt for the payment of which a sale is made under this section shall not be any other or greater debt
than the debt for which the property could have been retained by the holder of a hotel licence under his lien
at common law as an innkeeper; and
(iii) at least one month before the sale is effected, the holder of a hotel licence shall cause to be inserted in a
national newspaper an advertisement giving
notice of the intended sale and a short description of the property intended to be sold, together with the
name (if known) of the owner or person who
deposited or left it, and if the address of such owner or person is known to him he shall send a copy of the
notice to such owner or person.
(2) The holder of a hotel licence shall, out of the proceeds of the sale of any property sold pursuant to
subsection (1), after retaining the amount of his debt and the costs and expenses of the sale, pay on demand
to the person who
deposited or left the property any surplus money remaining thereafter.
PART V—REGULATION OF PRICES

Minister may impose tariff

12 of 1984, Sch.

379
14.(1) The Minister may at any time carry out a review of the charges made by hotels or restaurants in any
area, and as a result of such a review he may, after giving not less than one month's notice in the Gazette of
his intention to do so, by order, fix minimum or maximum charges which may be made by any hotel or
restaurant, in that area.

(2) An order under subsection (1) may—

(a)either specify the charges themselves or prescribe the method by which they are to be calculated;

(b)be made applicable to specified hotels or restaurants or to hotels or restaurants of a specified class.

(3) Where any charge is made in a hotel or restaurant which exceeds the maximum charge or which is below
the minimum charge fixed by a tariff order relevant to that hotel or restaurant, the holder of the restaurant
licence or, as the case may be, the manager of the hotel shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not
exceeding one thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one month or to both, or in
the case of a second or subsequent offence to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.

PART VI—CATERING TRAINING AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT LEVY

Interpretation
15. In this Part—
"the Fund" means the training and tourism development levy fund established by section 17;

"levy" means a catering training and tourism development levy imposed by an order under section 16, and
"levy order" means that order;

"the Trustees" means the Catering Tourism Development Levy Trustees established by section 18.
Training levy
15 of 2003, s. 55.

16.(1) The Minister may, by order, require payment by the owners of hotels and restaurants of a catering
training levy.

(2) A levy order may provide for the amendment of any previous levy order and may make different
provisions in relation to hotels and restaurants and in relation to different classes of hotels or restaurants.

(3) A levy order may contain provisions as to the evidence by which a person's liability to the levy, or his
discharge of that liability, may be established, and as to the time at which any amount payable by any
person by way of the levy shall become due.

(4) All moneys received in respect of the levy shall be paid into the Fund and, if not paid on or before the
date prescribed by the levy order, the money and any sum payable under subsection (5) shall be a civil debt
recoverable summarily by the Trustees.

(5) If any person fails to pay any amount payable by him by way of the levy on or before the date prescribed
by the levy order, such person shall be liable to a penalty of five thousand shillings and thereafter to an
additional penalty of three per centum of the amount of the levy due, for each month or part thereof during
which the amount due remains unpaid.
(6) Any person who fails to comply with any provision of a levy order shall be guilty of an offence, and
liable to a fine not exceeding twenty thousand shillings, or to imprisonment for a period not
exceeding twelve months or to both.
Training levy fund

17.(1) There is hereby established a training and tourism development levy fund which shall be vested in the
Trustees and into which shall be paid—

380
(a)all proceeds of the levy;
(b)any moneys derived from the sale of surplus assets of the Trustees;
(c)all moneys, from any other source, provided for or donated or lent to the Trustees.

(2) Any moneys in the Fund not immediately required for the purposes of the Trustees may be placed on
deposit at a bank or invested by the Trustees in any securities in which trustees may, for the time being, by
law invest or in any other securities approved for the purpose by the Treasury.

Establishment of Trustees Cap. 494

18. (1) There is hereby established a body of trustees, to be known as the Catering and Tourism Develop
Levy Trustees, which shall consist of six persons appointed by the Minister who shall nominate one of such
persons as the chairman of the Trustees.

(2) The Catering and Tourism Development Levy Trustees shall, by that name, be a body corporate having
perpetual succession and a common seal, and may, in its corporate name sue and be sued, and, for the
purposes of its functions, may purchase or otherwise acquire, hold, manage and dispose of property,
movable or immovable, and may enter into such contracts as the Trustees may deem necessary or expedient.

(3) Subject to subsection (4), a trustee shall hold office for such period, not exceeding five years, as the
Minister may specify in his appointment and at the expiration of such period shall be eligible for
reappointment.

(4) The office of a trustee shall become vacant—

(a)if he resigns his office by notice in writing addressed to the Minister;
(b)if he dies;
(c)if he is adjudicated bankrupt;
(d)if he is made the subject of a reception order under Part VI of the Mental Treatment Act;
(e)if he is sentenced to a term of imprisonment by any court; or

(f)if the Minister is satisfied that the trustee is physically incapable of fulfilling, or by reason of misconduct
is unsuitable to exercise, the functions of his office
and terminates the appointment of the trustee.
Functions of Trustees
19. (1) The functions of the Trustees shall be-
(a) to control and administer the Fund;

(b) to establish, equip and control such establishments for the training of persons for employment in hotels
and restaurants as the Minister may approve;

(c) establishment and develop national standards for testing the skills required by the tourism industry;

(d) Make such payments out of the Fund as may be necessary to enable the Kenya Tourist Board promote
Kenya as a tourist destination both locally and internationally
Procedure of Trustees
20. (1) The Trustees may meet together for the despatch of their business and otherwise regulate their
meetings as they may think fit.

(2) The quorum necessary for the transaction of the business of the Trustees shall be four.
(3) If the chairman of the Trustees is absent from any meeting the trustees present at the meeting shall elect
one of their number to preside thereat, and the chairman or person so presiding shall have a casting in
addition to his deliberative vote.

(4) Any document, other than one required by law to be under seal, may be signified under the hand of one
of the Trustees.
Appointment of agents
15 of 2003, s. 56.

381
20A.(1) The Trustees may, by written notice addressed to any person-
(a) appoint such person to be the agent of a licensee for the purposes of the collection and recovery of the
levy due from such licensee; and
(b) specify the amount of levy to be collected and recovered by such agent.
(2) An agent shall pay the levy specified in his appointment notice out of any moneys which may, at any
time during the twelve months following the date of the notice, be held by him for, or due from him to the
licensee.
(3) Where a person appointed under subsection (2) claims to be, or to have become unable to comply with
subsection (2) by reason of the lack of moneys held by or due from him, he shall, as soon as may be
practicable, notify the trustees accordingly in writing setting out fully the reasons for his inability so to
comply and the Trustees may-
(a) accept the notification and cancel or amend the appointment notice accordingly; or
(b) if they are not satisfied with the reasons, reject the notification in writing.
(4) Unless and until a notification is given by an agent under subsection (3)-
(a) sufficient money for the payment of the levy specified in his appointment notice shall be presumed to be
held by him for, or due from him to, the licensee; and
(b) in any proceedings for the collection or recovery of that levy, he shall be estopped from asserting the
lack of those moneys.
(5) For the purposes of this section, the Trustees may, by notice in writing, at any time require any person to
furnish them within a reasonable time, not being less than thirty days from the date of service of the notice,
with a return showing any moneys which may be held by that person for, or due from him to, a licensee
from whom a levy is due.
(6) A person who has paid the levy under this section shall, for all purposes, be deemed to have acted with
the authority of the licensee, and shall be indemnified in respect of that payment against all proceedings,
civil or criminal, and all process, judicial or extrajudicial, notwithstanding any provisions to the contrary in
any written law, contract or agreement.
(7) Any person who, without lawful cause or excuse-
(a) fails to comply within thirty days, with a notice given by the Trustees under this section; or
(b) discharges any liability to a licensee in disregard of such notice;
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to imprisonment for
a term not exceeding six months, or to both, and shall, in addition, be liable to pay to the Trustees the
amount of any liability discharged.
Trustees may refrain from recovering levy in certain cases
15 of 2003, s. 56.

20B.(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of this Act, in any case where the Trustees are of the opinion that
they should refrain from recovering levy from any licensee by reason of impossibility, or undue difficulty or
expense of the recovery of the levy, the Trustees may refrain from recovering the levy in question and
thereupon liability to the levy shall be deemed to be extinguished or abandoned.
(2) Where the Trustees have decided to refrain from recovery of the levy under subsection (1), they shall
report that decision in writing to the Minister within three months next following the decision.
(3) Where a case has been referred to the Minister, and where he considers it appropriate, he may, in
writing, direct the Trustees to-
(a) take such action under this section as the Minister may deem fit; or
(b) obtain the direction of the court upon the case.
Accounts
Cap.412

21. (1) The Trustees shall cause to be kept all proper books of account and other books and records in
relation to the Fund and to all their undertakings, activities and property, and shall, within a period of four
months after the
end of the financial year, cause to be prepared—

(a)a balance sheet showing in detail the assets and liabilities of the Fund as at the end of that financial year;

(b)such other statements of account as may be necessary to indicate the financial status of the Trustees as at

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the end of that year.

(2) The accounts of the Trustees shall be examined audited and reported upon annually by the and Auditor-
General (Corporations).

Cap. 237 not to apply

22.Notwithstanding anything contained in the Industrial Training Act no training committee shall be set up
in relation to training in, and no training levy order shall be made in respect of, hotels and restaurants under
that Act.

PART VII—SUPPLEMENTARY

Centralized booking

23(1) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, direct that the manager of any hotel shall not receive any
guest therein except with the written authority of the Minister or such person, officer or bureau, as the
Minister may designate for the purpose.

(2) A notice under subsection (1) may be given with regard to a particular hotel, or to a particular class of
hotel or to hotels within a specified area.

Temporary licence where licence refused or cancelled

24. Where the holder of a hotel licence or restaurant licence has such licence cancelled, or has his
application for a renewal of such licence (to take effect upon the expiration of such licence) refused, he shall
be entitled, on payment of a proportionate part of the prescribed fee, to be granted a licence of the kind
cancelled or refused for such period, not exceeding six months, as the Authority considers adequate to
enable the business to be wound up or disposed of.
Power to enter and inspect premises
25.(1) Any person authorized in writing by the Authority for the purpose, may, at all reasonable times—
(a)enter without warrant any premises on which he has reasonable ground for believing that a hotel business
or restaurant business is being carried on, to see whether this Act and any other written law is being
complied with, and—
(i) examine and take copies of any register, book, account or document found on the premises relating to or
appearing to relate to any hotel or restaurant;
(ii) take possession of any register, book, account or document found on those premises which he has
reasonable grounds for suspecting to be or to contain evidence of an offence under this Act or any other
written law;

(b)require any person who appears to be carrying on or employed in any hotel business or restaurant
business on those premises to render such explanation and give such information relating to that business as
he may reasonably require in the performance of his duties;
(c)require any person who appears to be carrying on any hotel business or restaurant business on those
premises by notice in writing to that person introduce to him, at a particular time and place, of the registers,
books, accounts and documents relating or appearing to relate to that business:
Provided that nothing in this subsection shall authorize entry into any bedroom in a hotel without the prior
permission of its current occupier.
(2) Any person who—
(a)resists, hinders or obstructs any person acting in pursuance of subsection (1); or
(b)fails to comply fully and truthfully with a requirement made of him under the said subsection,
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a fine not
exceeding five thousand shillings or to both.
Liability of licensee for acts of agents and servants
26. Any licensing who employs any agent, clerk, servant or shall be answerable for the acts and omissions
of the agent, clerk, servant or other person in so far as such acts or omissions concern the business of the
licensee; and if the agent, clerk, servant or other person commits any act or makes any omission which is an

383
offence under this Act, or which will be an offence if committed or made by such licensee, the licensee and
his agent, clerk, servant or other person shall be jointly and severally guilty of the offence and liable to the
penalties provided by this Act:
Provided that it shall be a defence for the licensee to prove he did not know and could not reasonably be
expected to know that the act or omission was taking or was to take place and that he took all reasonable
steps to ensure that the relevant provisions of this Act were being compiled with.
Finance
27.(1) The Minister may, out of moneys provided by Parliament, and with the consent of the Treasury—
(a)pay to the Authority and the Tribunal such sums of money as may be necessary to enable those bodies to
discharge their functions under this Act;
(b)pay to the members of the Authority and the Tribunal (other than a member who is a public officer in
receipt of a salary) remuneration and traveling and other allowances;
(c)make such other payments as may be necessary to give effect to this Act.
(2)All moneys received or recovered under this Act by or on behalf of the Authority or the Tribunal shall be
paid into the Consolidated Fund.
Premises to be excluded 13 of 1978, Sch.
28.(1) This Act shall not apply to any premises of a class specified in the Fourth Schedule or any person
managing those premises.
(2) The Minister may, from time to time, review the operation of this Act in relation to its operation to
hotels and restaurants and, for the purpose of including or excluding any class of hotel or restaurant from the
provisions of this Act, may, by notice in the Gazette, amend the Fourth Schedule.
Regulations

29.(1) The Minister may make regulations generally for the better carrying out of the provisions and
purposes of this Act.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1), regulations under this section may—
(a)make provision for the classification of hotels and restaurants and the standards appropriate to each class;
(b)prescribe the minimum size of rooms in hotels or in particular classes of hotels either absolutely or in
relation to the number of persons permitted to be
accommodated in those rooms;

(c)prescribe the duties and obligations of licensees in relation to the carrying on or management of hotel
businesses or restaurant businesses, whether generally or in respect of any class of hotel or restaurant;
(d)provide for the display of tariffs in hotels or restaurants showing particulars of the maximum charges to
be made therein, and for the languages in which the tariffs are to be expressed;
(e)provide for returns to be submitted to the Authority by hotels and restaurants including returns relating to
business accepted by hotels from or in respect of persons resident outside Kenya;
(f)prescribe the procedure to be followed by the Authority in the performance of its functions under this Act;
(g)prescribe the procedure to be followed on appeals under this Act;
(h)make provision for requiring persons to supply information relevant to the provisions of this Act or the
regulations:
(i)prescribe the forms to be used under this Act and the fees to be paid for things to be done under this Act
or the regulations;
(j)prescribe anything which under this Act is to be prescribed.
Application of written laws.
Cap.495.
L.N.11/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.88 of 1964). L.N. 8/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.97 of 1964). No. 10 of
1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp. 132 of 1964). L.N.19/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.126 of 1964). L.N. 9/1964
(Kenya Gazette Supp.129 of 1964).

30.The following written laws and all subsidiary legislation made thereunder shall not apply to any premises
governed by this Act, that is to say—
(a)the Innkeepers Liability Act, 1863, of the United Kingdom;
(b)the Innkeepers Act, 1878, of the United Kingdom;
(c)the Hotels (Nairobi Area) Act (both in relation to the Nairobi Area and in relation to all other areas);
(d)the Nyanza Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;
(e)the Coast Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;

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(f)the Hotels Enactment of the Central Province;
(g)the Rift Valley Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;
(h)the Eastern Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;

FIRST SCHEDULE (s. 3 (6))

THE HOTELS AND CATERING AUTHORITY
1. (1) The chairman and other members of the Authority who are appointed by the Minister shall hold office
for such period not exceeding three years as may be specified in their instruments of appointment, and shall
be eligible for reappointment.
(2) The chairman and any other member appointed by the Minister may at any time resign his office by
notice in writing addressed to the Minister.
(3) The Minister may cancel the appointment of the chairman or any other member appointed by the
Minister on the ground of his infirmity, incapacity or misbehaviour, or if he is absent from two consecutive
meetings of the Authority without the leave of the authority.
2. (1) Meetings of the Authority shall be convened by the chairman at such times and places as the chairman
determines, but not less than four times in a year.
(2) The chairman may at any time, and shall at the request in writing of not less than three members,
convene a special meeting of the Authority.
(3) A notice convening a special meeting of the Authority shall state the purposes for which the special
meeting is convened.
3. (1) If the chairman is absent from a meeting of the Authority, the members present shall choose one of
their number to preside at that meeting.

(2) At every meeting of the Authority, the chairman or other member presiding shall have a casting as well
as a deliberative vote.
(3) The quorum for a meeting of the Authority shall be six members.
(4) Save as otherwise expressly provided, all orders, directions and decisions of the Authority shall be made,
given and notified under the hand of the chairman or other person presiding, or, if thereto authorized by the
Authority, under the hand of a member or the secretary.
(5) The Authority may authorize the chairman to exercise on its behalf, at any time when it is not meeting,
such of its powers as it may from time to time specify:
Provided that the exercise of such powers shall, to the extent required by the Authority, be reported by the
chairman without unreasonable delay to a meeting of the authority.
(6) Minutes of the proceedings of every meeting of the Authority shall be regularly entered by the secretary
in a minute book, and the book shall be kept so as to show proper tabulated details of the business
conducted or transacted at each meeting.
(7) Subject to this Act and to any general or special directions of the Minister, the Authority shall regulate
its procedure as it considers proper.
4. A member shall not at a meeting of the Authority take part
in the discussion of or vote upon—
(a) an application by a person who is related to that member within the third degree of affinity or
consanguinity;
(b) an application by a person who is a debtor or creditor of that member or in whose business that member
has a financial interest.
5. The Minister shall appoint a public officer to act as secretary of the Authority, and may appoint such
other public officers to act as staff of the Authority as he may consider necessary.

SECOND SCHEDULE (s. 10(8)

THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS APPEAL TRIBUNAL
1. (1) Each member of the Tribunal shall hold office for such period not exceeding three years as may be
specified in his instrument of appointment, and shall be eligible for reappointment.
(2) A member of the Tribunal may at any time resign his office by notice in writing addressed to the
Minister.

385
(3) The Minister may cancel the appointment of a member of the Tribunal on the ground of his infirmity,
incapacity or misbehaviour, or if he is absent from three consecutive meetings of the Tribunal without the
leave of the Tribunal.
2. Meetings of the Tribunal shall be convened by the chairman as occasion requires the Tribunal shall
regulate its procedure as it considers proper.
4. A member shall not at a meeting of the Tribunal take part in the discussion of or vote upon—
(a) an application by a person who is related to that member within the third degree of affinity or
consanguinity;
(b) an application by a person who is a debtor or creditor of that member or in whose business that member
has a financial interest.
5. The Minister shall appoint a public officer to act as secretary of the Tribunal, and may appoint such other
public officers to act as taff of the Tribunal as he may consider necessary

THIRD SCHEDULE (s. 12(5))

NOTICE
THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS ACT
(Cap. 494)
LOSS OF OR DAMAGE TO GUESTS' PROPERTY
Under the Hotels and Restaurants Act, the owner of a hotel may in certain circumstances be liable to make
good any loss of or damage to a guest's property, even though it is not due to any fault at his or of his staff.
This liability however—
(a)extends only to the property of guests who have engaged sleeping accommodation at the hotel;
(b)is .limited to five hundred shiMin'BS for any article and a total of one thousand shillings in the case of
any one finest, except in the ca'se of .property which has .been deposited or offered for deposit, for safe
custody;
(c)does not cover motor cars or other vehicles of any kind or any property left in them, or live animals.
This notice does not constitute an admission that liability under
the Act attaches to the proprietor of this hotel in any particular case.

FOURTH SCHEDULE
(s. 28)
PREMISES EXCLUDED
1.Any premises run by the Government , a local authority, a Charitable institution or religious organization
or an Nation or a religious institution
2.Any premises run by a society, members club, institution or other organization and used exclusively by
and for the benefit of the members of that society, club, institution or other organization which does not
provide for daily membership.
3.Any hote1 at which the maximum total charge per night including provision of accommodation, breakfast
or any other mea or service, is less than forty shillings per person.

4. Any restaurant at which the gross receipts derived from all sales amount to less than £12-000 per annum-
or- in the case of a restaurant that has not previously traded, less than an average of Sh. 20,000 per month
for the first three months of trading.
5. For the purposes of paragraph 4 gross receipts sales shall be determined-by reference to the accounts kept
by the restaurant for the period of months- or three months- as the case may be ending at the end of the
month immediately before a lawful request under section 25(1) for their production, and by reference to
such other information lawfully required under section as the authority may deem fit
Provided that nothing in this paragraph shall prevent the Authority from disputing those accounts or other
information or calling evidence, in the course of proceedings for an offence under this Act, tending to
disprove such accounts or information

Unit task 4 Furniture, fittings and equipments in catering and accommodation premises
 Weight scale or weighing scale – equipment used in weighing raw materials based on
weight

386
  Grinders – equipment involves in reducing size of raw materials e.g. maize to desirable
sizes or end product e.g. flour

 Small kitchen equipment e.g. cutlery, crockery

 Large kitchen equipment e.g. fridge, cooker, freezer

 Mechanical
Fridge (energy saving) kitchen equipment e.g. juice maker, mixer, toaster, sandwich
maker etc.

Juice Maker
Kitchen equipments are made from different materials which make the equipment functional or decorative
or both. Materials Toaster
used include metals, glass, plastics, wood and earthen ware. It is important to understand
the basic qualities; care and cleaning of each materials to ensure equipment are at their best all the time.

A. METALS

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1. Aluminum
This is used for making household utensils such as sufurias, saucepans, bowls, frying pans, baking
tins etc.

Made of Aluminium used

for cooking and mixing

Sufuria
Qualities of Aluminium
 It has a silvery appearance
 It is light in weight
 It is a good conductor of heat
 It does not break upon impact but it can be dented.
 It does not rust although it can be affected by food that is acidic e.g. kunde leaves.
 Prolonged cooking/boiling or heavily salted food or salty water will cause discolouration of cooking
utensils.

Care
 Clean in hot soapy water
 Rub any stains with a steel wool along the direction of the grain
 Rinse thoroughly in clean water
 Dry well on a rack or use a dry clean cloth.

2. Steel
This is used for making knife blades because it takes and maintains very sharp edges.

Qualities
 It is strong and last long.
 It has a darkish colour
 It is light in weight
 It rusts in moist conditions hence is protected with paint enamel, tin, zinc, plastic to make it rust – proof

Care
 Clean using hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry completely before storage to avoid rusting
 Use steel polish to remove stains.
3. Stainless steel

This is widely used for cutlery, utensils, sinks, tableware etc

Qualities
 It is durable – lasts long
 Not easily scratched or dented
 It has a glossy or shinny appearance
 It has the capability to take and maintain a sharp edge
 It turns dark if overheated

Care
 Clean in hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly

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 Dry completely
 Avoid excessive dry heat

4. Silver
It is used to make cutlery, serving trays, tea and coffee sets, wine glasses, ornaments etc

Wine Glasses
made of
silver

Qualities
 It is affected by normal atmospheric conditions and turns darkish.
 It takes high polish.

Care
 Wash in hot soapy water
 Rinse and dry thoroughly
 If stained, rub with a little salt or soak in a strong solution of soda ash.

5. Iron
It is used to make nails, jikos, cans, pans etc

A stainless steel
sauce pan

Qualities
 It is dark grey.
 It is heavy in weight
 Conducts heat evenly and retains most of it
 It rusts readily when exposed to most air/water
 It cracks if subjected to heavy falls or pressure
 Items made from iron are protected/finished with a coat of enamel, paint, plastic or zinc to improve its
appearance and durability.

Care
 Clean in hot, soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry completely
 Avoid excessive dry heat

Some finishes give to iron are:-

 Borderizing
It is a chemical treatment given to make iron rust- resistant.
 Galvanized iron
Is coated with a layer of zinc to prevent contact with air. Items made from this iron include pails,
cans, buckets etc

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5. Zinc
It is mainly used to cover and protect metals that corrode e.g. galvanized iron which is used for
making buckets, rubbish bins, laundry trays pipes etc.

Qualities
 It is fairly hard
 It is grey in colour
 Does not tarnish or corrode in moist air

6. Chromium
It is a hard shiny metal used to coat other metals e.g. nickel or steel. It is used to make items like
coffee percolators, toasters, kitchen knives, towel rails etc
Qualities
 Is white and bright
 Not affected by atmospheric conditions
 Can be easily scratched
 Attractive in appearance

Care
 Wash in hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry well
 Polish using a soft dry cloth
 Avoid use of harsh abrasives e.g. sand, steel wool, as it scratches and removes chromium

7. Tin
This is used for coating other metals to prevent them from rusting.
Qualities
 Is affected by acids in foods e.g. lemon, salt
 It darkens with use
 Light in weight
 Is soft thus makes it easy to cut.
 Has a low melting point.
Tinned steel
Is steel coated with tin. It is used for making tins, jelly cans, baking utensils

Care
 Clean with warm soapy water
 Rinse well and dry thoroughly
 Avoid scratching with sharp objects

B. GLASS
Glass in the home is classified into 3 groups;
Lead, lime and borosilicate
 Lead and lime are used for making table ware
 Borosilicate glass is used in making kitchen utensils, oven, dishes etc.

1. Lead or flint glass

Lead glass is made by combining red lead with sand and potash. Items made from this are heavy
and expensive.

Lime glass

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It is used for making tumblers, milk bottles, glass containers, plates, mirrors etc

Qualities
 Is resistant to scratches and marks
 When tapped it has a dull sound

2. Brosilicate glass

Qualities
 Is exceptionally strong and resists chipping and breaking.
 Withstands high temperature
 Attractive when used for household ware/items.

Glass is used for making items e.g. casserole dishes, bottles, plates, cups, coffee and tea makers,
oven glass etc.

Qualities of glass
 It is transparent
 It is non-porous
 Is a poor conductor of heat, hence retains heat.
 Easily breaks when suddenly subjected to extreme temperatures or sharp impact.
 Not affected by acids or alkalis
 Does not absorb odours

Care
 Avoid extreme of temperature
 Handle glass carefully to avoid breaking
 Clean glass according to use

C. CERAMICS
This is clay ware. Items made from it are also referred to as china ware.
They are different types of ceramics which include:-
 Glazed earthen ware
It contains large amount of clay. It is thick, opaque and glazed. It is used for making items like
cups, saucers, bowls, cooking and serving dishes, pots etc.
 Stone ware
Is an improvement of earthenware which is thick and can stand hard wear. Items are heavy,
thick and hardware.
It is used for making utensils and tableware.
 Vitreous china
Extra flint is added to the clay mixture and more firing is done during manufacture. It is
heavier, strong and chip easily but its articles/ items are more expensive
 Bone china
It contains more china clay and china stone than earth ware. Calcined bone is added hence the
name bone china.
It is thin, very strong but more expensive.
 Porcelain
It is a type of china manufactured from special clay. It is the finest of all ceramics and has a
glass-like appearance.

Qualities
 It is durable
 Has no reliance
 Is a good conductor of heat, hence not ideal for saucepans as food sticks to it
 Is non-porous and therefore easily kept clean.

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Uses of porcelain
Used for making household appliances, saucepans, tea, kettle, casserole dishes, table ware etc.
Care of porcelain
 Avoid extreme temperatures. Do not put hot pans in cold water.
 Handle porcelain items with care to avoid chipping and cracking.

D. ENAMEL
This is a plastic resin used as a finish on the outer side of washers, dryers, freezers, ranges,
household utensils etc.

Qualities
 Is not expensive
 Stains and scratches easily
 Available in attractive colours and designs
 Fairly resistant to heat

Care
 Avoid extreme temperatures.
 Handle items carefully to avoid chipping and scratching
 Avoid use of hard abrasives.

E. PLASTICS
They come in a variety of colours and designs. It is light in weight, smooth and easy to clean. Is
used for making bowls, cups, plates, spoons, melamine items etc

Care
 Clean using warm soapy water and sponge or a piece of cloth.
 Rinse thoroughly using warm water.
 Dry well
 Avoid high temperature e.g. hot water, open fires, sun etc

F. WOOD
It is a popular material readily available in most homes. It is used for making chopping boards,
work surfaces, wooden spoons, cooking sticks, spartula etc.

Care
 Avoid soaking in water
 Clean immediately after use using warm soapy water and a sponge following the direction of grain.
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry well
 Avoid direct heat from sun or open fires.

Assessment Questions

1. Explain the factors to consider when choosing furniture for a catering and accommodation
premise.
2. Describe any five legal aspects of a catering and accommodation premise.

11.1.03 BUILDING FABRICS

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11.1.03T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the main components of a building
c) explain suitable surface finishes of a catering and accommodation premises

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Definition of terms

Cement, bricks and tiles are the main building materials used in the construction of buildings. Today,
increase in the demand for various building materials have led to many building material manufacturing
companies. Many new building materials are environmental hazards, which have become a big concern to
all.
Traditionally, the basic types of building materials used for construction were mud, stone and brush. Mud
was used for filling the spaces between bricks and acted as a concrete and insulation. Centuries ago, houses
were made entirely of dirt and clay. This was followed by the use of rocks (mainly granite) as building
material. From the Neolithic period through the medieval age to modern times, granite has been commonly
used as a building material. Brush structures were commonly seen in tropical areas and were made entirely
from plant parts such as branches, bark, twigs and leaves. These structures were often used by Native
Americans as resting places.
Stones and bricks were also common in construction. Different types of bricks have been and are still used
for masonry. This includes specially shaped bricks for joints, striking and tooling, as well as glazed or
rubbed bricks for decorative purposes.
Thatch is one of the oldest types of building material used for roofing. Another generic building material is
wood. Because of the diverse character of different types of wood, it can be used for any type of structure in
most climates. Even though wood structures were very common in earlier times, they disappeared with the
approach of concrete structures.
Concrete is a composite building material comprised of aggregate and a binder (cement). Concrete finds
good use in all types of building construction. Fly ash is a major ingredient in the concrete mix because of
its lightweight and high thermal insulation.
More recently, new types of building materials are being used. These include metals (for the structural
framework of larger buildings), plastics, asbestos and fabrics. Tar-based waterproof materials, paper
linoleum, polyvinyl chloride clay and solvent coatings for inner wall are other building materials.

Unit task 2 Components of a building

The ceiling. It will be necessary to distinguish the revetment and the frame. The frame will be the one that
supports the loads that affect the ceiling and which will lay weight on the walls and pillars.
The beams. These consist of the horizontal elements that rest over the floor. The beams lean their weight
over the pillars and are often times made out of metal or wood.
The walls. The walls of a building or house receive the weight of the different ceilings and floors and pass
this weight over to the foundation.
Concrete and steel floors and roofs. A roof is in essence the cover of a building. When a high and big
building is constructed, the intermediate parts consist of the inferior floor roof and the floor of the superior,
which is then denominated to the last floor. Concrete and steel roofs are done horizontally and are destined
to carry weight by flexion and at the same time put their weight on the walls or beams.
There are two types of concrete and steel.
Those that are unidirectional and bi-directional.
 Unidirectional is forged concrete and steel which is formed by beams of different types of
materials such as wood, metal etc, and these transmit all the own weight of the concrete and steel and the
over load to the support beams or walls.

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 The bi-directional concrete and steel is made out several elements, in between which the curved
roofs and blocks of lighter cement are placed, in a way so that the weight is transmitted through the iron
elements to the top of the pillars.
The pillars. The pillars of a building are used to substitute the walls in the transmission of the load of the
concrete and steel ceiling. The pillars absorb the weight of the support beams and transmit the vertical ones
to the foundation.
The foundation. The foundation is the inferior or bottom part of a building that penetrates the terrain it is
on; this carries the weight of the building and supports it. The type of foundation a construction has depends
on the characteristics of the ground and of the type of building it will be. We must take into account on the
other hand, that the cracks in structural elements, like the pillars and support beams, on n the horizontal
components are really troublesome when the direction of these is perpendicular or diagonal to the structural
element, no matter where the building is. A vertical overload (caused by debris for example) over the
structural vertical elements can cause horizontal flexion. It can cause the pillars to sag and cause damage to
the support walls. If this overweight happens over horizontal elements, it will cause a deflection of the
beams, which can at the same time cause the collapsing, leaning or sagging of the vertical elements that are
holding it up. There are certain things that a building will do sometimes to let us know that it is going to fall
such as with creaks, rustles that would suggest that the materials of the building are cracking and sliding
inside the existing holes.

Unit task 3 Explaining suitable surface finishes of a catering and accommodation premises
Hard floor finishes
Granolithic is a concrete product, composed of cement and fine aggregate mortar, the aggregate being
granite chippings, which will give the hard wearing surface finish. It will be laid with screed,
which is finished by hand trowelling(the traditional method) or 'powerfloated' with an
electrical trowel apparatus, to an even and fine finish. Granolithic paving will be suitable in
areas which are to receive hard wear although its appearance would not normally be suitable
for internal domestic work.
Terrazzo A flooring material of marble or stone chips set in mortar and polished when dry.
Concrete Floor Finishes Concrete has a proven record for strength, durability, and cost effectiveness for a
variety of applications including floors, walkways, patios and driveways. Concrete floors are
found in a variety of residential settings, from high-rise condominiums, to basements
remodeled for extra living space, and to slab-on-grade construction. Interior concrete is
commonly covered with carpet, vinyl, or other flooring materials. For exterior surfaces,
materials like slate, granite, or brick are preferred to standard concrete when budgets allow.

Types of Wood Floor Finishes

1. Oil-modified urethane is generally the most common surface finish and is easy to apply. It is a
petroleum base with a blend of synthetic resins, plasticizers and other film forming ingredients that
produces a durable surface that is moisture-resistant. It is a solvent-base polyurethane that dries in about
eight hours. This type of finish ambers with age. and comes in different sheen levels.

2. Moisture-cured urethane is a solvent-base polyurethane that is more durable and more moisture
resistant than other surface finishes. Moisture-cure urethane comes in non-yellowing and in ambering types
and is generally available in satin or gloss. These finishes are extremely difficult to apply, have a strong
odor and are best left to the professional.
Curing of this type of finish is by absorbing minute quantities of moisture vapor from the air, which causes
them to dry and harden. The curing process is very dependant on relative humidity.

3. Water-based urethane is a water-borne urethane with a blend of synthetic resins, plasticizers and other
film forming ingredients that produces a durable surface that is moisture-resistant. These finishes are clear
and non-yellowing and are different sheen levels. They have a milder odor than oil-modified finishes have
and they dry in about two to three hours. Water-based urethanes are generally more expensive.

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4. Converstion-Varnish Sealers-(Swedish Finishes)- A two-component acid-curing, alcohol-based sealers.
Because of their origin (country), conversion varnish sealers are often referred to as Swedish finishes
5. Penetrating Sealers - These sealers are spread on the floor and allowed to penetrate and are solvent
based. The excess sealer is removed with rags or buffed in with synthetic or steel wool pads. This type of
finish often have a color and can be used to stain and seal the wood floor. Penetrating Oil Sealers are made
from tung or linseed oil, with additives improve drying and hardness.

6. Paste Wax- The oldest, and in some ways the best. Wax is the easiest to apply, least expensive, fastest
drying, easiest to repair, and with proper care will survive forever. Wax over a penetrating stain, and the
system is in the wood so you wear the wood, not the finish. Wax is spread in thin coats for a surface
protection after the stain and/or sealer is applied, then buffed to the desired sheen.

7. Varnish- Vinyl-alkyd varnishes have superseded natural varnish made from vegetable oils. This product
was commonly used before urethane finishes where introduced.
8. Lacquer - The flammability and incompatibility of this floor finish is NOT a recommended by many
manufacturers. This finish should avoided.
9. Shellac - This product (natural shellac) contains wax and is not widely used for top coating in today's
wood flooring market. Dewaxed shellac is becoming used more and more for a wood floor sealer.

Prefinished hard wood flooring

1. Acrylic Impregnated – Acrylic monomers are injected into the cell structure of the wood to give
increased hardness and then finished with a wear layer over the wood.

2. Acrylic-urethane – Has a slightly different chemical make up than polyurethane, but with similar
benefits.

3. Aluminum Oxide – particles added to the polyurethane finish to increase the abrasion resistance of the
wear layer. This has become extremely popular on the better grades of hardwood floors.

4. Ceramic – Advanced finish technology that allows the use of space-age ceramics to increase the abrasion
resistance of the wear layer.

5. Polyurethane – A clear, tough and durable finish that is applied as a wear layer.

6. UV-cured – these floors are finished at the factory and the polyurethane finish are cured with Ultra
Violet lights instead of using heat.

Soft Floor finishes

Carpet
Types of Carpet
Select carpet based on:

 Fibre — the carpet material itself. Single fibres are spun together to create two, three or four-
ply yarn, which is then attached to a woven backing.

 Pile — the height of the fibre.

 Density — the amount of fibre tufts per square inch. Carpet weight is measured in ounces per
square yard. When using weight to compare carpets, make sure you’re comparing like materials
(ex: nylon to nylon, not nylon to polyester).

 Texture — the style in which fibres are looped, twisted or cut provides texture.

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Carpet Fibres
Carpet fibres are either natural or synthetic. Wool is the natural fibre used in carpet; cotton and other natural
fibres are widely used in rugs. The major synthetic yarns are nylon, olefin, acrylic and polyester.

 Wool offers a deep, rich look and feel with excellent resilience and durability. Although it’s
naturally stain resistant, it requires a high level of maintenance, including mothproofing.

 Nylon is the most common carpet material. It’s the strongest fibre, making it an excellent
choice for heavy traffic areas. It’s also the most durable of the synthetics, easy to clean and
maintain. Nylon is soil- and mildew-resistant, resilient and non-allergenic. Some nylon may pill
and be prone to static.

 Olefin (Polypropylene) was originally for outdoor carpeting and basements due to its
resistance to moisture, mildew, water damage, staining, pilling, shedding and static. Now it’s
more widely used for its durability and wool-like feel and appearance. Olefin is dyed before it’s
made into a fibre and therefore is colourfast. Some olefin can flatten and fade in direct sunlight.

 Polyester is not as durable or as nylon, but still quite wear-resistant. Polyester offers a wide
selection of textures and colours. While it’s susceptible to pilling and shedding, it’s non-
allergenic, sheds moisture, resists moths and mildew and cleans easily.

 Acrylic is the closest to wool of any of the synthetics. Acrylic is manufactured primarily for
commercial use. It offers soil resistance, excellent cleanability and resistance to static, moths
and mildew. Acrylic is available in a wide choice of colours, and is less likely to fade in bright
sunlight than nylon or polyester.

Carpet Treatments
Carpet is available with stain-resistant fibres and finishes, welcome news to homes with children and pets.
The most effective treatments are added as part of the manufacturing process. Finishes "applied" later are
not as long-lasting. Heat setting is a manufacturing process that reinforces the twists of the yarn plies to add
durability.
Carpet Pile
Cut Pile carpets fibre ends are cut on a level face.

 Saxony is a popular carpet of dense, level-cut pile with loops clipped to about 1/2" high. The
closely packed yarns give a soft smooth surface which is perfect in formal settings. A smooth-
finished saxony is sometimes referred to as plush.

 Textured is also a cut pile, but isn’t as densely tufted as a saxony. Two-toned yarn and an
uneven surface gives it a casual look suited for any room. Its tight-twist construction helps
resist soil, so it’s often a good choice for family rooms and kitchens.

 Frieze carpets have a short, durable, twisted pile fibre well suited for busy areas.

Loop Pile yarns are looped and fastened to the backing.

 Berber features large, uncut loops of natural-tone fibres, usually of olefin. Berber is very
durable and a good choice for high-traffic areas.

 Level loop refers to tufted, uncut loops of equal height. It’s durable, and a great carpet for high
traffic areas and informal rooms.

Cut & Loop offers a combination of the above, allowing more textures and patterns. Cut and loop achieves
a sculptured pattern with varied levels of uncut low loops and sheared top loops. The pattern looks as if it's
been cut into the carpet and usually features several tones from the same colour family. The change in
colour helps disguise wear and soiling.

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Carpet Padding
Padding is just as important as the carpet itself — in some ways even more so. Although it’s not visible, the
cushioning layer is critical to a quality carpet installation. Installing the proper backing cushions the foot,
insulates from cold and noise and increases the life of the carpet. Always use a quality backing but
remember that thicker is not always better. A floor that’s too soft can be dangerous, especially to those
whose steps may be a bit unstable at times. When foot testing a carpet in the showroom, test it with a
padding sample underneath.
Carpet Tiles
Peel and stick carpet tiles have become an excellent do-it-yourself flooring method. New
technology has provided carpet squares that are easy to install, clean and maintain. The adhesive
system keeps the carpet in place and eliminates curling. Homeowners can mix and match colours
and patterns to suit their décor.

Assessment Questions

1. List any five types of materials used for building.

2. Explain any five components of a building.
3. Discuss suitable floor finishes for a catering and accommodation
premise

11.1.04 MAIN SERVICES

11.1.04T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state services required in catering and accommodation premises
c) explain the distribution of service system
d) explain the causes of failures in service systems
e) explain the remedies to failures in service systems
f) explain the care and maintenance of service systems

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Defining terms
Main services means the supply of water, gas and electricity in a catering and
accommodation premise.

Unit task 2 Types of services

Gas – This is a safe fuel that is also convenient and labour saving. However it can be
dangerous if mishandled . Incase you smell gas in a room, you should;
1.) Open all doors and windows
2.) Check if the gas tap has been left on and turn off.
3.) If in doubt, turn off supply at meter and call for emergency service.

Electricity – It is a fuel that cannot be heard tasted or smelt. Once installed correctly, it is very
safe but if misused it can kill or cause serious injury. It’s important that all electrical
installations are done by qualified personnel.

Water – Water authorities are required by law to provide a supply of clean wholesome water. It
should be free from all suspended matter, odour and taste. It should also not contain pathogens
and any minerals that are injurious to human health.

Unit task 3 Distribution of service systems

Water supply system

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A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic
components which provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes:

1. The watershed or geographic area that collects the water (see water purification - sources of drinking
water);
2. A raw (untreated) water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as
a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Untreated drinking water (usually water
being transferred to the water purification facilities) may be transferred using uncovered ground-level
aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes.
3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually underground).
4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or watertowers. Smaller water systems may
store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. (Tall buildings may also need to store water locally in
pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.)
5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the
outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is unfeasible)
6. A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses or industrial,
commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire hydrants)

Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some developing countries) are
generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is considered to be a separate
system, rather than part of the water

Unit task 5 Remedies to failures in service systems

Air lock in pipe work –
Removing the air lock

To overcome this, attach a length of hosepipe to the affected tap and connect the other end to a working
direct feed tap. In most cases this will be the cold tap on the kitchen sink.
Open both taps to allow the pressure of the mains water to force the air back out of the pipes. Leave to act
for several minutes, and then turn off the air locked tap first.
It may be necessary to repeat this a few times to release the lock and allow water to run properly.
When finished, undo the hose from the higher of the two taps, before releasing the lower and allowing the
water in the hose to drain into the sink.

Air lock at more than one tap

If more than one tap appears to be air-locked, clear it from the lowest one. With cold water pipes from the
attic cistern, it may also be possible to blow out the airlock if the above method fails.
Push a length of hose into the outlet pipe within the tank. Open the tap at the other end. Blow through the
pipe to dislodge the lock.

Draining down to remove an air lock

The following steps should be taken when draining down:-
o As a final resort method, drain the system down.
o Turn off the water feed and open all the taps to drain the water.
o Close all taps until they are about three quarters closed.
o Turn the water supply back on.
o Adjust them all until a light; even flow of water is achieved.

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o Now go round opening them one by one to the half-open position, starting with the lowest and working
upwards.
o Repeat at the three quarters open position. Once all air has been discharged, turn all taps off to a point
where there is only a minimal flow.
o Finally, close them all before checking the operation of each in turn.

Water Hammers
Expansion joints on a steam line that have been destroyed by steam hammer
Steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water hammer, known as steam
hammer. In a steam system, water hammer most often occurs when some of the steam condenses into water
in a horizontal section of the steam piping. Subsequently, steam picks up the water, forms a "slug" and hurls
it at high velocity into a pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This
condition is usually caused by a poor condensate drainage strategy.
Where air filled traps are used, these eventually become depleted of their trapped air over a long period of
time through absorption into the water. This can be cured by shutting off the supply and draining the system
by opening taps at the highest and lowest locations, which restores the air to the traps and then closing the
taps and opening the supply.

Blockage of Pipes
Regular use of chemical drain cleaners will help keep the waste system clear and smelling fresh, but
remember to follow the instructions carefully.
If one of the appliances fails to empty when all the others do, the blockage must be in the vicinity of its
branch pipes. Try using a sink plunger, remembering to block off the overflow with some wet rags. Make
sure there is enough water to in the appliance to cover the cup of the plunger. Plunge vigorously for several
seconds and then repeat the process until the blockage clears. Flush the pipes with clean water to remove
any debris and disinfect to freshen and cleanse the area.
If the method fails try using a hand operated hydraulic pump. Block off the overflow with wet rags and fill
the pump with water. Hold the nozzle over the outlet and a downward action on the tool forces a powerful
water jet along the pipe to dislodge or disperse the blockage. If it still appears blocked, keep the tool in
position and apply an upward stroke to create sufficient suction to dislodge the blockage. If the method fails
the trap needs clearing. The trap is situated below the waste outlet. It is a bent tube, which is designed to
hold water in order to prevent odours from the drain entering the room.
Brass or lead U traps
Old-style U traps are generally made of brass or lead and must be handled with care to avoid damage. Place
a bucket or bowl underneath and using a wrench unscrew the cleansing eye at the bottom of the trap. Use a
rod or bent coat-hanger to wire out any debris remaining. Rinse the sink with water to remove all debris
from the trap. Clean the thread of the clearing eye, and before replacing, wrap some water proof tape around
it to prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the connections are watertight.
Plastic U traps
Plastic U traps do not have clearing eyes, so it will be necessary to remove the trap. There are lock nuts
either side of the trap, which should be unscrewed to release the trap. If they are reluctant in moving, try
applying boiling water over the top, remember to have a bowl or bucket below. Before replacing wrap some
water proof tape around the locknut threads to prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the
connections are watertight.
Bottle traps
Bottle traps are the easiest traps to clear because the whole base of the trap can be unscrewed by hand. Once
the debris has been removed from the trap, use a rod or metal coat-hanger to probe the waste-pipe for any
residue. Rinse the trap thoroughly and cleanse with disinfectant. Before replacing wrap some water proof
tape around the cover thread to prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the connections are
watertight.

Unit task 6 Care and maintenance of service systems

Electricity
Short circuit

A short circuit (sometimes abbreviated to short or s/c) in an electrical circuit is one that allows a current to
travel along a different path from the one originally intended. The electrical opposite of a short circuit is an

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"open circuit", which is an infinite resistance between two nodes. It is common to misuse "short circuit" to
describe any electrical malfunction, regardless of the actual problem

Definition
A short circuit is an abnormal low-resistance connection between two nodes of an electrical circuit that are
meant to be at different voltages. This results in an excessive electric current (overcurrent) limited only by
the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the rest of the network and potentially causes circuit damage,
overheating, fire or explosion. Although usually the result of a fault, there are cases where short circuits are
caused intentionally, for example, for the purpose of voltage-sensing crowbar circuit protectors.

In circuit analysis, the term short circuit is used by analogy to designate a zero-impedance connection
between two nodes. This forces the two nodes to be at the same voltage. In an ideal short circuit, this means
there is no resistance and no voltage drop across the short. In simple circuit analysis, wires are considered to
be shorts. In real circuits, the result is a connection of nearly zero impedance, and almost no resistance. In
such a case, the current drawn is limited by the rest of the circuit.

Examples
An easy way to create a short circuit is to connect the positive and negative terminals of a battery together
with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire. With low resistance in the connection, a high current exists,
causing the cell to deliver a large amount of energy in a short time.
In electrical devices, unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down, or
when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path than the one
intended.
NB: Any electrical related problem should be solved by a qualified technician for safety purposes

Poor handling of tools and equipment can cause problems in electricity supply systems. Always follow the
manufacturers instructions while working with electrical tools and equipment .
Faulty tools equipment can also interfere with the supply system as well as put the user at risk. Always
service your tools and equipment regularly.
Avoid handling electrical equipment with wet hands Dry your hands when handling electrical tools.
Gas
Incase you smell gas in a room, you should;
1.) Open all doors and windows
2.) Check if the gas tap has been left on and turn off.
3.) If in doubt, turn off supply at meter and call for emergency service.

Assessment Questions

1. State the main services required in a catering and accommodation premise.

2. Explain the direct and indirect cold water supply systems.
3. Give three examples of failures that can occur in a water supply system.
4. Explain remedies for the above failures.

11.1.05 ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE

11.1.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the scope of environmental hygiene
c) identify various environmental health hazards.
d) identify pests and rodents and their control methods
e) explain types of waste
f) identify waste disposal equipment and facilities
g) explain methods of waste disposal in catering and accommodation premises
h) explain, use, care and maintenance of waste disposal equipment and facilities
i) state the legal aspects on waste disposal

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Unit task
Unit task 1 Defining of terms
Environment
An environment is what surrounds a thing or an item. The environment is the surrounding. It could be a
physical element - physical environment, that includes the built environment, naturual environment - air
conditions, water, land, atmosphere etc
Hygiene
The science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health. The conditions and practices that serve
to promote or preserve health.
Environmental hygiene
Environmental hygiene includes activities aimed at improving or maintaining the standard of basic
environmental conditions affecting the well being of people

Unit task 2 Scope of environmental hygiene

o Clean and safe water supply
o Clean and safe ambient air
o Efficient and safe animal, human, and industrial waste disposal
o Protection of food from biological and chemical contaminants
o Adequate housing in clean and safe surroundings.

Unit task 3 Identifying environmental health hazards.

There are numerous health hazards that can affect people in their natural environment. Examples of
environmental health hazards are :

 allergens
 anthrax
 antibiotic agents in animals destined for human consumption
 antibiotic resistance
 arbovirus
 arsenic - a contaminant of fresh water sources (water wells)
 asbestos - carcinogenic
 avian influenza
 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
 carcinogens
 cholera
 cosmic rays
 DDT
 dioxins
 drought
 dysentery
 electromagnetic fields
 endocrine disruptors
 epidemics
 e-waste
 explosive material
 floods
 food poisoning
 fungicides
 furans
 haloalkanes
 heavy metals
 herbicides
 hormones in animals destined for human consumption
 lead in paint
 light pollution

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  lighting
 lightning
 malaria
 marine debris
 mercury
 molds
 mutagens
 noise pollution
 onchocerciasis (river blindness)
 pandemics
 pathogens
 pesticides
 pollen for allergic people
 polychlorinated biphenyls
 quicksand
 rabies
 radon and other natural sources of radioactivity
 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
 sick building syndrome
 soil pollution
 tobacco smoking
 toxic waste
 ultraviolet light
 vibration
 wildfire
 x-rays

Unit task 4 Identifying pests and rodents control methods

Control of Pests
Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because
it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.

Pests are beneficial as well as a curse to mankind. Animals, bacteria and some insects are
beneficial to people in many ways, but the same time they can also be pests. Pests such as rats,
ants, cockroaches, mice and flies are common in houses and apartments. There should be an
effective pest control to prevent pests in multiplying themselves in houses, which include effective
pest management, pest control and pest prevention.

Pest Management

The best and most effective way for controlling pests is pest management which includes many
steps.

The first and most important step in Pest Control is to identify the pest problem. This includes
finding out exactly what you are up against. Some pests (bacteria, animals) are really helpful to
people, so it is very important to find out any harmful pests.

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The second thing is to decide how much pest control is necessary. Only the family who live in the
affected area can judge how serious it is to take action.

The third thing is to choose an available option for pest control such as chemical pest control or
non chemical pest control.

You can control pests by many means; some of the options available are:-

 Non Chemical pest control

 Chemical pest control
 Biological Methods

Non-chemical methods of pest control

The range of nonchemical options available may vary with the pest species, pest intensity or
severity, and effectiveness of the option. Several key nonchemical options that may help reduce the
amount of pesticides used in and around homes are listed below. However, it is important to realize
that for effective use of nonchemical methods, an understanding of pest biology, ecology, and
behavior is essential. Such an understanding is not always required when using synthetic
pesticides.
 Exclusion: Any measure used to prevent entry of organisms indoors through openings in
the building structure, doors, windows, or on infested plant or food materials. Some
techniques include screening openings to prevent entry of flies, mosquitoes, and beetles;
caulking cracks and crevices to remove existing or potential harborages of pantry pests
and cockroaches; and sealing or repairing exterior openings to prevent entry of bats, mice,
bees, and wasps. Plants and food products must be carefully inspected for infestations at
the time of purchase and before they are brought indoors.
 Sanitation: Maintaining clean surroundings both outdoors and indoors removes potential
areas where pests can feed, breed, and hide. Sanitary measures include: disposing of
garbage on a weekly basis during warm weather to control filth flies and cockroaches;
discarding overripe fruits to control fruit flies and fungus beetles; removing bird nests as
these harbor dermestids, clothes moths, mites, and lice; and vacuuming to reduce
populations of fleas, carpet beetles, house dust mites, and several ground-dwelling insects
and insect relatives. It is also important to keep kitchen areas clean to reduce incidence of
pantry pests and cockroaches.
 Habitat modification: Includes any method used to eliminate or disrupt areas where pests
reside. For example, removing weeds and keeping well-mowed lawns reduces incidence
of crickets and ticks. Removing debris and fallen leaves near foundations reduces bug and
centipede populations. Wood or wooden piles, where carpenter ants, ground beetles, and
spiders seek harborage, must be stored away from structures. Creating a vegetation-free
barrier around the perimeter of the building will reduce incidence of many ground-
dwelling pests such as clover mites. The use of dehumidifiers is recommended, especially
in basements, to create and maintain a dry environment to discourage incidence of
sowbugs, centipedes, firebrats, and house dust mites.
 Temperature control: Artificially manipulating the temperature of substrates infested by
pests or areas where pests reside is an inexpensive nonchemical strategy. The time from
treatment to death of a pest and numbers of the pest killed, may vary with the pest stage,
temperature, and duration of exposure. Pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles can
be eliminated by subjecting infested foods, clothes, and carpets, respectively, to extremely
hot or cold temperatures. In general, all developmental stages of pantry pests, clothes
moths, and carpet beetles can be killed within minutes to hours when exposed to
temperatures below 32° F and above 104° F.
 Mechanical control: A rolled newspaper or magazine and fly swatters are some tools
used for killing visible and less mobile or immobile pests. On infested plants, hand-
picking insects (e.g., hornworms) is a partially effective means of pest control. Infested
leaves must be excised from plants, bagged, and discarded.

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  Traps: Traps are escape-proof devices that capture highly mobile and active pests. Live
traps can be used for rabbits, pocket gophers, and squirrels. Unbaited sticky traps such as
red spheres, resembling apples, are useful for trapping apple maggot adults. Colored
(yellow) sticky traps are effective in capturing whiteflies and aphids. Sticky traps can be
baited with commercial lures (pheromones and food attractants) to enhance trap catch. For
example, sticky traps baited with lures for pantry pests, wasps, and flies are commercially
available.
Traps are useful for early detection and continuous monitoring of infestations. They are
not effective in reducing populations unless the pest population is isolated or confined to a
small area. The chance of detecting the presence of pests in a given area is related to the
number of traps used. Therefore, when pests are present in very low numbers, it is
advantageous to use more than a few traps. Pests must be active or mobile to be captured
in traps. Therefore, any environmental variable (temperature, humidity, wind, light, or
food) or biological factor (age, sex, mating status, etc.) that influence pest activity, affects
trap catch. Consequently, absence of pests in traps does not imply that the pests are not
present in the sampled area.

Chemical Pest Control

Another good solution for pest control is the use of chemical pesticides. It is not advisable in and
around the home and commercial premises, as it will affect people adversely. The major drawback
of this method is that the results of the chemical pesticides treatment are generally temporary,
therefore the need for repeated treatments. If used incorrectly, home-use pesticides can be
poisonous to humans. While you are using chemical pesticides for pest control, the most important
thing to remember is to take care in choosing the right pesticide product.

Biological Pest Control

Another effective way in controlling pests is using the biological method. This is the method of
using pest's natural enemies to control them. Spiders, centipedes, ground beetles and ants are some
of the beneficial bugs. This method is not harmful to people in any means and can be implemented
effectively.

Rodent Control

Rodents (rats and mice) live in the environment we create for them. They will eat almost any
foodstuff, which can include bird and pet foods, vegetables stored in outdoor sheds, peelings that
are added to open compost bins and household garbage that is not adequately secured.

It is a myth that rodents only exist in dirty environments, as all they require is a source of food,
water and a safe place to nest. Rodents usually live within 15.25 to 45.75 metres (50 to 150 feet) or
their food source. Nesting burrows are often found in areas not frequented by humans, such as:

 in and around open compost bins (even if it only contains grass clippings). Compost bins can
be screened to help exclude rodents and if properly maintained should not be a problem.

 in woodpiles.

 under storage sheds and storage piles.

 in non-maintained yard areas.

 in refuse storage areas.

The most common methods of rodent control are through the use of traps and anticoagulant baits.

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 Traps: Rodents are wary of new things in their environment. Place traps against perimeter walls
(perpendicular) so that rodents will have to walk overtop of the release mechanism. Baits that work
well include hot dog wieners or peanut butter. Make sure the baits are fresh. It can be helpful to
bait the trap without setting it until rodents are used to coming to it for food. After they are coming
to the trap you can set it with more confidence.

Baits: Anticoagulant baits can be toxic to humans and pets as well as rodents. They should always
be contained in a tamper-proof bait station. Poison baits should not be used indoors as inaccessible
decaying rodents can cause odour problems that are difficult to resolve.

If you find dead rodents in the yard, dispose of them as quickly as possible by picking them up
with a shovel and placing them in a transparent green bag. It can be set out with your regular waste.

Rodent Control Responsibility

The responsibility for rodent control rests with the landowner. The pest control officer can assist
with property inspection and make recommendations for by-law enforcement if required. Tenants
are protected through minimum standards by-laws but are encouraged to cooperate with their
landlords by ensuring good housekeeping

Unit task 5 Types of wastes

 Biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be
broken down by other living organisms. Waste that cannot be broken down by other living organisms may
be called non-biodegradable.

 Biomedical waste
Biomedical waste consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste that are potentially infectious or
dangerous. It must be properly managed to protect the general public, specifically healthcare and sanitation
workers who are regularly exposed to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard

 Bulky waste
Bulky waste or bulky refuse is a technical term taken from waste management to describe waste types that
are too large to be accepted by the regular waste collection. It is usually picked up regularly in many
countries from the streets or pavements of the area. This service is provided free of charge in many places,
but often a fee has to be paid.

 Business waste
Business (or commercial and industrial) waste – cover the commercial waste and industrial waste types .
Generally, businesses are expected to make their own arrangements for the collection, treatment and
disposal of their wastes. Waste from smaller shops and trading estates where local authority waste collection
agreements are in place will generally be treated as municipal waste.

 Chemical waste
Chemical waste is a waste that is made from harmful chemicals (mostly produced by large factories).
Chemical waste may fall under regulations such as COSHH in the UK, or the Clean Water Act and
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act in the US. Chemical waste may or may not be classed as
hazardous waste.

 Clinical waste
Medical waste, also known as clinical waste, normally refers to waste products that cannot be considered
general waste, produced from healthcare premises, such as hospitals, clinics, doctors offices, labs and
nursing homes.

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  Coffee wastewater
The unpicked fruit of the coffee tree, known as the coffee cherry, must undergo a long process to make it
ready for consumption. This process often entails the usage of massive amounts of water and the production
of considerable amounts of both solid and liquid waste.

 Commercial waste
Commercial waste consists of waste from premises used wholly or mainly for the purposes of a trade or
business or for the purpose of sport, recreation, education or entertainment but not including household;
agricultural or industrial waste

 Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste)

Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by the construction or
industries. This includes building materials such as insulation, nails, electrical wiring, and rebar, as well as
waste originating from site preparation such as dredging materials, tree stumps, and rubble. construction
waste may contain lead, asbestos, or other hazardous substances.

 Controlled waste
Controlled waste a waste type composed of either domestic, commercial and/or industrial waste.

 Demolition waste
Demolition waste is waste debris from destruction of a building. The debris varies from insulation, nails,
electrical wiring, rebar, wood, concrete, and bricks. It also may contain lead, asbestos or different hazardous
materials.

 Electronic waste (E-waste)

Electronic waste, e-waste, e-scrap, or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) describes loosely
discarded, surplus, obsolete, broken, electrical or electronic devices. The processing of electronic waste in
developing countries causes serious health and pollution problems because electronic equipment contains
some very serious contaminants such as lead, cadmium, beryllium and brominated flame retardants. Even in
developed countries recycling and disposal of e-waste involves significant risk to workers and communities
and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaching of material such
as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

 Food waste
Food waste is "any food substance, raw or cooked, which is discarded, or intended or required to be
discarded", according to the legal definition of waste

 Hazardous waste
A hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment
and generally exhibits one or more of these characteristics:
a) carcinogenic
b) ignitable (i.e., flammable)
c) oxidant
d) corrosive
e) toxic
f) radioactive
g) explosive

 Inert waste
Inert waste is waste which is neither chemically or biologically reactive and will not decompose. Examples
of this are sand, drywall, and concrete. This has particular relevance to landfills as inert waste typically
requires lower disposal fees than biodegradable waste or hazardous waste.

Unit task 6 Identify waste disposal equipment and facilities

Incinerators
Recycling
Containers
Shredders
Compactors

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Unit task 7 Explaining the waste disposal methods
OCEAN DUMPING
Advantages:
 convenient
 inexpensive
 source of nutrients, shelter and breeding

Disadvantages:
 ocean overburdened
 destruction of food sources
 killing of plankton
 desalination
SANITARY LANDFILL
Advantages:
 volume can increase with little addition of people/equipment
 filled land can be reused for other community purposes
Disadvantages:
 completed landfill areas can settle and requires maintenance
 requires proper planning, design, and operation
INCINERATION
Advantages:
 requires minimum land
 can be operated in any weather
 produces stable odor-free residue
 refuse volume is reduced by half
Disadvantages:
 expensive to build and operate
 high energy requirement
 requires skilled personnel and continuous maintenance
 unsightly - smell, waste, vermin
OPEN DUMPING
Advantages:
 inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 health-hazard - insects, rodents etc.
 damage due to air pollution
 ground water and run-off pollution
RECYCLING
Advantages:
 key to providing a livable environment for the future

Disadvantages:
 expensive
 some wastes cannot be recycled
 technological push needed
 separation of useful material from waste difficult

Unit task 8 Stating of legal aspects of waste disposal

IN EXERCISE of the powers conferred by Sections 92 and 147 of the

Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act No. 8, of 1999, the
Minister for Environment and Natural Resources, on the recommendation
of the National Environment Management Authority and upon
consultation with the relevant lead agencies makes the following

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Regulations:
PART I: PRELIMINARY PROVISIONS
Citation
1. These Regulations may be cited as the Environmental Management and Co-ordination (Waste
Management) Regulations, 2006.
Application
2. These Regulations shall apply to all categories of waste as is provided for herein.
Interpretation
3. In these Regulations unless the context otherwise requires: Cap 243
“Act” means Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act No.8 of 1999.
“Applicant” means any person who applied to the Authority or lead agency for authorization to perform
specific activities connected with chemicals, pesticides, radioactive substances and waste management.
“Authority” means the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) established under Section 7
of the Act.
“Biodegradable substance” means a substance that can be degraded by
microorganisms.
“Biomedical waste” means any waste which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization
of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of
biologicals and including categories mentioned in Ninth Schedule of these Regulations.
“Board” means the Radiation Protection Board as established under the Radiation Protection Act, Cap. 243
Laws of Kenya.
“Disposal site” means any area of land on which waste disposal facilities are physically located or final
discharge point without the intention of retrieval but does not mean a re-use or re-cycling plant or site.
“Domestic Waste” means waste generated from residences.
“Environmentally Sound Management of Waste” means taking all practical steps to ensure that waste is
managed in a manner which will protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects
which may result from the waste.

Cap 346
“Incineration” means the controlled burning of solids, liquids, gaseous combustible waste to produce gases
and residues containing little or no combustible materials.
“Industrial Waste” means waste arising from processing and manufacturing industries or trade
undertakings and can take the form of liquid, non-liquid, solid and gaseous substances.
“Pesticide” has the meaning assigned to it under the Pests Control Products Act Cap. 346 of the Laws of
Kenya.
“Prior Informed Consent” means the international operation procedure for exchanging, receiving and
handling notification information by the competent authority on waste.
“Radioactive Waste” means any radioactive material that has been, or will be, discarded as of being of no
further use.
“Recycling of waste” means the processing of waste material into a new product of similar chemical
composition.
“Reprocessing” means the processing of waste into a new product of different chemical composition.
“Reuse” means waste reused with or without cleaning and/or repairing.
“Segregation” means any activity that separates waste materials for processing.
“Sludge” means a none flowing mixture of solids and liquids.
“Storage” means temporary placement of waste in a suitable location or facility where isolation,
environmental and health protection and human control are provided in order to ensure that waste is
subsequently retrieved for treatment and conditioning and/or disposal.
“Toxic Chemical” means any substance, which on entry into an organism through ingestion, inhalation and
dermal contact is injurious, causes physiological, or biochemical disturbances or otherwise causes
deterioration of the functions of the organism in any way.
“Treatment” means any method, technique or process for altering the biological, chemical or physical
characteristics of wastes to reduce the hazards it presents.
“Waste Generator” means any person whose activities or activities under his or her direction produces
waste or if that person is not known, the person who is in possession or control of that waste.
“Waste Management” means the activities, administrative and operational, that are used in handling,
packaging, treatment, conditioning, reducing, recycling, reusing, storage and disposal of waste.

Assessment Questions

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1. Define environmental hygiene.
2. Discuss any five environmental health hazards.
3. Explain any five different types of waste.
4. Explain the different methods of waste disposal.

11.1.06 SAFETY AND SECURITY

11.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in safety and security
b) explain the importance of safety and security in catering and accommodation premises
c) outline the safety and security requirements
d) outline safety precautions
e) state legal aspects on safety and security in catering and accommodation premises

Unit task s
Unit task 1 Defining terms
Security
The state of being free from danger or injury;
Security is the degree of protection against danger, loss, and criminals

Safety
It is the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional,
occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents,
harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable.

Unit task 2 Explaining the importance of safety and security

-It aids in the prevention of crime.

-It helps to minimize accidents.
-It provides the staff with a good and secure working environment.
-It provides a safe and secure for the guests and possessions.

Unit task 3 Outlining safety and security requirements in catering and accommodation premises
 Check condition of the equipment before and after use
 Read manufactures instructions before operating any tool or using any product
 Ensure tools and products are used for the purpose intended and used correctly
 Arrange your workshop and store tools and products in their right places
 Ensure that any product that splits on the floor is cleaned immediately
 Always keep your floor completely dry
 Ensure workshop is well light
 Avoid a slippery floor in the workshop
 Put warning signs of slippery area
 Always maintain cleaning working places by disposing waste products to the dust bins
 Do not run while in the workshop
 Always use tools and equipment correctly for the purpose intended
 Store tools in their right places when not in use
 Follow manufactures instructions while working with electrical tools and equipment
 Services your tools and equipment regularly
 Dry your hands when handling electrical tools

Unit task 4 Outlining fire precautions in catering and accommodation premises

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  Cover all unused electrical outlets.
 Arrange electrical cords so they neither dangle loosely nor entangle with one another.
 Matches, lighters, and all flammable materials should be kept out of the reach of children.
 Radiator covers should be made of a non-heat absorbent material.
 Wood stoves and fireplaces should have screens and a gate, so that children cannot wander too
close.
 Fireplaces and, especially, chimneys should be cleaned and inspected by a reputable professional
every year.
 There should be a smoke detector installed on every level of the premises and in the hallways
leading to other rooms. It is an extra precaution to have them installed in each bedroom.
 Set the thermostats on water heaters between 135 and 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Formulate an escape plan for every room in the premises, with an alternate plan in case the first
option is blocked by fire. Practice these escapes often.
 Set up a safe place to meet outside.
 Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
 Try to use non-flammable or fire-resistant materials for curtains and upholstery.
 Use space heaters only on noncombustible surfaces and at least three feet from furniture and walls.
 Store all flammable and combustible products in cool, well ventilated places, locked securely
and/or out of the reach of children.

Unit task 5 Stating legal aspects on safety and security requirements in catering and accommodation
premises
As from 1993 six health and safety at work regulation has come into force.
1. Management of health and safety at work regulation1992
o Risk assessment
o Control of hazardous substances
o training
2. Work place regulation
o Floor to be of suitable construction
o Floor free from hazardous articles or substances
1. Steps taken to avoid slips, trips and falls
3. Manual handling operation regulations
o Reducing incorrect handling of loads
o Preventing hazardous handling
4. Fire precautions in places of work
o Means of fire fighting
o Evacuation procedures
o Raising the alarm
5. provision and use of work equipment
o ensure correct usage
o properly maintained
o training given
6. Health and safety (Display screen equipment)
o To see that staff using visual display units have suitable work place and take regular breaks
Assessment Questions
1. Explain the importance safety and security in a catering premise and accommodation premise.
2. Explain any five security precautions that should be taken in a catering and accommodation
premise.
3. Explain any five safety precautions that should be taken in catering and accommodation
premise.

11.1.07 MAINTENANCE

11.1.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the scope and importance of maintenance in catering and accommodation premises

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 b) explain types of maintenance in catering and accommodation premises
c) explain factors that influence maintenance of catering and accommodation premises
d) list tools and materials used in maintenance
e) explain legal aspects on maintenance in catering and accommodation premises

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Explaining the scope and importance of maintenance

Scope of maintenance
Internal External
Plant Heating, lighting, ventilation Lighting, fuel stores
centralized vacuuming,
plumbing
Services Electricity, gas, water Drainage, sewage
Machinery and Catering , laundry, cleaning, Transport, fire fighting access
equipment firefighting, access
Specialized areas Swimming pools, operating Swimming pools, gazebos,
theatres barbecue areas
Building envelope Doors, windows, walls, Roof, guttering, fire escapes,
ceilings, paintwork, structural masonry, chimneys, paintwork,
repairs, redecoration windows, structural repairs,
redecoration
Site Gardens, pathways, fences,
gates, boundary walls.

Importance of maintenance
The benefits of performing maintenance inspections at recommended service intervals:
 Reduce the risk of costly in-season downtime
 Reduce repair costs due to preventative maintenance
 Ensure optimum performance at all times
 Higher resale value for well maintained equipment

Unit task 2 Types of maintenance

 General types of technical maintenance:
o Maintenance, repair and operations
Maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) may be defined as, "All actions which have the objective of
retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its required function. The actions
include the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative, managerial, and supervision
actions."
Maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) involves fixing any sort of mechanical or electrical device
should it become out of order or broken (known as repair, unscheduled or casualty maintenance). It also
includes performing routine actions which keep the device in working order (known as scheduled
maintenance) or prevent trouble from arising (preventive maintenance).
o Preventive maintenance
The care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment and facilities in satisfactory
operating condition by providing for systematic inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures
either before they occur or before they develop into major defects.
Maintenance, including tests, measurements, adjustments, and parts replacement, performed specifically to
prevent faults from occurring.
Preventive maintenance is one of the most ignored aspects of maintenance.
Here are some reasons why you should develop a preventive maintenance plan for your establishment
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Money:
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Time:
 Preventive Maintenance Helps Safeguard Your Data:
 Preventive Maintenance Improves Performance:

o Condition-based maintenance

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Breakdowns in industrial manufacturing systems can have significant impact on the profitability of a
business. Expensive production equipment is idled, labor is no longer optimized, and the ratio of fixed costs
to product output is negatively affected.

o Predictive maintenance
Predictive maintenance (PdM) techniques help determine the condition of in-service equipment in order to
predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers cost savings over routine or time-
based preventive maintenance, because tasks are performed only when warranted.

Unit task 3 Factors influencing maintenance in catering and accommodation premises

1. it must be cost effective
2. It meets statutory and other legal requirements
3. It reduces the incidences of running maintenance which precipitates user requisition
4. It meets operational needs
5. Higher percentage of actual work for the maintenance craftsmen to undertake rather than purely
inspection of items

Unit task 4 Identifying tools and materials in maintenance

Hand pliers
Hammer
Hack saw
Wood saw
Screw driver
Spanners
Electricity tester
Wood plane
Cramp and vices
Sharpening file etc.

Unit task 5 Legal aspects on maintenance of catering and accommodation premises

Assessment Questions
1. State and explain the types of maintenance that are done in a catering and accommodation
premise.
2. Identify any ten tools/equipment used in maintenance and explain their uses.

11.1.08 TENANCY AND PREMISES

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss factors affecting tenancy
c) state legal aspects on tenancy

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Defining terms
Tenant - someone who pays rent to use land or a building or a car that is owned by someone else.
Landlord/landlady - Landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, or real estate which is
rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a lessee or renter). When a juristic
person is in this position the term landlord is used. Other terms include lessor and owner
Tenancy - The possession and use of real estate owned by another party

Unit task 2 Factors affecting tenancy

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 1. What can you afford?
Before you even look at a property, workout what you can afford by looking at what your outgoings are
likely to be. For instance, you should expect to incur costs like:
 The monthly rent which may be payable monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or even
annually
 The tenancy agreement costs, an agent or a lawyer, whoever you decide to deal with will charge a
fee for constructing the tenancy agreement
 Security deposit to ensure compliance with the duties and obligations under the tenancy agreement
 Deposits for water, electricity or even telephone services payable to the relevant authorities who
provide them
Other costs like insurance for your belongings should also be anticipated as the landlord is only under duty
to insure for the physical structure.
2. Check on the neighbourhood
 Consider how secure the area might be; whether the roads are well lit and which ones to avoid for
safety reasons
 Listen out for noise; roaring traffic, barking dogs, and noisy neighbours could be an imminent
source of nuisance
 Check out what amenities exist in the area amenities; is there a local shop, hospital or college?
 Find out about public transport. Is it easy and close by? Is it regular? How much is it?
 Look for available car parking. Even if you don’t have one your self, it may make it easy for others
to visit
3. What to look for in the property
Check out the property’s state of repair and if repairs are needed ask if the landlord would be willing to do
them before you move in.
Think about safety:
 Check out how the windows the windows and doors lock and whether they are burgled
 Look around the precincts: check whether the fences and walls are secure and whether they would
require additional security
4. Work out the total cost
 Check out how much the deposit is. Ask the landlord to confirm how much it is and when you will
get it back
 Double-check the rent details. How much is it and when is it due, who you pay it to and how.
 Ask the estate agent about administration costs. If you used an agent there may be extra costs when
you sign the tenancy agreement or when it runs out in the future.
 Work out how much anything that isn’t provided will cost you may have to save up to get
everything you need.
5. Tenancy agreement
Before signing, read, and if necessary get professional advice on, any documents you have to sign. Areas of
the lease to look out for include:
 length of the tenancy
 mode of rent payment
 what the deposit is
 who will hold it and how it will be held
 how you will get it back
 how much, and who will pay for work at the end of the tenancy, such as the property inspection,
renewing the agreement or cleaning the property
6. Moving in
This can be a very exciting moment and it’s easy to forget a few important things:
 insure your own belongings

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 make your own notes of the meter readings both for water, electricity and telephone so as not to
pay bills for services you did not consume.
 Finally make sure you know how all equipment in the property works and you have their manuals.
7. Looking after your rented property
Except for normal wear and tear during the period of the tenancy, be expected to make good any damage
done otherwise it comes out of your deposit. So return the property to the landlord at the end of the tenancy
in the same condition as at the start, allowing for fair wear and tear.

Unit task 3 Legal aspects of tenancy

Short Title and Commencement

1. This Act may be cited as the Landlord and Tenant (Shops, Hotels and Catering Establishments) Act, and
shall be deemed to have come into operation on the 1st November, 1965.

Interpretion

2. (1) For the purposes of this Act, except where the context otherwise requires -
"catering establishment" means any premises on which is carried out the business of supplying food or drink
for consumption on such premises, by persons other than those who reside and are boarded on such
premises;
"controlled tenancy" means a tenancy of a shop, hotel or catering establishment -
(a) which has not been reduced into writing; or
(b) which has been reduced into writing and which -
(i) is for a period not exceeding five years; or
(ii) contains provision for termination, otherwise than for breach of covenant, within five years from the
commencement thereof; or
(iii) relates to premises of a class specified under subsection (2) of this section:
Provided that no tenancy to which the Government, the Community or a local authority is a party, whether
as landlord or as tenant, shall be a controlled tenancy;
"hotel" means any premises in which accommodation or accommodation and meals are supplied or are
available for supply to five or more adult persons in exchange for money or other valuable consideration;
"landlord", in relation to a tenancy, means the person for the time being entitled, as between himself and the
tenant, to the rents and profits of the premises payable under the terms of the tenancy;
"Minister" means the Minister for the time being responsible for matters relating to commerce;
"receiving party" means a tenant or a landlord of a controlled tenancy to whom a tenancy notice is given;
"reference" means a reference to a Tribunal under section 6 of this Act;
"rent" includes any sum paid as valuable consideration for the occupation of any premises, and any sum
paid as rent or hire for the use of furniture or as a service charge where premises are let furnished or where
premises are let and furniture therein is hired by the landlord to the tenant or where premises, furnished or
unfurnished are let with services,

"requesting party" means a landlord or a tenant of controlled tenancy by whom a tenancy notice is given;
"service charge" means a charge for any services rendered;
"services" in respect of any tenancy means the use of water, light or power, conservancy, sewerage
facilities, sweeper, watchman, telephone or other amenity or facility available to the tenant, save and except
the supplying of meals, and the right of access to any place or accommodation accorded to the tenant by
reason of his occupation of the premises comprised in the tenancy;
"shop" means premises occupied wholly or mainly for the purposes of a retail or wholesale trade or business
or for the purpose of rendering services for money or money's worth;

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"tenancy" means a tenancy created by a lease or underlease, by an agreement for a lease or underlease, by a
tenancy agreement or by operation of law, and includes a sub-tenancy but does not include any relationship
between a mortgagor and mortgagee as such;
"tenancy notice" means a notice given under subsection (2) or subsection (3) of section 4 of this Act;
"tenant" in relation to a tenancy means the person for the time being entitled to the tenancy whether or not
he is in occupation of the holding, and includes a sub-tenant;
"Tribunal" means a Tribunal appointed under section 11 of this Act.

(2) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, specify, by reference to rent paid or rateable value entered in
a valuation roll under the Valuation for Rating Act, classes of shops, hotels or catering establishments
tenancies of which shall be controlled tenancies regardless of the form or period of such tenancies.

(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other written law requiring the registration of tenancies,
evidence of a tenancy may, for any of the purposes of this Act, be given in any proceedings whether such
tenancy is registered or not.

Matters relating to Controlled Tenancies Generally

3. (1) Without prejudice to the power of the parties to a tenancy to adopt any form upon which they may
mutually agree, a controlled tenancy may be reduced to writing in the prescribed form.

(2) The terms and conditions set forth in the Schedule to this Act shall be implied in every controlled
tenancy which is not reduced to writing or which is in the prescribed form.

(3) The landlord of a controlled tenancy shall keep a rent book in the prescribed form, of which he shall
provide a copy for the tenant and in which shall be maintained a record, authenticated in the prescribed
manner, of the particulars of the parties to the tenancy and the premises comprised therein, and the details of
all payments of rent and of all repairs carried out to the premises.

(4) Whenever a landlord appoints an agent for the purpose of effecting transactions relating to a controlled
tenancy, the particulars of such agent shall be recorded in the rent book and authenticated by his signature.

(5) Any person who -

(a) being a landlord, fails to keep a rent book or to provide a copy thereof as required by subsection (3) of
this section; or
(b) fails to make any prescribed entry in a rent book, or to authenticate any such entry in the prescribed
manner; or
(c) makes any entry in a rent book which he knows to be false or which he has no reasonable cause to be
true; or
(d) makes any alteration or erasure of an entry in a rent book which may be to the prejudice of the landlord
or the tenant,
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding two thousand shillings or to imprisonment for
a period not exceeding two months, or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(6) Any agreement relating to, or condition in, a controlled tenancy shall be void in so far as it purports to -
(a) preclude the operation of this Act; or
(b) provide for the termination or surrender of the tenancy in the event of the tenant making an application
to a Tribunal under this Act; or
(c) provide for the imposition of any penalty or disability on the tenant on making any such application.

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Assessment questions

1. State and explain any five factors that affect tenancy.

2. Outline any five legal aspects related to tenancy.

11.1.09 EMERGING TRENDS

11.1.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
b) identify challenges of emerging trends
c) discuss the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends.

10.1.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) research on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
ii) outline the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends

Content
11.1.09T 1 Emerging trends
11.1.09T 2 Challenges
11.1.09T 3 Coping mechanisms

Practice

11.1.09PSpecific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) research on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
b) outline the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends

Content
11.1.09P 1 Researching on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
11.1.09P 2 Outlining the coping mechanisms

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Resource person
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Manuals

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Observing
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Test
- Assignment
- Reports

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12.1.0 MATHEMATICS

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MODULE II

Introduction

The module II course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes required to
perform supervisory duties in a House Keeping, Front Office and Laundry.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production or service of food
and beverage products.

General Objectives
By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) Supervise and guide housekeeping, front office and laundry operations in a catering and
accommodation establishment.
b) Supervise and guide production or service of different types of food and beverage products.
c) Acquire knowledge in nutrition, diet therapy and home nursing and apply when catering for people in
different health conditions
d) Appreciate the knowledge of accounting and application of law in the hospitality industry.
e) Appreciate the need for control in order to minimise losses and maximise profit in a catering and
accommodation establishment.
f) Develop a viable business proposal to start and run a business

Entry Requirements

Trainee entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements:

1. Craft Certificate in Catering and Accommodation Operations course

OR
2. Not referred in more than 2 module units in Module I of the Diploma in Catering and Accommodation
Management course
OR
3. Craft Certificate in Food and Beverage Production, Sales and Service and module II of the Craft
Certificate in Catering and Accommodation Operations course
OR
4. Craft Certificate in the House Keeping course and module I of the Craft Certificate in Catering and
Accommodation Operations course
OR
5. Equivalent qualification as determined by the Kenya National Examination Council

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Module Units and Time Allocation

Code Module Units Time

(Hours)
13.2.0 Accommodation Operations Management II 150
14.2.0 Catering And Accommodation Control II 70
15.2.0 Diet Therapy 70
16.2.0 Hospitality Accounting 70
17.2.0 Law Related to Hospitality Industry 60
18.2.0 Business Plan 50
19.4.0 Food and Beverage Production Management 200
Or
Food and Beverage Service and Sales Management
Sub total 670
Industrial Attachment 165
Total 835

419
13.2.0 ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT 1

13.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart the trainees with knowledge skills and attitudes required
for professional accommodation management It gives the trainees a broad knowledge of
administration and accommodation functions

13.2.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) demonstrate the ability to receive and handle guests appropriately
b) plan and control operations in a laundry plant
c) plan and control housekeeping duties:
d) manage and guide the maintenance of accommodation facilities in an establishment

420
13.2.0 COURSE SUMMARY UNIT AND TIME ALLOCATION

Code Sub-Module Unit UNIT TASKS T P Total

Hours
13.2.01 Introduction to  Definitions of terms
Accommodation  Scope of accommodation
department
 Importance of 2 4 6
accommodation
13.2.02 Work Plan Organization  Definition of organisation
and Control  Importance of work
organisation
2 4 6
 Steps for work organisation
13.2.03 Introduction to  Definition of terms
Accommodation  Supervision plan of work
Supervision  Job card
 Duty rotas 6 14 20
 Work schedule
 Job specification
 Job analysis
13.2.04 Cleaning Standards  Definitions
 Importance
4 8 12
 Housekeeping standard
 Other standards
13.2.04 Report Writing  Definitions
 Importance 4 8 12
 Steps in report writing
13.2.05 Fabric Finishes  Definition of terms
 Fabrics finishes
4 10 14
 Laundry procedures for
different finishes
13.2.06 Planning, Organizing  Definition of terms
and Controlling  Laundry tasks
4 10 14
Laundry Work  Laundry process
 Laundry planning
13.2.07 Staff Organisation In  Need for staff organisation
Different Types of  Organization structure in 4 8 12
Laundries different types of laundries
13.2.08 Operational Control In  Before the laundry process
Laundry  During the laundry process 4 8 12
 After the laundry process
13.2.09 Reception Functions  Definition of terms
 Reception layout
 Reception routine in
different establishment
 Duties, responsibilities and
6 14 20
qualities of a receptionist
 Importance of the reception
to the organisation
 Location of the reception
 Human and public relation
13.2.10 Reservations and  Definition of terms
Registration  Importance of reservation
and registration
4 10 14
 Documentation, reservation
and registration

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13.2.11 Departmental Liaison  Definition of terms
 Departmental and 4 8 12
interdepartmental liaison
13.2.12 Emerging Trends  Identification
 Challenges 1 1 2
 Managing challenges
45 105 150
Total

422
423
 16.2.01 INTRODUCTION TO
ACCOMMODATION

16.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee
should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the scope of the
accommodation department
c) discuss the importance of
accommodation

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Accommodation means-
housing; residence; lodging; arrangement;
adjustment

Unit Task 2: Scope of accommodation department

 Front Office Department

Is headed by the Front office Manager and
is in charge of the reception where
guests may check in and out. Reservation
is part of this section and handles
individuals reservations and also fields
inquires about room rates, room
availability, and service

 Sales and Marketing Department.

Headed by the Sales Director, who
analyzes the property’s market base,
devises a marketing plan for reaching the
potential customers, and sells to and books
reservations and functions for group
business and key cooperate clients.
 Accounting Department
Headed by the controller or the Chief
Financial officer. He tracks all incoming
revenue and outgoing cash. In large hotels,
accounting may be a division that
incorporates the purchasing department.
 Engineering and Maintenance Department
Maintains most of the equipment and
machinery on the property and keeps the in
good working condition. This department
may also clean and maintain the swimming
pool and pool deck area as well as some or
all parts of the ground.
 Security Department.
Addresses concern ranging from handling
hazardous waste to securing the building
against bomb threats and protecting the
privacy of celebrity guests. This
department is also responsible for the
safety of guests, staff and their belongings.
Lost and found may be handled by

424
 housekeeping or security, or may a shared - Research
responsibility. - Field trips
 Human Resource Department. - Writing reports
Is headed by the Human Resource Director
and is in charge of personnel matters Evaluation Questions
ranging from staff recruitment and hiring - Assignments
to setting salary ranges to benefits. This - Tests
department also develops policies for - Reports
dismissal or retirement.
16.2.02 WORK PLAN ORGANIZATION AND
CONTROL
Unit Task 3: Importance of accommodation
Housekeeping, Domestic administration
or Accommodation services is essential in
all types of establishment, whether hotels, 16.2.02T Specific Objectives
clubs, hospitals or hostels in order that By the end of this module unit, the trainee
there shall be comfort, cleanliness and should be able to:
service. a) define terms
 Housekeeping is also a business function in b) state the importance of work
the lodging industry and the professional organisation
housekeeper is a true business manager. His or c) enumerate steps for work organisation
her decisions are executive decisions
regarding staffing, scheduling purchasing, UNIT TASKS
daily operations and cost control. Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
 Apart from providing clean interiors in order Unit Task 2: Importance of planning and organising
to increase sales, and protecting the owner’s work
investment in the property’s interiors, it is also Unit Task 3: Steps in work organisation
the responsibility of the executive
housekeeper’s to make sure these goals are
met on time, on budget, and at the highest
possible levels of quality sales directly as do
the f&b dept, and the sales dept. yet its Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
performance is one of the most critical factors - Internet
in driving sales for rooms and other services - Journals
the property offers. - Textbooks
 Housekeeper protects the owner’s investment- - resource persons
it is the executive housekeeper’s job to protect - magazines
the investment and maximize the life
expectancy of all interior design elements by Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
developing effective cleaning practices and - Group discussion
training staff to carry out these practices - Research
efficiently. Working with the maintenance and - Field trips
engineering, the housekeeping dept. ensures
that the property’s interior4 continue to look Evaluation Questions
and operate like new as long as possible. - Assignments
Effective housekeeping practices combined - Tests
with a sound renovation program enables a - Reports
property to evolve to meet guest demand
without unnecessary spending. 16.2.03 INTRODUCTION TO
ACCOMMODATION SUPERVISION
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Internet
- Journals 16.2.03T Specific Objectives
- Textbooks By the end of this module unit, the trainee
- magazines should be able to:
- Charts a) define of terms
b) explain the steps in supervision of
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities plan of work
- Group discussions c) discuss the preparation and contents of
job card

425
 d) draw a duty roster and explain its List of tasks to be covered
importance - Carry out previous preparation
e) discuss and prepare work schedules - Briefing of assistants
f) discuss job specification and job - Sweeping the areas
analysis - Dry dusting of the areas
- Damp dusting of the areas
UNIT TASKS - Spot cleaning of the walls
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms - Demonstration on cleaning of the reception desk
Supervisor - Carry out the cleaning of reception desk by assistants
A person given authority to exercise control over - Mopping of the floor
workers. - Cleaning equipment and set them up
- Tidying of the area
Supervision
Act of watching over the work or tasks of another who List of Equipment and Materials
may lack full knowledge of concepts at hand. Equipment No.
Supervision does not mea control of another but Mops 3
guidance in work. Mop buckets 3
Basins 3
Dust Pan 1
Supervise Dust Pan brush 1
Oversee activity or tasks being carried out by Cleaning cloths 3
somebody and ensure it is performed correctly. Yellow dusters 1
Cornish brush 1
Unit Task 2: Supervision plan of work
Materials No.
Sample Assignment Warm water Enough
You are a housekeeper in a high cost hostel. You have Cold water Enough
been assigned two trainees to work with in cleaning the Detergent 250 ml
common room and reception area. Plan and carry out
the following tasks: Actual Plan
a) Instruct and carry out the daily cleaning of these Time Supervisor Asst 1 Asst 2
areas.
b) Demonstrate and carry out special cleaning of the
reception area.
c) Leave the area tidy.

Content of the Supervision Plan of Work

1) Brief introductory notes as per the test
2) Previous preparation tasks
3) List of tasks to be covered.
4) Requisition of equipment and materials and any Unit Task 3: Job card
other requirement This contains all the details about the work to be
5) Timed order of work to be followed by the performed. A job card is prepared for each assistant. It
supervisor and her assistant contains time and activity to be carried out at that
6) Demonstration notes particular time.

Brief Introductory notes Unit Task 4: Duty rotas

These should include question requirements, venue and This is a plan which shows hours of duty areas of work
objectives of the assignments. and days off for each member of staff.

Previous Preparation Tasks Importance

- Change into uniform - They ensure that there is sufficient staff on duty on a
- Collect equipment and materials given time in order that work is covered.
- Open windows to ventilate area - Control the hours of work for each staff as stipulated
- Erect cleaning and warning signs in the work contract
- Empty the waste bin - Ensures that the days off are as consecutive as
- Remove excess furniture possible
- Collect warm and cold water - It shows the holiday periods and helps management to
- Put up training charts know who is on duty at these times
- It shows where each member of staff is to work

426
- It shows how overtime is to be worked and by who. Wages
12.30-1.30 Lunch
Types of Rotas 1.30-4.01 General supervision of staff
- Fixed Rotas Inspections
- Rotating Rotas Dealing with other day to day matters

Fixed Rotas Unit Task 6: Job specifications and job analysis

This is used where staff works Monday – Friday. Job Analysis
Saturday and Sunday automatically become their days This is the process used to collect information about the
off. duties, responsibilities, necessary skills, outcomes and
work environment for a particular job.
Sample Fixed Rota
Job
Key Name Shift M T W T F Sat Su Specificatio
DO – Duty Off o u e h r n n- This is an
n e d u i outline of
Rotating Rota r the personal
This is where staff will cover a work period of s requirement
24 hours, 7 days a week for the whole year. John 8-4 7 7 7 7 7 DO DO s for the job
Basically, there are three shifts of 8 ours Anne 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 DO DO to fit the
rotating in a pre-arranged manner: Mary 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 DO DO right person
6 am – 2 pm Peter 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 DO DO into the
2 pm – 10 pm Rose 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 DO DO specific job.
10 pm – 6 am Cate 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 DO DO It may also
Staff may work 4 days and then have 2 days Peter 8-12 4 4 4 4 4 DO DO include an
off, or 7 days on duty and 2-3 days off duty. The length outline if the job itself.
of the cycle will depend on the number of staff.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
Unit Task 5: Work schedules - Internet
This is a plan/outline of work to be done by a particular - Journals
member of staff, showing the order in which the tasks - Textbooks
are to be carried out and the amount of time allocated to - resource persons
them. - magazines

Preparation of a work schedule Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

The following is an example of a work schedule: - Group discussion
- Research
Work schedule for an assistant domestic services - Field trips
manager
Evaluation Questions
Hours of work 7 am – 4 pm - Assignments
7.00-8.30 Check clock cards to ascertain number of - Tests
staff on duty. Check number of absentees - Reports
and re-arrange cover where necessary.
Check in tray and deal with any urgent
matters. 16.2.04 CLEANING STANDARDS
Supervision of domestic staff
8.30-12.30 Main duties to include:
Check with supervisors regarding work 13.2.04T Specific Objectives
routine By the end of this module unit, the trainee
Deal with any less urgent matters from should be able to:
the previous day a) define terms
Deal with any complains as they arise b) explain the importance of maintaining
Maintenance of records cleaning standard
10.00-10.30 Coffee c) describe standards of cleaning in
10.30-12.30 Departmental meetings accommodation establishment
Preparation of duty rotas, holiday lists d) describe other standards in
Staff training establishments
Selection and interviewing of new staff
Purchasing

427
 UNIT TASKS - Bacteriologically clean - This is where the
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms surface is free from harmful bacteria which must
be removed to avoid cross contamination,
Standard - The ideal in terms of which something can especially in hospitals
be judged. - Entomologically clean – This is where the
surface is free from insects, dust and dirt.
Unit Task 2: Importance of maintaining cleaning - Osmologically Clean –This is a very high
standards standard of cleaning especially for hospital
- To ensure that the correct procedures and theatres, intensive care units and burns unit.
methods are used.
- Ensure that standards are maintained
- To allow action to be taken to correct Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
defective work - Internet
- To identify responsibility for effective - Journals
work - Textbooks
- To allow complaints to be dealt with - resource persons
effectively` - magazines
- Work schedules
In order for this to be done effectively, the - Duty rosters
supervisor should:
- Check just before work starts to ensure Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
punctuality and correct methods of work - Group discussion
- Check just before completion of work to - Research
ensure work is done satisfactorily - Field trips
- Check to see that time allowed for each
task is observed Evaluation Questions
- Spot check in case staff is new or - Assignments
unreliable. - Tests
- Reports
Unit Task 3: Accommodation standards

There are Three major standards: 13.2.05 REPORT WRITING

1) Visual Inspection – The supervisor uses the
eyes to check in the cleaning standards. This is
not an effective method as surfaces can be 13.2.05T Specific Objectives
overlooked. By the end of this module unit, the trainee
2) White Rag – The supervisor uses a white rag should be able to:
on the surfaces cleaned to ensure that they are a) define terms
free from dust and dirt. b) explain the importance of reports
3) Cleaning Checklist – This is a list of surfaces c) discuss the contents of a report and
found in particular areas in an establishment. write a report
Cleaning is checked against these surfaces.

Sample Checklist for a corridor UNIT TASKS

Surface V.Good Good Fair Poor Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Doors
Windows Report- This is a written document describing how a
Floor particular assignment was carried out.
Notice Housekeeping reports also highlights the objectives
Board achieved and performance if individual staff.
Waste bin
Walls Unit Task 2: Importance of reports
Reports are usually written by the supervisor.
A report informs the management on the activities
carried out and their results.
Unit Task 4: Other standards It also gives recommendations, suggestions and
- Physically clean – this is where the surface is possibly future action to assist in improving
free from dirt and dust. performance.
- Chemically clean – This is where the surface is
free from harmful chemical. Unit Task 3: Steps in report writing

428
 16.2.06T Specific Objectives
- Introduction By the end of this module unit, the trainee
- Trainee’s Performance should be able to:
- Standards of cleanliness achieved a) define of terms
- Maintenance required b) identify different types of fabric
- Limitations finishes
- Conclusion c) discuss factors to consider when
- Recommendations laundering fabrics with a given fabric
finish
Introduction
This explains what the report was all about and UNIT TASKS
activities carried out and when.
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Trainee’s Performance Fabric finishes – These are treatments that are applied
This is a report on each trainee/assistant to include their to fabrics either mechanically or chemically to give
grooming, ability to take instruction, their performance, them particular characteristics, e.g. to improve
and so on. appearance, make them easy to care for, make them
more durable.
Maintenance Required
A report on any areas/items requiring repair in the areas Unit Task 2: Types of fabric finishes
cleaned. This should be specific to assist maintenance
department carry out the repairs. 1. Finishes applied to improve lustre

Limitations a) Calendering
This is basically the problems encountered that may This is done on cotton only. The material is polished in
have hindered achievement of the objectives. a machine called a friction calendar which has one
wooden or metal roller, and another made of softer
Conclusion material e.g. paper or cotton. If both rollers were hard,
This is a wrap up of all the activities. the material would be worn away with friction.
One roller moves round more quickly than the other
Recommendations and by friction, polishes material as it passes between
These should be based on the limitations - What the them.
supervisor thinks should be done to improve the
performance. b) Schreinering
This treatment gives a very high sheen. Material passes
between rollers which have been engraved with very
fine lines and which are heated inside.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources The lines are imprinted on the fabric by the heat and
- Internet catch the light and reflect it, giving the fabric a sheen.
- Journals
- Textbooks c) Beetling
- resource persons Applied to linen. The material is struck many times
- magazines with fine hammers on the beetling machine, giving the
material its characteristi1c lustre.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Group discussion d) Mercerization
- Research Applied to cotton in yarn form or after it has been made
- Field trips into material. Cotton is passed through a strong solution
of caustic soda (an alkali which does not weaken the
fibres). The fibres swell up and become round tubes
Evaluation Questions and shrink in length.
- Assignments When the caustic soda is being washed off, the smooth
- Tests fibres are stretched and they become lustrous, giving
- Reports sheen to fabrics made from them.
Cotton treated in this way is called mercerized cotton,
16.2.06 FABRICS FINISHES e.g. cotton, mercerized sewing and embroidery threads.

e) Roller embossing (embossed finishes)

429
Patterns are indented on rollers. These imprint an i) An insecticide, Deilmoth is dissolved in oil, a solvent
embossed pattern on fabrics, which reflect light on the or water and applied to woolen yarn during spinning or
raised parts. in dry cleaning fluids. It can also be sprayed onto
If the fabric is thermoplastic, this finish can be set in articles and clothes. It washes out easily, so a lot more
permanently with heat. than necessary can be used so that it survives many
Such fabrics are also made crease resistant and shrink washes.
proof.
ii) The Mitin Process
f) Searing – Heat is used to remove surface fibres from A compound called Mitin FF which is a colourless dye
wool is mixed in the dye bath when the fabric is coloured and
gives permanent protection against all wool eating
2. Finishes applied to soften insects. It does not affect the fabric, has no smell, is
non-poisonous, is not removed easily by washing or dry
a) Calendering cleaning and it does not irritate the skin when handling.

b) Beetling and Searing 6. Crease resistant finish

Animal fibres do not crease so readily as cottons and
c) Decatizing rayons, and when they do crease, they recover more
This is applied especially to wool. It is passed over a quickly, therefore do not need anti-crease finish.
hollow, perforated cylinder through which steam is Synthetic resin is introduced in the fibres of cottons and
passed. rayons, making them more resilient and less likely to
crease.
d) Cationic surfacants Clothes that have the resin cannot be dyed to a different
These act as lubricants but are not fast to washing. colour unless the resin is removed first.
e) Polyethylene and Polyacrylates Crease resistant garments however do crease. However,
These act as fibre lubricants and are wash fast. any creases made drop out of the garment once it is
hung up for a short time.
NB. Resin makes the fabric both shrink resistant and
3. Raising crease shedding.
A brush or suede finish is achieved by gently scratching
or plucking the surface of a fabric. 7. Crease Retention or Durable Pleating
4. Shrink-resistant finish (Anti-shrink) Fabrics made from thermoplastic yarns e.g.
This can be imparted mechanically or chemically to Polyamides, polyesters and acetates have pleats set in
cotton, linen and some man-made fibres. with heat and moisture.
Methods: Today, most woolen fabrics can also be durably
a) Material is steamed to close up fibres without pleated. The fabric has to be made shrink resistant first,
shrinking them. They are then pressed with heat to then pleated in any of the following ways:
steam them. a) The entire cloth is impregnated with chemicals so
b) Fibres are treated with synthetic resin so that they do that the pleats can be set in where required by pressing
not swell up when wetted. under a damp cloth.
b) A chemical is sprayed onto the part to be creased,
Lightweight woolen fabrics are treated with various e.g. a trouser crease, which is then pressed and dries.
chemicals various chemicals then they are steamed
(blown) for a few minutes and finally dried without 8. Flame Proofing
stretching. Some fibres e.g. cottons, linens, acetate, acrylics are
This treatment removes the felting properties of wool highly inflammable or flammable. Cotton net,
and prevents shrinkage. Fabrics given this treatment flannelette and winceyette are very inflammable
can be washed and drip dried and require little ironing. fabrics.
Dylan is a trade name for such a shrink resist finish. They can easily go up in flames if they come into
contact with unguarded fire.
5. Mothproofing Cotton, viscose and acetate can be chemically treated
Woolens are most likely attacked by moth grubs than by a process known as Pyrovex to make them flame
other fabrics. When the moth grubs hatch from the resistant. This process makes the material stiffer and a
eggs, they start eating woolen clothes. Most of the little harsher.
times, this is noticed when the damage is already done. iii) Other ways
Carpet beetles also eat woolen carpets at their grub  Use of boric acid
stage. The fabrics becomes flame proof but are not wash fast.
 Proban finish – Use of a compound
Ways of protecting woolens from moths.  Post dry cleaning treatments

430
9. Stain and Water repellent finish - resource persons
Can be achieved in the following ways: - magazines
a) The material is closely woven from the cotton yarn. - Cleaning materials and agents
The fibres swell when wetted and fill up the spaces
between them, creating a non-porous surface, e.g. Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
ventile - Group discussion
- Research
b) For woolen fabrics - Field trips
i) Wax is emulsified into small globules and mixed
with aluminium acetate and a protein (casein). This Evaluation Questions
substance is mixed with water; the fabric is dipped in to - Tests
it, and then mangled to remove excess water. Fabric is - Reports
dried, and as the water evaporates, wax is left in the
cloth, making it shower proof. This process is known as 16.2.07 PLANNING, ORGANIZING AND
Phobotex. CONTROLLING LAUNDRY WORK

ii) Silicones are emulsified in water or a solvent; the

fabric is immersed in the solution. It is then dried and
heated for a few minutes to 140ºC when silicones form 16.2.07T Specific Objectives
a polymer which becomes bonded to the wool, making By the end of this module unit, the trainee
it very water repellant. should be able to:
a) define terms
These methods are not always proof against dry b) identify tasks in laundry work
cleaning, but garments can be re-textured by adding c) outline procedure for the preparation
wax in a solvent to the dry cleaning fluid. of time plans for individual
assessment
iii) Scotch guard d) discuss laundry process
This is a chemical applied to fabrics to give it both
water repellency and oil and stain resistant. UNIT TASKS
The molecules of this chemical have both hydrophobic Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
and hydrophilic chemical groups. The former repels
water while the latter repels oils and staining. Planning
Moisture repellent surfaces are applied to lighter This means scheming or working out a method
fabrics; shower proofing is for heavier fabrics that are beforehand for the accomplishment of an objective.
made for rain wear. Organizing
This is the act of rearranging tasks following one or
10. Permanent Stiffening more rules.
Fabrics can be stiffened in these ways: Controlling
i) By treating with resin Regulating, managing
ii) By treating with resin and starch. This method is not Task
so permanent as starch washes out . A piece of work that somebody has to do especially a
iii) By treating with e cellulose solution and acid hard or unpleasant one.
iv) Material woven with one cotton and one acetate Activities
thread alternately in both warp and weft; it cab be A situation in which something is happening or a lot of
pressed with heat. The acetate thread melts into a sticky things being done.
substance which pulls up spaces between the weaving Standards
and binds the cotton together. Level of quality especially one that people think is
A permanently stiffened material results after cooling acceptable.
and setting. This material is known as Trubenized
material. It is used for making stiff collars for shirts. Unit task 2 Tasks in laundry work
 setting up bins for soaking
 sorting out whites and coloured clothes and placing
Unit Task 3: Factors to consider when laundering them in washing machines
fabrics with a given fabric finish  transferring clothes that have been washed into
dryers
 washing and rinsing of mats which are done in
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources buckets or in the sink.
- Internet  Hanging out some items of washing on the line.
- Journals
- Textbooks

431
  Placing washed and dried clothes on hangers and preparat instructed by
in resident pigeon holes ions supervisor
 Refilling linen presses and returning personal 9.00- Brief Attend
clothing to resident wardrobes and drawers using a 9.15 the briefing
trolley. am assistant
 Folding of all items in the laundry. s

Unit task 3 Procedure for the preparation of time

plans for supervision assessment Unit task 4 Laundry process
Time plan
Content The laundry system
i) Previous preparation 1. Arrival
ii) Work to be covered Dirty linen that arrives at the laundry is unloaded and
iii) List of equipment, materials and others stored temporarily until processing commences. The
iv) Actual plan of work of /order of work and timings dirty linen should be dealt with quickly to avoid growth
of infection, mildew and odour problems.
Previous preparations
 Collect laundry equipment and materials 2.Marking
 Identify articles to be laundered The article being laundered must be marked to identify
 Heat water for washing it with the appropriate establishment or individual
owner. This mark helps to ensure that the laundered
 Mend any tears and holes
articles are returned to the rightful owners.
 Setting up work centers
In large operations with an on-site laundry marking
 Soaking/steeping of articles
may occur only if the items are to be returned to a
 Removing of stains specific area or department, but generally a pool system
 Writing of time plan. operates.
Methods of applying marks
Embroidering or use of a transfer attached to the
fabric by pressure and heat.
Work to be covered Printing by machine with either visible or invisible
 Carry out the previous preparation activities marks.
 Washing of articles using the appropriate method Using pre-printed marks on cotton tape sewn on the
 Rinse the articles item.
 Dry the articles using correct method Marking ink or use of safety pins with a printed
 Prepare articles for finishing ‘flag’ or stamp on the metal shield of the pin.
 Air them In some cases, linen may have been pre-marked with
 Fold and hang to store e.g. company logo during the weaving process.
 Clean and dry the laundry equipment ,materials
and containers 3.Sorting (classification)
This is the first stage in the operation in an on-premises
List of equipment and materials laundry such as a hospital. Colour coded bags are used
to denote the condition of the dirty linen e.g. in a
Equipment number hospital the dirty linen is stored according to the colour
of the bag, each tape must be processed separately.
The procedure for dealing with infected linen and foul
Materials Number linen usually involves pre-washing. The following
factors vary according to the type of item being
laundered
 Amount and type of chemicals to use
 Water temperatures
Actual time plan  Number and length of cycles
 Number of rinses.
Time supervis Assistant 1 Assistan
or t The batches are sorted according to the
2  Type of fiber
8.00- Carry Carry out  Type of item
9.00 out previous  Colour of dye fastness
am previou preparations  Degree of soil age
s tasks as

432
 The excess alkaline called free alkaline, combines
4.Weighing with fat and oil in the soil to neutralize acid soils
Each bundle of dirty linen is weighed to conform to the and to render it free from the fibres from which it
capacity of the machine. is attached
The free alkali is a good wetting agent. The
5.Loading remaining wash circle requires a Ph of 10.6.
The weighed load of items may then be loaded into the
washing machine either manually or by mechanical  Depth of wash liquors
means. Manual loading and unloading of a large Variations in depth of liquor in cage of a rotary
washing machine involves considerable effort, washing machine influences the following
especially unloading when the work carries with it a a) amount of mechanical action imparted to the
great weight of water. load
Tilting or dumping machines are designed to overcome b) Proportion of removed dirt which is
this difficulty; they tilt backwards so that the load can discharged.
be discharged directly into the machine from the
overhead bag. A crane may also be used for loading.
Some machines tilt forwarding order to tip out, that is,  Temperature
dump the washed load onto a conveyor or into trolleys Many chemical reactions will not take place unless
for transfer to the next stage, which involves the heat is applied.
extraction of water. Avoid overloading the machine Most reactions can be accelerated by raising the
because: temperature.
1. Effective washing may not occur The higher the temperature of the washing liquour-
2. Linen may be damaged upto a certain level- the most efficient the soil
3. Creasing of crease resistant items may occur removal. The highest useful temperature for soil
The weight of loads of bulkier items such as towels and removal. The highest useful temperature for soil
blankets should be reduced to ensure washing takes removal for most articles is 65ºc. In housekeeping
place effectively. laundry- the temperature is also raised during the
Machines should not be overloaded for economic washing process in order to disinfect.
reasons. Temperatures may be varied during the washing
process. Certain types of staining substances can
be removed easily at low temperatures but become
fixed and almost impossible to remove if subjected
6.Washing and rinsing to higher temperatures. Many fibres will be
a) Washing damaged above certain levels.
This must be designed to perform three basic
operations:  Time needed for soil removal
1. Remove soil from the fabric
2. Suspend soil The rate at which soil is removed is not constant. It is
3. Discharge the soil from the machine to the drain highest at the commencement of the wash and
gradually becomes less as time passes.
Devising an effective washing programme
One should consider the following: c) rinsing
Fibre and fabric
Type of item This takes place after the wash cycles have been
Dye fastness completed. Rising should:-
Amount of soilage  remove the laundry supplies ( soap or synthetic
Hardness of water detergents)
 remove the small amount of dirt removed from the
These influence such things as: fabric but which remains in the ‘carry over’ liquor.
 Number of wash cycles Removal of soap and dirt is done by adding water to the
The benefit of several shorter washes rather than machine so as to dilute the ‘carry over’ liquor.
one long wash is that more soil can be removed Control of the dip is important during the rinsing
with repeated suds and clean water than with one process because too much water results in excessive
solution in wish the soil remains in suspension and dilution of the soap carried over from the final wash
has a chance to re-soil the linen. and hydrolysis could occur, with loss of suspending
 Number of rinse cycles power and consequent re-deposition of the dirt carried
 Ph values of the wash liquors over. Avoid very high dips at the commencement of
The Ph is usually different for each stage in the rinsing.
washing cycle, e.g. the first washing or suds has a
Ph of 11-11.6 (very alkaline)

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7. hydro-extraction 12. distribution
There are two principle types of hdro-extraction. The packing operation can be performed in a number of
i) the centrifugal extractor ways:
ii) an hydraulic extractor. This removes water by  finshed work may be loaded on mobile racks or
subjecting the load to a direct external pressure. The into bags , baskets or trucks or individual boxes for
only movement which the article undergo is a small personal work.
displacement due to the application of pressure.  semi- automatic packing machines use sheet
polythene or polythene lined paper which is heat
8. starching treated to form instant closure , so that the finish
Cetain articles are stached to impart a degree of parcel , whether wet or dry can withstand rough
stiffness. handling and is protected from contamination.
The starch liquor is added to the machine following the The finished items may be dispatched to the
final rinse, the machine is run for a few minutes and the establishment, department, individual or central linen
liquor not taken up is discarded. room from where they came.

9. tumbling The laundry process

Tumbles are used for The objectives of the laundering process are:
 the complete drying of articles as bath towels and  to remove dirt and stains
blankets which require a ‘fluffy’ unpressed finish  To prevent damaged on the fibre and/or loss of
known as rough or fluffy drying. tensile strength.
 processing of items manufactured from fabrics  to ‘finish’ the item in order to prevent the re-entry
composed totally or partly of polyester fibres of dirt for as long as possible and provided wrinkle
where the process has to be carefully controlled;the and crease free item.
degree of loading reduced;he load dradually cooled
down in the final stages of the cycle; and the item Factors to consider when selecting an item to
quickly removed and folded. launder
 used for heat conditioning which assist in  Fibre type, its properties and the characteristics of
removing extractors wrinkles and moisture so that the finished item.
linen can be ironed without difficulty.  Care and maintenance of the item, particularly the
effect the equipment, agents and the processes
10. finishing involved have on it.
This is ironing or pressing of items according to the
size and shape of the items.
the quality of finish achieved depends on ; Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
 the moisture content - Internet
 pressing temperature - Journals
 pressure - Textbooks
Too dry an item results to a poor finish. - resource persons
Too much moisture results to an excellent finish but a - magazines
long and costly drying time on the press, thus slowing - Work schedules
down production. - Duty rosters
Type of equipment of ironing or pressing depends on
the type of items; Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
 flat items such as sheets , pillow cases , table - Group discussion
cloths( flat work) may be calendered or a rotary - Research
ironer used. - Field trips
 non-flat items such as garments may be ironed or - Preparing work plans
pressed using iron boxes.
In commercial laundries, spreaders and feeders are used Evaluation Questions
to aid the preparation of flat work for ironing, and aid - Assignments
in economy of labour and effort to maintain continuous - Tests
uninterrupted production. - Reports

11. Temporary storage 13.2.08 STAFF ORGANISATION IN

When all the work has been finished, it is arranged in DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAUNDRIES
the correct order for packing and distribution, so that it
is often temporarily stored or fixed on mobile racks for
a short period of time.
13.2.08T Specific Objectives

434
 By the end of this module unit, the trainee By the end of this module unit, the trainee
should be able to: should be able to:
a) explain the need for staff organisation a) identify the operational control
b) describe the organisation structure in measures before the laundry process
different types of laundries b) describe the operational measures
during the laundry process
13.2.08 C Competence c) outline the operational measures after
The trainee should have the ability to: the laundry process
i) draw organisation staff organisation
structure for different laundries 13.2.09 C Competence
ii) visit different laundries and write a The trainee should have the ability to:
report on the organisational structures i) practice operational control measures
before and after the laundry process
UNIT TASKS ii) visit a laundry and write a report on
13.2.08T1 Staff organisation operational control measures
13.2.08T2 Organization structure in different types of
laundries UNIT TASKS
13.2.09T1 Operational control measures before the
Practice laundry process
13.2.09T2 Operational control measures during the
13.2.08P Specific Objectives laundry process
By the end of this module unit, the trainee 13.2.09T 3 Operational control measures after the
should be able to: laundry process
a) draw organisation staff organisation
structure for different laundries Practice
b) visit different laundries and write a
report on the organisational structures 13.2.09P Specific Objectives
By the end of this module unit, the trainee
UNIT TASKS should be able to:
13.2.08P 1 Organization structures for different a) practice operational control measures
laundries before and after the laundry process
13.2.08P 2 Report writing on the organisational b) visit a laundry and write a report on
structures operational control measures

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources UNIT TASKS

- Internet 13.2.09P1 Operational control measures before the
- Journals laundry process
- Textbooks 13.2.09P2 Writing a report on operational control
- resource persons measures of a laundry
- magazines
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities - Internet
- Group discussion - Journals
- Research - Textbooks
- Field trips - resource persons
- Drawing - magazines
- Writing reports - Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
Evaluation Questions - check lists
- Assignments
- Tests Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Reports - Group discussion
- Research
13.2.09 OPERATIONAL CONTROL IN - Field trips
LAUNDRY - Writing reports

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
13.2.09T Specific Objectives - Tests

435
 - Reports - Group discussion
- Research
13.2.10 RESERVATIONS AND - Field trips
REGISTRATION - Writing reports
- Reserving and registering guests

Evaluation Questions
13.2.10T Specific Objectives - Assignments
By the end of this module unit, the trainee - Tests
should be able to: - Reports
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of reservation 13.2.11 THE RECEPTION FUNCTION
and registration
c) describe the process of reservation and
registration
d) identify the documents used in 13.2.11T Specific Objectives
reservation and registration By the end of this sub module unit, the
trainee should be able to:
13.2.10 C Competence a) define terms
The trainee should have the ability to: b) identify location of the reception
i) identify documents used in c) state duties, responsibilities of a
reservation and registration of guests receptionist
ii) reserve and register guests d) discuss the qualities of a receptionist
e) discuss the importance of the
UNIT TASKS reception
13.2.10T 1 Definition of terms
13.2.10T 2 Importance of reservation and 13.2.11 C Competence
registration The trainee should have the ability to:
13.2.10T 3 Process of reservation and i) draw reception layout
registration ii) carry out reception duties
13.2.10T4 Documents used in reservation
and registration UNIT TASKS
13.2.11T 1 Definition of terms
Practice 13.2.11T 2 Reception layout
13.2.11T 3 Reception routine in different
13.2.10P Specific Objectives establishments
By the end of this module unit, the trainee 13.2.11T 4 Duties and responsibilities of a receptionist
should be able to: 13.2.11T 5 Qualities of a receptionist
a) identify documents used in 13.2.11T 6 Importance of Reception
reservation and registration of guests
b) practice reservation and registration
Practice
UNIT TASKS 13.2.11P Specific Objectives
13.2.10T2 Identify documents used in By the end of this sub module unit, the
reservation and registration trainee should be able to:
13.2.10P1 Practicing reservation and a) draw reception layout
registration of guests b) carry out reception duties

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources UNIT TASKS

- Internet 13.2.11P 1 Drawing reception layout
- Journals 13.2.11P 2 Carrying out reception duties
- Textbooks
- resource persons Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- magazines - Internet
- Job cards - Journals
- Work schedules - Textbooks
- Duty rosters - Resource persons
- check lists - magazines
- Job cards
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities - Work schedules

436
 - Duty rosters - Work schedules
- Reception - Charts
- check lists - check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion - Group discussion
- Research - Research
- Field trips - Field trips
- Writing reports - Writing reports
- Other departments
Evaluation Questions
- Assignments Evaluation Questions
- Tests - Assignments
- Reports - Tests
- Reports
13.2.12 DEPARTMENTAL LIAISON
13.2.13 EMERGING TRENDS

13.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub module unit, the 13.2.13T Specific Objectives
trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss departmental and
interdepartmental liaison

13.2.12 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) visit and identify departments in
catering and accommodation
establishment
ii) write a report on the relationship
between various departments

UNIT TASKS
13.2.12T1 Definition of terms
13.2.12T2 Departmental and interdepartmental liaison

Practice

13.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub module unit, the
trainee should be able to:
a) visit departments in catering and
accommodation establishment
b) write a report on the relationship
between various departments

UNIT TASKS
13.2.12P1 Visiting departments in catering and
accommodation establishment
13.2.12P2 Report writing on the relationship between
various departments

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines

437
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the Evaluation Questions
trainee should be able to: - Assignments
a) identify emerging trends in - Tests
accommodation management - Reports
b) identify challenges in
accommodation management
c) discuss ways of handling
emerging trends

13.2.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the emerging trends in
accommodation management
ii) manage the challenges

UNIT TASKS
13.2.13T 1 Emerging Trends
13.2.13T 2 Challenges
13.2.13T 3 Handling Challenges

Practice

13.2.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the
trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in
accommodation management
b) discuss challenges related to
emerging trends
c) explain ways of managing the
challenges

UNIT TASKS
13.2.13P 1 Identification of the emerging trends
13.2.13P 2 Challenges related to the emerging
trends
13.2.13P 3 Managing challenges

Suggested Teaching/Learning
Resources
- Mass media
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Brochures
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning
Activities
- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports
- Researching

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14.2.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL II

14.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes, which are
conductive to effective control of operations within the hospitality industry.

14.2.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) acquire knowledge of catering and accommodation and their application in different
sectors of hospitality industry.
b) demonstrate ability to apply control measures to maintain appropriate standards in catering
and accommodation operations.
c) coordinate the activities of catering and accommodation control to achieve the required
standards in different sectors of the hospitality industry.

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440
441
14.2.01 BUDGET AND
BUDGETARY CONTROL

14.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms related to budget and budgetary control
b) explain the objectives of budgets and budgetary control
c) explain the various types of budgets
d) describe the procedure of formulation of budgets

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining of terms
 Budget
o Budget generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving and
spending.
o A budget is a plan that outlines an organization’s financial or operational goals. It is an action plan.

 Budgetary control
o Methodical control of an organization's operations through establishment of standards and targets
regarding income and expenditure, and a continuous monitoring and adjustment of performance against
them.

 Budget preparation
o This is the process of formulating a budget that meets the organization’s specific needs

Unit Task 2 Explaining the objectives of budgets and budgetary control

a) To give practical expression to the aims and policies of the business
b) To provide a detailed plan of catering operations in respect of a particular trading period
c) To ensure better co-ordination of the various departments/functions of the business
d) To set standards (targets) against which it is possible to measure managerial performance
e) To ensure an economical use of the resources of the business

Unit Task 3 Types of budgets

 Master Budget
It incorporates all the income and expenditure, or all the assets and liabilities of the business

 Capital Budget
Deals with asset and capital funds of the business. Budget for plant, equipment, cash and stocks are, therefore,
capital budgets.

 Sales budget:
The sales budget is an estimate of future sales, often broken down into units. It is used to create organization’s
sales goals.

 Production budget:
Product oriented companies create a production budget which estimates the number of units that must be
manufactured to meet the sales goals. The production budget also estimates the various costs involved with
manufacturing those units, including labor and material.

 Cash Flow/Cash budget:

The cash flow budget is a prediction of future cash receipts and expenditures for a particular period of time. It
usually covers a period in the short term future. The cash flow budget helps the business determine when income
will be sufficient to cover expenses and when the company will need to seek outside financing.

 Marketing budget:
The marketing budget is an estimate of the funds needed for promotion, advertising, and public relations in order
to market the product or service.

442
  Revenue budget:
The Revenue Budget consists of revenue receipts of government and the expenditure met from these revenues.
Tax revenues are made up of taxes and other duties that the government levies.

 Expenditure budget:
A budget type which include of spending data items.

Unit Task 4 Describing procedure of formulation of budgets

1. Determination of the net profit required for the business in relation to the capital invested and the risk
involved. Incase of non-profit making establishments, the level of subsidy available or required postulated.
2. Preparation of the sales budget This determines the volume of sales necessary to achieve the desired net
profit or subsidy and also influences the budgeted costs for food, beverages, labor and some overheads.
3. Preparation of administration and general budgets. These are for such items as head office expenses,
advertising, rates, and insurance e.t.c. Some of these may be regarded as flexible budgets i.e. they are
affected by changes in the volume of business e.g. telephone, laundry e.t.c
4. Preparation of the capital expenditure budget which makes the provision for such items of expenditure as
new kitchen equipment, restaurant and bar equipment including any installation charges.
5. Preparation of cash budget. This is regarded as the most important of the capital budgets and it
predetermines the cash inflows, outflows and resulting cash balances at particular points during the period.
6. Preparation of master budgets. These budgets are prepared for the trading account, profit and loss account
and the balance sheet.

Suggested Questions

a) Distinguish clearly between budgeting and budgetary control

b) Explain what you understand by:
-Operating budgets
-Capital budgets
-Departmental budgets
-Master budgets
-Fixed budgets
-Flexible budgets

c) What are the objectives of budgetary control

d) Explain how the following would be prepared in a large catering establishment:
-Sales budget
-Labour cost budget
-Overhead cost budget
-Budgeted profit and loss account.

14.2.02 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PRODUCTION, PLANNING

14.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define production planning
b) outline the objectives of production planning
c) identify the aids of production planning
d) explain the aids of actual production process
e) identify the aids to forecasting in accommodation
f) explain the aids to accommodation control

Unit Task 1 Defining production planning,

Production planning is the forecasting of the volume of sales for an establishment, for a specified time period e.g. a
day, a week or a month.

Unit Task 2 outlining the objectives of production planning

1. To predict the total number of meals to be sold in each selling outlet of an establishment at each meal
period.

443
 2. To predict the choice of menu items by customers.
3. To facilitate purchasing.
4. To ensure the availability of all necessary ingredients.
5. To ensure that appropriate stock levels are held.
6. To control food costs in relation to sales or within cost limits in non-profit making establishments.
Unit Task 3 Identifying aids to forecasting and production planning
- Cyclic menus
- Sales histories (past records)
- Standard yields
- Standard recipes
- Standard portion sizes

Unit Task 4 Explaining aids to the production process

 Past record
In particular one would look at figures recorded for the same period the previous year, examine the graph
showing sales for the year to check if there is likelihood of particular trend at this period in the year, as well as
looking at the sales results for that previous trading period.

 Advance bookings
Typical factors which would be taken into account would be the known advance accommodation booking from
which a break down estimate by selling outlets should be known and applied; known banquet and party bookings,
the numbers of which would have to be confirmed prior to the event.

 Current events
This should be taken into account in order to forecast with any accuracy. Trade fairs, homes exhibition e.t.c.
would have an influence on business done in a given locality just as local shows and exhibitions would have an
influence in another locality

 Current trends
These should be frequently so that any unfavorable trends can be corrected before it is too late. What is essential
is for management to be aware of any decrease or increase in the business, and to be up to date with the trends of
the present customer requirements so that these can be provided.

Unit Task 5 Identifying aids to forecasting in accommodation

 Sales histories
 Current trends
 Current events
 Advance bookings

Unit Task 6 Aids to accommodation control

 Total number of rooms available
 Breakdown of room types and the number of each type.
 Reservations.
 Configuration of the rooms, i.e. the number and types of bed, design and décor.
 The number of Z beds i.e. spare, collapsible beds that can be used if necessary.

14.2.03 COSTING AND PRICING

14.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the elements of costs
b) explain cost dynamics
c) discuss breakeven analysis
d) identify methods of service/product costing
e) explain methods of pricing products and services
Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying elements of costs

444
 a. Material cost
b. Labour costs
c. Overhead costs
Unit Task 2 Explaining Cost dynamics
 Defining terms
-Fixed costs
These are costs which remain fixed irrespective of the volume of sales e.g. rent, rates, and insurance
e.t.c

-Semi-fixed costs
These are costs which move in sympathy with, but not in direct proportion to the volume of sales,
e.g. fuel costs, telephone, laundry e.t.c

-Variable costs
These are costs which vary in proportion to the volume of sales, e.g. food and beverage costs
-Total costs
This is the sum of the fixed, semi-fixed and variable costs.

Unit Task 3Discussing break-even analysis

 Definitions
-Break-even analysis
A calculation of the approximate sales volume required to just cover costs, below which production would be
unprofitable and above which it would be profitable. Break-even analysis focuses on the relationship between fixed
cost, variable cost, and profit.

-Break even point

This is the volume of business at which the total costs are equal to the sales and where neither profit nor loss is made.
This can be achieved using two ways:
Mathematical – C
S-V
Where C is Fixed Cost
S is Selling price per unit
V is Variable cost per unit
Graphical method

445
 Unit Task 4 Identifying methods of service/product costing
- Marginal
Marginal cost is defined as the accounting system in which variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixed costs
of the period are written-off in full against the aggregate contribution. Its special value is in decision making’

The term ‘contribution’ mentioned in the formal definition is the term given to the difference between Sales and
Marginal cost. Thus:

Marginal cost = variable cost direct labor

+
Direct material
+
direct expense
+
variable overheads

- Absorption
Absorption cost is the total cost of producing a unit of product or providing a unit of service. This includes direct cost,
allocated cost and apportioned indirect and remote cost as explained below

 Direct Materials - These are the raw materials such as wood, metal, bricks, etc that are used in order to create
a finished usable good which will be demanded by the market.
 Direct Labor - Direct Labor is the man work and total factory hours put behind assembling the raw materials,
creating the finished good, etc.
 Fixed Overhead - This includes expenses such as rent of factory where the raw materials are turned into
finished goods, amortization of factory building, utilities, etc.
 Variable Overhead - These are the general and administrative expenses in the manufacturing process.

Unit Task 5 Explaining pricing methods of products and services

Pricing consideration
The whole subject of pricing is a complex one which unfortunately is given the degree of priority that it is requires.
The approach to pricing will differ between major sectors of the industry where normally in the non commercial
sector, pricing is cost oriented and in the commercial sector pricing is usually market orientated

Methods of Pricing
a) Pricing based on the cost
The traditional method used to establish the price of a menu item is to calculate, ideally from a standard recipe, the
food cost per unit for the particular item and to ad a given percentage of gross profit to arrive at the selling price. The
percentage of gross profit applied should be sufficient to cover fixed cost element (e.g. rent): the semi-fixed element
(e.g. telephones) and a satisfactory element of net profit

b) Pricing based on the market

The relationship between price and value for money is an important aspect of pricing. Value for money extends way
beyond just the cost of the ingredients of the items chosen from a menu by a customer. The whole meal experience
has to be taken in to account, including such things as the atmosphere, décor, choice of menu items, level of service
offered etc. in order to be successfully and to achieve a satisfactory volume of sales, pricing has to consider three
basic factors:
a) The nature of demand for the product
b) The level of demand for the product

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c) The level of competition for the product

- Contribution
Contribution is the difference between total or unit revenue and total or unit variable costs.
Contribution margin is the marginal profit per unit sale. It is a useful quantity in carrying out various calculations,
and can be used as a measure of operating leverage.
The Total Contribution Margin (TCM) is Total Revenue (TR, or Sales) minus Total Variable Cost (TVC):
TCM = TR − TVC
The Unit Contribution Margin (C) is Unit Revenue (Price, P) minus Unit Variable Cost (V):
C=P−V
The Contribution Margin Ratio is the percentage of Contribution over Total Revenue, which can be calculated from
the unit contribution over unit price or total contribution over Total Revenue:

- mark up
Markup is the difference between the cost of a good or service and its selling price. A markup is added on to the total
cost incurred by the producer of a good or service in order to create a profit. The total cost reflects the total amount of
both fixed and variable expenses to produce and distribute a product. Markup can be expressed as a fixed amount or
as a percentage of the total cost or selling price. Different methods exist in determining the markup of a product.

Suggested Questions
a) Distinguish clearly between fixed, semi-fixed and variable costs.
b) Explain what is meant by:
-Margin of safety
-P/V ratio
c) What is the relationship between turnover, average cost per cover and net profit/loss per cover?
d) The Metropolitan restaurant serves between 2000 and 5000 customers monthly. Average spending power is
₤5.00 per cover and food costs are 40% of sales. The fixed costs of the restaurant are ₤ 1100 per month. You are
required to:
-Prepare a well labeled break-even chart for the restaurant.
-Indicate the margin of safety
-Calculate the P/V ratio.

14.2.04 REVENUE CONTROL SYSTEMS

14.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss types of revenue control systems
b) explain the application of revenue control systems

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Discussing types of revenue control systems
o Qualities of Effective Control Systems
 1. Linkage to Strategy.
 2. Understandable Measures.
 3. Acceptance by Employees.
 4. Balance of Objective and Subjective Data.
 5. Accuracy.
 6. Flexibility.
 7. Timelessness.
 8. Support of Action.

o Types of revenue control systems

Manual revenue control System

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 Here hand-written duplicate or triplicate checks for ordering from the kitchen and bar and for informing
the cashier. Often used with cash till or register. This system is found in many high-level restaurants and in popular
catering.
Automated revenue control System
These enable a number of serving terminals, intelligent tills and remote printers to be controlled by a master unit
compatible with standard computer hardware. Depending on software, the functions may also include a variety of
performance measures such as planning and costing, sales analysis, gross profit reporting, stock control, re-
ordering and forecasting, VAT returns, payroll, staff scheduling and account information. These systems are
often found in hotels, fast food and chain restaurants.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the application

o Functions of a revenue control system
1. There must be efficient control of all items issued from the various departments
2. The system should reduce any pilfering and wastage to a minimum
3. Management should be provided with any information they require for costing purposes, so that they may
estimate accurately for the coming financial period
4. The cashier should be able to make out the customers bill correctly so that the customer is neither
overcharged nor undercharged
5. The system should show a breakdown of sales and income received in order that adjustments and
improvements may be made.

Suggested Questions
a) Explain the following revenue control systems:
-Manual system
-Automated system

14.2.05 LABOUR COST CONTROL

14.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain element of labor cost
b) explain labor turnover
c) describe time keeping methods
d) explain the effective payment of wages
e) explain the concept of idle time
f) explain how to effectively handle overtime

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Explaining elements of labor cost
o Definitions
Fixed cost personnel - these are those members of staff such as the manager, the chef, the restaurant supervisor,
cashier e.t.c. whose numbers bear little relationship to the volume of business done. The fixed cost personnel are the
key personnel within an establishment
Variable cost personnel - these include all the staff whose employment is directly related to the volume of sales e.g.
waiters, cooks e.t.c.

The Purpose of Labor Cost Control

The main purpose of labor control is to maximize the efficiency of the labor force in a manner consistent with the
established standards of quality and service.
The Control Process

448
 1. Establish standards and standard procedures for the operation
2. Train all individuals to follow established standards and standard procedures
3. Monitor performance and compare actual performance with established standards
4. Take appropriate action to correct deviations from standards.

The Nature of the Problem

The biggest problems facing the caterer are:
a. the very nature of catering being that, because of the high perish ability of the product, it is not
possible to stockpile items of food which could be produced at slack periods for use in busy periods
whenever they occurred (the exception to this today being cook-freeze products).
b. The demand for the items on the menu will fluctuate not only daily but also hourly
It is therefore important that, in order to achieve efficient utilization of his labor force, the manager of an
establishment should forecast the demand of his business and then schedule the staff in relation to his forecast of
business expected.
Preliminary Steps
It is assumed that any well-run business will assist in obtaining the efficient use of staff by means of such details as:
a) An Organizational Plan: this should show clearly the lines of authority and responsibility of all staff. The
plan would be related to the style of management and the type of operation.
b) Job Analysis/ Description: it is necessary to analyze the requirements of each position of employee and to
prepare a job analysis card. It should cover the following areas:
Job title
Grade of job
Range of salary/ wage
Short description of duties/ responsibilities
Lines of authority
Working hours and conditions.

Having prepared this, it is then necessary to translate this information into a job specification, so that the right
type of person is engaged (or trained) for a specific position.
c) Job Specification: this is more detailed than the job analysis/ description. A detailed statement specifying the
precise skills and knowledge required to carry out the component parts of a job may be given.

JOB SPECIFICATION: CATERING MANAGER

Requirements: Age 32-45 years
Qualifications: HND or MHCIMA (minimum)
Experience: Minimum 4 years as Assistant Catering Manager in similar type establishment
Salary Range: $6,500- $7,500
Duties/ Responsibilities and tasks Knowledge Skills
Social Skills
Administer day-to-day running of Company Policies
Unit as directed by the General Company Manuals
Manager.
Ensure high standards of hygiene Statutory and company Inspection
Motivating,
And cleanliness are instituted and hygiene requirements
advising and
Maintained Inspecting standards
correcting

staff
Ensure high quality, preparation, Company standards Inspection
Motivating,
Presentation& service are maintained Methods involved
advising and
Within company standards
correcting

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staff
Ensure supervisors and chefs are Job descriptions of Work organization
Liaising and
Aware of responsibilities and chefs& supervisors Systematic planning
communicating
duties
with chefs and

supervisors

Standards of performance
The term standards are usually defined as being rules or measures established for making comparisons and
judgments.
The financial and personnel policies would determine what the desired cost of labor should be for an operation,
and the management of that operation needs to set standards in order to determine the extent to which actual
results meet the results forecast. There are 2 basic standards:
a) Quality
b) Quantity

Quality Standards
These are determined by the catering policy of the establishment. The quality standards are peculiar to each
establishment and relate to the type of operation in terms of level of food and beverage production and service
offered to the customer. This in turn relates to the level of skills required from the staff to perform to the specified
level.
Quantity Standards
These need to be set by management after having first decided on the quality standards. Quantity standards are
easy to set and measure in such instances e.g.
1. A waitress employed for a banquet function should serve a table of 10 covers by full silver service
2. A banquet wine waiter should serve 5*10 tables of customers with their requirements for wines and liquors.

Unit Task 2 Explaining labor turnover meaning

o Definition
Labor turnover is the rate at which an employer gains and loses employees

o Types of labor turnover

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 Voluntary -- Employee Initiated
Avoidable Unavoidable
(could prevent) (could not prevent)

Try to Prevent: Do not Prevent: No attempt to Prevent:

High-Value Employees Low-Value Employees Regardless of Value

• High performance • Low performance • Retirement

• Strong KSAOs • Weak KSAOs • Dual career

• Valued intellectual • Little intellectual capital • New career

• •
capital

•
Low promotion potential Health

• •
High promotion potential

•
Low training investment Child care or pregnancy

• •
High training investment

•
Low experience Elder care
High experience
• •
•
Easy to find replacement Return to school

•
Difficult to find
replacement Leave country

• Take a break

KEY
K: KNOWLEDGE
S: SKILLS
A: ABILITY
O: OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Involuntary -- Organization Initiated

Discharge Downsizing

• Discipline • Permanent layoff

• Poor performance • Temporary layoff
• Site or plant
closing, relocation
• Redundancy due to
merger of firms
acquisition

o Measurement

o Turnover rate formula

 Number of employees leaving 
average number of employees x 100
o Data and decisions

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  Identify time period of interest
 Determine type of employees that count
 Determine method to calculate average number of employees over the time period

Types of measurements
 Breakouts
 Analysis of turnover data aided by deciding on categories of data
 Type of turnover
 Type of employee
 Job category
 Geographic location
 Benchmarks
 Internal - Trend analysis
 External - Compare internal data with external data

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 o Causes

Causes of Voluntary Turnover

Desirability of Leaving
Low job satisfaction
Shocks to employee
Personal (non job) reasons +

Ease of Leaving
Intenti Quit
Favorable labor market
conditions + on +
General, transferable KSAOs to Quit
Low cost of leaving

Alternatives
Internal: New job possibilities
External: Job offers +

o control
1. Extrinsic rewards
o Rewards must be meaningful and unique
o Rewards must match individual preferences
o Link rewards to retention behaviors
o Link rewards to performance
2. Intrinsic rewards
o Assign employees to jobs that meet their needs for work characteristics
o Provide clear communication with employees
o Design fair reward allocation systems
o Ensure supervisors provide a positive environment

Unit Task 3 Describing time-Keeping Methods

o Clocking in and clocking out
o Signing in and signing out
o Timetabling
o Duty rota’s
Sample of a Two week duty Rota

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Food server Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
A 1 11 * 10 9 8 7 6 5 * 4 3 2 1
B 2 1 * 11 10 9 8 7 6 * 5 4 3 2
C 3 2 * 1 11 10 9 8 7 * 6 5 4 3
D 4 3 * 2 1 11 10 9 8 * 7 6 5 4
E 5 4 * 3 2 1 11 10 9 * 8 7 6 5
F 6 5 * 4 3 2 1 11 10 * 9 8 7 6
G 7 6 * 5 4 3 2 1 11 * 10 9 8 7
H 8 7 * 6 5 4 3 2 1 * 11 10 9 8
I 9 8 * 7 6 5 4 3 2 * 1 11 10 9
J 10 9 * 8 7 6 5 4 3 * 2 1 11 10
K 11 10 * 9 8 7 6 5 4 * 3 2 1 11

KEY TO TASKS:
1 Dusting 7 Accompaniments
2 Vacuuming 8 Silver cleaning
3 Polishing 9 Hot plate
4 Linen 10 Table and chair arranging
5 Stillroom 11 Miscellaneous
6 Sideboards and trolleys

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 o Measuring performance of specific daily tasks

Unit Task 4 Explaining effective payment of Wages

1. Wages must be paid at least monthly.

2. Wages must be paid in acceptable currency, or with the employee's written
consent, in another prescribed manner, i.e.

o into an account nominated by the employee, or

o by cheque, draft, money order or electronic fund transfer, or
o in another way allowed by a relevant industrial instrument

3. If wages are paid in cash they may be rounded off to the nearest multiple of 5
cents
4. Wages paid other than in cash are to be paid without any deduction for charges
because of the way payment is made
5. Cheque must be payable to a bearer on demand and must not be crossed except
with the employee's written consent
6. Employees must be paid all wages within 3 days of termination or if stated in
the employee's industrial instrument - a shorter period.

Unit Task 5 explaining the concept of idle Time

o Definition
The difference between the number of hours budgeted for work and the number of
paid hours not spent working (idle time). For example, if employees of a company
were budgeted to make products for 8,000 hours, but only did work for 7,800 hours,
then 200 hours were spent in idle time.
o Types
1. Normal idle time: The normal idle time is that idle time which cannot be fully
avoided but effective effort should be made to reduce it.
2. Abnormal idle time: Abnormal idle time arises due to various causes which
can be avoided. Abnormal idle time can be avoided if proper precautions are
taken. Thus the factors which are responsible for controlling and avoiding idle
time must be taken care of.
Normal idle time is permitted but abnormal idle time should be avoided.

o Causes of idle time

Job dissatisfaction and lack of motivation
Boredom
Poor working conditions
Lack of supervision
Poor pay

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 o Control
a) Eliminate unnecessary motions
b) Combine activities
c) Reduce fatigue
d) Improve the arrangement of the workplace
e) Improve the design of tools and equipment

Unit Task 6 Explaining how to effectively handle overtime

- meaning
Time beyond an established limit, as working hours in addition to those of a regular
schedule.

- consequences of overtime
Employees are entitled to receive one and a half times pay when they work more
than 40 hours in a week
Creates a deficit in recovery time
It is not so much working overtime per se that creates problems but the work
conditions that often lead to overtime work
- control of overtime
It is the management task to maintain control of overtime, adhering to a budget and
taking active steps to ensure that only essential overtime is approved and worked.

Suggested Questions
a) Identify the fixed and variable cost personnel likely to be employed in:
-A busy fast food and take-away unit, serving on average 1000 portions
of its main selling item per day.
-A luxury city restaurant open for lunches only and serving on average
120 covers per day.

b) Prepare a schedule of duty hours for the waiting staff for the two types of
units in question a) above

14.2.06 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION REPORTS

14.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify catering and accommodation reports
b) explain how to prepare catering and accommodation reports

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying types of reports

456
The variations in demand for the catering and accommodation products/services, the
short cycle of production as well as Perish ability of products necessitates up-to-
date reporting.
o Types of reports

-Weekly/monthly food cost reports.

-Daily food cost reports
-Beverage cost reports
-Accommodation reports.
-Catering and accommodation controller’s report.

Unit Task 2 explaining how to prepare the reports

o Weekly/Monthly Food cost report.

o It is normally prepared in operations where detailed information is not
thought to be necessary. It is also done for a small owner-managed unit
where control is a major part of the manager’s activity in order for the
operation to be successful. The advantages of this method are:
-The report is simple and quick to produce.
-It can give a general indication of the general performance of the unit.
It also has some disadvantages such as:
-The information is only produced after seven days or twenty eight
days of operation.
-It provides no intermediate information so that any undesirable trends
e.g. very high food costs can be corrected earlier.
-It does not provide the daily information on purchases, requisitions
and sales.

A weekly/monthly food cost report

Sh Cts
Opening food stock level Day1 2,200.00
Plus total purchases for the period
(Day 1 to 28) 10,934.00

Subtotal 13,154.00
Less closing stock (day 28) 2,116.00
=Total cost of food consumed 11,038.00
Total food sales 29,251.00

Food cost percentage=37.74%

o Daily food cost reports

This report is suitable for small to medium sized operations.

Advantages of the daily food cost report are:

-It is simple and easy to follow

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 -It gives a reasonably detailed account of the general performance of
the business on day-to-day basis.
-It records the daily stock level, daily purchases, daily food
requisitioned and daily food sales. It enables the daily food cost percentage to be
calculated.
-The to-date food cost percentage smoothes out the uneven daily food
cost percentages and highlights the corrective action to be taken if necessary early
in the month.

Disadvantages of the daily food cost report are;

-Although simple and easy to prepare, the report relies heavily on the
accuracy of the basic information to be collected, e.g. the total of daily purchases,
daily requisitions etc.
-It is not accurate as it ignores such things as the cost of staff meals,
food transferred to bars e.g. canapés, potato crisps, lemon and limes that are used in
some drinks etc. Some beverages e.g. wines, beer etc are transferred to the kitchen
for use in cooking some dishes.

o Beverage cost report

It consists of the following:
Beverage cost-This is the cost of the beverages incurred in preparing the
drinks served.
Beverage cost percentage-This is the cost of the beverages sold as a
percentage of sales of the beverages.
Beverage gross profit- The excess of sales over the cost of beverages
expressed as a percentage or in financial terms.

o Accommodation reports
a) Room status reports
b) Complimentary reports
c) Revenue reports
d) Departmental reports
e) Budget reports

o Catering and accommodation controller’s report

It consists of the following:
-A detailed food cost report.
-A detailed beverage report.
-Stock taker’s report
-Beverage inventory report.
-A detailed accommodation report

Suggested Questions
1. Describe how the following reports are prepared
o Weekly / monthly food cost report
o Beverage cost report
o Room status report

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 o Complimentary reports

14.2.07 EMERGING TRENDS

14.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in catering and accommodation control
b) identify challenges in catering and accommodation control
c) discuss ways of handling issues related emerging trends

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Emerging Trends
Unit Task 2 Challenges
Unit Task 3 Handling Challenges

Practice

14.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in catering and accommodation
control
b) managing the challenges

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15.2.0 DIET THERAPY

15.2.0 Introduction
This module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills
and attitudes relevant in prevention and management of various
diseases through diet

15.2.2 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) acquire knowledge skills and attitudes required in the practice and
b) management of health through diet
c) appreciate the importance of dietetic knowledge and skills
d) apply knowledge, skills and attitudes learned in the practice of
dietetics

460
15.2.01 INTRODUCTION DIET THERAPY

Theory

15.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define terms
explain pathology and its implication on diet and health
state the basic concept of diet therapy.

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Pathology - The scientific study of the nature of disease and its causes, processes,
development, and consequences.

Diet – Any solid or liquid substance which when taken by the body provides it with
the necessary material to enable it to grow, to replace warn out parts and to function
normally

Therapy - is a term that can be applied to any form of treatment for any illness or
disorder

Diet therapy - The treatment of an illness by means of a special diet, such as a low-
fat diet.
Diet therapy is a broad term for the practical application of nutrition as a
preventative or corrective treatment of disease.

461
UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE IMPLICATION OF PATHOLOGY ON
NUTRITIONAL STATUS

The figure below shows the implication of pathology on nutritional status

 Poor intake
due to lack of
appetite.
 Indigestion
and
INFECTION malabsorptio Poor nutritional
status
SI DISEASE n
H
 Increased
nutrient
I
losses e.g
through
Malnutrition
V
diarrhea and
vomiting
 Increased
nutrient
requirements

UNIT TASK 3 STATING THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF DIET THERAPY

Diet therapy aims at :
1. Maintaining good nutritional status of a sick person
2. Correcting deficiency
3. Restricting some nutrients
4. changing of cooking methods
5. To reduce or increase the body weight when necessary

15.2.02 IMPORTANCE OF DIET THERAPY

15.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
explain the importance diet of therapy
explain the need for diet modification
identify ways of modifying diets.

462
 Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 EXPLAINING THE IMPORTANCE OF DIET THERAPY
1. To increase or decrease body weight
2. To rest a particular organ
3. To adjust the diet to the body’s ability to use certain
foods
4. To produce a specific effect as a remedy (e.g., regulation of
blood sugar in diabetes)
5. To overcome deficiencies by the addition of food rich in
some necessary element (e.g., supplementing the diet
with iron in treating macrocytic anemia)
6. To provide ease of digestion by omitting irritating
substances, such as fiber, spices, or high-fat foods

UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE NEED FOR DIET MODIFICATION

1. Nutritional deficiency
2. Over Nutrition
3. Pre operative and Post operative cases

UNIT TASK 3 IDENTIFYING WAYS OF MODIFYING DIETS

Normal/regular diet
It is a diet designed to provide adequate nutrition for promotion of optimal health. It
is used when there is no required diet modification or restriction

Modified consistency
Clear liquid diet
A clear liquid diet is just that, a diet consisting of foods and beverages made from
liquids that you can see through. This type of diet is easily digested and leaves no
residue in the gastrointestinal tract.
A clear liquid diet may be necessary when the gastrointestinal tract needs to be free
of food or needs to rest, for instance:

 Before undergoing a test or procedure that involves the stomach or

intestines
 After surgery, to start the transition back to regular food
 During flare-ups of certain digestive problems, such as diverticulitis

Although this diet allows for adequate hydration, it doesn’t provide enough calories
and nutrients. Therefore, be sure your doctor is following you closely while you are
on this diet. Also, do not stay on this diet for more than three days.
Full liquid diet

463
It is used:
 post operatively as a transition between clear liquid diet and solid foods
 for the acutely ill patient or those with oesophagael or stomach disorders
who cannot tolerate solid foods due to stricture or anatomical irregularities
 For patients who are unable to chew and swallow solid foods following
surgery of the face neck area or dental surgery.

Soft/ light diet

 It is designed for patients who are physically or psychologically unable to
tolerate a general diet. This include
 those progressing from the full liquid to a general diet
 those who are too weak to tolerate a general diet
 those with poor dentation
 those whose alight diet has been indicated

Fibre Modified Diets

Fibre restricted/ Low residue diet
A low-fiber/low-residue diet limits the amount of dietary fiber and residue-
providing food in your diet. Dietary fiber is a type of carbohydrate found in plants
that cannot be digested. Residue is the undigested part of food that makes up stool.
Limiting dietary fiber and residue reduces the amount of food that passes through
the large intestine.

High Fibre Diet

Dietary fiber is a form of carbohydrate found in plants that cannot be digested by
humans. All plants contain fiber, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes.
Fiber is often classified into two categories: soluble and insoluble .

 Soluble fiber draws water into the bowel and can help slow digestion.
Examples of foods that are high in soluble fiber include oatmeal, oat
bran, barley, legumes (eg, beans and peas), apples, and strawberries.
 Insoluble fiber speeds digestion and can add bulk to the stool.
Examples of foods that are high in insoluble fiber include whole-
wheat products, wheat bran, cauliflower, green beans, and potatoes.

Although fibre is not classified as a nutrient it has been recognized as having

important health promoting effects as part of preventive and /or nutritional therapy
of a number of conditions and diseases as follows

 Gastro-intestinal disorders
 Diverticular disease
 Cardio-vascular disease
 Cancer prevention
 Diabetes mellitus

464
  Weight reduction

Calorie Restricted Diet

These diets are modified by a reduction in calorie content in order to achieve and/or
maintain ideal body weight. The diet is used in the management of the following:
Hypertension
Hyperlipidemia
Diabetes mellitus with excessive weight
Conditions of overweight and obesity

Fat Restricted Diet

This is designed to relieve symptoms of diarrhea, steatorrhea, and nutrient loses
caused by ingestion of high fat foods. The level of restriction varies with the degree
of malabsorption. The diet is used in the management of the following conditions:
- Gall bladder diseases
- Biliary cirrhosis
- Pancreatic insufficiency
- Malabsorption syndromes
- Intestinal resections

Modification of Proteins
 High Protein High calorie Diet
It is designed to provide protein in the amounts higher than the usual requirements
to:
- Maintain a positive nitrogen balance
- Promote body tissue repair
- Prevent excessive muscle atrophy in chronic disease states
- Meet increased needs during certain periods like pregnancy and
lactation
- Meet increased demands during illness
- Build up of the severely malnourished individuals

15.2.03 THERAPEUTIC DIETS

15.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. state the importance of therapeutic diet
3. discus a given therapeutic diet

Unit task s
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Therapeutic Diets : Diets specifically formulated to manage certain diseases and
disorders.

UNIT TASK 2 IMPORTANCE OF THERAPEUTIC DIET

465
  Treatment and management of symptoms of disorders and diseases
 Slows down the progression of the disease or dissoder
 Correct malnutrition
 Maintain good nutritional status

UNIT TASK 3 THERAPEUTIC DIETS

 Modified consistency diets
 Calorie Restricted Diet
 Fat Restricted Diet
 Modification of Proteins
 Low sodium diets
 Low cholesterol diets
 Bland diets
 High protein high energy
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

Evaluation
1. define the term therapeutic diet
2. state the importance of therapeutic diet
3. discus various therapeutic diets

15.2.04 HOSPITALIZATION AND THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM

15.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

1. define terms
2. identify members of the nutritional team
3. explain the role of a named nutritional team member
4. explain causes of stress experienced by patients in the hospital

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Dietitian - is an expert in food and nutrition.
Dietitians help promote good health through proper eating. They supervise the
preparation and service of food, develop modified diets, participate in research, and
educate individuals and groups on good nutritional habits.

Physician - also known as medical practitioner, doctor of medicine, medical doctor,

or simply doctor — practices the ancient profession of medicine, which is

466
concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis,
and treatment of disease or injury.

UNIT TASK 2 IDENTIFYING MEMBERS OF THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM

Dietitian
Physician and nurse
Physiotherapist
Lab technician
Kitchen staff

UNIT TASK 3 ROLES OF THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM MEMBER

Dietitian
- Planning food and nutrition programs
- Formulating therapeutic diets
- Supervising meal preparations in schools and hospitals
- Recommending dietary modifications
- Educating patients on diets that may help their condition
- Creating a reduced fat and sugar diet for an overweight patient
- Working with other healthcare professionals to provide a
multidisciplinary healthcare approach

Physician
- Diagnosis
- Preventing and treating illness
- Recommending dietary intervention method for various condition to
the team
- Interpreting lab results

Nurse
- Same as physician’s plus Educating patients on diets their condition

Physiotherapist
- Formulating and supervising exercise regimes for various conditions

Lab technician
- Carrying out tests as odered by physician
- Interpreting lab results

Kitchen staff
- preparing menus
- food preparation and service

UNIT TASK 4: CAUSES OF STRESS IN HOSPITALIZATION

Definition

467
Stress as a physical, mental, or emotional response to events that causes bodily or
mental tension. Simply put, stress is any outside force or event that has an effect on
our body or mind.

Causes of Stress in hospital

1. Fear, intermittent or continuous.
2. Threats: physical threats, social threats, financial threat, other threats.
3. Uncertainty.
4. Lack of sleep.
5. Somebody misunderstands you.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons
- Hospital facilities

Evaluation

1. define the terms

i. dietician
ii. physician
2. identify members of the nutritional team
3. explain the role of the named nutritional team member
4. explain causes of stress experienced by patients in the hospital

15.2.05 FEEDING METHODS

15.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able:
a. identify methods of feeding patients
b. explain the importance of the feeding methods

Unit Tasks
UNIT TASK 1 IDENTIFYING THE METHODS OF FEEDING PATIENTS

Enteral - refers to the delivery of a nutritionally complete feed containing

protein, carbohydrate, fat, water, minerals and vitamins directly into the
stomach, duodenum or jejunum.

Parenteral - refers to providing nutrition via the veins.

UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FEEDING

METHODS

468
 Enteral and tube feeding

Aims at providing adequate nutrition in order to prevent or reverse the development

of malnutrition in patient who are unable to ingest or derive sufficient nutrients
from ordinary foods. It is required in the following cases:
- where there is decreased oral intake due to physical impairment
- increased nutrient requirements as in surgery and trauma etc.
- impaired gastro intestinal capabilities e.g. short bowel syndrome

Contra-indications
- Non functional GIT
- Paralytic ileus
- Acute pacreatitis
- Peritonitis
- Persistent vomiting
- Continuous diarrhea
- GIT obstruction
- Shock
Tube Feeding Routes
Mechanically inserted tube
Nasogastric tubes
Nasoduodinal tubes
Nasojejunal tubes

Surgically inserted tubes

Oesophagostomy
Gastrostomy
Jejunostomy

Parenteral
Parenteral nutrition is indicated for patients with inability to eat and absorb nutrients
via the GIT due to:
- Non functioning GIT
- Diseases of the small intestine
- Massive small bowel resection
- Radiation enteritis
- Chemotherapy reaction
- Bone marrow transplantation
- Intractable vomiting/ diarrhea
- Moderate to severe pancreatitis
- Severe malnutrition or 10-15% loss of body weight due to
nonfunctioning GIT
- Nil by mouth for more than five days for severely catabolic patients
with or without malnutrition
- Fistula in the GIT
- Excessive nutritional needs which cannot be met by enteral feeding
- Refusal to eat as in anorexia nervosa.

469
Evaluation
1. identify methods of feeding patients
2. explain the importance of the feeding methods

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Writing reports
- Observing
- Discussions
- Researching

15.2.06 DRUG NUTRIENT INTERACTION

Theory

15.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. describe the effect of foods and its nutrients on drugs in the body
3. identify the effects of drugs on appetite and nutrient absorption
4. identify points along the gastro intestinal tract where food
consumed can affect the efficacy of drugs

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining terms
Drug - A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the
body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function
Pharmacology -is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the
interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that
alter normal biochemical function.
Food-drug interaction- the effect produced when some drugs and certain foods or
beverages are taken at the same time.

UNIT TASK 2 DESCRIBING EFFECTS OF FOODS AND NUTRIENTS ON

DRUGS IN THE BODY.

1. Nutrients in food may either delay absorption into the body or speed up
elimination from the body, either or which can impact a drug's
effectiveness.

2. Food can also impact the effectiveness of a drug due to the way it is
consumed. Generally, medicine is to be taken at the same time food is
eaten. This is because the medicine may upset the stomach if the stomach
is empty. However, sometimes taking a drug at the same time that food is
eaten can interfere with the way the medicine is absorbed by the body.

470
UNIT TASK 3 IDENTIFYING THE EFFECTS OF DRUGS ON APPETITE
AND NUTRIENTS ABSORPTION.

1. The effects of drugs are modulated by their rates of metabolism by the

liver and other tissues. Drugs are metabolized by two basic processes. The
first (Phase I) metabolic step is usually an oxidation reaction that alters a
functional group in the drug. This alteration may either activate the drug or
deactivate it. The second step (Phase II) conjugates the oxidized drug to an
inactive, water-soluble form that can be readily excreted.

2. Nutrients are sometimes used in unusually high doses for their

pharmacologic effect. Niacin, for example is used pharmacologically to
reduce blood cholesterol levels. Retinoid derivatives of vitamin A have
been used successfully to treat severe acne and other conditions.

UNIT TASK 4: IDENTIFYING POINTS ALONG THE GASTRO INTESTINAL

TRACT WHERE FOOD TAKEN CAN AFFECT THE EFFICACY
OF DRUG

Evaluation
1. define the terms
i. drugs
ii. pharmacology
2. describe the effect of foods and its nutrients on drugs in the body
3. identify the effects of drugs on appetite and nutrient absorption
4. identify points along the gastro intestinal tract where food consumed can affect
the efficacy of drugs

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

15.2.07 THE ROLE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN THE DIET

THERAPY AND HEALTH

15.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. Describe the digestive system
3. explain the role of the digestive system in diet therapy and health..

471
unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it

for absorption

Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva

Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx

and into the esophagus.

Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),

Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting
bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break
down complex molecules into simple structures,

Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic
capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion,

Egestion : Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through

defecation.

Peristalsis refers to rhythmic contractions that move food in the gut. Peristalsis in
the esophagus moves food from the mouth to the stomach.

UNIT TASK 2 DESCRIBING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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Human Digestive System
The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down
large organic masses into smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The
breakdown of the nutrients requires the coordination of several enzymes secreted
from specialized cells within the mouth, stomach, intestines, and liver. The major
organs or structures that coordinate digestion within the human body include the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and liver.
Mouth
In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for receiving food
and breaking up large organic masses. In the mouth, food is changed mechanically
by biting and chewing. Humans have four kinds of teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped
teeth in the front of the mouth for biting; canines are pointed teeth for tearing; and
premolars and molars are flattened, ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and
crushing food.
In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food particles
together into a soft mass. Three pairs of salivary glands—the parotid glands, the

473
submaxillary glands, and the sublingual glands—secrete saliva into the mouth. The
saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into
smaller molecules of the disaccharide maltose.
During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a mass called
a bolus. The bolus is pushed back into the pharynx (throat) and is forced through the
opening to the esophagus.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe that
extends through the neck and chest to the stomach. The bolus of food moves
through the esophagus by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of muscular contractions
that propels the bolus along. The contractions are assisted by the pull of gravity.
Stomach
The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A valvelike
ring of muscle called the cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to the stomach.
The sphincter relaxes as the bolus passes through and then quickly closes.
The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers
of stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to form a
soupy liquid called chyme.
The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the
stomach plays a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells secrete
pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in the presence of
hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells in the stomach
lining. The pepsin then digests large proteins into smaller proteins called peptides.
To protect the stomach lining from the acid, a third type of cell secretes mucus that
lines the stomach cavity. An overabundance of acid due to mucus failure may lead
to an ulcer.
Small intestine
The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into
the small intestine. An adult's small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divided
into three sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the duodenum; the next 10 feet
form the jejunum; and the final 12 feet form the ileum. The inner surface of the
small intestine contains numerous fingerlike projections called villi. Each villus has
projections of cells called microvilli to increase the surface area.
Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes
digest nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are
supplemented by enzymes from the pancreas, a large, glandular organ lying near
the stomach. In addition, bile enters the small intestine from the gall bladder to
assist in fat digestion.
The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for starch),
maltase (for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose). For fats, the
principal enzyme is lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the large globules of fat
must be broken into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments,

474
and cholesterol that is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, a saclike
structure underneath the liver.
Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic
enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and
peptidases reduce the enzymes to amino acids. Nucleases digest nucleic acids into
nucleotides in the small intestine also.
Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products of
digestion enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood vessels
called capillaries. Diffusion accounts for the movement of many nutrients, but
active transport is responsible for the movement of glucose and amino acids. The
products of fat digestion pass as small droplets of fat into lacteals, which are
branches of the lymphatic system.
Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum.
Substances that have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the large
intestine.
Large intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the body.
The two organs meet at a blind sac called the caecum and a small fingerlike process
called the appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe the caecum and appendix are
vestiges of larger organs that may have been functional in human ancestors.
The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending,
transverse, and descending portions, each about one foot in length. The colon's chief
functions are to absorb water and to store, process, and eliminate the residue
following digestion and absorption. The intestinal matter remaining after water has
been reclaimed is known as feces. Feces consist of nondigested food (such as
cellulose), billions of mostly harmless bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials.
The feces are stored in the rectum and passed out through the anus to complete the
digestion process.
Liver
The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestion.
For example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream and
convert the glucose to a polymer called glycogen for storage.
The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deamination,
it converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabolism.
In doing so, the liver removes the amino groups from amino acids and uses the
amino groups to produce urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine. Fats are
processed into two-carbon units that can enter the Krebs cycle for energy
metabolism. The liver also stores vitamins and minerals, forms many blood
proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and produces bile for fat digestion

UNIT TASK 3 ROLE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN DIET THERAPY

AND HEALTH

475
The role of the digestive system is to digest and absorb food. It consists of a tubular
gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that aid in digestion and absorption.

The activities that are performed by the digestive system include the following
activities:
1. Ingestion: the taking of food into the mouth
2. Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva
3. Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx and
into the esophagus.
4. Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it for
absorption.
5. Absorption: the passage molecules of food through the mucous membrane of the
small intestine and into the blood and lymph for distribution to the cells.
5. Peristalsis: the rhythmic wavelike contractions of the smooth muscle of the
Intestines that move food through the GI tract.
6. Defecation: the discharge of indigestible wastes (feces) from the GI tract.

Evaluation
1. Define the terms
 Digestion
 Absorption
 assimilation
 mastication
 peristalsis
 Deglutination
 Egestion
 Ingestion

2. Describe the digestive system

3. Explain the role of the digestive system in diet therapy and health..

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

15.2.08 DISORDERS OF THE UPPER GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT

(GIT)

15.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define terms
identify the disorders of the upper gastro-intestinal tract
state the causes and symptoms

476
 explain the dietary management of named disorders

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINING OF TERMS

Cytokines are any of a number of substances that are secreted by specific cells of
the immune system which carry signals locally between cells, and thus have an
effect on other cells.

UNIT TASK 2 DISORDERS OF THE UPPER GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT

UNIT TASK 3 STATING THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF UPPER

GIT

Dental caries
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or cavity, is a disease wherein bacterial
processes damage hard tooth structure (enamel, dentin and cementum). These
tissues progressively break down, producing dental caries (cavities, holes in the
teeth). If left untreated, the disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in
severe cases, death.
Tooth decay is caused by specific types of acid-producing bacteria that cause
damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and
glucose. The mineral content of teeth is sensitive to increases in acidity from the
production of lactic acid. Specifically, a tooth (which is primarily mineral in
content) is in a constant state of back-and-forth demineralization and
remineralization between the tooth and surrounding saliva. When the pH at the
surface of the tooth drops below 5.5, demineralization proceeds faster than
remineralization (i.e. there is a net loss of mineral structure on the tooth's surface).
This results in the ensuing decay. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction,
various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and
aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth
structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventive and prophylactic
measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental
caries.

GIT hemorrhage
There are many causes for upper GI hemorrhage. Causes are usually anatomically
divided into their location in the upper gastrointestinal tract.
Patients are usually stratified into having either variceal or non-variceal sources of
upper GI hemorrhage, as the two have different treatment algorithms and prognosis.

 Esophageal causes:

477
 o Esophageal varices
o Esophagitis
o Esophageal cancer
o Esophageal ulcers

 Gastric causes:
o Gastric ulcer
o Gastric cancer
o Gastritis
o Gastric varices
o Gastric antral vascular ectasia, or watermelon stomach
o Dieulafoy's lesions

 Duodenal causes:
o Duodenal ulcer
o Vascular malformations, including aorto-enteric fistulae. Fistulae
are usually secondary to prior vascular surgery and usually occur
at the proximal anastomosis at the third or fourth portion of the
duodenum where it is retroperitoneal and near the aorta.
o Hematobilia, or bleeding from the biliary tree
o Hemosuccus pancreaticus, or bleeding from the pancreatic duct

15.2.09 DISORDERS OF THE STOMACH

15.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
identify the disorders of the stomach
state the causes and symptoms
explain the dietary management of the named disorders

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying disorders of the stomach

 Heartburn - Also called: Acid indigestion, Pyrosis

Heartburn is a burning sensation in the chest that can extend to the neck, throat, and
face; it is worsened by bending or lying down. It is the primary symptom of
gastroesophageal reflux, which is the movement of stomach acid into the
esophagus. On rare occasions, it is due to gastritis (stomach lining inflammation).

 GERD - Also called: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

A chronic condition in which the lower esophageal sphincter allows gastric acids to
reflux into the esophagus, causing heartburn, acid indigestion, and possible injury to
the esophageal lining.

478
Unit Task 2 Stating the causes and symptoms of disorders of the stomach

Peptic Ulcer - Also called: Duodenal ulcer, Gastric ulcer, Stomach ulcer, Ulcer
Peptic ulcer: A hole in the lining of the stomach, duodenum, or esophagus. A peptic
ulcer of the stomach is called a gastric ulcer, an ulcer of the duodenum is a duodenal
ulcer, and a peptic ulcer of the esophagus is an esophageal ulcer. A peptic ulcer
occurs when the lining of these organs is corroded by the acidic digestive juices
which are secreted by the stomach cells.

Indigestion - Also called: Dyspepsia, Upset stomach

Indigestion, which is sometimes called dyspepsia, is a general term covering a
group of nonspecific symptoms in the digestive tract. It is often described as a
feeling of fullness, bloating, nausea, heartburn, or gassy discomfort in the chest or
abdomen. The symptoms develop during meals or shortly afterward. In most cases,
indigestion is a minor problem that often clears up without professional
treatmentSymptoms of indigestion

If you have indigestion you may have the following symptoms:

 pain, fullness or discomfort in the upper part of your abdomen or chest
 heartburn
 loss of appetite
 feeling sick
 flatulence (gas passed from your rectum), burping or belching
Indigestion has several causes. Depending on what's causing your indigestion, your
symptoms may go very quickly, come and go, or they may be regular and last a
long time.
The symptoms of indigestion may sometimes be caused by a serious underlying
condition.
You should visit your GP for advice if you have:
 unintended weight loss
 unexplained and continual indigestion symptoms for the first time and you
are aged 55 or older
 severe pain, or the pain gets worse or changes
You need to seek urgent medical attention if you vomit blood, even if it's only
present in the vomit as specks of blood or blood that looks like coffee grains.

Causes of indigestion
Your stomach produces a strong acid that helps digest food and protects you against
infection. A layer of mucous lines the stomach, oesophagus and intestines to act as a
barrier against this acid. If the mucous layer is damaged, the acid can irritate the
tissues underneath.
Some of the following can trigger symptoms of indigestion:
 drinking excess alcohol
 smoking
 stress and anxiety
 medicines such as aspirin and anti-inflammatory medicines used to treat
arthritis

479
  eating certain foods can relax the valve (sphincter) at the join between your
oesophagus and stomach or cause direct irritation to the lining of your
oesophagus
 not eating regular meals, as acid levels can build up if meals are missed

Gas in the Digestive Tract

You get gas in your digestive tract by swallowing air or during the breakdown
process of certain foods by the bacteria that is present in the colon
Heartburn
Heartburn is what most of us get from time to time. Chronic heartburn is a digestive
disorder called gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). GERD is caused by gastric
acid that flows from the stomach and into the esophagus.

15.2.10 DISORDERS OF THE LOWER GASTRO-INTESTINAL (G.I)

TRACT

15.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. identify the disorders of the lower G I tract
2. state the causes and symptoms
3. explain the dietary management of the named disorders

Unit Tasks
UNIT TASK 1 IDENTIFYING DISORDERS OF THE LOWER GASTRO-
INTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
Crohn's disease
Crohn's disease (also known as granulomatous colitis and regional enteritis) is an
inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the
gastrointestinal tract from anus to mouth, causing a wide variety of symptoms. It
primarily causes abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), vomiting, or
weight loss

Causes

 Genetics
Schematic of NOD2 CARD15 gene, which is associated with certain disease
patterns in Crohn's disease.
Some research has indicated that Crohn's disease may have a genetic link. The
disease runs in families and those with a sibling with the disease are 30 times more
likely to develop it than the normal population.

480
 Environmental factors
Diet is believed to be linked to its higher prevalence in industrialized parts of the
world. Smoking has been shown to increase the risk of the return of active disease,
or "flares". The introduction of hormonal contraception is linked with a dramatic
increase in the incidence rate of Crohn's disease. Although a causal linkage has not
been effectively shown, there remain fears that these drugs work on the digestive
system in ways similar to smoking.

 Immune system
Abnormalities in the immune system have often been invoked as being causes of
Crohn's disease. Crohn's disease is thought to be an autoimmune disease, with
inflammation stimulated by an over-active cytokine response.

Unit task 4 Dietary management of named disorders

 Dietary management for Crohn's disease

i) Morbidity from Crohn's disease can be lessened by meticulous specialist

management
ii) New techniques for clarifying the site of disease, activity, and
complications include scanning with radiolabelled leucocytes, ultrasound,
computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging
iii) Budesonide, high dose mesalazine and, for refractory disease,
methotrexate and antitumour necrosis factor antibody are new
therapeutic options
iv) Other new therapeutic possibilities include a liquid formula diet,
endoscopic stricture dilatation, and laparoscopic surgery
v) The most effective measure for maintenance of remission is stopping
smoking
vi) Patients should participate in decisions about their treatment

Colon and Rectal Cancer

Colon and Rectal cancer is also referred to as colorectal cancer. This type of cancer
is a malignant cell that is found in the colon or rectum region of the body.
.

Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is watery stool, or an increased frequency in stool, or both as compared to
the normal amount of stool passed by the individual. .

Diverticular Disease
This disease occurs in small pouches that bulge out in the colon. It is an
inflammation or infection in the pouches.

481
.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

There are several different diseases that fall under this category all of which require
a doctor for treatment. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are two of these
diseases.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome – more commonly referred to as IBS – is an intestinal
disorder that causes cramping, gassiness, bloating and changes in the bowel habits
of the individual with the disorder.

Lactose Intolerance
People with lactose intolerance lack an enzyme that is called lactase. This enzyme is
needed by the body to digest lactose. Lactose is a sugar found in milk products. .

Stomach and Duodenal Ulcers

Ulcers are open sores or lesions. They are found in the skin or mucous membranes
of areas of the body. A stomach ulcer is called a gastric ulcer and an
ulcer in the duodenum is called a duodenal ulcer. Lifestyle, stress and
diet used to be thought to cause ulcers. These factors may have a role
in ulcer formation; however they are not the main cause of them. .

UNIT TASK 2 STATING CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

Refer to task 1
UNIT TASK 3 EXPLAINING THE DIETARY MANAGEMENT
Refer task 2

15.2.11 DISORDERS OF THE LIVER AND THE PANCREASES

Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) explain the functions of the liver
b) explain the functions of the pancreases
c) identify various types of liver and pancreas disorders
d) state the causes and symptoms
e) Discuss dietary management, formulation of diets and counseling of the
named disorders.

482
UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

Functions of the liver

The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and excretes a product called
bile, which helps carry away waste products from the liver. All the blood leaving
the stomach and intestines passes through the liver. The liver processes this blood

483
and breaks down the nutrients and drugs into forms that are easier to use for the rest
of the body. More than 500 vital functions have been identified with the liver. Some
of the more well-known functions include the following:

 production of bile, which helps carry away waste and break down fats in
the small intestine during digestion
 production of certain proteins for blood plasma
 production of cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the
body

 conversion of excess glucose into glycogen for storage (glycogen can later
be converted back to glucose for energy)
 regulation of blood levels of amino acids, which form the building blocks
of proteins
 processing of hemoglobin for use of its iron content (the liver stores iron)
 conversion of poisonous ammonia to urea (urea is an end product of
protein metabolism and is excreted in the urine)
 clearing the blood of drugs and other poisonous substances
 regulating blood clotting
 resisting infections by producing immune factors and removing bacteria
from the bloodstream

TASK 2; FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREASES

Function of the Pancreas

484
 The pancreas is a small organ located near the lower part of the stomach and the
beginning of the small intestine. This organ has two main functions. It functions as
an exocrine organ by producing digestive enzymes, and as an endocrine organ by
producing hormones, with insulin being the most important hormone produced by
the pancreas.
The pancreas secretes its digestive enzymes, through a system of ducts into the
digestive tract, while it secretes its variety of hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
Abnormal pancreatic function can lead to pancreatitis or diabetes mellitus.

The pancreas can also be thought of as having different functional components, the
endocrine and exocrine parts. Tumors can arise in either part. However, the vast
majority arise in the exocrine (also called non-endocrine) part. Since the parts have
different normal functions, when tumors interfere with these functions, different
kinds of symptoms will occur.

485
 These are the endocrine (endo= within) cells of the pancreas that
produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream. The pancreatic
Islets of
hormones, insulin and glucagon, work together to maintain the proper
Langerhans
level of sugar in the blood. The sugar, glucose, is used by the body for
energy.
These are the exocrine (exo= outward) cells of the pancreas that
produce and transport chemicals that will exit the body through the
Acinar cells digestive system. The chemicals that the exocrine cells produce are
called enzymes. They are secreted in the duodenum where they assist
in the digestion of food.

486
The Pancreas: Anatomy and Functions

Anatomy of the pancreas:

The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the abdomen,
behind the stomach. The right side of the organ (called the head) is the widest part
of the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum (the first section of the small
intestine). The tapered left side extends slightly upward (called the body of the
pancreas) and ends near the spleen (called the tail).

The pancreas is made up of two types of tissue:

 exocrine tissue
The exocrine tissue secretes digestive enzymes. These enzymes are
secreted into a network of ducts that join the main pancreatic duct, which
runs the length of the pancreas.
 endocrine tissue
The endocrine tissue, which consists of the islets of Langerhans, secretes
hormones into the bloodstream.

Functions of the pancreas:

The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions:

487
  The enzymes secreted by the exocrine tissue in the pancreas help break
down carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and acids in the duodenum. These
enzymes travel down the pancreatic duct into the bile duct in an inactive
form. When they enter the duodenum, they are activated. The exocrine
tissue also secretes a bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the
duodenum.
 The hormones secreted by the endocrine tissue in the pancreas are insulin
and glucagon (which regulate the level of glucose in the blood), and
somatostatin (which prevents the release of the other two hormones).

What is bile?

Bile is a greenish-yellow fluid that aids in the digestion of fats. After being
produced by cells in the liver, the bile travels down through the bile ducts which
merge with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct. The cystic duct runs to the
gallbladder, a small pouch nestled underneath the liver. The gallbladder stores extra
bile until needed. The common bile duct actually enters the head of the pancreas
and joins the pancreatic duct to form the ampulla of Vater which then empties into
the duodenum. Flow of bile indicated by green arrows.
What is pancreatic fluid?

488
Instead of carrying bile, the pancreatic duct carries the pancreatic fluid produced by
the acinar cells (exocrine) of the pancreas. The pancreatic duct runs the length of the
pancreas and joins the common bile duct in the head of the pancreas. These ducts
join to form the ampulla of Vater which then empties into the duodenum. Flow of
pancreatic fluid indicated by dark yellow arrow.
The food, bile and pancreatic fluid travels through many more feet of continuous
intestine including the rest of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum which comprise the
small intestine, then through the cecum, large intestine, rectum, and anal canal.

The Pancreas

Completes the job of breaking down protein, carbohydrates, and fats using
digestive juices of pancreas combined with juices from the intestines.

Secretes hormones that affect the level of sugar in the blood.

Produces chemicals that neutralize stomach acids that pass from the stomach
into the small intestine by using substances in pancreatic juice.

Contains Islets of Langerhans, which are tiny groups of specialized cells that are
scattered throughout the organ.

These cells secrete:

 Glucagon—raises the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood

 Insulin—stimulates cells to use glucose
 Somatostatin—may regulate the secretion of glucagons and insulin.

489
TASK 3; IDENTIFY VARIOUS TYPES OF LIVER AND PANCREAS
DISORDERS

LIVER DISORDERS

The Progression of Liver Disease

There are many different types of liver disease. But no matter what type you have,
the damage to your liver is likely to progress in a similar way.

Alagille Syndrome
Alagille syndrome is an inherited disorder that closely resembles other forms of
liver disease seen in infants and young children.

Alcohol-Induced Liver Disease

If you consume more alcohol than the liver can process, the resulting imbalance can
injure the liver by interfering with its normal breakdown of protein, fats, and
carbohydrates.

Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (Alpha-1) is a hereditary genetic disorder which may
lead to the development of lung and/or liver disease.

Autoimmune Hepatitis
Autoimmune hepatitis is a potentially life-threatening disease in which the body’s
own immune system attacks the liver and causes it to become inflamed.

Benign Liver Tumors

Noncancerous, or benign, liver tumors are common. They do not spread to other
areas of the body, and they usually do not pose a serious health risk.

Biliary Atresia (BA)

Biliary atresia is a disease that affects only infants, causing the bile ducts to become
inflamed and blocked soon after birth.

Cirrhosis
Cirrhosis refers to the replacement of normal liver tissue with non-living scar tissue.
It is always related to other liver diseases.

Fatty Liver
It is normal for your liver to contain some fat. But if fat accounts for more than 10%
of your liver’s weight, then you have fatty liver and you may develop more serious
complications.

490
Galactosemia
Galactosemia is an inherited disorder that prevents a person from processing the
sugar galactose, which is found in many foods.

Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is an inherited condition in which the body absorbs and stores too
much iron. The extra iron builds up in several organs, especially the liver, and can
cause serious damage.

Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is a viral infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus, or HAV.
It is not a long-lasting or chronic infection.

Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is a disease of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus, or HBV.
Chronic hepatitis B can lead to potentially fatal liver diseases such as cirrhosis, liver
failure, and liver cancer.

Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C is a disease of the liver caused by the hepatitis C virus, or HCV.
Chronic hepatitis C can lead to potentially fatal liver diseases such as cirrhosis, liver
failure, and liver cancer.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma
About primary cancer of the liver.

Liver Cancer
Liver cancer refers to the growth of malignant tumors in liver tissue.

Liver Transplant
A liver transplant is surgery to replace a diseased liver with a healthy liver.

Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC)

Primary biliary cirrhosis, or PBC, is a chronic, or long-term, disease of the liver that
slowly destroys the medium-sized bile ducts within the liver.

Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC)

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic, or long-term, disease that slowly
damages the bile ducts inside and outside the liver.

Reye Syndrome
Reye syndrome is a rare illness that affects all bodily organs but is most harmful to
the brain and the liver. It occurs primarily among children who are recovering from
a viral infection, such as chicken pox or the flu.

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Type I Glycogen Storage Disease
Type I glycogen storage disease (GSD I), also known as von Gierke’s disease, is an
inherited disorder that affects the metabolism - the way the body breaks food down
into energy.

Wilson Disease
Wilson disease is an inherited condition that causes the body to retain excess
copper. As the copper builds up in the liver, it begins to damage the organ.

The pancreas is located in the abdomen. It lies behind the stomach, in front of the
spine, and is surrounded by the intestines and liver. The gland is approximately six
inches long and resembles a compressed bunch of grapes. Proper pancreas function
is essential for the production of a number of hormones and digestive enzymes.
The Endocrine System: Insulin and Glucagon Production
The pancreas plays an important role in the endocrine system: it secretes hormones
and other chemical substances which are released into the bloodstream.

Specialized clusters of pancreatic cells, known as islet cells, produce a variety of

hormones, with each cluster specializing in the production of a specific hormone.
For example two hormones produced by these specialized cells are glucagon and
insulin. Glucagon breaks down glycogen in the liver, which raises blood sugar
levels. Insulin makes it possible for cells to use blood glucose for energy. Thus,
healthy pancreas function is necessary for maintaining correct blood sugar levels.
Pancreas Function and the Digestive System
The digestive system is also affected by pancreas function. The gland secretes
pancreatic "juices," which travel from the gland through a duct and into the
duodenum (the beginning of the small intestine). These juices contain enzymes that
are necessary for proper digestion.

Common Diseases of the Pancreas

When pancreas function is compromised, a number of possible health complications
can arise. The location of the gland, buried as it is in the abdomen, makes it difficult
to detect problems. Physical palpation of the gland is not possible, so blood tests
and diagnostic imaging are often needed to diagnose pancreatic health difficulties.
Health problems may include:

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the organ, and is often a source of pain. Pancreatitis

may have a number of causes, and can be acute or chronic, hereditary or acquired.
In some cases, pancreatitis can be fatal.

Pancreatic Cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. The disease
has a high mortality rate, and treatment options are, at present, limited. Diabetes and
pancreatitis are considered to be risk factors.

Type 1 Diabetes occurs when insulin production either shuts down or is severely
reduced. The body is then unable to maintain appropriate blood sugar levels.

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Type 2 Diabetes occurs when insulin production is normal, but the body's cells no
longer respond correctly to the hormone.

Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder that causes the body to produce thick mucus
that interferes with both respiratory function and the exocrine system. The mucus
blocks the pancreas ducts, preventing digestive enzymes from reaching the small
intestine. This results in insufficient digestion and malnutrition.

TASK 4; STATE THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

What are some common liver disease symptoms?

When diagnosing liver disease, the physician looks at the patient's symptoms and
conducts a physical examination. In addition, the physician may request a liver
biopsy, liver function tests, an ultrasound, or a CT scan (computerized tomography
scan).

Some common liver disease symptoms include the following, each of which are
described briefly below:

 jaundice
 cholestasis
 liver enlargement
 portal hypertension
 ascites
 liver encephalopathy
 liver failure

What is jaundice?

Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin and eye whites due to abnormally high
levels of bilirubin (bile pigment) in the bloodstream. Urine is usually dark because
of the bilirubin excreted through the kidneys. High levels of bilirubin may be
attributed to inflammation or other abnormalities of the liver cells or blockage of the
bile ducts. Sometimes jaundice is caused by the breakdown of a large number of red
blood cells, which can occur in newborns. Jaundice is usually the first sign, and
sometimes the only sign, of liver disease.

What is cholestasis?

Cholestasis is reduced or stopped bile flow. Bile flow may be blocked inside or
outside the liver. Symptoms may include:

 jaundice
 dark urine
 pale stool

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 bone loss
 easy bleeding
 itching
 small, spider-like blood vessels visible in the skin
 enlarged spleen
 fluid in the abdominal cavity
 chills
 pain from the biliary tract or pancrea
 enlarged gallbladder

Some causes of cholestasis include:

 hepatitis
 alcoholic liver disease
 primary biliary cirrhosis
 drug effects
 hormonal changes during pregnancy
 a stone in the bile duct
 bile duct narrowing
 bile duct cancer
 pancreatic cancer
 inflammation of the pancreas

What is liver enlargement?

Liver enlargement is usually an indicator of liver disease, although there are usually
no symptoms associated with a slightly enlarged liver (hepatomegaly). Symptoms
of a grossly enlarged liver include abdominal discomfort or "feeling full."

What is portal hypertension?

Portal hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure in the portal vein, which
supplies the liver with blood from the intestine. Portal hypertension may be due to
increased blood pressure in the portal blood vessels or resistance to blood flow
through the liver. Portal hypertension can lead to the growth of collateral vessels
that connect to the general circulation, bypassing the liver. When this occurs,
substances that are normally removed by the liver pass into the general circulation.
Symptoms of portal hypertension may include:

 a distended abdominal cavity (ascites)

 bleeding of the varicose veins at the lower end of the esophagus and in the
stomach lining

What is ascites?

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Ascites is fluid build-up in the abdominal cavity, caused by fluid leaks from the
surface of the liver and intestine. Ascites due to liver disease usually accompanies
other liver disease characteristics such as portal hypertension. Symptoms of ascites
may include a distended abdominal cavity, which causes discomfort and shortness
of breath. Causes of ascites may include:

 liver cirrhosis (especially cirrhosis caused by alcoholism)

 alcoholic hepatitis
 chronic hepatitis
 obstruction of the hepatic vein

Ascites can also be caused by non-liver disorders.

What is liver encephalopathy?

Liver encephalopathy is the deterioration of brain function due to toxic substances

building up in the blood, which are normally removed by the liver. Liver
encephalopathy is also called portal-systemic encephalopathy, hepatic
encephalopathy, or hepatic coma. Symptoms may include:

 impaired consciousness
 changes in logical thinking, personality, and behavior
 mood changes
 impaired judgement
 drowsiness
 confusion
 sluggish speech and movement
 disorientation
 loss of consciousness
 coma

What is liver failure?

Liver failure is severe deterioration of liver function. Liver failure occurs when a
large portion of the liver is damaged due to any type of liver disorder. Symptoms
may include:

 jaundice
 tendency to bruise or bleed easily
 ascites
 impaired brain function
 general failing health
 fatigue
 weakness
 nausea

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 loss of appetite

The pancreas is called the "hidden organ" because it is located deep in the abdomen
behind the stomach. About six to eight inches long in the adult, the organ contains
thin tubes that come together like the veins of a leaf. These tubes join to form a
single opening into the intestine that is located just beyond the stomach.

The pancreas produces juices and enzymes that flow through these tubes into the
intestine, where they mix with food. The enzymes digest fat, protein, and
carbohydrates so they can be absorbed by the intestine. Pancreatic juices, therefore,
play an important role in maintaining good health. The pancreas also produces
insulin, which is picked up by the blood flowing through the organ. Insulin is
important in regulating the amount of sugar or glucose in the blood.

What Are the Diseases of the Pancreas?

 Diabetes mellitus
 Acute pancreatitis
 Chronic pancreatitis
 Pancreatic enzyme deficiency
 Pancreas tumor

Diabetes Mellitus
Many cases of diabetes are caused by a deficiency of insulin. Insulin is needed to
help glucose, which is a major source of energy, enter the body's cells. It is not
known why insulin-producing cells in the pancreas die off. When they cease to
function, glucose accumulates in the blood and eventually spills into the urine.
These patients require daily insulin injections. More importantly, high blood
glucose levels, over time, result in significant changes in blood vessels in the eyes,
kidneys, heart, legs, and nerves. Damage to these vital organs represents the major
risk for patients with diabetes.

Other patients who develop diabetes later in life seem to have sufficient insulin in
the pancreas, but for some unknown reason it is not available for the body's use.
These patients typically are overweight; therefore, weight loss is critical for them.
In addition, oral medications can be taken that help release insulin from the
pancreas. All diabetics need to maintain normal or near-normal blood glucose levels
to prevent or delay the complications of this disease.

Acute Pancreatitis
This condition occurs when the pancreas becomes quickly and severely inflamed.
The major causes are:

 Heavy alcohol ingestion

 Gallstones or gallbladder disease

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 Trauma
 Drugs
 High blood fats (triglycerides)
 Heredity
 Unknown factors

Binge alcohol drinking is a common cause of acute pancreatitis. Gallbladder

disease, especially where a gallstone becomes lodged in the main bile duct next to
the pancreas, also causes this condition. Accidents, such as the upper abdomen
hitting the steering wheel during a car accident, can cause pancreatitis. Certain
drugs, such as diuretics, can produce the disorder as can extremely high blood fat
levels (triglycerides). Heredity seems to play a role since, in some families, the
condition develops in several members of the family. Finally, there are the
occasional cases that occur for unknown reasons. In pancreatitis, the digestive
enzymes of the pancreas break out into the tissues of the organ rather than staying
within the tubes (ducts). Severe damage to the pancreas then results.

Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

The main symptoms of pancreatitis are acute, severe pain in the upper abdomen,
frequently accompanied by vomiting and fever. The abdomen is tender, and the
patient feels and looks ill. The diagnosis is made by measuring the blood pancreas
enzymes which are elevated. A sound wave test (ultrasound) or abdominal CT exam
often shows an enlarged pancreas. The condition is treated by resting the pancreas
while the tissues heal. This is accomplished through bowel rest, hospitalization,
intravenous feeding and pain medications.
When pancreatitis is caused by gallstones, it is necessary to remove the gallbladder.
This is usually done after the acute pancreatitis has resolved. At times, an ERCP
(Endoscopic Retrograde CholangioPancreatography) test is recommended. This
involves passing a flexible tube through the mouth and down to the small intestine.
A small catheter is then inserted into the bile duct to see if any stones are present. If
so, they are then removed with the scope.

Course and Outcome

Most patients with this condition recover well, although a few, especially those who
have alcohol-induced pancreatitis, may become desperately sick. When recovered,
the patient needs to make life-style changes to prevent a recurrence such as avoiding
alcohol and drugs, reducing blood triglycerides, or having gallbladder surgery.

Chronic Pancreatitis
This condition occurs mostly in alcoholics or people who repeatedly binge drink
alcohol. The main symptoms are recurrent, dull, or moderate pain without the
severe toxic features of acute pancreatitis. Treatment consists of rest, medication,
and certain food restrictions. Alcohol consumption is absolutely prohibited. In cases
where damage is extensive, chronic pancreatitis and pain can occur even when
alcohol consumption has stopped.

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Diagnosis of this condition is made by measuring blood enzymes and by performing
abdominal CT, x-rays, and ultrasound exams. An ERCP endoscopic test is often
performed. In this test, a flexible endoscope is passed through the mouth into the
intestine while the patient is lightly sedated. A small plastic catheter is inserted into
the pancreas ducts and an x-ray dye is injected. The internal anatomy of the
pancreas can then be viewed by x-ray.

Occasionally a problem develops when the patient becomes dependent on, or even
addicted to, narcotic pain medicines used to control symptoms. In some cases,
surgery is recommended to provide relief of pain.

Pancreas Enzyme Insufficiency

Digestive enzymes from the pancreas are necessary to break down protein, fat, and
carbohydrates in foods that are ingested. When there is a deficiency of these
enzymes, nutrients are not broken down, resulting in malnutrition and weight loss.
This condition is called malabsorption because the intestine is unable to absorb
these vital nutrients.

The two major symptoms are diarrhea (frequently with fat droplets in the stool) and
weight loss. This condition can result from any cause of pancreatitis, including
trauma and infection. Pancreatic enzymes can be taken by mouth to replace those
that are no longer made by the pancreas.
Pancreatic Tumors
The pancreas, like most organs of the body, can develop tumors. Some of these are
benign and cause no problems. Some benign tumors can secrete hormones which,
when present in high levels, have a detrimental effect. For example, insulin can be
secreted in excessive amounts and result in dangerously low blood sugar levels
(hypoglycemia). Another hormone, gastrin, can stimulate the stomach to secrete its
strong hydrochloric acid causing recurrent stomach and peptic ulcers, with many
complications. Fortunately, there is much that can be done about these tumors.

Cancer of the pancreas is a serious malignancy that is difficult to treat. The disorder
occurs in middle or older-aged people, with the first symptom often being dull pain
in the upper abdomen that may radiate into the back. At times, skin jaundice occurs
when the bile duct, which carries yellow bile from the liver and through the
pancreas, is blocked. Surgery is the only effective form of treatment for pancreas
cancer.

Diet - liver disease

A person with liver disease must eat a special diet. This diet is protects the liver
from working too hard and helps it to function as well as possible.

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Function
Proteins normally help the body repair tissue. They also prevent fatty buildup and
damage to the liver cells.
In people with severely damaged livers, proteins are not properly processed. Waste
products may build up and affect the brain. Restricting the amount of protein in the
diet can reduce the chance that toxic waste products will build up.
The body stores carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Increasing carbohydrates in
the diet helps preserve glycogen stores. People with liver disease may need to
increase their intake of carbohydrates in proportion to protein.
Low blood count, nerve problems, and nutritional deficiencies that occur with liver
disease may be treated with drugs and vitamin supplements.
Salt in the diet may worsen fluid buildup and swelling in the liver, because salt
causes the body to retain water. Most people with severe liver disease must restrict
the amount of sodium in their diet.

Food Sources
The liver is involved in the metabolism of all foods. Metabolism is the conversion
of food into energy.
Changing the diet by increasing or decreasing proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and
vitamins may further affect the function of the diseased liver, especially its protein
and vitamin production.

Side Effects
Because liver disease can affect the absorption of food and the production of
proteins and vitamins, your diet may influence your weight, appetite, and the
amounts of vitamins in your body. Do not limit protein too much, because it can
cause deficiencies of certain amino acids.

Recommendations
The dietary recommendations may vary, depending on how well your liver is
working. It is very important to be under the care of a doctor, because malnutrition
can lead to serious problems.
In general, recommendations for patients with severe liver disease may include:

 Large amounts of carbohydrate foods. Carbohydrates should be the major

source of calories in this diet.
 Moderate intake of fat, as prescribed by the health care provider. The
increased carbohydrates and fat help preserve the protein in the body and prevent
protein breakdown.
 About 1 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight. This means that a
154-pound (70-kilogram) man should eat 70 grams of protein per day. This does not
include the protein from starchy foods and vegetables. A person with a severely
damaged liver may need to eat less protein than this, and may even be limited to

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small quantities of special nutritional supplements. Avoid limiting protein too
much, however, because it can lead to malnutrition.
 Vitamin supplements, especially B-complex vitamins.
 Limit sodium (typically 1 - 2 grams per day) if you are retaining fluid.

SAMPLE MENU

 Breakfast
o 1 orange
o Cooked oatmeal with milk and sugar
o 1 slice of whole-wheat toast
o 2 teaspoons of margarine
o Strawberry jam
o Coffee or tea
 Lunch
o 4 ounces of cooked lean fish, poultry, or meat
o A starch item (such as potatoes)
o A cooked vegetable
o Salad
o 2 slices of whole-grain bread
o 2 teaspoons of margarine
o 1 tablespoon of jelly
o Fresh fruit
o Milk
 Mid-afternoon snack
o Milk with graham crackers
 Dinner
o 4 ounces of cooked fish, poultry, or meat
o Starch item (such as potatoes)
o A cooked vegetable
o Salad
o 2 whole-grain rolls
o 2 tablespoons of margarine
o Fresh fruit or dessert
o 8 ounces of milk
 Evening snack
o Glass of milk or piece of fruit

Usually, there are no cautions against specific foods.

If you have questions about your diet or symptoms, contact your doctor.
DIET AND PANCREATIC CANCER
This information is about diet and cancer of the pancreas. It has the following
sections:

Blood sugar

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 diarrhoea

You can read through it all or simply turn to the section that interests you.
How your diet can be affected
Having cancer of the pancreas will affect your eating and drinking habits, whatever
your stage of treatment. The pancreas is not only close to the stomach and bowel; it
produces both insulin and enzymes which help to digest food.
After surgery, you may have digestive problems, such as diarrhoea. If you've had all
or part of your pancreas removed, you may need to take insulin or tablets to regulate
your blood sugar. You may also need to take enzyme supplements when you eat to
help your digestion. It can take time to get the balance of these drugs right. Be
patient, and make a note of any digestive symptoms you have which might help
your doctor to get things right more quickly.
Blood sugar If you are on insulin or tablets to regulate your blood sugar, your
doctor will ask you to check your urine for sugar. Too much sugar in the urine
indicates that the sugar balance of your body is not yet right. If you are on insulin,
you will probably also have to test your blood sugar levels. You will have to prick
your finger and squeeze a drop of blood onto a test strip. The colour of the test strip
will show approximately how
much sugar is in your blood. You will then know how much insulin you should
take. It takes time to get used to doing these tests, but you will be shown how to do
it before you leave hospital. You may also have a nurse to visit you at home to help
you and answer your questions.
What diet should I eat?
People with pancreatic disease often find it hard to digest fat. You should see a
dietician before you leave hospital. Your dietician will give you a diet plan to suit
you.
Generally the diet is based on keeping fat intake low and carbohydrate intake high.
This is a balancing act, however. Fat contains more calories than carbohydrates or
protein. So if you are trying to build yourself up it is better to eat some foods that
are high in fat. If you are recovering from major surgery, you will also need plenty
of protein to help your body repair itself.
This is a balancing act, however. Fat contains more calories than carbohydrates or
protein. So if you are trying to build yourself up it is better to eat some foods that
are high in fat. If you are recovering from major surgery, you will also need plenty
of protein to help your body repair itself.
If you are taking enzymes to help you digest your food, you may need to adjust the
amount you take a few times before you get the level right and you may need to
vary it depending on what you have eaten. Again, your dietician should be able to
help you with this.
Snacks and small meals
You may find it easier to have lots of small meals through the day, rather than
sticking to the traditional three meals a day. It is a good idea to have plenty of
nutritious snacks to hand that you can have whenever you feel like eating. If you
can manage it, it is best to choose full fat versions of yoghurts and puddings, so that
you get the most calories. You could try

501
 e
Some of these ideas may not suit your digestion, particularly if you are on a low fat
diet, but they are worth a try. If in doubt, check with your dietician. Try to think of
quick ways of having the things you like to eat. If possible, get someone to prepare
your favourite foods in advance and freeze in small portions. A microwave makes
defrosting and heating easier and quicker.
Diarrhoea
If you are having problems with diarrhoea after pancreatic surgery, it is most
probably related to difficulty digesting fat. Even so, avoid very high fibre foods
(such as cereal and dried fruit) for the time being as these may make things worse.
Tell your doctor or nurse. You may need some medication to control your
symptoms. It is worth asking to see a dietician to plan a more suitable diet.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

Evaluation

1. explain the functions of the liver

2. explain the functions of the pancreases
3. identify disorders of the liver and the pancreases
4. state the causes and symptoms
5. Discuss dietary management of the named disorders.

15.2.12 DIABETES

Theory

15.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define given terms
2. identify the types of diabetes

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 3. state the causes and symptoms of diabetes
4. discuss the dietary management and counseling

TASK 1: DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by the inability of the pancreas to

produce insulin or to use the insulin produced in the proper way.

Description of Diabetes
After a meal, a portion of the food a person eats is broken down into sugar
(glucose). The sugar then passes into the bloodstream and to the body's cells via a
hormone (called insulin) that is produced by the pancreas.
Normally, the pancreas produces the right amount of insulin to accommodate the
quantity of sugar. However, if the person has diabetes, either the pancreas produces
little or no insulin or the cells do not respond normally to the insulin. Sugar builds
up in the blood, overflows into the urine and then passes from the body unused.
Over time, high blood sugar levels can damage:

 eyes - leading to diabetic retinopathy and possible blindness

 blood vessels - increasing risk of heart attack, stroke and peripheral artery
obstruction
 nerves - leading to diabetic neuropathy, foot sores and possible amputation,
possible paralysis of the stomach, chronic diarrhea

kidneys - leading to kidney failure

TASK 2: TYPES OF DIABETES

- TYPE 1– INSULIN DEPENDENT
- TYPE 2 – NON-INSULIN DEPENDENT
- GESTATION
- JUVENILE
- INSPIDUS
- MELLITUS
Diabetes has also been linked to impotence and digestive problems. It is important
to note that controlling blood pressure and blood glucose levels, plus regular
screenings and check-ups, can help reduce risks of these complications.
There are two main types of diabetes, Type I and Type II:
Type I diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes (formerly called juvenile-
onset diabetes, because it tends to affect persons before the age of 20)
affects about 10 percent of people with diabetes. With this type of diabetes,
the pancreas makes almost no insulin.
Type II diabetes or non-insulin-dependent diabetes. This was previously
called "adult-onset diabetes" because in the past it was usually discovered
after age 40. However, with increasing levels of obesity and sedentary
lifestyle, this disease is now being found more and more in adolescents -

503
 and sometimes even in children under 10 - and the term "adult onset" is no
longer used.
Type II diabetes comprises about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes. With
this type of diabetes, either the pancreas produces a reduced amount of
insulin, the cells do not respond to the insulin, or both.
There are three less common types of diabetes called gestational diabetes, secondary
diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT):
Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and causes a higher than
normal glucose level reading.
Secondary diabetes is caused by damage to the pancreas from chemicals,
certain medications, diseases of the pancreas (such as cancer) or other
glands.
Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) is a condition in which the person's glucose levels
are higher than normal

T ASK 3: CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

Causes and Risk Factors of Diabetes
The cause of Type I diabetes is genetically based, coupled with an abnormal
immune response.
The cause of Type II diabetes is unknown. Medical experts believe that Type II
diabetes has a genetic component, but that other factors also put people at risk for
the disease. These factors include:

 sedentary lifestyle
 obesity (weighing 20 percent above a healthy body weight)
 advanced age
 unhealthy diet
 family history of diabetes
 improper functioning of the pancreas
 minority race (higher risk in Black, Hispanic, American Indian,
westernized Asian and native Hawaiian populations)
 medication (cortisone and some high blood pressure drugs)
 women having given birth to a baby weighing more than 9 lbs.
 previously diagnosed gestational diabetes
 previously diagnosed IGT

Symptoms of Diabetes
Usually, the symptoms of Type I diabetes are obvious. That is not true for Type II.
Many people with Type II do not discover they have diabetes until they are treated
for a complication such as heart disease, blood vessel disease (atherosclerosis),
stroke, blindness, skin ulcers, kidney problems, nerve trouble or impotence.
The warning signs and symptoms for both types are:

504
Type I: Frequent urination, increased thirst, extreme hunger, unexplained weight
loss, extreme fatigue, blurred vision, irritability, nausea and vomiting.
Type II: Any Type I symptom, plus: unexplained weight gain, pain, cramping,
tingling or numbness in your feet, unusual drowsiness, frequent vaginal or skin
infections, dry, itchy skin and slow healing sores.
Note: If a person is experiencing these symptoms, they should see a doctor
immediately.

Diagnosis of Diabetes
Besides a complete history and physical examination, the doctors will perform a
battery of laboratory tests. There are numerous tests available to diagnose diabetes,
such as a urine test, blood test, glucose-tolerance test, fasting blood sugar and the
glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) test.
A urine sample will be tested for glucose and ketones (acids that collect in the blood
and urine when the body uses fat instead of glucose for energy).
A blood test is used to measure the amount of glucose in the bloodstream.
A glucose-tolerance test checks the body's ability to process glucose. During this
test, sugar levels in the blood and urine are monitored for three hours after drinking
a large dose of sugar solution.
The fasting blood sugar test involves fasting overnight and blood being drawn the
next morning.
The glycohemoglobin test reflects an average of all blood sugar levels for the
preceding two months.

TASK 4: DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

Treatment of Diabetes
A landmark study, the 10-year, multi-center Diabetes Control and Complications
Trial (DCCT), has now shown that intensifying diabetes management with stricter
control of blood sugar levels can reduce long-term complications.
The results of DCCT are extraordinary in that they prove that tight control of
glucose levels can in fact dramatically slow the onset and progression of diabetic
complications in both Type I and Type II diabetes. Additionally, researchers have
found strict attention to diet and exercise also helps in the management of diabetes.
Management of Type I Diabetes
Virtually everyone with Type I diabetes (and more than one in three people
with Type II) must inject insulin to make up for their deficiency. Until
recently, insulin came only from the pancreases of cows and pigs (with
pork insulin more closely duplicating human insulin). While beef, pork and

505
 beef/pork combinations are still widely used, there are now two types of
"human" insulin available: semisynthetic (made by converting pork insulin
to a form identical to human) and recombinant (made by using genetic
engineering). All insulin helps glucose levels remain near normal (about 70
to 120 mg/dl).
Different types of insulin work for different periods of time. The numbers
shown below are only averages. The onset (how long it takes to reach the
bloodstream to begin lowering the blood sugar), peaking (how long it takes
to reach maximum strength) and duration (how long it continues to lower
the blood sugar) of insulin activity can vary from person to person and
even from day to day in the same person.
Rapid or Regular Activity: Onset is within half an hour and activity peaks
during a 2 to 5 hour period. It remains in the bloodstream for about 8 to 16
hours. These fast-acting, short-lasting insulins are useful in special cases:
accidents, minor surgery or illnesses, which cause the diabetes to go out of
control or whenever insulin requirements change rapidly for any reason.
These are also being used more and more in combination with a long-
acting insulin or alone (prior to meals and at bedtime).
Semilente: A special type of short-acting insulin that takes 1 to 2 hours for
onset, peaks 3 to 8 hours after injection and lasts 10 to 16 hours.
Intermediate-Acting: Reaching the bloodstream 90 minutes after injection,
intermediate-acting insulin peaks 4 to 12 hours later and lasts in the blood
for about 24 hours. There are two varieties of this type of insulin: Lente
(called L) and NPH (called N).
Long-Acting: These insulins, which take 4 to 6 hours for onset, are at
maximum strength 14 to 24 hours after injection, lasting 36 hours in the
bloodstream. Long-acting insulin is referred to as U (for Ultralente).

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Testing kits
Resource persons
Evaluation

1. define diabetes
2. identify the types of diabetes
3. state the causes and symptoms of diabetes
4. discuss the dietary management and counseling

506
.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply
blood and oxygen to the heart. CHD is also called coronary artery disease.
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a condition called atherosclerosis,
which occurs when fatty material and a substance called plaque build up on the
walls of your arteries. This causes them to get narrow. As the coronary arteries
narrow, blood flow to the heart can slow down or stop. This can cause chest pain
(stable angina), shortness of breath, heart attack, and other symptoms.
Many things increase your risk for heart disease:

 heredity can increase your risk. You are more likely to develop the
condition if someone in your family has had a history of heart disease --
especially if they had it before age 50. Your risk for CHD goes up the older
you get.
 Diabetes is a strong risk factor for heart disease.
 High blood pressure increases your risk of coronary artery disease and
heart failure.
 Abnormal cholesterol levels: your LDL ("bad") cholesterol should be as
low as possible, and your HDL ("good") cholesterol should be as high as
possible.
 Metabolic syndrome refers to high triglyceride levels, high blood pressure,
excess body fat around the waist, and increased insulin levels. People with
this group of problems have an increased chance of getting heart disease.
 Smokers have a much higher risk of heart disease than nonsmokers.
 Chronic kidney disease can increase your risk.
 Already having atherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries in another part
of your body (examples are stroke and abdominal aortic aneurysm)
increases your risk of having coronary heart disease.
 Other risk factors including alcohol abuse, not getting enough exercise, and
excessive amounts of stress.

Symptoms
Chest pain or discomfort (angina) is the most common symptom. The pain usually
occurs with activity or emotion, and goes away with rest.

Other symptoms include shortness of breath and fatigue with activity (exertion).

Prevention and management

4. Management of risk factors.

5. Regular exercises
6. Lifestyle modification.

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Food Allergy
Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food triggered by your body's immune
system. Allergic reactions to food can sometimes cause serious illness and death.
In adults, the foods that most often trigger allergic reactions include

 Fish and shellfish, such as shrimp, lobster and crab

 Peanuts
 Tree nuts, such as walnuts
 Eggs

Problem foods for children are eggs, milk (especially in infants and young children)
and peanuts.
Sometimes a reaction to food is not an allergy. It is often a reaction called "food
intolerance". Your immune system does not cause the symptoms of food
intolerance. However, these symptoms can look and feel like those of a food
allergy.
Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of a food allergy usually develop within about an hour after eating the
offending food. The most common signs and symptoms of a food allergy include:

 Hives, itching, or skin rash

 Swelling of the lips, face, tongue and throat, or other parts of the body
 Wheezing, nasal congestion, or trouble breathing
 Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting
 Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting

In a severe allergic reaction to food—called anaphylaxis—one may have more

extreme versions of the above reactions. Or one may experience life-threatening
signs and symptoms such as:

 Swelling of the throat and air passages that makes it difficult to breathe
 Shock, with a severe drop in blood pressure
 Rapid, irregular pulse
 Loss of consciousness

Management of allergies

 People allergic to certain food items should carefully read food labels
before consuming any product.
 medical alert bracelet or necklace or a card stating that one has a food
allergy and are subject to severe reactions should be worn.

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  An auto-injector device containing epinephrine (adrenaline) one can get by
prescription should be carried and administered when one is experiencing a
food allergic reaction.
 Seek medical help immediately if you experience a food allergic reaction,
even if you have already given yourself epinephrine.

15.2.13 GALL BLADDER AND RENAL DISORDERS

Theory

15.2.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the functions of the gall bladder and kidney
b) identify disorders of the gall bladder and kidney
c) state the causes and symptoms
d) discuss dietary management of the named disorders
specific objectives
The trainee should have the ability to:
1. identify the various types of gall bladder and renal disorders
2. formulate/plan modified diets for a given gall bladder and renal disorders
3. counsel patient

Content

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GALL BLADDER AND

KIDNEY

The gallbladder is a small organ situated near mid-abdominal area of the body. Its
main function is to store the bile that comes from the liver. Bile is a substance that
helps in the digestion of fat. Fat does not dissolve in water, so in order to emulsify
fat something special is needed. The liver produces the bile and then stores it in the
gallbladder until the body needs to digest fats. When this moment comes, the
gallbladder starts to let the bile flow down into the intestine, inside the duodenum,
where fat is digested with its help and then absorbed by the organism. While bile
sits in the gallbladder, the water from it pours out through the gallbladder's walls,
making the bile more concentrated and therefore more effective. Bile also
neutralizes some of the acids that are found in certain types of food.
Just like every other organ in the body, the gallbladder can malfunction and cause
illness. At some people, usually women that are over 40 years of age, (but there
have been quite a large number of cases of men suffering from gallbladder too), the
bile inside it can crystallize into small stones, called gallstones. Gallstones are made
of salt, calcium and cholesterol, all put together in a small stone. These gallstones

509
can cause some problems, starting with the inflammation of the gallbladder and
ending with severe pain and blockage.
In 3 quarters of the patients gallbladder does not cause any visible symptoms, but in
one quarter something appears. These are the most encountered symptoms of the
gallbladder disease:
-variable pain in the abdominal area. Variable because this pain is sometimes easy,
sometimes very bad, and sometimes it lasts long, sometimes it doesn't
-vomiting accompanied by temperature
-yellow-ish skin and eyes, when a gallstones obstructs the canal through which bile
flows from the liver into the gallbladder
Fortunately, gallstones can leave the body by themselves, but in some cases they get
stuck on the way and obstruct the flow of bile. If this happens surgery is required.
The gallbladder surgery is called cholecystectomy, and it consists of a procedure
that removes the gallbladder from the body and connects the liver directly to the
stomach, so bile does not pass through it anymore. This causes the fat substance
digestion to be less effective.
In the most unfortunate cases, complications lead to gallbladder cancer. This can
happen if someone suffering from the gallbladder disease has weight problems and
also smokes and drinks a lot. Gallbladder cancer is a fatal illness, although
advanced surgical tehniquies attempt to remove it most of the patients with
gallbladder die.
Gallbladder disease is in most cases almost harmless, but if you feel any of the
symptoms you should visit a doctor and listen to his advice. Patients that have been
operated of gallbladder and had it removed can soon return to their normal lives, but
they need to pay attention to the quantity of fat that they eat, because without the
gallbladder the body can't handle the fat substance digestion to well.

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY

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What do the kidneys do?

The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located
near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine.
The kidneys are sophisticated reprocessing machines. Every day, a person’s kidneys
process about 200 quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and
extra water. The wastes and extra water become urine, which flows to the bladder
through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores urine until releasing it through
urination.
The kidneys remove wastes and water from the blood to form urine. Urine flows
from the kidneys to the bladder through the ureters.
Wastes in the blood come from the normal breakdown of active tissues, such as
muscles, and from food. The body uses food for energy and self-repairs. After the
body has taken what it needs from food, wastes are sent to the blood. If the kidneys
did not remove them, these wastes would build up in the blood and damage the
body.
The actual removal of wastes occurs in tiny units inside the kidneys called
nephrons. Each kidney has about a million nephrons. In the nephron, a
glomerulus—which is a tiny blood vessel, or capillary—intertwines with a tiny
urine-collecting tube called a tubule. The glomerulus acts as a filtering unit, or
sieve, and keeps normal proteins and cells in the bloodstream, allowing extra fluid
and wastes to pass through. A complicated chemical exchange takes place, as waste
materials and water leave the blood and enter the urinary system.

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In the nephron (left), tiny blood vessels intertwine with urine-collecting tubes. Each
kidney contains about 1 million nephrons.
At first, the tubules receive a combination of waste materials and chemicals the
body can still use. The kidneys measure out chemicals like sodium, phosphorus, and
potassium and release them back to the blood to return to the body. In this way, the
kidneys regulate the body’s level of these substances. The right balance is necessary
for life.
In addition to removing wastes, the kidneys release three important hormones:

 erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red

blood cells
 renin, which regulates blood pressure
 calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, which helps maintain calcium for
bones and for normal chemical balance in the body

[Top]

What is renal function?

The word “renal” refers to the kidneys. The terms “renal function” and “kidney
function” mean the same thing. Health professionals use the term “renal function”
to talk about how efficiently the kidneys filter blood. People with two healthy
kidneys have 100 percent of their kidney function. Small or mild declines in kidney
function—as much as 30 to 40 percent—would rarely be noticeable. Kidney
function is now calculated using a blood sample and a formula to find the estimated
glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The eGFR corresponds to the percent of kidney
function available. The section “What medical tests detect kidney disease?”
contains more details about the eGFR.

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Some people are born with only one kidney but can still lead normal, healthy lives.
Every year, thousands of people donate one of their kidneys for transplantation to a
family member or friend.
For many people with reduced kidney function, a kidney disease is also present and
will get worse. Serious health problems occur when people have less than 25
percent of their kidney function. When kidney function drops below 10 to 15
percent, a person needs some form of renal replacement therapy—either blood-
cleansing treatments called dialysis or a kidney transplant—to sustain life.
[Top]

Why do kidneys fail?

Most kidney diseases attack the nephrons, causing them to lose their filtering
capacity. Damage to the nephrons can happen quickly, often as the result of injury
or poisoning. But most kidney diseases destroy the nephrons slowly and silently.
Only after years or even decades will the damage become apparent. Most kidney
diseases attack both kidneys simultaneously.
The two most common causes of kidney disease are diabetes and high blood
pressure. People with a family history of any kind of kidney problem are also at risk
for kidney disease.

Diabetic Kidney Disease

Diabetes is a disease that keeps the body from using glucose, a form of sugar, as it
should. If glucose stays in the blood instead of breaking down, it can act like a
poison. Damage to the nephrons from unused glucose in the blood is called diabetic
kidney disease. Keeping blood glucose levels down can delay or prevent diabetic
kidney disease. Use of medications called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) to treat high blood pressure can
also slow or delay the progression of diabetic kidney disease.

High Blood Pressure

High blood pressure can damage the small blood vessels in the kidneys. The
damaged vessels cannot filter wastes from the blood as they are supposed to.
A doctor may prescribe blood pressure medication. ACE inhibitors and ARBs have
been found to protect the kidneys even more than other medicines that lower blood
pressure to similar levels. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI),
one of the National Institutes of Health, recommends that people with diabetes or
reduced kidney function keep their blood pressure below 130/80.

Glomerular Diseases
Several types of kidney disease are grouped together under this category, including
autoimmune diseases, infection-related diseases, and sclerotic diseases. As the name
indicates, glomerular diseases attack the tiny blood vessels, or glomeruli, within the
kidney. The most common primary glomerular diseases include membranous
nephropathy, IgA nephropathy, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. The first

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sign of a glomerular disease is often proteinuria, which is too much protein in the
urine. Another common sign is hematuria, which is blood in the urine. Some people
may have both proteinuria and hematuria. Glomerular diseases can slowly destroy
kidney function. Blood pressure control is important with any kidney disease.
Glomerular diseases are usually diagnosed with a biopsy—a procedure that involves
taking a piece of kidney tissue for examination with a microscope. Treatments for
glomerular diseases may include immunosuppressive drugs or steroids to reduce
inflammation and proteinuria, depending on the specific disease.

Inherited and Congenital Kidney Diseases

Some kidney diseases result from hereditary factors. Polycystic kidney disease
(PKD), for example, is a genetic disorder in which many cysts grow in the kidneys.
PKD cysts can slowly replace much of the mass of the kidneys, reducing kidney
function and leading to kidney failure.
Some kidney problems may show up when a child is still developing in the womb.
Examples include autosomal recessive PKD, a rare form of PKD, and other
developmental problems that interfere with the normal formation of the nephrons.
The signs of kidney disease in children vary. A child may grow unusually slowly,
vomit often, or have back or side pain. Some kidney diseases may be silent—
causing no signs or symptoms—for months or even years.
If a child has a kidney disease, the child’s doctor should find it during a regular
checkup. The first sign of a kidney problem may be high blood pressure; a low
number of red blood cells, called anemia; proteinuria; or hematuria. If the doctor
finds any of these problems, further tests may be necessary, including additional
blood and urine tests or radiology studies. In some cases, the doctor may need to
perform a biopsy.
Some hereditary kidney diseases may not be detected until adulthood. The most
common form of PKD was once called “adult PKD” because the symptoms of high
blood pressure and renal failure usually do not occur until patients are in their
twenties or thirties. But with advances in diagnostic imaging technology, doctors
have found cysts in children and adolescents before any symptoms appear.

Other Causes of Kidney Disease

Poisons and trauma, such as a direct and forceful blow to the kidneys, can lead to
kidney disease.
Some over-the-counter medicines can be poisonous to the kidneys if taken regularly
over a long period of time. Anyone who takes painkillers regularly should check
with a doctor to make sure the kidneys are not at risk.

How do kidneys fail?

Many factors that influence the speed of kidney failure are not completely
understood. Researchers are still studying how protein in the diet and cholesterol
levels in the blood affect kidney function.

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Acute Kidney Injury
Some kidney problems happen quickly, such as when an accident injures the
kidneys. Losing a lot of blood can cause sudden kidney failure. Some drugs or
poisons can make the kidneys stop working. These sudden drops in kidney function
are called acute kidney injury (AKI). Some doctors may also refer to this condition
as acute renal failure (ARF).
AKI may lead to permanent loss of kidney function. But if the kidneys are not
seriously damaged, acute kidney disease may be reversed.

Chronic Kidney Disease

Most kidney problems, however, happen slowly. A person may have “silent” kidney
disease for years. Gradual loss of kidney function is called chronic kidney disease
(CKD) or chronic renal insufficiency. People with CKD may go on to develop
permanent kidney failure. They also have a high risk of death from a stroke or heart
attack.

End-stage Renal Disease

Total or nearly total and permanent kidney failure is called end-stage renal disease
(ESRD). People with ESRD must undergo dialysis or transplantation to stay alive.

What are the signs of chronic kidney disease (CKD)?

People in the early stages of CKD usually do not feel sick at all.
People whose kidney disease has gotten worse may

 need to urinate more often or less often

 feel tired
 lose their appetite or experience nausea and vomiting
 have swelling in their hands or feet
 feel itchy or numb
 get drowsy or have trouble concentrating
 have darkened skin
 have muscle cramps

What medical tests detect kidney disease?

Because a person can have kidney disease without any symptoms, a doctor may first
detect the condition through routine blood and urine tests. The National Kidney
Foundation recommends three simple tests to screen for kidney disease: a blood
pressure measurement, a spot check for protein or albumin in the urine, and a
calculation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) based on a serum creatinine
measurement. Measuring urea nitrogen in the blood provides additional
information.

515
Blood Pressure Measurement
High blood pressure can lead to kidney disease. It can also be a sign that the kidneys
are already impaired. The only way to know whether a person’s blood pressure is
high is to have a health professional measure it with a blood pressure cuff. The
result is expressed as two numbers. The top number, which is called the systolic
pressure, represents the pressure in the blood vessels when the heart is beating. The
bottom number, which is called the diastolic pressure, shows the pressure when the
heart is resting between beats. A person’s blood pressure is considered normal if it
stays below 120/80, stated as “120 over 80.” The NHLBI recommends that people
with kidney disease use whatever therapy is necessary, including lifestyle changes
and medicines, to keep their blood pressure below 130/80.

Microalbuminuria and Proteinuria

Healthy kidneys take wastes out of the blood but leave protein. Impaired kidneys
may fail to separate a blood protein called albumin from the wastes. At first, only
small amounts of albumin may leak into the urine, a condition known as
microalbuminuria, a sign of deteriorating kidney function. As kidney function
worsens, the amount of albumin and other proteins in the urine increases, and the
condition is called proteinuria. A doctor may test for protein using a dipstick in a
small sample of a person’s urine taken in the doctor’s office. The color of the
dipstick indicates the presence or absence of proteinuria.
A more sensitive test for protein or albumin in the urine involves laboratory
measurement and calculation of the protein-to-creatinine or albumin-to-creatinine
ratio. Creatinine is a waste product in the blood created by the normal breakdown of
muscle cells during activity. Healthy kidneys take creatinine out of the blood and
put it into the urine to leave the body. When the kidneys are not working well,
creatinine builds up in the blood.
The albumin-to-creatinine measurement should be used to detect kidney disease in
people at high risk, especially those with diabetes or high blood pressure. If a
person’s first laboratory test shows high levels of protein, another test should be
done 1 to 2 weeks later. If the second test also shows high levels of protein, the
person has persistent proteinuria and should have additional tests to evaluate kidney
function.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Based on Creatinine Measurement

GFR is a calculation of how efficiently the kidneys are filtering wastes from the
blood. A traditional GFR calculation requires an injection into the bloodstream of a
substance that is later measured in a 24-hour urine collection. Recently, scientists
found they could calculate GFR without an injection or urine collection. The new
calculation—the eGFR—requires only a measurement of the creatinine in a blood
sample.
In a laboratory, a person’s blood is tested to see how many milligrams of creatinine
are in one deciliter of blood (mg/dL). Creatinine levels in the blood can vary, and
each laboratory has its own normal range, usually 0.6 to 1.2 mg/dL. A person whose
creatinine level is only slightly above this range will probably not feel sick, but the

516
elevation is a sign that the kidneys are not working at full strength. One formula for
estimating kidney function equates a creatinine level of 1.7 mg/dL for most men
and 1.4 mg/dL for most women to 50 percent of normal kidney function. But
because creatinine values are so variable and can be affected by diet, a GFR
calculation is more accurate for determining whether a person has reduced kidney
function.
The eGFR calculation uses the patient’s creatinine measurement along with age and
values assigned for sex and race. Some medical laboratories may make the eGFR
calculation when a creatinine value is measured and include it on the lab report. The
National Kidney Foundation has determined different stages of CKD based on the
value of the eGFR. Dialysis or transplantation is needed when the eGFR is less than
15 milliliters per minute (mL/min).

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

Blood carries protein to cells throughout the body. After the cells use the protein,
the remaining waste product is returned to the blood as urea, a compound that
contains nitrogen. Healthy kidneys take urea out of the blood and put it in the urine.
If a person’s kidneys are not working well, the urea will stay in the blood.
A deciliter of normal blood contains 7 to 20 milligrams of urea. If a person’s BUN
is more than 20 mg/dL, the kidneys may not be working at full strength. Other
possible causes of an elevated BUN include dehydration and heart failure.

Additional Tests for Kidney Disease

If blood and urine tests indicate reduced kidney function, a doctor may recommend
additional tests to help identify the cause of the problem.
Kidney imaging. Methods of kidney imaging—taking pictures of the kidneys—
include ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT) scan, and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI). These tools are most helpful in finding unusual growths or
blockages to the flow of urine.
Kidney biopsy. A doctor may want to examine a tiny piece of kidney tissue with a
microscope. To obtain this tissue sample, the doctor will perform a kidney biopsy—
a hospital procedure in which the doctor inserts a needle through the patient’s skin
into the back of the kidney. The needle retrieves a strand of tissue less than an inch
long. For the procedure, the patient lies facedown on a table and receives a local
anesthetic to numb the skin. The sample tissue will help the doctor identify
problems at the cellular level.
For more information, see the fact sheet Kidney Biopsy from the National Kidney
and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse.

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TASK 2; IDENTIFY TYPES OF DISORDERS OF THE GALL BLADDER AND
KIDNEY

Although not essential to life or health, the gallbladder is the site and source of
appreciable suffering and disease in humans. With its cystic duct, the gallbladder
constitutes a blind-ended, lateral extension of the common bile duct. Besides acting
as a reservoir for bile, the gallbladder concentrates and otherwise alters the
composition of bile. See also Gallbladder.
Gallstones are round, oval, or faceted concretions formed within the gallbladder
from the salts and pigment of bile. Although the mechanism and reason for their
formation are not clearly understood, the major predisposing factors are stasis
(prolonged retention of bile in the gallbladder), abnormal composition of the bile
(excessive amounts of cholesterol, bilirubin, or calcium), and infection. Passage of a
gallstone through the ducts into the duodenum usually produces severe pain, called
biliary colic. If a stone causes obstruction of the ducts, the result may be damage to
the liver, pancreas, biliary system, and related structures either directly or through
concomitant inflammation. Gallstones are rare in animals, although they have been
found in nearly all species, especially in cattle. See also Bilirubin; Cholesterol;
Cirrhosis.

518
Cholecystitis, or inflammation of the gallbladder, is a common disease in humans. It
is nearly always associated with gallstones and is particularly common in obese
middle-aged women. It is rare in animals. Most cases are thought to be the result of
chemical irritation caused by excessively concentrated bile, which is in turn the
result of partial or complete obstruction to the outflow of bile. Prolonged or
recurrent episodes of inflammation result in chronic cholecystitis, characterized by
thickening and scarring of the wall, contraction, and impairment of normal function.
Malignant tumors in the gallbladder are almost invariably associated with the
presence of gallstones. Because they produce little in the way of symptoms, and
because they very soon invade the liver, these tumors are rarely curable by surgical
therapy at the time they are discovered. Benign tumors of the gallbladder and ducts
are rare in humans, and in animals both benign and malignant tumors of these sites
are extremely uncommon. See also Liver disorders.

Some urinary tract disorders rarely cause symptoms until the problem is very
advanced; these include kidney failure, tumors and stones that do not block urine
flow, and some low-grade infections. Sometimes, symptoms occur but are very
general and difficult for the doctor to connect to the kidney. For example, a general
feeling of illness (malaise), loss of appetite, nausea, or generalized itching may be
the only symptoms of chronic kidney failure. In older people, mental confusion may
be the first recognized symptom of infection or kidney failure. Symptoms that are
more suggestive of a kidney or urinary problem include pain in the side (flank),
swelling of the lower extremities, and problems with urination.

Burning or Pain with Urination

Burning or pain with urination (dysuria) may be felt at the opening to the urethra or,
less often, over the bladder (in the pelvis, the lower part of the abdomen just above
the pubic bone). Occasionally, if a woman has vaginal irritation (for example, due
to inflammation or infection of the vagina or of the area surrounding the vaginal
opening, called vulvovaginitis), she may feel a burning sensation when urinating.

Causes

Dysuria is very common, particularly among adult women, in whom it is often

caused by urinary tract infections, such as cystitis and urethritis. However, dysuria
can occur in men and women of any age and can have many noninfectious causes

Doctors can sometimes get clues to the cause based on where symptoms are most
severe. For example, if symptoms are most severe just above the pubic bone, a
bladder infection (cystitis) may be the cause. Women with frequent episodes of
cystitis may recognize characteristic symptoms that suggest another episode. If
symptoms are most severe at the opening of the urethra, urethritis may be the cause.
In men with a penile discharge, urethritis is often the cause. If burning affects
mainly the vagina and the woman has a discharge, vaginitis may be the cause.

519
Examination may confirm a condition that could be causing dysuria. For example,
vaginal or penile discharge can be confirmed. Inflammation or atrophy of the vagina
or vulva may confirm vulvovaginitis. An enlarged prostate may confirm benign
prostatic hyperplasia. Tenderness of the epididymis or testes may suggest
epididymo-orchitis, and tenderness of the prostate may suggest prostatitis.

Doctors do not always agree on the need for tests. Some doctors just treat adult
women who have symptoms that suggest cystitis. Other doctors usually do testing
for all people or for people in whom the diagnosis is not clear. The first test is
usually a urinalysis. Urine culture is often done to identify the organism causing
infection and to determine which antibiotics will be effective. For women, a sample
of vaginal discharge is examined on a slide using a microscope. Men and women
with a urethral discharge are tested for gonorrhea and chlamydia.

Treatment

The cause is treated. Often, the cause is an infection, and treatment produces relief
in 1 or 2 days. If dysuria is severe, phenazopyridine Some Trade Names
PYRIDIUM PLUS
can be taken for the first 2 days to relieve discomfort. Phenazopyridine Some Trade
Names
PYRIDIUM PLUS
turns the urine a red-orange color.

Flank pain

Pain caused by kidney disorders usually is felt in the side (flank) or small of the
back. Occasionally, the pain radiates to the center of the abdomen. Usually pain
occurs because the kidney's outer covering (renal capsule) is stretched by a disorder
that causes rapid swelling of the kidney. Severe kidney pain is often accompanied
by nausea and vomiting.

Causes

A kidney stone causes excruciating pain when it enters a ureter. The ureter contracts
in response to the stone, causing severe, crampy pain (renal or ureteral colic) in the
flank or lower back that often radiates to the groin or, in men, to the testis. The pain
typically comes in waves. A wave may last 20 to 60 minutes and then stop. The
pain stops without resuming again when the ureter relaxes or the stone passes into
the bladder.

A kidney infection (pyelonephritis) produces swelling of the kidney tissue, which

stretches the renal capsule, causing steady, aching pain. Kidney tumors do not
usually cause pain until they have become very large.

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Other disorders that cause pain in the flank include acute blockage of blood flow to
the kidney or intestine, ruptured and occasionally unruptured abdominal aortic
aneurysms, problems with the spine or spinal nerves, musculoskeletal injuries, and
tumors that involve the back of the abdomen (retroperitoneum).

Evaluation and Treatment

After noting symptoms, the doctor examines the person and usually obtains a
urinalysis to check for red blood cells or excess white blood cells, which suggest an
infection, and a urine culture when appropriate. A person with very severe, colicky
pain and blood in the urine is very likely to have a kidney stone. A person with
milder, steady pain, tenderness when the doctor taps over one kidney, fever, and
excess white blood cells in the urine is likely to have a kidney infection. If a kidney
stone is suspected, the doctor usually obtains a computed tomography (CT) scan to
determine the size and location of the stone and whether it significantly obstructs
urine flow. An intravenous contrast agent is not used for this CT scan. If the doctor
is not sure of the cause of pain, often a CT scan that uses an intravenous contrast
agent or another imaging test is done.

The underlying disorder is treated. Mild pain can be relieved by taking

acetaminophen Some Trade Names
TYLENOL
or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Pain from kidney stones may be
severe and may require use of intravenous opioids.

Swelling

Swelling results from accumulation of fluid in the tissues (edema). The swelling
may cause weight gain. Swelling is usually most noticeable in the ankles and feet,
but it may also involve the abdomen, lower back, hands, and face. If swelling is
particularly severe, fluid may accumulate in the lungs, causing difficulty breathing.

Causes

Swelling may occur if the kidneys are unable to excrete excess water and sodium
from the body, as in kidney failure. Swelling may also develop from a kidney
disorder that causes the loss of large amounts of blood protein (especially albumin)
in the urine (nephrotic syndrome). When the albumin level in the blood drops
sufficiently, swelling occurs as fluid leaks from the circulation into the tissues.

Other disorders may also cause swelling. Heart failure, caused by inadequate
pumping by the heart, signals the kidneys to retain salt and fluid, which may
accumulate in tissues. Advanced liver disease also signals the kidneys to retain salt
and fluid; swelling is worsened by the reduction in blood protein that occurs. This
protein decrease causes fluid to leak into the tissues. If swelling occurs in only one

521
limb, the cause is probably something related to the limb (such as a blood clot in a
vein or an injury) rather than a kidney, heart, or liver problem.

Evaluation and Treatment

Doctors usually assess the presence and degree of swelling by pressing on the
person's shins. If the skin retains the impression of the doctor's finger, extra fluid is
present. The person's symptoms and the doctor's physical examination suggest
whether the kidneys, liver, or heart is the cause, but doctors also obtain a urinalysis
and blood tests of liver and kidney function. If heart failure is suspected, a chest x-
ray and sometimes an echocardiogram are obtained. To diagnose nephrotic
syndrome, doctors may assess urinary loss of protein by calculating the ratio of total
protein to creatinine in a urine specimen.

The underlying disorder is treated when possible. Swelling can often be relieved by
a diuretic if the kidneys are working properly. If the kidneys are not working
properly and fluid has collected in the lungs, the person may need dialysis.

Increased Urination

Most people urinate about 4 to 6 times a day, mostly in the daytime. Normally,
adults pass between 3 cups (700 milliliters) and 2 quarts (2 liters) of urine a day.
Infants may pass as little as 1 cup (230 milliliters) per day. Urination can be
increased if a person produces an excess volume of urine or produces a normal
volume of urine but feels the need to go more often (urinary frequency).

Causes

Increased Volume: Excess urine can be caused by drinking too much fluid
(polydipsia), by taking diuretic drugs or substances that have a diuretic effect, such
as alcohol or caffeine, or by having a high level of sugar in the blood (as in diabetes
mellitus). A rare condition called diabetes insipidus causes excess urine because of
problems with a brain hormone called antidiuretic hormone (also called
vasopressin). Antidiuretic hormone helps the kidney reabsorb fluid. If too little
antidiuretic hormone is produced (a condition called central diabetes insipidus) or if
the kidney is unable to properly respond to it (nephrogenic diabetes insipidus), the
person urinates excessively.

Increased Frequency: A frequent need to urinate without an increase in the total

daily output of urine can occur when something irritates or presses on the bladder.
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common cause of bladder irritation.
Rarer causes include a stone or tumor in the bladder. A tumor or other mass (or
even the uterus if a woman is pregnant) pressing on the outside of the bladder can
also cause a frequent urge to urinate because the mass reduces the capacity of the
bladder. An inability to fully empty the bladder because of partial obstruction, often
from an enlarged prostate (in men), can produce frequency.

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Evaluation and Treatment

The doctor asks about the use of diuretics. Symptoms such as pain or burning may
indicate infection. For men, the doctor will examine the prostate by putting a
gloved, lubricated finger in the man's rectum. If the prostate is enlarged, a blood test
(prostate specific antigen, or PSA, test) and sometimes a prostate ultrasound are
done. The doctor usually checks the urine for glucose (suggesting diabetes mellitus)
and bacteria or excess white blood cells (indicating infection). If the cause is not
clear, the doctor may measure levels of electrolytes in the blood and urine and
sometimes perform imaging tests of the kidney, ureters, or bladder (such as CT,
ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]).

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Urinating at Night

Needing to urinate during the night (nocturia) is more common among older people.
It can contribute to sleep problems and to falls, especially if a person is rushing to
the bathroom or if the area is not well lit.

Causes

Nocturia may occur in the early stages of many kidney disorders. Nocturia is also
common in people with heart failure, liver failure, poorly controlled diabetes
mellitus, or diabetes insipidus. A person may have nocturia if the kidneys cannot
concentrate urine normally. Frequent urination of very small amounts at night may
result when the flow of urine into and through the urethra is obstructed and urine
backs up in the bladder. An enlarged prostate is the most common cause of
obstruction in older men (see Prostate Disorders: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
(BPH)). Sometimes, however, the cause of nocturia may simply be drinking a large
amount of fluids, especially alcohol or caffeinated beverages (such as coffee or tea)
in the late evening.

Bed-wetting (enuresis) is normal in young children. After about age 5 or 6, it may

indicate a delay in the maturation of the muscles and nerves of the lower urinary
tract, which most often resolves without treatment. If bed-wetting persists, other
causes are considered, such as UTI, diabetes, inadequate control of the nerves of the
bladder, or psychologic causes.

Evaluation and Treatment

The cause of nocturia is often evident from the person's symptoms and the results of
the examination. In men, doctors examine the prostate. Testing may be needed,
depending on what possible causes are suspected.

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Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder. In all people, minimizing intake of
fluids, alcohol, and caffeinated beverages during the late evening and voiding
immediately before going to bed may help limit nocturia.

Hesitating, Straining, and Dribbling

A hesitating start when urinating, a need to strain, a weak and trickling stream of
urine, and dribbling at the end of urination are common symptoms of a partially
obstructed urethra. In men, these symptoms are caused most commonly by an
enlarged prostate that compresses the urethra and less often by a narrowing
(stricture) of the urethra. Similar symptoms in a boy may mean that he was born
with an abnormally narrow urethra or has a urethra with an abnormally narrow
external opening. The opening may also be abnormally narrow in women.

A doctor examines the prostate by inserting a gloved, lubricated finger into the
man's rectum. If the prostate is enlarged, a blood test to measure the PSA level and
sometimes a prostate ultrasound are obtained. If a urethral stricture is suspected, the
doctor may insert a flexible viewing tube into the bladder (cystoscopy).

To treat an enlarged prostate, drugs or surgery can be used. To treat a urethral

stricture in a man, doctors may insert a catheter into the bladder through the penis
and perform dilation (stretching the urethra). It may be necessary to insert a hollow
tube to hold the urethra open (a stent). Surgeons may rebuild the urethra or perform
other surgical treatments.

Urgency

A compelling need to urinate (urgency), which may feel like almost constant painful
straining (tenesmus), can be caused by bladder irritation. Incontinence may occur if
a person does not urinate immediately. Urgency may be caused by a bladder
infection. Caffeine and alcohol use may contribute to urgency but rarely cause
severe urgency by themselves. Rarely, a poorly understood inflammation of the
bladder (interstitial cystitis) is the cause.

Doctors can usually determine the cause of urgency by the person's symptoms, the
results of the physical examination, and urinalysis. If infection is suspected, urine
culture may be needed. Sometimes, particularly if interstitial cystitis is suspected,
cystoscopy and bladder biopsy are necessary.

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Incontinence

An uncontrollable loss of urine (incontinence) can have a variety of causes

Blood in the Urine

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Blood in the urine can make the urine appear red or brown, depending on the
amount of blood, how long it has been in the urine, and how acidic the urine is. An
amount of blood too small to turn the urine red may be detected by chemical tests or
microscopic examination.

Causes

Blood in the urine may be caused by infection, stones, tumors, injuries, or other
problems in the bladder, urethra, ureters, or kidneys. About half of the people who
have blood in the urine without pain have a disorder affecting primarily certain
specialized blood vessels of the kidney (glomeruli). Sometimes, sickle cell anemia
or a related disorder is the cause. Blood in the urine with pain is often the result of a
kidney, bladder, or prostate infection or a stone or a blood clot moving through one
of the ureters or the urethra.

Evaluation and Treatment

Sometimes, a diagnosis can be made on the basis of the person's symptoms and the
results of the doctor's physical examination, urinalysis, and, if infection is
suspected, urine culture. Often, however, cystoscopy, imaging studies (such as CT,
ultrasound, or MRI), or other tests are needed. If a tumor is suspected, urine is
examined for tumor cells. A blood test for sickle cell anemia may be needed for
people of African descent who are not known to have the disease.

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Gas in the Urine

Passing gas (air) in the urine, a rare symptom, usually indicates an abnormal
connection (fistula) between the urinary tract and the intestine, which normally
contains gas. A fistula may be a complication of diverticulitis, other types of
intestinal inflammation, an abscess, or cancer. A fistula between the bladder and the
vagina may also cause gas to escape into the urine. Rarely, certain bacteria in the
urine may produce gas.

Doctors perform a pelvic examination in affected women. To diagnose fistulas,

doctors may perform cystoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, or both and obtain imaging
studies, such as CT, MRI, or ultrasound.

Fistulas are usually repaired surgically.

Changes in the Urine's Color

Normally, dilute urine is nearly colorless. Concentrated urine is deep yellow. Colors
other than yellow are abnormal.

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Food pigments can make the urine red, and drugs can produce a variety of colors:
brown, black, blue, green, orange, or red. Brown urine may contain broken-down
hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells). Broken-down
hemoglobin can leak into the urine when bleeding occurs in the kidney, bladder, or
it can be excreted into the urine as the result of certain disorders that damage or
destroy red blood cells (hemolytic anemia). Brown urine may contain muscle
protein (myoglobin), which is excreted into the urine after severe muscle injury.
Urine may be red because of pigments caused by porphyria, or black because of
pigments produced by melanoma.

Cloudy urine suggests the presence of excess white blood cells from a UTI, the
presence of crystals of salts from uric acid or from phosphoric acid, or the presence
of a vaginal discharge.

Doctors usually can identify the cause of an abnormal color by examining the urine
under a microscope or by performing chemical tests. Treatment is unnecessary
except if needed to treat the underlying disorder.

Changes in the Urine's Odor

The odor of urine can vary and does not usually indicate a disorder except in people
who have certain rare metabolic disorders.

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TASK 3; STATE THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

SYMPTOMS OF GALLBLADDER PROBLEMS

People can go for years with digestive symptoms and never realize that they may be
related to a gallbladder problem. That's because they are so inter-related with other
digestive symptoms. Constipation is one of the most commonly missed ones.
The list provided here may be related to gallbladder but bear in mind that it could

also be something else.

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The first four mentioned I feel are most indicative of gallbladder issues. It is not
necessary to have all or many symptoms to have gallbladder problems but the more
you have from this list, the more confirmation you have that the gallbladder is
involved. Please note that it is still adviseable to consult your doctor for an accurate
diagnosis. Gallbladder attack symptoms are listed below and again with more
detailed explanation when you answer the three-minute gall bladder symptom
questionnaire at the top of this page. To get a clearer picture of the causes of gall
bladder symptoms check out risk factors for gallbladder disease.

 Pain or tenderness under the rib cage on the right side

 Pain between shoulder blades
 Stools light or chalky colored
 Indigestion after eating, especially fatty or greasy foods
 Nausea
 Dizziness
 Bloating
 Gas
 Burping or belching
 Feeling of fullness or food not digesting
 Diarrhea (or alternating from soft to watery)
 Constipation
 Headache over eyes, especially right
 Bitter fluid comes up after eating
 Frequent use of laxatives

GALLBLADDER ATTACK SYMPTOMS

specifically

Please note that if you are in severe pain and particularly if your attack symptoms
are accompanied by fever DO SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION IMMEDIATELY.
The following symptoms are typical of a gallbladder attack.

 Moderate to severe pain under the right side of the rib cage
 Pain may radiate through to the back or to the right shoulder
 Severe upper abdominal pain (biliary colic)
 Nausea
 Queasiness
 Vomiting
 Gas
 Burping or belching
 Attacks are often at night
 Attacks often occur after overeating
 Pain will often but not always follow a meal with fats or grease
 Pain may be worse with deep inhalation

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  Attacks can last from 15 minutes to 15 hours

SYMPTOMS OF GALLSTONES

Symtpoms of a gallbladder attack are often caused by gallbladder stones. A stone

may block the neck of the gallbladder or get stuck in a bile duct inhibiting the flow
of bile or possibly causing a backing up of bile. However, short of causing an actual
attack, stones may be present for years and never cause any symptoms at all.
"Biliary pain can occur in about a third of the gallstone patients" (which leaves two
thirds NOT experiencing pain) and "sometimes the gallstone symptoms are difficult
to differentiate from that of dyspepsia." (indigestion)3 The gallstones can impair the
functioning of the gallbladder, however, which can result in any of the common
gallbladder symptoms.

Gall bladder symptoms can look and feel the same with or without stones.
Therefore, all of the symptoms on listed on this page can accompany gallstones and
gallstones can also be asymptomatic meaning you do not have any symptoms.
These are called silent gallstones.

TASK 4; DISCUSS DIETARY MANAGEMENT, MODIFIED DIETS AND

COUNSELING OF THE NAMED DISORDERS

Diet

 The best general eating principles are outlined on pages 20 to 28 of Dr

Cabot's "Healthy Liver & Bowel Book" or following the eight week
program found in "The Liver Cleansing Diet"
 Try to maintain a normal body weight. If overweight follow the program in
"Can't Lose Weight? Unlock the Secrets that Keep you Fat"
 Include often - high fiber foods like wholegrains, legumes, bran, raw fruits
and vegetables, especially apples and pears; also low-fat yoghurt; eggs and
fish.
 Aim to limit your dairy product intake such as cow's milk, cream,
processed cheese and butter. Opt for organic yogurt and cheese such as
parmesan, ricotta and cottage.
 Avoid foods that contain high counts of bacteria or fungi – these are all
dairy products, preserved meats, delicatessen meats, hamburger meats,
smoked meats, and processed or junk foods. This is because these foods
will trigger or exacerbate gall bladder infections.
 Avoid saturated animal fats including fatty meats, butter, cream, ice cream,
cheese, chocolate, biscuits, fried foods (most gall stones are composed of
cholesterol); refined sugars and refined carbohydrates.
 Include healthy fats such as cold pressed nut and seed oils and foods rich in
essential fats such as cold water fish, avocados etc. Good fats are important

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 for the health of the gall bladder. An extremely low fat/no fat diet is NOT
recommended.
 We also recommend that you avoid red meat for about three months
 Avoid artificial sweeteners - see www.dorway.com
 Drink plenty of filtered water throughout the day – 8 to10 glasses at least.

PROTEIN
Protein may be limited to 0.6 grams per kilogram ideal body weight per day. If the
patient simply cannot adhere to this restriction, then 0.75 grams per kilogram ideal
body weight per day. For your information, the Recommended Dietary Allowance
(RDA) for protein in healthy persons is 0.8 grams per kilogram body weight per
day. One can see there is very little difference in the normal diet for healthy
individuals and the diet that is recommended to delay the progression of kidney
disease. People probably eat twice the amount of protein needed to be healthy.
Here is an example of how the protein in the diet would be figured:
A man 5’7” tall and 150 pounds (70 kilos)
0.6 grams X 70 kilos = 42 grams protein per day
0.75 grams X 70 kilos = 52 grams protein per day
Here are some samples of protein in foods:
1 egg = 7 grams protein
1 chicken thigh = 14 grams protein
8 ounces skim milk = 8 grams protein
1 slice bread = 2 grams protein
1 cup cooked rice = 4 grams protein
1/2 cup corn = 2 grams protein
CALORIES
According to the National Kidney Foundation Guidelines, calories in this special
diet should be 35 calories per kilogram per day for those less than 60 years of age
and 30 calories per kilogram per day for those over 60 years of age. Calories are
found in carbohydrates, protein, fats and alcohol. As alcohol is not a necessary
nutrient, it is not recommended. People with diabetes may need to eat more calories
from carbohydrates to prevent weight loss. The medication to control blood sugar
may need to be adjusted and/or increased.
POTASSIUM
Potassium is not usually restricted until urine output begins to decrease. Sometimes
people with diabetes may need to have potassium limited.
Foods high in potassium are:
Bananas, Oranges, Orange Juice, Milk, Prunes, Prune Juice, Tomato Juice, Tomato
Sauce, Nuts, Chocolate, Dried Peas and Beans
SODIUM AND BLOOD PRESSURE
High sodium foods can increase blood pressure. High blood pressure is one of the
major causes of kidney disease. New research tells us strict blood pressure control is

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important. Ask your doctor what your target blood pressure should be. A person
may require more than one high blood pressure medicine. The first line of high
blood pressure medication is called an “ace inhibitor.” This may improve a
condition known as “proteinuria” or protein in the urine. This can affect diabetics
and non-diabetics with high blood pressure. Some persons need a diuretic or “water
pill” to help control high blood pressure.
High sodium foods to avoid include:
Salt, Bacon, Ham, Corned Beef, Pepperoni, Sausage, Pizza, Chinese Food, Fast
Foods, Pickles, Cheese, Soy Sauce, Canned Soups, Potato Chips, Fritos, Cheetos
FLUID RESTRICTION
There is usually no restriction in the amount of fluids you can drink until severe
kidney disease (Stage 4 or 5) is reached. The amount of urine your kidneys can
make will usually not decrease until it is almost time to begin dialysis. It is called
“kidney failure” because eventually the kidneys fail to make urine.
PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is a mineral found in almost all foods. Normal kidneys will balance the
amount of phosphorus in our bodies. However, when the kidneys fail to eliminate
this in the urine, the phosphorus will increase in the blood. High phosphorus foods
will need to be limited and/or avoided. A medication called a phosphate binder
(such as Oscal, Phoslo and Tums) may be ordered by your physician to be taken
every time you eat. This medication will bind the phosphorus in the food and
eliminate it in the stool. Control of phosphorus is very difficult for kidney disease
patients. Ignoring this problem can lead to bone disease with pain in the back and
joints.
High phosphorus foods to eliminate are:
Milk (any kind) - Start learning to use a milk substitute like Cremora (powdered) or
Coffeemate (liquid) - Beans (red, black, white), Black Eyed Peas, Lima Beans,
Nuts, Chocolate, Yogurt, Cheese, Liver, Sardines, Desserts made with milk
ANEMIA
Healthy kidneys make a hormone that helps make red blood cells. One of the
symptoms of kidney disease is anemia, which causes weakness, tiredness and
shortness of breath. Your kidney doctor may give you an injection called “Procrit.”
This may help improve your anemia. The doctor may also order iron injections
because in order to make red blood cells, you will need enough iron. Unfortunately,
in some people the special diet will not provide enough iron and iron pills would be
taken.
VITAMINS
Diseases of the heart and blood vessels remain the number one health problem in
the U.S. Recently, a new risk factor has been identified in kidney disease patients.
It is an amino acid called homocysteine. Over 75 percent of dialysis patients have
increased homocysteine levels. Too much homocysteine in the blood has been
found to be associated with increased risk of heart disease, stroke and blood vessel
disease. Studies have shown that homocysteine levels in the blood are strongly
influenced by these specific vitamins: Folic Acid, Vitamin B12 and Vitamin B6.

531
The American Heart Association has indicated that a reasonable therapeutic goal
should be less than 10 micromoles per liter. Ask your kidney doctor if you should
be taking a special vitamin to help prevent high levels of homocysteine.
DIABETICS
Since about 40 percent of all kidney disease patients are diabetic, it is important to
know about good control of your blood sugar. There is a special blood test called a
“hemoglobin A1C.” This test tells what your blood sugars have been in the past two
to three months. The normal range is 4.5 to 6.0 percent. Poor control of blood sugar
contributes to the progression of your kidney disease. Be sure to ask your doctor
how you are doing with blood sugar control. It may be necessary to be referred to a
diabetes educator for help.
Sample Menu: 40-50 grams protein
(For non diabetic man 5’7” tall and 150 pounds (70 kilos) with CKD)
BREAKFAST
• 1/2 cup (4 ounces) orange juice • 1 English muffin or 2 slices bread
• At least one tablespoon margarine with jelly
• Coffee or tea with non-dairy creamer and sugar
SNACK
• 2 canned pear halves in heavy syrup
LUNCH
• 2 slices white bread • At least 2 tablespoons mayonnaise with lettuce and tomato
• 1 ounce chicken (such as a small thigh) or 1 hard boiled egg
• 2 canned peach halves in heavy syrup
• 7-UP, lemonade or Hawaiian Punch
SNACK
• Baked apple with 1/2 cup non-dairy whipped topping
DINNER
• 3-4 ounces steak (weigh after cooking, without bone) , sauté in tablespoons olive
oil
• 1 small baked potato with at least 2 tablespoons margarine
• 1/2 cup fresh green beans, carrots or broccoli with margarine
• Lettuce, onions, cucumbers, green pepper
• At least 2 tablespoons olive oil with vinegar or lemon
• 1/8 apple or cherry pie with 1/2 cup fruit sorbet (this is not sherbet)
• Iced tea with sugar and lemon or Sprite
SNACK
• 1 small banana and 10 vanilla wafers
• Coffee or tea with non-dairy creamer and sugar
Here is a sample daily menu which might form part of a healthy renal diet plan.
Please consult your renal dietitian for a personal renal diet suitable for you.
Breakfast

532
1 scrambled egg
2 slices toast with margarine
1/2 cup strawberries
1/2 cup milk
1 cup coffee
Lunch
Turkey sandwich: 2 oz turkey
2 slices bread, lettuce & mayonnaise
1/2 cup coleslaw
1/2 cup grapes
1 cup iced tea with lemon
Dinner
4 oz grilled pork chop
1/2 cup rice
1/2 cup green beans with onion and basil
1/2 cup applesauce
Dinner roll and margarine
1 cup water with lemon
Snack
1/4 cup tuna salad
5-6 No salt added crackers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons

Evaluation

1. explain the functions of the gall bladder and kidney

2. identify disorders of the gall bladder and kidney
3. state the causes and symptoms

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15.2.14 CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) identify the types of cardiovascular disorders

b) state the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
c) Discuss the dietary management and modified diets and counseling of
cardiovascular disorders.

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; IDENTIFICATION OF TYPES OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Heart disease is a broad term used to describe a range of diseases that affect your
heart, and in some cases, your blood vessels. The various diseases that fall under the

534
umbrella of heart disease include diseases of your blood vessels, such as coronary
artery disease; heart rhythm problems (arrhythmias); and heart defects you're born
with (congenital heart defects).
The term "heart disease" is often used interchangeably with "cardiovascular
disease" — a term that generally refers to conditions that involve narrowed or
blocked blood vessels that can lead to a heart attack, chest pain (angina) or stroke.
Other heart conditions, such as infections and conditions that affect your heart's
muscle, valves or beating rhythm also are considered forms of heart disease.
Heart disease is the No. 1 worldwide killer of men and women, including in the
United States. For example, heart disease is responsible for 40 percent of all the
deaths in the United States, more than all forms of cancer combined. Many forms of
heart disease can be prevented or treated with healthy lifestyle choices and diet and
exercise.
Heart and Cardiovascular Diseases
When you think of heart disease, usually people think of coronary artery disease
(narrowing of the arteries leading to the heart), but coronary artery disease is just
one type of cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular disease includes a number of conditions affecting the structures or
function of the heart. They can include:

 Coronary artery disease (including heart attack)

 Abnormal heart rhythms or arrythmias
 Heart failure
 Heart valve disease
 Congenital heart disease
 Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy)
 Pericardial disease
 Aorta disease and Marfan syndrome
 Vascular disease (blood vessel disease)

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women in the
U.S. It is important to learn about your heart to help prevent heart disease. And, if
you have cardiovascular disease, you can live a healthier, more active life by
learning about your disease and treatments and by becoming an active participant in
your care.

Coronary Artery Disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is atherosclerosis, or hardening, of the arteries that
provide vital oxygen and nutrients to the heart.

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Abnormal Heart Rhythms
The heart is an amazing organ. It beats in a steady, even rhythm, about 60 to 100
times each minute (that's about 100,000 times each day!). But, sometimes your heart
gets out of rhythm. An irregular or abnormal heartbeat is called an arrhythmia. An
arrhythmia (also called a dysrhythmia) can involve a change in the rhythm,
producing an uneven heartbeat, or a change in the rate, causing a very slow or very
fast heartbeat.

Heart Failure
The term "heart failure" can be frightening. It does not mean the heart has "failed"
or stopped working. It means the heart does not pump as well as it should.
Heart failure is a major health problem in the U.S., affecting nearly 5 million
Americans. About 550,000 people are diagnosed with heart failure each year. It is
the leading cause of hospitalization in people older than 65.

536
Heart Valve Disease

Your heart valves lie at the exit of each of your four heart chambers and maintain
one-way blood-flow through your heart.
Examples include mitral valve prolapse, aortic stenosis, and mitral valve
insufficiency.

Congenital Heart Disease

Congenital heart disease is a type of defect in one or more structures of the heart or
blood vessels that occurs before birth.
It affects about 8 out of every 1,000 children. Congenital heart defects may produce
symptoms at birth, during childhood and sometimes not until adulthood.
In most cases scientists don't know why they occur. Heredity may play a role as
well as exposure to the fetus during pregnancy to certain viral infections, alcohol, or
drugs.

Cardiomyopathies
Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the heart muscle itself. People with
cardiomyopathies -- sometimes called an enlarged heart -- have hearts that are
abnormally enlarged, thickened, and/or stiffened. As a result, the heart's ability to
pump blood is weakened. Without treatment, cardiomyopathies worsen over time
and often lead to heart failure and abnormal heart rhythms.

Common Cardiovascular Diseases

537
The four most common types of cardiovascular disease are coronary heart
disease (which includes heart attack and angina pectoris or chest pain), stroke, high
blood pressure and heart failure. Other forms include rheumatic fever/rheumatic
heart disease, congenital cardiovascular defects, arrhythmias (disorders of heart
rhythm); diseases of the arteries, arterioles and capillaries (including atherosclerosis
and Kawasaki disease); bacterial endocarditis; cardiomyopathy; valvular heart
disease; diseases of pulmonary circulation; diseases of veins and lymphatics and
other diseases of the circulatory system.

Atherosclerosis occurs when the inner walls of the arteries become more narrow
due to a buildup of plaque, which consists of fats, cholesterol cellular waste
products, calcium and other substances. Plaques can grow large enough to
significantly reduce the blood's flow through an artery. But most of the damage
occurs when they become fragile and rupture. Plaques that rupture cause blood
clots to form. If this blood clot blocks a blood vessel that feeds the heart, it causes a
heart attack. If it blocks a blood vessel that feeds the brain, it causes a stroke.

High blood pressure, also called hypertension, means the pressure in your arteries is
consistently above the normal range. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing
against blood vessel walls. It's written as two numbers, such as 122/78 mm Hg. The
top (systolic) number is the pressure when the heart beats. The bottom (diastolic)
number is the pressure when the heart is at rest. High blood pressure is a
consistently elevated pressure of 140 mm Hg systolic or higher and/or 90 mm Hg
diastolic or higher. The great danger is that you usually can't tell you have high
blood pressure! There are no signs and no one knows exactly what causes it. High
blood pressure can lead to hardened arteries, heart failure, stroke or heart attack.

Heart attacks occur when the blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked, often by a
blood clot. If this clot cuts off the blood flow completely, the part of the heart
muscle supplied by that artery begins to die. Call 9-1-1 to get help fast if you feel
any of the warning signs of heart attack.

Heart failure means that your heart isn't pumping blood as well as it should. It keeps
working, but the body doesn't get all the blood and oxygen it needs. See a doctor if
you notice symptoms such as:

 Swelling in feet, ankles and/or legs, called "edema"

 Fatigue that can be due to fluid buildup in lungs, called "pulmonary
congestion"

Stroke and TIA ("mini" stroke) happen when a blood vessel that supplies oxygen to
a part of the brain gets blocked. Then that part of the brain can't work and neither
can the part of the body it controls. A stroke can also occur when a blood vessel
supplying part of the brain ruptures. Call 9-1-1 to get help fast if you have any of
the warning signs of stroke and TIA.

538
TASK 2; CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF CARDIOVASCULAR
Heart Disease
Study shows that Coenzyme Q10,an essential nutrient that helps support
cardiovascular function, does not have any side effects, and may be beneficial to
people with heart diseases. Please visit Coenzyme Q10 for more information.
Causes of Heart Disease
Heart Disease Risk Factors
Cardiovascular disease can take many forms: high blood pressure, coronary artery
disease, valvular heart disease, stroke, or rheumatic fever/rheumatic heart disease.
According to the World Health Organization, cardiovascular disease causes 12
million deaths in the world each year. Cardiovascular disease is responsible for half
of all deaths in the United States and other developed countries, and it is a main
cause of death in many developing countries as well. Overall, it is the leading cause
of death in adults.

In the United States, more than 60 million Americans have some form of
cardiovascular disease. About 2600 people die every day of cardiovascular disease.
Cancer, the second largest killer, accounts for only half as many deaths.

Coronary artery disease, the most common form of cardiovascular disease, is the
leading cause of death in America today. But thanks to many studies involving
thousands of patients, researchers have found certain factors that play an important
role in a person's chances of developing heart disease. These are called risk factors.

Risk factors are divided into two categories: major and contributing. Major risk
factors are those that have been proven to increase your risk of heart disease.
Contributing risk factors are those that doctors think can lead to an increased risk of
heart disease, but their exact role has not been defined.

The more risk factors you have, the more likely you are to develop heart disease.
Some risk factors can be changed, treated, or modified, and some cannot. But by
controlling as many risk factors as possible, through lifestyle changes and/or
medicines, you can reduce your risk of heart disease.

Major Risk Factors

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension). High blood pressure increases your risk of
heart disease, heart attack, and stroke. Though other risk factors can lead to high
blood pressure, you can have it without having other risk factors. If you are obese,
you smoke, or you have high blood cholesterol levels along with high blood
pressure, your risk of heart disease or stroke greatly increases.

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Blood pressure can vary with activity and with age, but a healthy adult who is
resting generally has a systolic pressure reading between 120 and 130 and a
diastolic pressure reading between 80 and 90 (or below).

High Blood Cholesterol. One of the major risk factors for heart disease is high
blood cholesterol. Cholesterol, a fat-like substance carried in your blood, is found in
all of your body's cells. Your liver produces all of the cholesterol your body needs
to form cell membranes and to make certain hormones. Extra cholesterol enters
your body when you eat foods that come from animals (meats, eggs, and dairy
products).

Although we often blame the cholesterol found in foods that we eat for raising
blood cholesterol, the main culprit is the saturated fat in food. (Be sure to read
nutrition labels carefully, because even though a food does not contain cholesterol it
may still have large amounts of saturated fat.) Foods rich in saturated fat include
butter fat in milk products, fat from red meat, and tropical oils such as coconut oil.

Too much low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad cholesterol") in the blood causes
plaque to form on artery walls, which starts a disease process called atherosclerosis.
When plaque builds up in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, you
are at greater risk of having a heart attack.

Diabetes. Heart problems are the leading cause of death among people with
diabetes, especially in the case of adult-onset or Type II diabetes (also known as
non-insulin-dependent diabetes). Certain racial and ethnic groups (African
Americans, Hispanics, Asian and Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans) have a
greater risk of developing diabetes. The American Heart Association estimates that
65% of patients with diabetes die of some form of cardiovascular disease. If you
know that you have diabetes, you should already be under a doctor's care, because
good control of blood sugar levels can reduce your risk. If you think you may have
diabetes but are not sure, see your doctor for tests.

Obesity and Overweight. Extra weight is thought to lead to increased total

cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, and an increased risk of coronary artery
disease. Obesity increases your chances of developing other risk factors for heart
disease, especially high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes.

Many doctors now measure obesity in terms of body mass index (BMI), which is a
formula of kilograms divided by height in meters squared (BMI =W [kg]/H [m2]).
According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), being
overweight is defined as having a BMI over 25. Those with a number over 30 are
considered obese.

Smoking. Most people know that cigarette and tabacco smoking increases your risk
of lung cancer, but fewer realize that it also greatly increases your risk of heart
disease and peripheral vascular disease (disease in the vessels that supply blood to
the arms and legs). According to the American Heart Association, more than

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400,000 Americans die each year of smoking-related illnesses. Many of these
deaths are because of the effects of smoking on the heart and blood vessels.

Research has shown that smoking increases heart rate, tightens major arteries, and
can create irregularities in the timing of heartbeats, all of which make your heart
work harder. Smoking also raises blood pressure, which increases the risk of stroke
in people who already have high blood pressure. Although nicotine is the main
active agent in cigarette smoke, other chemicals and compounds like tar and carbon
monoxide are also harmful to your heart in a variety of ways. These chemicals lead
to the buildup of fatty plaque in the arteries, possibly by injuring the vessel walls.
And they also affect cholesterol and levels of fibrinogen, which is a blood-clotting
material. This increases the risk of a blood clot that can lead to a heart attack.

Physical Inactivity. People who are not active have a greater risk of heart attack
than do people who exercise regularly. Exercise burns calories, helps to control
cholesterol levels and diabetes, and may lower blood pressure. Exercise also
strengthens the heart muscle and makes the arteries more flexible. Those who
actively burn 500 to 3500 calories per week, either at work or through exercise, can
expect to live longer than people who do not exercise. Even moderate-intensity
exercise is helpful if done regularly.

Gender. Overall, men have a higher risk of heart attack than women. But the
difference narrows after women reach menopause. After the age of 65, the risk of
heart disease is about the same between the sexes when other risk factors are
similar.

Heredity. Heart disease tends to run in families. For example, if your parents or
siblings had a heart or circulatory problem before age 55, then you are at greater
risk for heart disease than someone who does not have that family history. Risk
factors (including high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity) may also be passed
from one generation to another.

Also, researchers have found that some forms of cardiovascular disease are more
common among certain racial and ethnic groups. For example, studies have shown
that African Americans have more severe high blood pressure and a greater risk of
heart disease than whites. The bulk of cardiovascular research for minorities has
focused on African Americans and Hispanics, with the white population used as a
comparison. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in other minority groups are
still being studied.

Age. Older age is a risk factor for heart disease. In fact, about 4 of every 5 deaths
due to heart disease occur in people older than 65.

As we age, our hearts tend to not work as well. The heart's walls may thicken,
arteries may stiffen and harden, and the heart is less able to pump blood to the
muscles of the body. Because of these changes, the risk of developing
cardiovascular disease increases with age. Because of their sex hormones, women
are usually protected from heart disease until menopause, and then their risk

541
increases. Women 65 and older have about the same risk of cardiovascular disease
as men of the same age.

Contributing Risk Factors

Stress. Stress is considered a contributing risk factor for heart disease because little
is known about its effects. The effects of emotional stress, behavior habits, and
socioeconomic status on the risk of heart disease and heart attack have not been
proven. That is because we all deal with stress differently: how much and in what
way stress affects us can vary from person to person.

Researchers have identified several reasons why stress may affect the heart.

Stressful situations raise your heart rate and blood pressure, increasing the your
heart's need for oxygen. This need for oxygen can bring on angina pectoris, or chest
pain, in people who already have heart disease.

During times of stress, the nervous system releases extra hormones (most often
adrenaline). These hormones raise blood pressure, which can injure the lining of the
arteries. When the arteries heal, the walls may harden or thicken, making is easier
for plaque to build up.

Stress also increases the amount of blood clotting factors that circulate in your
blood, and makes it more likely that a clot will form. Clots may then block an artery
narrowed by plaque and cause a heart attack.
Stress may also contribute to other risk factors. For example, people who are
stressed may overeat for comfort, start smoking, or smoke more than they normally
would.

Sex hormones. Sex hormones appear to play a role in heart disease. Among women
younger than 40, heart disease is rare. But between the ages 40 and 65, around the
time when most women go through menopause, the chances that a woman will have
a heart attack greatly increase. From 65 onward, women make up about half of all
heart attack victims.

Birth control pills. Early types of birth control pills contained high levels of
estrogen and progestin, and taking these pills increased the chances of heart disease
and stroke, especially in women older than 35 who smoked. But birth control pills
today contain much lower doses of hormones. Birth control pills are considered safe
for women younger than 35, who do not smoke or have high blood pressure.

But if you smoke or have other risk factors, birth control pills will increase your risk
of heart disease and blood clots, especially if you are older than 35. According to
the American Heart Association, women who take birth control pills should have
yearly check-ups that test blood pressure, triglyceride, and glucose levels.

Alcohol. Studies have shown that the risk of heart disease in people who drink
moderate amounts of alcohol is lower than in nondrinkers. Experts say that

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moderate intake is an average of one to two drinks per day for men and one drink
per day for women. One drink is defined as 1?fluid ounces (fl oz) of 80-proof spirits
(such as bourbon, Scotch, vodka, gin, etc.), 1 fl oz of 100-proof spirits, 4 fl oz of
wine, or 12 fl oz of beer. But drinking more than a moderate amount of alcohol can
cause heart-related problems such as high blood pressure, stroke, irregular
heartbeats, and cardiomyopathy (disease of the heart muscle). And the average
drink has between 100 and 200 calories. Calories from alcohol often add fat to the
body, which may increase the risk of heart disease. It is not recommended that
nondrinkers start using alcohol or that drinkers increase the amount that they drink.

It is never too late梠r too early梩o begin improving heart health. Some risk factors
can be controlled, while others cannot. But, by eliminating risk factors that you can
change and by properly managing those that you cannot control, you may greatly
reduce your risk of heart disease.
Little Fact:
Lipitor is the best selling prescription drug for lowering blood cholesterol levels.

What are the risk factors for cardiovascular disease?

The most important behavioural risk factors of heart disease and stroke are
unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and tobacco use. Behavioural risk factors are
responsible for about 80% of coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease.

The effects of unhealthy diet and physical inactivity may show up in individuals as
raised blood pressure, raised blood glucose, raised blood lipids, and overweight and
obesity; these are called 'intermediate risk factors'.

There are also a number of underlying determinants of CVDs, or, if you like, "the
causes of the causes". These are a reflection of the major forces driving social,
economic and cultural change – globalization, urbanization, and population ageing.
Other determinants of CVDs are poverty and stress.

What are common symptoms of cardiovascular diseases?

Symptoms of heart attacks and strokes

Often, there are no symptoms of the underlying disease of the blood vessels. A heart
attack or stroke may be the first warning of underlying disease. Symptoms of a heart
attack include:

 pain or discomfort in the centre of the chest;

 pain or discomfort in the arms, the left shoulder, elbows, jaw, or back.

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In addition the person may experience difficulty in breathing or shortness of breath;
feeling sick or vomiting; feeling light-headed or faint; breaking into a cold sweat;
and becoming pale. Women are more likely to have shortness of breath, nausea,
vomiting, and back or jaw pain.

The most common symptom of a stroke is sudden weakness of the face, arm, or leg,
most often on one side of the body. Other symptoms include sudden onset of:
numbness of the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body; confusion,
difficulty speaking or understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes;
difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with
no known cause; and fainting or unconsciousness.

People experiencing these symptoms should seek medical care immediately.

What is rheumatic heart disease?

Rheumatic heart disease is caused by damage to the heart valves and heart muscle
from the inflammation and scarring caused by rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever is
caused by streptococcal bacteria, which usually begins as a sore throat or tonsillitis
in children.

Rheumatic fever mostly affects children in developing countries, especially where

poverty is widespread. Globally, almost 2% of deaths from cardiovascular diseases
is related to rheumatic heart disease, while 42% of deaths from cardiovascular
diseases is related to ischaemic heart disease, and 34% to cerebrovascular disease.

Symptoms of rheumatic heart disease

 Symptoms of rheumatic heart disease include: shortness of breath, fatigue,

irregular heart beats, chest pain and fainting.
 Symptoms of rheumatic fever include: fever, pain and swelling of the
joints, nausea, stomach cramps and vomiting.

Treatment

 Early treatment of streptococcal sore throat can stop the development of

rheumatic fever. Regular long-term penicillin treatment can prevent repeat
attacks of rheumatic fever which give rise to rheumatic heart disease and
can stop disease progression in people whose heart valves are already
damaged by the disease.

Why are cardiovascular diseases a development issue in low- and middle-income

countries?

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  Over 80% of the world's deaths from CVDs occur in low- and middle-
income countries.
 People in low- and middle-income countries are more exposed to risk
factors leading to CVDs and other noncommunicable diseases and are less
exposed to prevention efforts than people in high-income countries.
 People in low- and middle-income countries who suffer from CVDs and
other noncommunicable diseases have less access to effective and
equitable health care services which respond to their needs (including early
detection services).
 As a result, many people in low- and middle-income countries die younger
from CVDs and other noncommunicable diseases, often in their most
productive years.
 The poorest people in low- and middle-income countries are affected most.
At household level, sufficient evidence is emerging to prove that CVDs
and other noncommunicable diseases contribute to poverty. For example,
catastrophic health care expenditures for households with a family member
with CVD can be 30 per cent or more of annual household spending.
 At macro-economic level, CVDs place a heavy burden on the economies of
low- and middle-income countries. Heart disease, stroke and diabetes are
estimated to reduce GDP between 1 and 5% in low- and middle-income
countries experiencing rapid economic growth, as many people die
prematurely. For example, it is estimated that over the next 10 years (2006-
2015), China will lose $558 billion in foregone national income due to the
combination of heart

-
fifth of the annual 1,000,000 deaths from CVD are attributable to smoking.
Surveillance data indicate that an estimated 1,000,000 young people become
"regular" smokers each year.

disease as those who are physically active. Despite these risks, America remains a
predominantly sedentary society. Surveys show that more than half of American
adults do not practice the recommended level of physical activity, and more than
one-fourth are completely sedentary.

people) are obese and thus have a higher risk for heart disease, high blood pressure,
high cholesterol, and other chronic diseases and conditions such as diabetes. Only
27% of women and 19% of men report eating the recommended five servings of
fruits and vegetables each day.

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TASK 3; DISCUSS THE DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND MODIFIED DIETS
AND COUNSELING OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS.

Dietary changes
Making small changes to your diet is one of the simplest and most effective ways to
reduce your risk of CVD. You can do this by

 reducing fat in your diet, especially saturated and trans-fats

 eating more fruit and vegetables, wholegrain food and soluble fibre
 drinking alcohol in moderation
 reducing salt to maintain a lower blood pressure

Fat
Reducing the proportion of fat in your diet, especially saturated fat, can help to
reduce blood cholesterol levels. There's a strong link between high blood
cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease. For those who don't have CVD or
aren't considered to be at high-risk of CVD, normal blood cholesterol levels are
below 5mmol/litre. This can be measured by your GP. People with average energy
needs should aim to consume no more than 70g/day of fat and less than 20g/day of
saturated fat.
Trans-fatty acids are a particular kind of fat that are naturally occurring in meat and
dairy products but may also be produced when plant-based oils are hydrogenated to
produce solid spreads, such as margarines. They're often found in confectionery and
processed food like pastry, biscuits and cakes. They've been found to have the same
effect on cholesterol levels as saturated fat and should be avoided as much as
possible. Thankfully, many manufacturers have now modified processing
techniques to keep these fats to a minimum. Check labels for hydrogenated fats.
When reducing total fat, it's important not to cut out the heart healthy fats from your
diet including mono and poly-unsaturated fats and omega-3, mostly found in plant
and fish oils.
How to modify your fat intake:

 use butter and other spreads sparingly

 choose lean cuts of meat or trim fat off
 grill, bake or steam food rather than frying
 swap saturated fats such as butter for unsaturated oils such as sunflower,
rapeseed or olive oil
 limit your intake of trans-fats from processed food
 eat two to three portions of oily fish each week (eg sardines, mackerel,
fresh tuna, salmon)

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Essential fatty acids
Essential fatty acids such as omega-3s, which are found in oily fish, have been
shown to reduce the risk of CVD by lowering blood triglycerides, reducing blood
clotting and regulating heart rhythm. For general heart health try to eat two portions
of fish per week, one of which should be oily.
Stanols and Sterols
Certain plant-derived compounds, called stanol or sterol esters have been shown to
reduce cholesterol levels. Spreads, yoghurts, drinks and soya 'dairy alternatives' are
now available containing these products. These sterol enriched foods may be
particularly useful for those with raised blood cholesterol which has remained
elevated even after making other dietary changes. Clinical trials show that when
used regularly, they can reduce high cholesterol levels.
Fruit and vegetables
Fruit and vegetables are rich in many essential nutrients including vitamins C and E
and carotenoids (which are all antioxidants). They may help to protect the heart by
limiting the damaging effects of cholesterol on body tissues. Aim for at least five
servings of fruit and vegetables a day. (See the Fruit and Vegetables article for more
information on what a serving is.)
Wholegrains and fibre
Studies of large groups of people in the US have shown that diets rich in wholegrain
food can reduce the risk of CVD by up to 30 per cent. You can include wholegrain
food in every meal by choosing wholemeal bread and wholegrain varieties of pasta
and rice.
Soluble dietary fibre, found in oats, beans and pulses, can help to lower LDL
cholesterol. These foods should be included as part of an overall healthy balanced
diet, at least two to three times each week.
Alcohol
Consuming moderate amounts of alcohol - between one and two units a day - has
been found to reduce the risk of CVD. Alcohol can increase HDL cholesterol and
makes it less likely that clots will form. However, high intakes of alcohol are
associated with increased risk. It's also worth noting that saving up your weekly
units for a weekend binge doesn't offer the same benefits.
Soya protein
A diet that includes at least 25g of soya per day has been associated with reductions
in LDL cholesterol and CVD. Soya isoflavones in particular have been shown to
reduce CVD risk as they inhibit the growth of cells that form artery-clogging
plaque. Soya protein is also an excellent substitute for meat and is available in a
convenient and tasty form in many ready-made meals. Another good source of soya
protein is soya milk and yoghurt.

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  Heart attacks and strokes are major–but preventable–killers worldwide.
 Over 80% of cardiovascular disease deaths take place in low-and middle-
income countries and occur almost equally in men and women.
Cardiovascular risk of women is particularly high after menopause.
 Tobacco use, an unhealthy diet, and physical inactivity increase the risk of
heart attacks and strokes.
 Cessation of tobacco use reduces the chance of a heart attack or stroke.
 Engaging in physical activity for at least 30 minutes every day of the week
will help to prevent heart attacks and strokes.
 Eating at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day, and limiting your
salt intake to less than one teaspoon a day, also helps to prevent heart
attacks and strokes.
 High blood pressure has no symptoms, but can cause a sudden stroke or
heart attack. Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
 Diabetes increases the risk of heart attacks and stroke. If you have diabetes
control your blood pressure and blood sugar to minimize your risk.
 Being overweight increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes. To
maintain an ideal body weight, take regular physical activity and eat a
healthy diet.
 Heart attacks and strokes can strike suddenly and can be fatal if assistance
is not sought immediately.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons

Evaluation
a. identify the cardiovascular disorders
b. state the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
c. Discuss the dietary management and counseling of cardiovascular disorders.

15.2.15 SURGICAL AND BURN THERAPY

Specific Objectives
By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define given terms

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b) state the types and causes of burns
c) identify the feeding methods and planning of modified diets
a) explain the dietary management and counseling

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; DEFINITION OF TERMS

Burns

Definition
Burns are injuries to tissues caused by heat, friction, electricity, radiation, or
chemicals.

Description
Burns are characterized by degree, based on the severity of the tissue damage. A
first-degree burn causes redness and swelling in the outermost layers of skin
(epidermis). A second-degree burn involves redness, swelling and blistering, and
the damage may extend beneath the epidermis to deeper layers of skin (dermis). A
third-degree burn, also called a full-thickness burn, destroys the entire depth of skin,
causing significant scarring. Damage also may extend to the underlying fat, muscle,
or bone.
The severity of the burn is also judged by the amount of body surface area (BSA)
involved. Health care workers use the "rule of nines" to determine the percentage of
BSA affected in patients more than 9 years old: each arm with its hand is 9% of
BSA; each leg with its foot is 18%; the front of the torso is 18%; the back of the
torso, including the buttocks, is 18%; the head and neck are 9%; and the genital area
(perineum) is 1%. This rule cannot be applied to a young child's body proportions,
so BSA is estimated using the palm of the patient's hand as a measure of 1% area.
The severity of the burn will determine not only the type of treatment, but also
where the burn patient should receive treatment. Minor burns may be treated at
home or in a doctor's office. These are defined as first- or second-degree burns
covering less than 15% of an adult's body or less than 10% of a child's body, or a
third-degree burn on less than 2% BSA. Moderate burns should be treated at a
hospital. These are defined as first- or second-degree burns covering 15%-25% of
an adult's body or 10%-20% of a child's body, or a third-degree burn on 2%-10%
BSA. Critical, or major, burns are the most serious and should be treated in a
specialized burn unit of a hospital. These are defined as first- or second-degree
burns covering more than 25% of an adult's body or more than 20% of a child's
body, or a third-degree burn on more than 10% BSA. In addition, burns involving
the hands, feet, face, eyes, ears, or genitals are considered critical. Other factors
influence the level of treatment needed, including associated injuries such as bone
fractures and smoke inhalation, presence of a chronic disease, or a history of being

549
abused. Also, children and the elderly are more vulnerable to complications from
burn injuries and require more intensive care.

Debridement — The surgical removal of dead tissue.

Dermis — The basal layer of skin; it contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves,
glands, and hair follicles.
Epidermis — The outer portion of skin, made up of four or five superficial layers.
Shock — An abnormal condition resulting from low blood volume due to
hemorrhage or dehydration. Signs of shock include rapid pulse and breathing, and
cool, moist, pale skin.

TASK 2; TYPES AND CAUSES OF BURNS

Causes and symptoms

Burns may be caused by even a brief encounter with heat greater than 120°F (49°C).
The source of this heat may be the sun (causing a sunburn), hot liquids, steam, fire,
electricity, friction (causing rug burns and rope burns), and chemicals (causing a
caustic burn upon contact).
Signs of a burn are localized redness, swelling, and pain. A severe burn will also
blister. The skin may also peel, appear white or charred, and feel numb. A burn may
trigger a headache and fever. Extensive burns may induce shock, the symptoms of
which are faintness, weakness, rapid pulse and breathing, pale and clammy skin,
and bluish lips and fingernails.

Diagnosis
A physician will diagnose a burn based upon visual examination, and will also ask
the patient or family members questions to determine the best treatment. He or she
may also check for smoke inhalation, carbon monoxide poisoning, cyanide
poisoning, other event-related trauma, or, if suspected, further evidence of child
abuse.

Treatment
Burn treatment consists of relieving pain, preventing infection, and maintaining
body fluids, electrolytes, and calorie intake while the body heals. Treatment of
chemical or electrical burns is slightly different from the treatment of thermal burns
but the objectives are the same.

Thermal burn treatment

The first act of thermal burn treatment is to stop the burning process. This may be
accomplished by letting cool water run over the burned area or by soaking it in cool
(not cold) water. Ice should never be applied to the burn. Cool (not cold) wet
compresses may provide some pain relief when applied to small areas of first- and
second-degree burns. Butter, shortening, or similar salve should never be applied to

550
the burn since it prevents heat from escaping and drives the burning process deeper
into the skin.
If the burn is minor, it may be cleaned gently with soap and water. Blisters should
not be broken. If the skin of the burned area is unbroken and it is not likely to be
further irritated by pressure or friction, the burn

There are three classifications of burns: first-degree, second-degree, and third-

degree burns.

should be left exposed to the air to promote healing. If the skin is broken or apt to
be disturbed, the burned area should be coated lightly with an antibacterial ointment
and covered with a sterile bandage. Aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol), or ibuprofen
(Advil) may be taken to ease pain and relieve inflammation. A doctor should be
consulted if these signs of infection appear: increased warmth, redness, pain, or
swelling; pus or similar drainage from the wound; swollen lymph nodes; or red
streaks spreading away from the burn.

Classification Of Burns
First-Degree The burned area is painful. The outer skin is
(Minor) reddened. Slight swelling is present.
Second-Degree The burned area is painful. The underskin is affected.
(Moderate) Blisters may form. The area may have a wet, shiny
appearance because of exposed tissue.
Third-Degree The burned area is insensitive due to the destruction
(Critical) of nerve endings. Skin is destroyed. Muscle tissues
and bone underneath may be damaged. The area
may be charred, white, or grayish in color.

In situations where a person has received moderate or critical burns, lifesaving

measures take precedence over burn treatment and emergency medical assistance
must be called. A person with serious burns may stop breathing, and artificial
respiration (also called mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or rescue breathing) should be
administered immediately. Also, a person with burns covering more than 12% BSA
is likely to go into shock; this condition may be prevented by laying the person flat
and elevating the feet about 12 in (30 cm). Burned arms and hands should also be
raised higher than the person's heart.
In rescues, a blanket may be used to smother any flames as the person is removed
from danger. The person whose clothing is on fire should "stop, drop, and roll" or
be assisted in lying flat on the ground and rolling to put out the fire. Afterwards,
only burnt clothing that comes off easily should be removed; any clothing
embedded in the burn should not be disturbed. Removing any smoldering apparel

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and covering the person with a light, cool, wet cloth, such as a sheet but not a
blanket or towel, will stop the burning process.
At the hospital, the staff will provide further medical treatment. A tube to aid
breathing may be inserted if the patient's airways or lungs have been damaged, as
can happen during an explosion or a fire in a enclosed space. Also, because burns
dramatically deplete the body of fluids, replacement fluids are administered
intravenously. The patient is also given antibiotics intravenously to prevent
infection, and he or she may also receive a tetanus shot, depending on his or her
immunization history. Once the burned area is cleaned and treated with antibiotic
cream or ointment, it is covered in sterile bandages, which are changed two to three
times a day. Surgical removal of dead tissue (debridement) also takes place. As the
burns heal, thick, taut scabs (eschar) form, which the doctor may have to cut to
improve blood flow to the more elastic healthy tissue beneath. The patient will also
undergo physical and occupational therapy to keep the burned areas from becoming
inflexible and to minimize scarring.
In cases where the skin has been so damaged that it cannot properly heal, a skin
graft is usually performed. A skin graft involves taking a piece of skin from an
unburned portion of the patient's body (autograft) and transplanting it to the burned
area. When doctors cannot immediately use the patient's own skin, a temporary
graft is performed using the skin of a human donor (allograft), either alive or dead,
or the skin of an animal (xenograft), usually that of a pig.
The burn victim also may be placed in a hyperbaric chamber, if one is available. In
a hyperbaric chamber (which can be a specialized room or enclosed space), the
patient is exposed to pure oxygen under high pressure, which can aid in healing.
However, for this therapy to be effective, the patient must be placed in a chamber
within 24 hours of being burned.

Chemical burn treatment

Burns from liquid chemicals must be rinsed with cool water for at least 15 minutes
to stop the burning process. Any burn to the eye must be similarly flushed with
water. In cases of burns from dry chemicals such as lime, the powder should be
completely brushed away before the area is washed. Any clothing which may have
absorbed the chemical should be removed. The burn should then be loosely covered
with a sterile gauze pad and the person taken to the hospital for further treatment. A
physician may be able to neutralize the offending chemical with another before
treating the burn like a thermal burn of similar severity.

Electrical burn treatment

Before electrical burns are treated at the site of the accident, the power source must
be disconnected if possible and the victim moved away from it to keep the person
giving aid from being electrocuted. Lifesaving measures again take priority over
burn treatment, so breathing must be checked and assisted if necessary. Electrical
burns should be loosely covered with sterile gauze pads and the person taken to the
hospital for further treatment.

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Alternative treatment
In addition to the excellent treatment of burns provided by traditional medicine,
some alternative approaches may be helpful as well. (Major burns should always be
treated by a medical practitioner.) The homeopathic remedies Cantharis and
Causticum can assist in burn healing. A number of botanical remedies, applied
topically, can also help burns heal. These include aloe (Aloe barbadensis), oil of St.-
John's-wort (Hypericum perforatum), calendula (Calendula officinalis), comfrey
(Symphytum officinale), and tea tree oil (Melaleuca spp.). Supplementing the diet
with vitamin C, vitamin E, and zinc also is beneficial for wound healing.

Prognosis
The prognosis is dependent upon the degree of the burn, the amount of body surface
covered, whether critical body parts were affected, any additional injuries or
complications like infection, and the promptness of medical treatment. Minor burns
may heal in five to 10 days with no scarring. Moderate burns may heal in 10-14
days and may leave scarring. Critical or major burns take more than 14 days to heal
and will leave significant scarring. Scar tissue may limit mobility and functionality,
but physical therapy may overcome these limitations. In some cases, additional
surgery may be advisable to remove scar tissue and restore appearance.

TASK 3; FEEDING METHODS AND PLANNING OF MODIFIED DIETS

The Burn Recovery Diet

In general, patients get a high-protein diet that also includes fat, plus vitamin and
mineral supplements.

Protein

Patients need a lot of protein while healing because the body will lose
protein through the burn wounds and muscles will break down trying
to produce extra energy for the healing process. The additional protein
helps rebuild lost muscle.
Carbohydrates

They also need more carbohydrates in their diet when recovering from
a burn. In fact, carbohydrates make up the bulk of their nutrition. The
body will turn the carbohydrates into glucose. Burn wounds use
glucose for energy. In fact, they can’t use any other source. By

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providing this energy for healing, carbohydrates allow the protein
eaten to rebuild muscle, rather than be used as fuel.
Fat

We also include fat in the diet to provide essential fatty acids and
extra calories. But normally no more than 30% of the calories will
come from fat. Too much fat can weaken the immune system.

Patients should follow the diet plan. It’s very important that they do everything they
can to get proper nutrition. An adequate diet can reduce the damaging loss of lean
body mass and stored energy and protein. An inadequate diet can slow the healing
process, cause too much weight loss, and suppress the immune system.

Protein
Protein is important for building body tissue and synthesizing enzymes. Enzymes
are specialized organic substances that act to regulate the speed of chemical
reactions in human metabolism. Twenty amino acids of the 100 or more occurring
in nature make up proteins. Animals and plants are quick and available sources of
what are termed "essential" amino acids; they are called essential because the body
cannot build them internally. Normal growth and health are dependent upon these
essential amino acids. Dietitians recommend that a healthy diet includes 10-20% of
daily calories from protein (poultry, fish, dairy, and vegetable sources).
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide most of the energy in the majority of human diets. Foods
rich in carbohydrates are usually the most abundant and cheapest. The
carbohydrates containing the most nutrients are the complex carbohydrates, such as
unrefined grains, tubers, vegetables, and fruits. Simple carbohydrates or sugars
should be eaten in moderation, since they are high in calories but low in nutrients.
Carbohydrates are needed in the form of glucose by the brain and central nervous
system (CNS). A minimum of 1.6 oz (50 g) of glucose is required daily for proper
functioning of the CNS. If the body is denied carbohydrates, it will use ketone
bodies for energy, but this is not a good energy source for the body, and may have
unfavorable health effects.
Fats
Fats supply energy and essential fatty acids and promote absorption of the fat-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The accumulation of body fat has become a
serious health concern; over 50% of Americans are considered overweight. Fats are
compact fuels efficiently stored in the body for later use when carbohydrates are in
short supply. Fats produce more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates,
approximately 9 Kcals/gram versus about 4 Kcals/gram for carbohydrate and
protein. Dietary fats are broken down into fatty acids that pass into the blood. These
fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, or

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trans-unsaturated). Saturated fats, derived mostly from animal sources, have been
found to raise the level of total cholesterol in the bloodstream, and certain
unsaturated fats tend to lower the level of total cholesterol in the blood stream. For
example, monounsaturated fats like oleic acid in olive oil reduce low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (bad cholesterol) and increase high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol (good cholesterol), thus reducing the risk of heart disease. Saturated and
trans-unsaturated fatty acids both raise serum cholesterol; in contrast, neither
monounsaturated nor polyunsaturated fats have this effect.
Inorganic mineral nutrients
Inorganic mineral nutrients are required to build tissues. They are also important for
muscle contractions, nerve reactions, and blood clotting. All of these mineral
nutrients must be supplied in the diet. Minerals are categorized as major elements or
trace elements. Major elements consist of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,
iodine, and potassium. Trace elements include copper, cobalt, manganese, fluorine,
and zinc.
Vitamins
Vitamins increase the breakdown and absorption of proteins, carbohydrates, and
fats. Certain vitamins help form blood cells, hormones, nervous system chemicals,
and genetic materials. Vitamins are classified into two groups: fat-soluble vitamins,
such as A, D, E, and K; and water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C and the B-
vitamin complex. Fat-soluble vitamins are usually found in foods that contain fat.
Because excess amounts are stored in the body's fat and in the liver and kidneys,
fat-soluble vitamins do not have to be consumed every day. The water-soluble
vitamins, C and B complex, cannot be stored and must be consumed daily to
replenish the body's supply.

TASK 4; DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

BURN THERAPY

the management of a patient burned by flames, hot liquids, explosives, chemicals,

or electric current. Partial-thickness burns may be first degree, involving only the
epidermis, or second degree, involving the epidermis and dermis, whereas full-
thickness or third-degree burns involve all skin layers. Second-degree burns
covering more than 30% of the body and third-degree burns on the face and
extremities, or more than 10% of the body surface, are critical. In the first 48 hours
of a severe burn, vascular fluid, sodium chloride, and protein rapidly pass into the
affected area, causing local edema, blister formation, hypovolemia,
hypoproteinemia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypotension, and oliguria. The
initial hypovolemic stage is followed by a shift of fluid in the opposite direction,

555
resulting in diuresis, increased blood volume, and decreased serum electrolyte level.
Potential complications in serious burns include circulatory collapse, renal damage,
gastric atony, paralytic ileus, infections, septic shock, pneumonia, and stress ulcer
(Curling's ulcer), characterized by hematemesis and peritonitis.

METHOD

The extent of the burn; its cause; its time of occurrence; and the patient's age,
weight, allergies, and any preexisting illness are recorded. If respiratory distress is
present, endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy may be performed. Specimens are
obtained for urinalysis; blood type; blood urea nitrogen level; hematocrit;
prothrombin time; electrolyte levels; blood gases; and cultures of nasal, throat,
wound, and stool organisms. Parenteral fluids and electrolytes, antibiotics, tetanus
prophylaxis, and pain medication are administered as ordered; large doses of
analgesics and sedatives are avoided when possible to prevent depression of
respiration and masking of symptoms. An indwelling urinary catheter is inserted,
and a nasogastric tube and catheter for monitoring central venous pressure may be
indicated.

Local treatment of the burn may use the closed method or the more frequently used
open method, in which the injured area is cleaned and exposed to air and the patient
is kept warm by a blanket or linen over a bed cradle or by a heater or lamp. In the
closed method, a germicidal or bacteriostatic cream, ointment, or solution is applied
to the burn, and the wound is covered with a dressing. A porcine heterograft may be
used to cover the wound temporarily. This technique prevents fluid loss and reduces
the risk of infection, but the graft dries in 1 or 2 days and may pull and cause pain.
Newly developed artificial skin holds great promise for treating severe burns.

During the acute stage of a burn, the patient's blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and
cerebrovascular pressure are checked every 30 to 60 minutes, and the rectal
temperature every 2 to 4 hours. Oral hygiene and assistance in turning, coughing,
and deep breathing are provided every 2 hours, and the patient's sensorium is
evaluated hourly. If oral fluids are ordered, juices and carbonated drinks are offered,
but plain water and ice chips are avoided. Fluid intake and output are measured
hourly; if a child excretes less than 1 mL/kg of urine or an adult less than 0.5
mL/kg, a diuretic or an increase in IV infusion of fluid may be necessary. Blood
transfusions, steroid therapy, and antipyretics may be ordered; aspirin is
contraindicated. Excessive chilling and exposure to upper respiratory and wound
infections are carefully prevented. Burned extremities are elevated, and contractures
are prevented by using firm supports to keep affected areas properly aligned. The
patient is weighed daily at the same time on the same scale, and, after the initial
acute period, an adequate intake of a high-calorie, high-protein diet is encouraged.
To stimulate appetite, the patient is offered frequent small meals of preferred foods
and beverages that are high in potassium. Vitamins may be required. Tranquilizers
may be given before wound care, but narcotics for pain usually are not needed after
the acute phase. The patient is encouraged to stand for a few minutes every hour or
every second hour and is generally able to walk in 7 to 10 days, but convalescence
may be prolonged. Burn patients often are frightened, withdrawn, and disoriented

556
initially, but after a few days they may become angry, depressed, or rebellious and
need emotional support to help them cooperate with their treatment and
rehabilitation. Extensive plastic surgery and repeated skin grafts may be required to
restore function and the physical appearance of burn patients.

Prevention
Burns are commonly received in residential fires. Properly placed and working
smoke detectors in combination with rapid evacuation plans will minimize a
person's exposure to smoke and flames in the event of a fire. Children must be
taught never to play with matches, lighters, fireworks, gasoline, and cleaning fluids.
Burns by scalding with hot water or other liquids may be prevented by setting the
water heater thermostat no higher than 120°F (49°C), checking the temperature of
bath water before getting into the tub, and turning pot handles on the stove out of
the reach of children. Care should be used when removing covers from pans of
steaming foods and when uncovering or opening foods heated in a microwave oven.
Thermal burns are often received from electrical appliances. Care should be
exercised around stoves, space heaters, irons, and curling irons.
Sunburns may be avoided by the liberal use of a sunscreen containing either an
opaque active ingredient such as zinc oxide or titanium dioxide or a nonopaque
active ingredient such as PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) or benzophenone. Hats,
loose clothing, and umbrellas also provide protection, especially between 10 A.M.
and 3 P.M. when the most damaging ultraviolet rays are present in direct sunlight.
Electrical burns may be prevented by covering unused electrical outlets with safety
plugs and keeping electrical cords away from infants and toddlers who might chew
on them. Persons should also seek shelter indoors during a thunderstorm to avoid
being struck by lightning.
Chemical burns may be prevented by wearing protective clothing, including gloves
and eyeshields. Chemical agents should always be used according to the
manufacturer's instructions and properly stored when not in use.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

Evaluation

1. define the following terms

a) Burns

b) Description
c) Debriefed
d) Shock

557
 2. state the types and causes of burns
3. identify the feeding methods and planning of modified diets
4. explain the dietary management and counseling

15.2.14 CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Theory

15.2.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. Identify the cardiovascular disorders
2. State the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
3. Discuss the dietary management and counseling of cardiovascular
disorders.

15.2.16 HIV AND IDS

Theory

15.2.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define given terms
1. state the causes and mode of HIV and Aids transmission
2. explain the signs and symptoms
3. discuss the dietary management and counseling

15.2.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
 formulate and plan the dietary management for HIV and Aids
 counsel patients

Content
T ASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS .

HIV AND AIDS

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease caused by
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It was first recognized in the United
States in 1981. AIDS is the advanced form of infection with the HIV virus, which
may not cause recognizable disease for a long period after the initial exposure
(latency). No vaccine is currently available to prevent HIV infection. At present, all
forms of AIDS therapy are focused on improving the quality and length of life for
AIDS patients by slowing or halting the replication of the virus and treating or

558
preventing infections and cancers that take advantage of a person's weakened
immune system.

HIV

HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and is a 'Retrovirus'

 Acquired — because it is a condition that has to be contracted. It cannot

be inherited or transmitted through the genes.
 Immune — because it affects the body’s immune system, the part of the
body that fights off diseases.
 Deficiency — because it makes the immune system stop working properly.

 Syndrome — because people with AIDS experience a number of

different symptoms and opportunistic diseases.


TASK 2: CAUSES AND TRANSMISSION

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a systemic viral infection that weakens the
body's ability to fight infection and can cause acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS, the last stage of HIV disease).

 HIV is spread by sexual contact with an infected person,

 By sharing needles and/or syringes (primarily for drug injection) with someone
who is infected
 Less commonly (and now very rarely in countries where blood is screened for
HIV antibodies), through transfusions of infected blood or blood clotting
factors.
Babies born to HIV-infected women may become infected before or during birth or
through breast-feeding after birth.

T ASK 3: SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

1. depression
2. Diarrhea
Diarrhea can be a life threatening problem if not treated correctly and
rapidly
3. Thrush
most common HIV opportunistic infection
4. Weight Loss

559
Weight loss is a common problem in HIV and AIDS. Weight loss is a serious
problem
5. Lipodystrophy
Fat redistribution syndrome
6. Lactic Acidosis
This emerging problem can make you sick, miserable, and can even be fatal.
7. Sinus Infections
Your head feels congested and full. The pressure behind your eyes makes it hard to
concentrate. The pounding in your head and face is relentless.
8. Fatigue
Fatigue is a common problem in HIV and Aids
9. Nausea / Vomiting
Nausea is not only aggravating and can make you feel sick, when associated with
vomiting it can be dangerous
10. Burning and Tingling of the Feet and Hands
That burning in your feet can be very painful.

Explaining Some of the frequently reported symptoms of HIV/AIDS infections are:

 constant or rapid unexplained weight loss of more than 10 pounds in two

months; lack of appetite
 unexplained long-lasting diarrhea or bloody stools
 constant fatigue that is not associated with physical activity or mental
depression
 persistent fevers, night sweats, dry cough, or difficulty breathing for more
than two weeks
 lightheadedness, dizziness, headaches, mental disorders
 a thick, whitish coating of yeast on the tongue or mouth that cannot be
scraped off (This is called "thrush.")
 severe or recurring vaginal yeast infections and chronic pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID)
 purplish growths or blotches on or under the skin, inside the mouth, or on
the nose, eyelids, or rectum
 swollen glands or enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin for
more than a month

TASK 4: DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

If you are HIV negative

The following preventative measures might seem personally restrictive, but they are
effective in the prevention of HIV infection:

560
8. Do not have sexual intercourse with people known or suspected to be
infected with AIDS; multiple partners; a person who has multiple
partners; or people who use intravenous (IV) drugs. Always know the
HIV status of any sexual partner. Do not engage in unprotected sex unless
you're absolutely certain your partner is not infected with HIV.
9. Do not use intravenous drugs. If you do use IV drugs, do not share
needles or syringes. ..
10. Avoid exposure to blood from injuries or nosebleeds where the HIV
status of the bleeding person is unknown. Using protective clothing,
masks and goggles may be appropriate when caring for people who are
injured.
11. The blood for transfusions should be well screened .
12. HIV positive women should be counseled, before becoming pregnant,
about the risk to unborn babies. Pregnant women with HIV should be
made aware of medical advances that may help prevent the fetus from
becoming infected. ..
13. Use condoms to prevent HIV transmission. .
14. Get tested immediately if you know or think that you have had
contact with someone who has HIV. Seek medical treatment if the result
is positive because early treatment may help.

If you are HIV positive

If you have been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, the following preventative measures
can help you protect others:

7. The only way to protect your sexual partner from HIV infection is to
avoid practices that expose them to infected body fluids. Always use a
new latex condom for any sexual activity.
8. If you are pregnant, seek medical treatment immediately. The HIV
infection can be passed on to your baby but if treatment is received during
pregnancy the risk to the baby can be reduced by as much as two-thirds.
Delivery of the baby by cesarean section cuts the risk even further.
9. Tell the people who need to know about your diagnosis. It is
important to tell any previous or current partners that you are HIV
positive. .
10. If you use intravenous drugs, never share your needles and syringes
with anyone else as they may contain traces of HIV infected blood.
11. Do not donate blood or organs.
12. Do not share personal items such as razor blades or toothbrushes.
These items may also contain traces of HIV-infected blood.

When infected with the HIV virus the body's defence system - the immune system -
works harder to fight infection. This increases energy and nutrient requirements.
Further infection and fever also increase the body's demand for food. Once people
are infected with HIV they have to eat more to meet these extra energy and nutrient
needs. Such needs will increase even further as the HIV/AIDS symptoms develop.

561
Food is essential for our bodies to:

 develop, replace and repair cells and tissues;

 produce energy to keep warm, move and work;
 carry out chemical processes such as the digestion of food;
 protect against, resist and fight infection and recover from sickness

Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

VITAMINS AND MINERAL INTAKE

Vitamins and minerals are essential to keep healthy. They protect against
opportunistic infection by ensuring that the lining of skin, lungs and gut remain
healthy and that the immune system functions properly. Of special importance are
vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, certain B-group vitamins and minerals such as
selenium, zinc and iron. A mixed diet as recommended in Chapter three should
provide enough of these vitamins and minerals. Some background information on
micronutrients, their nutritional role and food sources is provided in Annex 3.
Vitamin A is important to keep the lining of skin, lungs and gut healthy. Vitamin A
deficiency increases the severity of diseases such as diarrhoea while infection will
increase the loss of vitamin A from the body. Good vitamin A sources are dark
green, yellow, orange and red vegetables and fruit. These include spinach, pumpkin,
cassava leaves, green peppers, squash, carrots, amaranth, yellow peaches, apricots,
papaya and mangoes. Vitamin A is also contained in red palm oil, yellow maize,
orange and yellow sweet potatoes, egg yolks and liver.
Vitamin C helps to protect the body from infection and aids in recovery. It is found
particularly in citrus fruits such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons and mandarins.
Guavas, mangoes, tomatoes and potatoes are also good sources of vitamin C.
Vitamin E protects cells and aids resistance to infection. Foods containing vitamin E
are green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, peanuts and egg yolks.

562
Vitamin B-group. This group is necessary to keep the immune and nervous system
healthy. Vitamins, however, may be lost from the body through the use of certain
medicines for the treatment of tuberculosis. Good food sources include white beans,
potatoes, meat, fish, chicken, watermelon, maize, grains, nuts, avocados, broccoli
and green leafy vegetables.
Iron. Iron-deficiency anaemia is a widespread problem in many countries,
especially among women and children. Good iron sources are green leafy
vegetables, seeds, whole-grain products, dried fruit, sorghum, millet, beans, alfalfa,
red meat, chicken, liver, fish, seafood and eggs.
Selenium is an important mineral because it helps to activate the immune system.
Good sources include whole grains such as wholemeal bread, maize and millet and
dairy products such as milk, yoghurt and cheese. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs and other
protein-rich foods are also good sources, as are peanut butter, dried beans and nuts.
Zinc is also important for the immune system. Zinc deficiency reduces the appetite.
Sources include meat, fish, poultry, shellfish, whole-grain cereals, maize, beans,
peanuts and milk and dairy products.
.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons
Evaluation
1. state the causes and mode of HIV and Aids transmission
2. explain the signs and symptoms
3. discuss the dietary management and counseling

15.2.17 EMERGING TRENDS

563
 Theory

15.2.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a. identify the emerging trends
b. discuss challenges related to the emerging trends
c. explain ways of managing the challenges

15.2.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
identify challenges related to emerging trends in management of health
through diet
outline ways of managing the challenges

Content
15.2.17T 1 Identification of the emerging trends
15.2.17T 2 Challenges related to the emerging trend
15.2.17T 3 Managing challenges

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

Textbooks
Internet
Diet sheets
Food composition tables

564
-

565
566
16.2.0 HOSPITALITY ACCOUNTING

16.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with necessary knowledge and skills in
bookkeeping and accounting aspects for purposes of decision making in hospitality industry.

16.2.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the nature and purpose of bookkeeping and accounting
b) appreciate the basic bookkeeping and accounting principles
c) prepare and understand financial statements from various organisations
d) apply accounting knowledge and skills in decision making

567
16.2.01 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF BOOKKEEPING

Theory

16.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of bookkeeping
b) discuss accounting principles and concepts
c) explain the meaning of business transactions
d) identify the main users of financial information

16.2.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice accounting principles and concepts

Content
16.2.01T 1 Meaning and importance of bookkeeping
16.2.01T 2 Accounting principles and concepts
16.2.01T 3 Business transactions
16.2.01T 4 Users of financial information

Practice

16.2.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to practice accounting principles and
concepts

Content
16.2.01P 1 Accounting principles and concepts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.02 ACCOUNTING EQUATION AND THE BALANCE SHEET

Theory

16.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of assets, liabilities, capital and their classification
b) explain the accounting equation
c) explain the meaning and uses of balance sheet
d) describe the effects of financial transactions on the balance sheet

16.2.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) solve problems involving accounting equation
ii) prepare a balance sheet after effecting business transactions

568
 Content
16.2.02T 1 Assets, liabilities and capital
16.2.02T 2 Accounting equations
16.2.02T 3 Balance sheets
16.2.02T 4 Effects of financial transactions on the balance sheet

Practice

16.2.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) solve problems involving accounting equation
b) prepare a balance sheet after effecting business transactions

Content
16.2.02P 1 Solving accounting equation
16.2.02P 2 Preparing balance sheets

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.03 DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM AND LEDGER ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of double entry and rules of double entry system
b) explain the various types of ledger accounts
c) describe the recording of transactions in ledger accounts

16.2.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) open a ledger account
ii) record transactions in the ledger account

Content
16.2.03T 1 Double entry system
16.2.03T 2 Ledger accounts
16.2.03T 3 Recording transactions in ledger accounts

Practice

16.2.03P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) open a ledger account
b) record transactions in the ledger account

569
 Content
16.2.03P 1 Opening a ledger account
16.2.03P 2 Recording transactions in the ledger

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Ledger accounts books
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.04 BALANCING ACCOUNTS AND EXTRACTING A TRIAL BALANCE

Theory

16.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the procedure of balancing the accounts
b) explain the procedure of extracting a trial balance

16.2.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) balance the accounts
ii) extract a trial balance

Content
16.2.04T 1 Balancing the accounts
16.2.04T 2 Extraction of a trial balance

Practice
16.2.04P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) balance the accounts
b) extract a trial balance

Content
16.2.04P 1 Balancing the accounts
16.2.04P 2 Extracting a trial balance

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

570
 Suggested Evaluation Methods
- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.05 FINAL ACCOUNTS OF SOLE TRADERS

Theory

16.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of trading, profit and loss accounts
b) differentiate between gross profit and net profit
c) prepare a balance sheet
d) explain the relationship between trading account and profit and loss account
e) explain the relationship between trading, profit and loss account and the balance sheet

16.2.05C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare a trading account
ii) prepare a trading profit and loss account
iii) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.05T 1 Meaning of trading, profit and loss accounts
16.2.05T 2 Gross profits and net profit
16.2.05T 3 Balance sheets
16.2.05T 4 Relationship between trading account and profit and loss account
16.2.05T 5 Relationship between trading, profit and loss account and balance sheet

Practice

16.2.05P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a trading account
b) prepare a trading profit and loss account
c) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.05P 1 Preparation of a trading account
16.2.05P 2 Preparation of a profit and loss account
16.2.05T 3 Preparation of a balance sheet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks,
day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

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16.2.06 BANKING SYSTEM

Theory

16.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the modern banking system
b) explain services offered by banks
c) explain the types of accounts offered by banks

16.2.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) discuss the modern banking system
ii) analyse services offered by banks
iii) identify types of accounts offered by banks

Content
16.2.06T 1 Modern banking system
16.2.06T 2 Services offered by banks
16.2.06T 3 Types of accounts offered by banks

Practice

16.2.06P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss the modern banking system
b) analyse services offered by banks
c) identify types of accounts offered by banks

Content
16.2.06P 1 Modern banking system
16.2.06P 2 Services offered by banks
16.2.06P 3 Types of accounts offered by banks

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- ATM cards
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Field trips
- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.07 BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY

Theory

16.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of books of original entry

572
 b) explain the importance and uses of books of original entry

16.2.07 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare a two column and three column cashbook
ii) prepare a petty cash book
iii) prepare the various daybooks

Content
16.2.07T 1 Meaning of books of original entry
16.2.07T 2 Importance and uses of books
of original entry
- Cash book
- Petty cash book
- Day books

Practice

16.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a two column and three column cashbook
b) prepare a petty cash book
c) prepare the various daybooks

Content
16.2.07P 1 Preparation of a cashbook
- two column cashbook
- three column cashbook
16.2.07P 2 Preparing petty cashbooks
16.2.07P 3 Preparation of daybooks
- posting journal entries to the ledger

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Transparencies
- Projectors
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.7 Work plan Organization and

control
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
 Work plan: This is a schedule chart or graph that summarizes the different tasks and how they will
be carried out within a specific period of time.
 Organization: This is the act of arranging tasks in a systematic way for action.
 Work control: this is a fully integrated module system with multi-step work flow, work
authorization, work assignment and status tracking.

573
 Unit 2: Importance of planning and work organization
 It better defines the course of action to be undertaken
 Gives a rough estimate of time required to do the work
 Gives a good idea about the expenses that will be involved (budget)
 Gives a clear idea about what is to be done everyday, every week and every month
 Helps avoid duplication of labour
 Gives everyone a clear idea of their respective roles

Unit task 3: Steps in work organization

 Break the work into manageable tasks. The tasks can then be assigned to competent people and
the necessary resources availed
 Define the work in each work package as a series of interdependent activities or tasks. These can
be sequenced, scheduled and monitored
 Define the tasks at a level of detail
 Integrate the work into a total system
 Present the sequence of tasks in some format
 Verify that completion of all the tasks in each work package will produce its respective deliverable
and that the summation or integration of all the work activities will result in attaining the work’s
objectives.
 Develop and include contingency allowance – how they will be administered and by whom

16.2.8 Staff organization in different

types of laundries
Staffing involves recruitment, selection, training and staff welfare

Unit Task 1: Need for staff organisation

 Division of labour
 Specialization
 Time management
 Training

Training
 This starts with an induction period which includes:
- Things explained e.g. condition of service
- The need for personal hygiene, courtesy, security, safety and fire precautions
- Observations to be made and reported
- Places shown e.g linen rooms, offices, stores
- People met e.g. supervisors
 On-the-job training follows the induction period. This may be done in 2 ways:
- By working with other staff
- By use of ‘order of work’ cards or a training manual under the direct supervision of an
assistant housekeeper
 Off-the-job training or refresher training becomes necessary when;
- Standards are not being met
- There is an increase in costs
- There are changes in policy, customs equipment etc.

Reasons for training

 To enable staff to settle in more quickly and feel that they belong
 Show staff the importance of their job and what is expected of them
 Show staff their conditions of work are being considered
 Maintain standards for satisfaction of the users
 Prevent staff fatigue by use of incorrect methods
 Increase staff skills
 Prevent accidents
 Increase the sense of team work
 Improve supervision

574
Specialization
 Each worker becomes an expert in an isolated area of operation therefore increasing his efficiency
 Workers do not have to switch tasks during the day thus saves time and money. However,
performing repetitious tasks lead to an ignorant, dissatisfied work force.

Division of Labour
This implies assigning tasks to individual workers

Time management
This means managing time in order to achieve specific long and short term goals. Time management
helps prioritize tasks and math them with time and other resources

Task 2: Organization structures of different types of laundries

575
 Housekeeping department in a large hotel

Executive Head Housekeeper

Deputy Head Housekeeper

Linen keeper Florist Assistant

Floor Assistant Floor

Housekeeper Housekeeper Linen Room staff

Asst. Florist

Cleaner Room

Attendants

Cloakroom Cleaner staff Valet/

Attendant Attendant Porter

Organisation chart of a residential establishment

Domestic Bursar

Assistant Bursar
Assistant Bursar
(Catering)
(Housekeeping)

Head Gardener Linen keeper Porters Maintenance

Domestic

Staff Assistant

Gardeners

Organisation chart of a hospital

16.2.9 Operational Control in laundry

Unit Task 1: Operational control measures before the laundry process

 Items are sorted and packed into different containers
 Heavily soiled articles and intected linen are separated
 Articles are loaded into machines separately because each category to requires a different
water temperature and chemical formula

576
  Before loading the linen into the washers special care is taken to presoak and pre-treat heavily
stained items.

Unit Task 2: Operational control measure during the laundry process

 Loading washers and dryer should be maximum. Under-loading leads to increase in
operational cost overloading can lead to poor washing.
 Laundry operators should use cold water programs whenever possible to save the energy
needed to heat the water
 Chemical control is important linen washed with the wrong chemical or with incorrect amount
of chemicals will not produce results or will ruin he articles by deteriorating their fabric
composition
 Too much chemical can also cause damage linen as well as waste precious budget dollar
 Good quality water – hard water prevents detergents from releasing their sudsy action to
remove soil leaving a grayish shade in unclean order in finished linen.
 Bleaches help kill bacteria, whitens linen and removes stains but can destroy some fabrics
hence should be sued in moderation.
 Softeners are added are used to eliminate static clung smooth wrinkles and make ironing
easier
 Starches give a crisp look uniforms and linen
 Drying should be done with minimum moisture possible to reduce dry time spinning during
washing assists to remove moisture
 Dryers should be loaded to capacity to minimize energy cost.

Unit Task 3: Operational control measure after laundry

 Ironing or pressing is done to improve quality of finished work
 Items are counted and recorded before returning to the linen room
 Bagging of clean linen is done to protect from dust during transportation

16.2.9 Reception Function

Define terms

Reception
Section of front office dealing with check-ins and room status.

Receptionist
Person who works at the reception desk and deals with guest check-ins, rooms and may handle guests
complaints.

Duties and responsibilities of a Receptionist

 Receive guest and greet them on arrival
 Keep records of room status
 Communicate with other departments e.g distribute arrival and departure lists to other
departments
 Keep up to minute records
 Handle guest complaints
 Ensure guest and staff receive appropriate messages
 Log and record all wake up calls required
 Co-ordinate room changes with housekeeping staff as required
 Perform reception daily duties and tasks to the highest standard

Qualities of a Receptionist
 Courteous
 Tactful
 Diplomatic
 Problem solver
 Informative
 Good sales person
 Untiring worker

577
  Good personal appearance
 Good feet for standing on
 Good sense of humour

Importance of Reception
 It is the centre of the guest service activities
 It is where the guest is first met by a representative of the hotel
 It is the key department that coordinates and sets the pace for most guest services including
housekeeping, food and beverage, security, sales office and other minor departments providing
services to overnight guests

Location of Reception
The reception is located at the front-of the-house. It is located at the entrance so that the guest has the
first contact with the receptionist. In large hotels the guest will be met by the porter and doorman
before the receptionist. In small hotels the guest will have the first contact with the receptionist.

Human and public Relations

Role of Public Relations department

 The public relations department’s main role is to ensure that the general public receive a clear,
attractive impression of the image and service of a hotel.
 The public relations department must ensure that eh guest relations officers and front office staff are
fully briefed on up-to-date press releases
 The public relations staff will create an image of the hotel through the use of media e.g. radio, TV,
internet or newspaper. This keeps to keep the name of hotel in mind of the public.

Role of human relations

Reservations and Registrations

Reservation
It is the booking or reserving of accommodation by a guest and involves a particular type of guest-
room being reserved for a particular person or persons for a certain period of time.

Importance of Reservation
Reservation is important in a hotel because it:
 Gives the first impression of hotel to guests
 Sells the main product of a hotel i.e. accommodation
 Generates customers for other departments
 Provides important management information to other departments

Sources of reservation
 Walk ins
 Agencies e,g airlines, tour operators
 Reservation network systems
 Telephone
 Fax
 Crucial

Types of reservations
Reservations are of two main types:
 Guaranteed – means that the guest will guarantee to pay for room whether they arrive or not.
In return the hotel promises to hold the room until the check-out time of the day following the
date of arrival.
- Pre-payment – guest pay full payment for the room in advance
- Credit card – credit card number of guest is recorded and of guest fails to turn up, the hotel
will bill the card holder in the normal way.
- Advance deposit – the guest sends a specified amount of money in advance to cover one
night’s accommodation

578
 - Contractual deposit – normally involves a corporation where a company has agreed with
hotel to pay for an agreed number of rooms regardless of whether or not they are used.
 Non-guaranteed reservation
It is a reservation in which the guest has simply agreed and confirmed that they will arrive with
this type of reservation room until a stated cancellation time usually 6.00 p.m on the day of
arrival. If the guest does not arrive by cancellation time, room is then released.

Reservation Activities
They involve the following:
 Receiving reservation inquiries
This is the first step in reservation. The reservoir agent will obtain the following information
from a guest
- Guest’s names
- Proposed
- Type of room(s)
- Number of persons

Summarized reservation activities

Receive inquiries

Determine room availability

Accept or deny request

Documentation of reservation details

Confirm reservation

Maintain reservation records

Compile reservation reports

 Determine room availability

-After receiving the reservation requests, the next step is to determine if the type of
accommodation requested is available and the dates requested.
- It is important that a close check is kept to avoid overbooking
- Overbooking may be done intentionally in order to ensure 100% occupancy is achieved
- Whether hotels intentionally or not an effective system has to be used to check room
availability. This can be accomplished by:
o Forecast boards
o Reservation charts
o Computerized systems
 Accept or deny requests for reservations
- The reservation check will check room availability then either accept or deny booking.
- If room is available, then details of the guests will be taken and recorded on a reservation
form or computed terminal
- Bookings can be denied if
o hotel does not have requested accommodation or the available dates

579
 o hotel is fully booked
o guest is black listed
 Documenting reservation details
- If the request of reservation is accepted, the clerk will complete a reservation from,
recording all necessary details of the guest.
- The reservation form is the only document which contains al the relevant information
about the guest and accommodation request.
- If a computer is used, the details are typed directly on the system

 Maintain reservation details

- Maintenance of reservation records consist of two types of activity:
o Filing original booking
o Modification of booking
 Filing original booking
- In a manual reservation system, the reservation forms or cards and relevant
correspondence are usually filed in a chronological order i.e according to date of arrival,
then alphabetical according to guest’s surnames
- Letters, memos, reservations check and attached to original reservation form and
correspondence.
 Modifying bookings
- Changes or cancellations should be made as soon as they are requested. A cancellation or
amendment form is completed by reservation clerk and attached to original reservation
form and correspondence
 Compiling reservation reports
- Reservations report help a hotel to maximize its room sales by accurate control of room
availability and the forecast of potential room sales.
- Management reports will be generated depending on the needs of the hotel and capability
of reservation system.
- Other reports are arrival and departure lists room availability reports, group status report,
turn away reports (report on number of reservations denied), revenue forecast report,
special arrivals list etc.
 Registration
The purpose of registration is to record a guests arrival and confirm their personal details as
well as satisfy legal requirements

 Registration form
Details on a registration from include:
- Arrival date
- Departure date
- Arrival date
- Number of rooms
- Room type
- Daily rate
- Number of guests
- Advance deposits
- Room number
- Package plan
- Name
- Address
- Passport number, date and place of issue
- Nationality
- Company name
- Payment methods
- Departing to
- Guest’s signature
- Receptionists signature
 The check-in process

580
 - The check in process can be summarized as:
- Guest arrival
- Check reservation details
- Check if the guest has reservation
- If yes, complete registration, if no check room availability ; deny or accept reservation
- Assign room and room rate
- Check method of payment
- Issue room key
- Escort guest to room
 Developing check in skills
- One can develop check in skills by:
o Developing appropriate vocabulary and phrases
o Adopting an appropriate manner and style of speech
o Understanding the operational procedures involve din checking in guests
 Documentation, reservation and registration
A number of documents are used in reservations. They are:
- Conventional charts – they display the availability of each room in a hotel by room
number. Reservations are marked in pencil to allow any necessary alterations and
cancellations
- Density charts – they show and record the total number of reservations held for each type
of room on a specific date. Density charts are suitable for large hotels with:
o A large number of rooms with similar décor, location and price
o The guest will usually stay for a short period
o There is need for quicker handling of large number of bookings.
 Computerized reservation systems
- Computerized reservation system controls not only room availability but the whole process
of reservations. The advantage of computerized is that it is capable of generating
reservation reports in a short period of time.
 Reservation forms
 Confirmation reservations
 Amendment or cancellation forms

16.2.08 BAD DEBTS AND PROVISION FOR DOUBTFUL DEBTS

Theory

16.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of bad and doubtful debts
b) determine bad and doubtful debts
c) explain how to record bad and doubtful debts in ledger accounts

16.2.08 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) open a bad debts accounts
ii) prepare a provision for doubtful debts account

Content
16.2.08T 1 Meaning of bad and doubtful debts
16.2.08T 2 Determining bad and doubtful debts
16.2.08T 3 Recording bad and doubtful debts

Practice

16.2.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) open a bad debts accounts
b) prepare a provision for doubtful debts account

581
 Content
16.2.08P 1 Opening a bad debt account
16.2.08P 2 Preparing provision for doubtful debts making accounting entries

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Projectors
- Transparencies
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.09 DEPRECIATION OF FIXED ASSETS

Theory

16.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of depreciation
b) identify the reasons of depreciation
c) explain the various methods of calculating depreciation
d) incorporate depreciation calculations into the accounting records

16.2.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) calculate depreciation using different methods
ii) record depreciation in the book of accounts

Content
16.2.09T 1 Meaning of depreciation
16.2.09T 2 Reasons of depreciation
16.2.09T 3 Methods of calculating depreciation
16.2.09T 4 Recording depreciation

Practice

16.2.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) calculate depreciation using different methods
b) record depreciation in the book of accounts

Content
16.2.09P 1 Calculation of depreciation
16.2.09P 2 Recording depreciation in:
- depreciation account
- provision of depreciation account

582
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.10 YEAR END ADJUSTMENT

Theory

16.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of year end adjustment
b) explain adjustments on expense and revenue accounts and repayments
c) discuss records of year end adjustments

16.2.10 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) determine the year end adjustment
ii) adjust expense and revenue accounts for accruals and prepayments

Content
16.2.10T 1 Definition of terms
16.2.10T 2 Expense on revenue of accounts and repayments
16.2.10T 3 Records of year-end adjustments

Practice

16.2.10P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) determine the year end adjustment
b) adjust expense and revenue accounts for accruals and prepayments

Content
16.2.10P 1 Determining the year end adjustment
16.2.10P 2 Adjusting year end adjustment
- expense accounts
- revenue accounts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Bank statements

583
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.11 BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT

Theory

16.2.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of bank reconciliation statement
b) explain the causes of differences in bank statement and cash book
c) explain the procedure of preparing a reconciliation statement

16.2.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) adjust the cash book balance
ii) prepare a bank reconciliation statement

Content
16.2.11T 1 Bank reconciliation
16.2.11T 2 Causes of differences between bank statement and cashbook
16.2.11T 3 Procedure of preparation of bank reconciliation

Practice

16.2.11P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) adjust the cash book balance
b) prepare a bank reconciliation statement

Content
16.2.11P 1 Adjusting the cashbook
16.2.11P 2 Preparing a bank reconciliation statement

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Projectors
- Transparencies
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Demonstration exercises
- Group discussions

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

584
16.2.12 CONTROL ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of control accounts
b) explain the procedure of preparing sales control accounts
c) explain the procedure of preparing purchases control account

16.2.13 C Competence
i) The trainee should have the ability to:
ii) draw up sales ledger control accounts
iii) draw up purchases ledger control accounts

Content
16.2.12T 1 Meaning of control accounts
16.2.12T 2 Preparation procedure of sales control accounts
16.2.12T 3 Preparation procedure of purchases control account

Practice

16.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw up sales ledger control accounts
b) draw up purchases ledger control accounts

Content
16.2.12P 1 Preparing sales ledger control accounts
16.2.12P 2 Preparing purchases ledger control accounts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers
- Projectors
- Transparencies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.13 CORRECTION OF ERRORS

Theory

16.2.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the errors not affecting the trial balance
b) describe the errors affecting the trial balance
c) explain how to correct errors affecting the trial balance
d) explain the importance of suspense account

585
16.2.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify errors not affecting the trial balance
ii) identify errors affecting the trial balance
iii) correct the various errors in ledger accounts
iv) prepare a suspense account

Content
16.2.13T 1 Errors not affecting the trial balance
16.2.13T 2 Errors affecting the trial balance
16.2.13T 3 Correction of errors
16.2.13T 4 Importance suspense account

Practice

16.2.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify errors not affecting the trial balance
b) identify errors affecting the trial balance
c) correct the various errors in ledger accounts
d) prepare a suspense account

Content
16.2.13P 1 Identification of errors not affecting the trial balance
16.2.13P 2 Identification of errors affecting the trial balance
16.2.13P 3 Correcting errors in the ledger accounts
16.2.13P 4 Preparing a suspense account

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.14 ACCOUNTS FOR NON-PROFIT MAKING ORGANIZATION -

Theory

16.2.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature of a non-profit making organisation
b) describe the preparation of receipt and payments account
c) describe the preparation of income and expenditure accounts
d) explain the meaning of accumulated fund
e) describe the trading accounts for special activities
f) explain preparation of a balance sheet
g) describe the preparation of a subscriptions accounts

586
16.2.14 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare a subscription account and a trading account
ii) draw a statement of affairs account
iii) prepare an income and expenditure account
iv) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.14T 1 Nature of non-profit making organisation
16.2.14T 2 Receipts and payment of accounts
16.2.14T 3 Income and expenditure accounts
16.2.14T 4 Accumulated fund
16.2.14T 5 Trading accounts for special activities
16.2.14T 6 Preparation of balance sheet
16.2.14T 7 Preparation of subscription accounts

Practice

16.2.14P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a subscription account and a trading account
b) draw a statement of affairs account
c) prepare an income and expenditure account
d) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.14P1 Subscription account and trading account
16.2.14P2 Preparation of statement of affairs account
16.2.14P3 Preparing of income and expenditure
16.2.14P4 Preparing a balance sheet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Internet
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.15 PARTNERSHIP ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of partnership
b) explain types of partners
c) describe the main features of a partnership agreement

587
 d) explain admission procedures of new partner

16.2.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to prepare partnership deeds
Content
16.2.15T1 Meaning of partnership
16.2.15T2 Types of partners
16.2.15T3 Features of a partnership agreement
16.2.15T4 Admission procedures of new partner

Practice

16.2.15P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to prepare partnership deeds

Content
16.2.15P1 Preparing prepare partnership deeds

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

16.2.16 COMPANY ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature and type of companies accounts
b) explain the procedure for preparation of final accounts for companies

16.2.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare final accounts of a hotel company
ii) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.16T1 Nature and type of companies accounts
16.2.16T2 Preparation of final accounts for companies

Practice

16.2.16P Specific Objectives

588
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare final accounts of a hotel company
b) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.16P1 Preparing final accounts
16.2.16P2 Preparing balance sheet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Internet
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

16.2.17 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

16.2.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in accounting
b) explain the challenges of emerging trends
c) explain how to cope with emerging trends

16.2.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the emerging trends in accounting
ii) manage challenges of emerging trends

Content
16.2.17T1 Emerging trends in accounting
16.2.17T1 Managing challenges or emerging trends in accounting

Practice
16.2.17P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in accounting
b) manage challenges of emerging trends

Content
16.2.17P1 Identify the emerging trends in accounting

589
16.2.17P2 Manage challenges of emerging trends

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Reports
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Guest speakers
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

590
591
592
17.2.0 LAW RELATED TO HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

17.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to give the trainee an overview of the law as it relates to hospitality
industry

17.2.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the general set up of Kenya’s legal system
b) understand the legal implications in relation to catering and accommodation business issues
c) identify the correct defenses for various offences
d) understand the statutes that apply to catering and accommodation business
e) understand the legal requirements when operating a catering and accommodation establishment

593
594
595
17.2.01 SOURCES OF
KENYAN LAW

Theory

17.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define law
b) describe the constitution of Kenya
c) explain legislation and its function
d) describe the common law
e) describe African common law
f) describe Islamic Law

17.2.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) draw a flow chart to show the sources of Kenyan Law
ii) research and report on sources of Kenyan Law

Content
17.2.01T 1 Definition of law
17.2.01T 2 Constitution of Kenya
17.2.01T 3 Legislation and its functions
17.2.01T 4 Common law
17.2.01T 5 The African Common Law
17.2.01T 6 The Islamic Law

Practice

17.2.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw a flow chart to show the sources of Kenyan Law
b) research and report on sources of Kenyan Law

Content
17.2.01P 1 Flow chart of sources of Kenya law
17.2.01P 2 Research and report

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Group discussions
- Case studies
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.02 ORGANIZATION OF JUDICIARY

Theory

596
17.2.02T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define judiciary and its organisation
b) describe the district magistrate courts
c) describe the resident magistrate court
d) describe the Kadhi’s court
e) describe the high court
f) describe the court of appeal

17.2.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) sketch the structure of the judiciary
ii) compile a field visit report on various courts

17.2.02T 1 The judiciary its organisation

17.2.02T 2 The district magistrate courts
- first class
- second class
- third class
17.2.02T 3 Resident magistrate court
- chief magistrate
- principal magistrate
- senior resident magistrate
- resident magistrate
- judicial service commission
17.2.02T 4 Khadhi’s courts
- Chief kadhi
- Kadhi
17.2.02T 5 High court
- Chief justice
- Puisne judges
- Commissioners of assize
17.2.02T 6 The court of appeal of Kenya
- Chief justice
- Judges of appeal

Practice

17.2.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) sketch the structure of the judiciary
b) compile a field visit report on various courts

Content
17.2.02P 1 Sketching the structure of judiciary
17.2.02P 2 Field reports

17.2.03 THE LAW OF TORT

Theory

17.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the general defenses
c) discuss the capacity in tort
d) describe specific torts

597
 Content
17.2.03T 1 Definitions of terms
17.2.03T 2 General defenses
- self defense
- volenti non fit injuria
- inevitable accident
- act of god
- statutory authority
- necessity
- mistake
17.2.03T 3 Capacity in tort
- the Government
- infants or minors
- husband and wife
- aliens and non citizens
- heads of state and diplomats
- judges and magistrates
- trade unions
- corporations
17.2.03T 4 Specific torts
- trespass to the person – defamation
- false imprisonment
- malicious prosecution
- trespass to goods

17.2.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to research and discuss the law of tort.

Practice

17.2.03P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to research and discuss the law of
tort.

Content
17.2.03P 1 Field study and report writing

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Interactive software
- Resource persons
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

598
17.2.04 THE LAW OF CONTRACT
Theory

17.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain types of contracts
c) explain the essentials of a valid contract
d) explain the capacity in contract
e) explain contract reality

17.2.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to research and report on the various types of contracts in catering
and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.04T 1 Definitions of terms
17.2.04T 2 Types of contract
17.2.04T 3 Essentials of a valid contract
17.2.04T 4 Contract capacity
- infants or minors
- persons of unsound mind and drunkard
- married women
- aliens or non citizens
- corporations
- co-operative societies
- trade unions
17.2.04T 5 Contract realities

Practice

17.2.04P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to research and report on the various
types of contracts in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.04P 1 Field study and report writing

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Rsource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.05 CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT

599
 Theory

17.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module
unit, the trainee should be able
to:
a) define terms
b) discuss the duties of employer
c) discuss the duties of employee
d) discuss terms imposed by statute
e) explain types of dismissal
f) reasons for dismissal

17.2.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice drawing an employment contract between an employer
and an employee.

Content
17.2.05T 1 Definition of terms
17.2.05T 2 Duties of employer
17.2.05T 3 Duties of employee
17.2.05T 4 Statutory duties of employer
17.2.05T 5 Types of dismissal
17.2.05T 6 Reasons for fair dismissal

Practice
17.2.05P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to practice drawing an employment
contract between an employer and an employee.

Content
17.2.05P 1 Drawing an employment contract

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Group Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.06 BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

Theory

17.2.06T Specific Objectives

600
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain types of business
b) describe methods of acquiring business premises

17.2.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to carry out a field study of types of business ownership in
catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.06T 1 Types of business
17.2.06T 2 Methods of acquiring business
premises

Practice

22.1.6P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to carry out a field study of types of
business ownership in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.06P 1 Report on types of business in
catering and accommodation
industry

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.07 SALE OF FOOD BEVERAGE AND ACCOMMODATION SERVICES

Theory

17.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the requirements of Food and Drugs Act
b) describe food hygiene regulations
c) explain the requirements of the Trade Descriptions Act

17.2.07 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out field study and report on hygiene regulations practices in catering and
accommodation industry

601
 ii) Make reports on trade descriptions of food and beverage services in catering and
accommodation premises

Content
17.2.07T 1 Food and Drug Act
17.2.07T 2 Food hygiene regulations
17.2.07T 3 Trade Descriptions Act

Practice

17.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out field study and report on hygiene regulations practices in catering and
accommodation industry
b) Make reports on trade descriptions of food, beverage and accommodation services in catering
and accommodation premises

Content
17.2.07P 1 Food, beverage and
accommodation hygiene
regulations
17.2.07P 2 Trade descriptions of food,
beverage and accommodation
services

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Field trips
- Reports
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.08 PUBLIC HEALTH ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY LEGISLATION

Theory

17.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the provision of the dangerous Drugs Act
b) explain the provision of foods drugs and chemical substances Act
c) explain provisions of the Public Health Act
d) explain the provision of the use of poisonous substances Act
e) discuss environment conservation Act

602
 f) discuss disposal Act

20.2.08 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out field study and report on acts that apply in catering and accommodation industry
ii) Make reports on offences and punishment as spelt out in acts related to services in catering and
accommodation premises

Content
17.2.08T 1 Dangerous Drugs Acts
offenses and punishment
17.2.08T 2 The Food Drug and chemical
substances Act offenses and
punishment
17.2.08T 3 The Public Health Act
sanitation and housing
protection of food stuffs,
public water supplies, meat,
milk and other articles of food
offense and punishment
17.2.08T 4 The use of poisonous
substances Act regulation for
protection of persons against
risks of poisoning offense and
punishment defenses
17.2.08T 5 Environment and conservation
Act offences and punishment
17.2.08T 6 Disposal Act offences and
punishment

Practice

17.2.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out field study and report on acts that apply in catering and accommodation industry
b) Make reports on offences and punishment as spelt out in acts related to services in catering and
accommodation premises

Content
17.2.08P 1 Field study and report on acts
that apply in catering and
accommodation industry
17.2.08P 2 Report on offences and
punishment as spelt out in acts
related to services in catering
and accommodation premises

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Field trips
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play

603
 - Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.09 LAW OF INSURANCE

Theory

17.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define a contract of insurance
b) outline cases of the basic principles of insurance
c) explain the classes of insurance
d) describe claims procedure

17.2.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the classes of insurance that apply to catering and accommodation business
ii) Carry out field study and report on the claims procedure for catering and accommodation
business

Content
17.2.09T 1 Definition of terms
22.1.09T 2 Principles of insurance
17.2.09T 3 Classes of insurance
17.2.09T 4 Claims procedure

Practice

17.2.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the classes of insurance that apply to catering and accommodation business
b) carry out field study and report on the claims procedure for catering and accommodation
business

Content
17.2.09P 1 Classes of insurance that apply
to catering and
accommodation business
17.2.09P 2 Carry out field study and
report on the claims procedure
for catering and
accommodation business

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Internet
- Textbooks
- Field trips
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Resource persons

604
 - Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.10 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW

Theory

17.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and scope of intellectual property Law
b) describe the procedure used in the registration of trade and service marks
c) explain the functions of trade and service marks
d) discuss infringement of trade and service marks
e) analyse the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
f) discuss the current trends in the intellectual property Law

17.2.10 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out a field study on the functions of trade and service marks
ii) Make reports on the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
iii) Carry out a study on the current trends in the intellectual property Law

Content
17.2.10T 1 Meaning and scope of
intellectual property Law
17.2.10T 2 Registration of trade and
service marks
- essential requirements
- procedure and duration
- conditions and disclaimers
- un-registable marks
17.2.10T 3 Functions of trade and service
marks
17.2.10T 4 Infringement of trade and
service marks
- acts constituting infringement
17.2.10T 5 Remedies for infringement
17.2.10T 6 Current trends
- World trade organisation
- The trade related aspects of intellectual property rights agreement
- Well known marks

Practice

17.2.10P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out a field study on the functions of trade and service marks
b) Make reports on the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
c) Carry out a study on the current trends in the intellectual property Law

605
 Content
17.2.10P 1 Field study on the functions of
trade and service marks
17.2.10P 2 Report on the remedies for
infringement of trade and
service marks
17.2.10P 3 Carry out a study on the
current trends in the
intellectual property Law

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Internet
- Reports
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Resource persons
- Field visits

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.11 ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES AND LICENSING LAW

Theory

17.2.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss the structure and operations of local government authorities
b) outline the provision of the trade licensing act
c) explain procedures of applying for a license
d) discuss the conduct of licensed premises

17.2.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
a) understand the structure and operations of local government authorities
b) apply for a license for a catering and accommodation premise
c) discuss in the conduct of licensed catering and accommodation premise

Content
17.2.11T1 Structure and operations of
local government authorities
local government Act
17.2.11T2 The trade licensing Act
licensing of business
enforcement
17.2.11T3 License application
17.2.11T4 Conduct of licensed premises

606
 Practice

17.2.11P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out field study on the structure and operations of local government authorities
b) make a report on procedures of applying for a license for catering and accommodation premise
c) discuss in groups the conduct of licensed catering and accommodation premise

Content
17.2.11P 1 Field study on the structure
and operations of local
government authorities

17.2.11P 2 Report on procedures of

applying for a license for
catering and accommodation
premise
17.2.11P 3 Group discussion on the
conduct of licensed catering
and accommodation premise

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.12 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

17.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends of laws related to catering and accommodation industry
b) explain the challenges of emerging trends
c) discuss how to cope with the challenges

17.2.12 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out a field study on emerging trends of laws related to catering and accommodation
industry
ii) Manage challenges of laws related to catering and accommodation industry

607
 Content
17.2.12T 1 Identification of emerging
trends
17.2.12T 2 Challenges
17.2.12T 3 Coping with challenges

Practice

17.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out a field study on emerging trends of laws related to catering and accommodation
industry
b) discuss in groups on how to manage challenges of laws related to catering and accommodation
industry

Content
17.2.12P 1 Field study on emerging trends
of laws related to catering and
accommodation industry
17.2.12P 2 Group discussion on how to
manage challenges of laws
related to catering and
accommodation industry

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

608
609
610
MODULE III

Introduction

The Module III course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform the
duties of a manager in a catering and accommodation establishment.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production or service of food and
beverage products. A trainee is required to take the remaining elective Module

General Objectives
At the end of this Module , the trainee should be able to:
a) Manage catering and accommodation operations in a catering and accommodation establishment.
b) Supervise and guide production or service of food and beverage products.
c) Appreciate the need for having knowledge of human relations, sales and marketing skills.
d) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research work to improve service delivery in
his/her work

Entry Requirements

Trainees entering this Module should have any of the following minimum requirements

1. Passed Module II of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation Management

OR

2. Not referred in not more than 2 units of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation

OR

3. Equivalent qualification

611
Module Units and Time Allocation

Codes Module unit Time

(Hours)
19.3.0 Accommodation operations management II 150
20.3.0 Principles and practices of management 100
21.3.0 Sales and marketing 80
22.3.0 Human relations 80
23.3.0 Research project 90

Elective Modules For Module II and III

Food and Beverage Production Management 200
Food and Beverage Service Management 200
TOTAL 990
Industrial Attachment 330
Total 990

612
18.2.0 BUSINESS PLAN

613
MODULE III

Introduction

The module III course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform the
duties of a manager in a catering and accommodation establishment.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production or service of food and
beverage products.

General Objectives
By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
e) Manage catering and accommodation operations in a catering and accommodation establishment.
f) Supervise and guide production or service of food and beverage products.
g) Appreciate the need for having knowledge of human relations, sales and marketing skills.
h) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research work to improve service delivery in
his/her work

Entry Requirements
Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements

4. Passed Module II of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation

OR
5. Not referred in not more than 2 units of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation
OR
6. Equivalent qualification

614
Module Units and Time Allocation

Codes Module unit Time

(Hours)
19.3.0 Accommodation operations management 150
20.3.0 Principles and practices of management 100
21.3.0 Sales and marketing 80
22.3.0 Human relations 80
23.3.0 Research project 90
TOTAL 990
Industrial Attachment 330
Total 990

615
19.3.0 ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT II

19.3.1 Introduction
This course unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge skills and attitude to enable him/her
work efficiently in catering and accommodation establishment.

19.3.2 General Objectives

At the end of this course unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) plan and supervise accommodation functions
b) control accommodation operation staff effectively
c) recruit, select, induct and train accommodation staff
d) supervise cleaning and laundry procedures
e) make requisition for purchase of accommodation equipment and materials.

616
617
618
19.3.0 Course Unit Summary and Time Allocation

Code Sub-module unit Content T P Total

Hours
19.3.01 Introduction to  Classification of 6 14 20
Accommodation accommodation
Management establishments
 Functions of the
establishments
 Duties and responsibilities of
the accommodation manager
19.3.02 Work Study  Definition 10 20 30
 Importance of work study
 Stages of work study
 Motion economy
 Work measurement
 Time study
 Ergonomics
 Evaluation
19.3.03 Special Functions  Type of function 6 18 24
 Theme interpretation
19.3.04 Internal Environment  Definition of terms 6 16 22
 Ventilation
 Lighting
 Noise
 Conditioning
19.3.05 Linen and Laundry  Definition 6 16 22
Systems  The linen control system
 Laundry options
 The dry-cleaning system
19.3.06 Contract Services  Definition of terms 10 20 30
 Types of contract services
 Advantages and disadvantages
 Factors considered when
engaging a contract service
 Contract specification
 Pricing a contract
 Checking system
19.3.07 Emerging Issues  Emerging issues and trends 1 1 2
and Trends  Challenges of emerging issues
and trends
 Coping mechanisms

Total 45 105 150

619
19.3.01 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT

Theory

19.3.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify types of accommodation establishments
b) discuss functions of accommodation establishments
c) explain the duties and responsibilities of the accommodation manager

19.3.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare job cards
ii) make a work schedules
iii) prepare a duty roster
iv) supervise duties efficiently

Content
19.3.01T 1 Accommodation establishments

CLASSSIFICATION OF LODGING ESTABLISHMENT

Establishment can be classified into commercial and welfare sectors
Commercial sector
These include hotels of various kinds, motels, town and country clubs, boarding houses and holiday camps. The
hotels and motels may be classified as follows:

1. First class luxury hotels with private bathrooms, suites and lounges, where the décor is luxurious and
provision is made for particular personal services to the guests. These are expensive and employ many
staff.
2. Bed and breakfast- are inns which are usually small, privately owned establishment located in
suburban and rural locations
3. Time- Share condominiums-are apartments, villas, or bungalows usually built near popular vacations
sports
4. Cruise Ships- can be described as floating luxury hotels/ resorts that provide most of the same services
and amenities as property located on land.
5. Casinos- are generally first class hotels that provide elaborate facilities for gambling, ranging from slot
machines to sophiscated roulette tables.

-Are highly profitable establishment which offer luxurious lodging and lavish entertainment
at low cost attracting potential customers.

6. Motels and Motor hotels- are specialized establishments catering for motorist, situated on main trunk
roads. They usually have parking facilities close by accommodation
7. Expensive clubs- found in town or country, providing facilities for recreation and relaxation with some
sleeping accommodation and are very much run on the line of a first class hotel
8. Holiday Camps- generally consists of chalet-type accommodation and the amount of service varies. In
some places cooking facilities are provided for guests.
9. Boarding Houses- are small hotels, generally with simple furnishing and providing little services.

WELFARE SECTORS
These are establishment satisfying a social need at reasonable standard of cleanliness and comfort is
expected at the lowest possible cost with a tremendous difference in staffing and services offered
throughout the wide range of establishment in this group. Examples include hospitals, retirement
homes, universities and colleges
Hotels- for young people and university halls of residence are medium to long stay establishment.

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  Staffs are kept at a minimum and students are expected to make their own beds, keep their rooms tidy.
 Rooms may be cleaned weekly or by students and apart from public areas, there may be little or no
cleaning at weekends
 Some hotels are self- catering so cooking facilities may also be provided.

HOSPITALS
In hospitals, the staff residences may be likened to hostels or university halls of residence.
_The residences’ rooms normally receive a weekly clean and sometimes residents clean their own
rooms with equipment provided by the hospitals.
Hospitals also contain administrative arrears, laboratories, training schools, laundries kitchen and
patients areas .Some of these are prestige or high risk areas e.g. operating theatres and renal, transplant
and premature baby units, burnt units. In these and other patient areas, great emphasis must be laid on
the control of infection
Lodging facilities can also be categorized by size
e.g.
Small-up to 75 rooms
Medium-from 75 to 200 rooms
Large-from 200-500 rooms
Very large-more than 500 rooms
The size of a property can be used to estimate the amount of work required of the housekeeping department on
a daily basis to maintain the property.100-room property can be serviced with a relatively small number of
housekeeping staff. Above 1000 rooms will require more housekeeping staff to service the guest rooms
Classification by type of service
Lodging properties can also be categorized by service. Economy or budget properties focus on meeting the basic
needs of the traveling public with the aim of providing a clean, comfortable room that are not expensive. The
market segments will attract guests traveling with children, bus tours, students, budget-minded retirees. Such
properties do not offer food & beverage services except for breakfast
Mid-market
Properties offer all the amenities expected in a “home-away-from-home setting”.Restaurants,coffee shops, bars,
luggage service, meeting rooms, health club, room service etc are generally offered in such properties
The quality bed linen, towels, room furniture, lobby décor and customer service must be good or very
good.Travellers include business people, individual tourists conventioneers and guests wishing to receive a
guaranteed level of excellent service
Mid-market properties features suites that consists of a bedroom, adjacent livingroom, a kitchenette with
refrigerator
Luxury
Offer world-class service which includes any type of convenience that would be expected by any traveler in any
country in the world.
Luxury properties may feature extravagant amenities like imported chocolates, specialty toiletry items, slippers,
and silk robes, special services like executive floors, concierge, foreign language translators, nanny & private
secretary

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Housekeeping in different types of establishment

Type of Aims of housekeeping department

establishment
Hotels Aesthetic-the objective is to achieve a clean, pleasant and attractive appearance
Boarding house
Motels
Holiday camps
Hospitals Clinical-objective is to remove as much soil and therefore micro-organisms as
Nursing homes possible; prevent cross infection and achieve a high degree of hygiene

Convalescent homes
hospices
Hostels Normal and Acceptable standards-objective is to remove dust & dirt such as litt ers
and obtain a comfortable place
University halls of
residence
Local authority
homes

19.3.01T 2 Functions of the establishments

The aim of all Hotels or establishments that offer accommodation is to provide their customers with clean,
attractive, comfortable and welcoming surroundings that offer value for money. Nothing sends a stronger
message than cleanliness in a hospitality industry. No level of service, friendliness or glamour can equal the
sensation a guest has upon entering a spotless, tidy and conveniently arranged room. Both management and
guest consider keeping the place clean and in good order a necessity, for a hotel to command a fair price and to
get repeat business.

A survey carried out showed 63% travelers rated cleanliness and appearance as their first priority in their choice
of hotels. The housekeeping department takes pride in keeping the hotel clean and comfortable so as to create a
‘home away from home’. Good housekeeping is considered as the backbone of accommodation sector as its
main aim is to provide a clean comfortable, safe and aesthetically appealing environment.

Housekeeping is an operational department of the hotel. It is responsible for cleanliness, maintenance, aesthetic
upkeep of rooms, public areas, back areas and surroundings.

A hotel survives on the sale of rooms, food, beverage, and other minor services like laundry, health clubs, health
spa, sightseeing, shopping arcades etc. The sale of rooms constitutes a minimum of 50% of these sales.

Thus a major part of hotels margin of profit comes from room sales because a room once made can be sold over
and over again. However, the days when the room remains unsold there is a total loss of revenue. To this extent,
rooms are more perishable than food. The housekeeping budget typically accounts for 20% of the properties
total operating expenditure. The largest element of operating cost in the housekeeping department is labour. The
effort that the housekeeping department makes in giving a guest a desirable room has a direct bearing on the
guest experience in the hotel.

Guest rooms are the heart of the hotel. Unless the décor is appropriate, the air odour free, furnishing and
upholstery is spotlessly clean the hotel may loose a guest as a potential customer. The housekeeping department
not only prepares the clean guestroom on a timely basis for the guests who are arriving but also cleans and
maintains everything in the hotel so that the property is fresh and attractive as the day it opens for business. The
housekeeping thus contributes in a big way towards the overall reputation of a property. It is a 24 hour and 365

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day operation. Scientific housekeeping demands the employment of the most effective cleaning materials and
procedures, attention to purchasing the most suitable linen supplies, maintenance of decorative area under the
housekeeping department purview and proper organization and supervision.

Other than hotels, professional housekeeping service is very much in demand in hospitals, cooperate buildings,
airports, airlines, cruisers, banks shopping arcade. Since most such organizations prefer to out source these
functions, contract housekeeping is becoming a lucrative entrepreneurship venture these days.

AIMS OBJECTIVES & RESPONSIBILITIES of HOUSEKEEPING DEPARTMENT:

· To achieve the maximum possible efficiency in ensuring the care and comfort of the guests.

a) Establish a welcoming atmosphere and ensure courteous, reliable service from all the staff of the
department.

b) Ensure a high standard of cleanliness and general upkeep in all areas for which the department is
responsible.

c) Provide linen in rooms, food service areas etc and maintain an inventory for the same.

· To provide uniforms for all the staff and maintain adequate inventory for the same.

a) Cater to the laundry requirement, staff uniforms and guest clothing.

b) Deal with the lost and found articles. This ensures the smooth running of the department.

· To resist in the maintenance of the building while contributing to a safe and healthy environment.

· To provide and maintain the floral decorations and landscaped areas of the hotel.

· To select the right contractor and ensure that the quality of work is maintained.

· To coordinate the renovation of the property as and when required in consultation with the
management and the interior designer.

· To coordinate with the purchase department of the guest supplies, cleaning agents, equipments, linen,
carpets and other items used in the hotel.

· To ensure training control and supervision of all staff attached to the department.

· To establish a good working relationship with other departments.

· To ensure that safety and security regulations are made known to all the staff of the department.

· To keep the G.M and administrator informed of all matters requiring special attention.

BRAND LOYALTY:

Resident guest may be loyal to a particular chain of hotels or properties.Eg. Holiday Inn, Hyatt, etc.Change of
brand loyalty can be explained as a matter of habit, maximization of value to price or past experience with
service since it is difficult to explain pre purchased information about services. Consumers may be reluctant to
change brands as they are uncertain.

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Guest also become brand loyal as they realize that repeat patronage to a particular property gives them
personalize service and greater satisfaction of their needs. This is due to the fact that guest is recognized as his
needs are known by the staff.

Decreasing brand loyalty may be due to:

· The availability of individual brands only in certain locations. This forces the client to choose another
brand. In this way the consumer learns about competing brands and is able to make a more realistic
evaluation of the kind of brand he would like to patronize.

· Travel writers give useful tips about different hotels, their services and comfort of stay.

· Travel agents also help in giving information about different hotels.

· Trade magazines often do monthly assessments of different hotels.

AREAS of RESPONSIBILTY of HOUSEKEEPING DEPARTMENT:

· Guestrooms / Floors:

Room attendants and floor supervisors are responsible for the cleanliness maintenance and security of
guestrooms and surrounding areas.

· Public Areas:

a) Front of the house areas.(Eg. swimming pools, parking area, club, food service area etc.)

b) Back of the house areas.(Eg. Staff canteen, service elevator, locker rooms, administrative
canteen, laundry, linen rooms, basement, store except kitchen which is cleaned by the kitchen
stewards)

c) Linen and Uniform rooms:

The housekeeping department is responsible for its functioning for the repairs and renewal of
linen and for maintenance of proper inventory and stock records of all linen items. Linen
includes room linen, food service linen, soft furnishings, uniforms, bed and bath linen.

d) Laundry: OPL (On Premises Laundry):

If the laundry is on premises then the guest laundry from the rooms is directly collected and
delivered by the laundry ballet. However all hotel linen is first collected in the linen room and
then sent to the laundry for washing. OPL (off premises laundry) is the laundry of both the
guest and linen which is done by the external laundry. All the linen including the guest
laundry is collected in the linen room from it is sent to the external laundry for washing. The
washed linen including the guest laundry is collected at the linen from where it is sent to the
guest rooms and other service points.

e) Resident Guests:

They are given their service by room attendance and they are not charged for it. Some hotels have a
shoeshine machine in the corridor.

f)Florist:

It could either be given out for contract or be a part of the responsibility of the housekeeping
department. An employee of the housekeeping department would be required to do the flower

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 arrangements in the lobby, guestrooms, restrooms, restaurants. Any banquet requirements like
a backdrop for a wedding are done on contract.

g) Extra Room Complimentries & Supplies:

Iron, first-aid, hot water bags, ice bags, thermometer, hair dryer etc are given out for guest use at no
extra cost. However a request for extra beds should be routed through the Front office since
the guest would be charged extra for it.

19.3.01T 3 Duties and responsibilities of the accommodation

manager

the duties include

 Assessing man power levels
 Reruitement and selection of staff
 Induction and training of staff
 Deployment and scheduling of staff
 Supervision
 Quality control
 Inspection of premises
 Staff welfare
 Hygyiene control
 Waste disposal
 Selection and purchasing of soft furnishing
 Linen control and laundering
 Cleaning and maintenance
 Interior design
 Health , ssfety, fire and security
 Welfare of building users
 Front office operations

Practice

19.3.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare job cards for their assistants
b) make a work schedule
c) prepare a duty roster
d) carry out demonstrations
e) supervise duties efficiently

Content
19.3.01P 1 Preparation of job card
19.3.01P 2 Making work schedules
19.3.01P 3 Preparing duty rosters
19.3.01P 4 Carrying out demonstrations
19.3.01P 5 Supervision of duties

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules

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 - Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules and duty roster

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.02 WORK STUDY

Theory

19.3.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of work study
c) discuss the stages of work study
d) discuss motion economy
e) discuss work measurement
f) explain time study
g) discuss ergonomics
h) discuss the methods of evaluation

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1 Definition of Terms

Work study
This is a generic term for those techniques which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts,
and which lead systematically to the investigation of all factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the
situation being reviewed in order to effect improvement.
It involves the study of such factors as people, equipment, tools, materials and layout.

Method study
This is defined as the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing
work as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and thus reducing costs.

Unit Task 2: Importance of work Study

 It improves methods of work and work processes
 It improves the layout of the working area
 It improves the design of the equipment and plant
 It assists in staffing requirements e.g. hours of work required to clean, service and maintain the
establishment
 It helps in reduction of costs
 It helps develop better working environment
 It reduces fatigue among staff
 It helps utilize staff equipment and materials to their fullest
 It helps introduce standardization in the work situation
 It reduces accident rates
 It improves standards of work
 It reduces complaints and grievances on the part of employee and customer
 It reduces wastage in all areas

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Unit Task 3 Stages of work Study

Stage 1: Select the work to be studied

Usually, routine or repetitive tasks are chosen, e.g. dusting, bed making, mopping, etc.

Stage 2: Record the facts

The facts gathered can be recorded by using one of the following techniques or a combination.
 Charts in the form of process charts, time scale charts, etc
 Diagrams in the form of flow diagrams and string diagrams
 Models – three dimensional, two dimensional drawn to scale or cut out or templates
 Filming – using cine and still films

Stage 3: Examine the facts

When all the facts have been obtained and represented by one of the recording techniques, the facts must be
examined systematically and analytically in an objective manner.

Stage 4: Develop a better method

Once the facts have been examined and the questions have been answered, then try to develop a better method
by using one or more of the following factors:
 Elimination – eliminating certain activities or unnecessary parts of the job
 Combination – Combining activities together
 Simplification – simplifying processes or activities
 Change of sequence – the order of work carried out may be changed to improve performance

Stage 5: Introduce and maintain the better method

In order to complete this process, it is essential to carry out detailed planning and preparation, gain the
assistance and cooperation of all staff, and monitor its progress very carefully, especially in the first few days.
Extra supervision, guidance and training may be required to give staff confidence and alleviate fears particularly
if the change is considered. If problems do occur, they should be investigated and corrected immediately.

Unit Task 4 Motion Economy

Motion economy is concerned with the economy of movement. Fatigue will be reduced and time fully used if
movement can be eliminated, reduced or simplified.
The seven principles of motion economy are:
 Minimum movement
 Simultaneous movement
 Symmetrical movement
 Natural movement
 Rhythmical movement
 Habitual movement
 Continuous movement
In carrying out tasks, these movements may be made individually, or two or more may be combined together in
order to reduce fatigue.
They are studied in order to develop better working methods, increase flow of work, and improved design of
tools and equipment.

Unit Task 5 : Work measurement

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to do a
specified job at a defined level of performance.
It is concerned with investigating, reducing and subsequently eliminating ineffective time.
People tend to work at different rates depending on a number of factors:
 Type of job involved
 Amount of mechanization
 The working environment
 The amount of job satisfaction
 The rate of pay and value of incentives

627
  The ability and attitudes of fellow workers
 The amount of rest periods
 If the job is full time or part time

It is possible to work out standard times for a job by calculating the average time it would take a number of
workers to perform it.
There are two main techniques of work measurements:
 Time study – Observation of a job while it is being done.
 Activity sampling – Involves random observation of activities during a normal shift or period of work
including waiting or idle time. Each observation records the work occurring at that instant and is
expressed as a percentage of all the observations which record that activity. This provides an idea of the
percentage time spent on that particular activity.

Unit Task 6: Time study

The job is observed while it is being done. A stop watch is used to measure the job accurately. A standard rating
scale is used which runs from 0-100, based on the BSI recommendations. A performance of 100 is considered
normal. A slow worker may achieve only 90 or 85, and a fast worker may achieve 110 or 120.
A standard hour is made up of 60 standard minutes.

Unit Task 7: Ergonomics

This is the study of the relation of the work to the environment, tools and equipment so as to avoid unnecessary
strain and tension, thereby to make the best use of human resources.
Naturally it is impossible to provide ideal condition for every individual worker, but every effort should be
made to make conditions as pleasant as possible.
Ergonomics is a recognized science, and at a simple level, is very similar to motion economy. It is concerned
with the following:
 Environment – The type of environment plays a very important part in the amount of stress, strain,
tension and fatigue the worker endures in relation to the efficient use of human resources. Factors
include light, heat, humidity, ventilation and noise.
 Space layout – Each worker needs a well laid out work station. It is important to take into account the
amount of working space and the height of working surfaces in relation to the size of the individual
worker in order to provide good posture with minimum physical effort.
 The design of tools and equipment - Equipment and tools should be well designed, well balanced, not
heavy, easy to use and maneuver, and not inclined to ‘run away’ with the operator. Attachments should
also be easy to connect and remove.

Unit Task 8: Evaluation

19.3.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice motion economy
b) practice aspects of ergonomics
c) evaluate the work done

Content
19.3.02P 1 Practicing motion economy
19.3.02P 2 Practicing ergonomics aspects
19.3.02P 3 Evaluating work done

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Reports

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 Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.03 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify different types of functions
b) explain themes for functions
The trainee should have the ability to interpret themes of various functions.

Unit task 1: Identification of different types of functions

There are several functions that can be held in an accommodation establishment. These include:
- Meetings
- Exhibitions
- Seminars
- Workshops
- Baby showers
- Bridal showers
- Birthday Parties
- Weddings

Unit Task 2: Theme interpretation for various areas

 Conference rooms/Lounges/Common rooms

Basic requirements for room preparation

Flowers
Potted plants
Brochures
Drinking water/glasses
Folders and pens
Wall hangings

Point to note
1. Table arrangements will vary according to function
2. Requirements may vary depending on the function

 Guest Rooms
Basic requirements
Fruit baskets
Wall hangings
Reading materials
Drinking water and glasses
Matching bedcovers
Clean and well pressed bed linen
Slippers
Bedside rugs and door mats
Mini bar

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 Magazines

Point to note
Variations will be made depending on the type of guest

 Sick Rooms
Basic requirements
Fresh flowers
Get well card
Energy drink
Drinking water and glasses
Matching bedcovers
Slippers
Bedside Rugs

Point to note
Minimal décor is a requirement for sick rooms

 Sanitary Areas
Basic Requirements
Tissue paper
Air freshener
Flowers
Potted plants
Wall hangings
Notices on use of facility
Hand soap
Hand towel/Tissue
Tooth glass
Any other

 Public Areas
Basic requirements
A large flower arrangement
Lined waste bin
Wall hangings
Potted plants
Notices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Flowers
- Wall hangings
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

630
 - Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules
- Arranging flowers
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.04 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Theory

19.3.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss ventilation
c) discuss lighting
d) discuss noise
e) discuss room conditioning

19.3.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify internal environment devices
ii) choose internal environment devices
iii) operate internal environment devices

Content
19.3.04T 1 Definition of terms
19.3.04T 2 Ventilation
- importance
- ways of ventilating a room
- laws governing ventilation standards
19.3.04T 3 Lighting
- importance
- types of lighting
- types of light fittings
- factors to consider when planning a lighting system
19.3.04T 4 Noise
- causes
- effects of noise environment
- minimizing noise
19.3.04T 5 Room conditioning
- importance
- ways of room conditioning

Practice

19.3.04P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify internal environment devices
b) choose internal environment devices
c) operate internal environment devices

Content
19.3.04P 1 Identification of internal environment devices

631
 - ventilation
- lighting
- conditioning
19.3.04P 2 Choosing of internal
environment devices
19.3.04P 3 Operating internal
environment devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Reports
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.05 LINEN AND LAUNDRY SYSTEMS

Theory

19.3.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term laundry system
b) outline the linen control system
c) state advantages and disadvantages of laundry options
d) outline the dry-cleaning system

19.3.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) supervise the linen and laundry control
ii) supervise the dry cleaning procedure

Content
19.3.05T 1 Definition
19.3.05T 2 The linen control system
- selecting and purchasing
- collection/receiving
- exchange
- counting and bagging
- storage
- washing/dry cleaning
- checking and inspection
- storage in central linen room
- re-distribution
19.3.05T 3 Laundry options
- types
- onsite laundry

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 - off site laundry
- linen hire
- advantages and disadvantages of each type
19.3.05T 4 The dry cleaning system
- arrival
- marking
- checking
- sorting
- dry cleaning
- pressing
- airing
- re-distribution

Practice

19.3.05P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) supervise the linen and laundry control
b) supervise the dry cleaning procedure

Content
19.3.05P 1 Supervise linen control system
- selection and purchasing
- collection/receiving
- exchange
- counting and bagging
- storage
- washing/dry cleaning
- checking and inspection
- storage in central linen room
- redistribution
19.3.05P 2 Supervise the dry cleaning
procedure
- arrival
- marking
- checking
- sorting
- dry cleaning
- pressing
- airing
- redistribution

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Reports
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules

633
 - Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.06 CONTRACT SERVICES

19.3.06 Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define contract services
b) identify the types of contract services
c) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of contract services
d) explain factors to consider when engaging contract services
e) write a work specification for a contractor
f) price a given contract
g) outline the checking system for the contractor

Unit Task 1: Definition of terms in contract services

Cleaning Contract
This is an agreement made between an individual/cleaning company and another individual/company in respect
to cleaning services to be provided for a specific location such as a residence, office building or
commercial building.
The agreement provides for the terms of the agreement, the work to be performed and the payment provisions as
well as the cleaning service providing evidence od adequate insurance coverage.

Unit Task2: Types of contract services

- cleaning services
- laundry services
- linen services
- pest control services
- flower arrangement
- shoe cleaning
- landscaping
- dry cleaning
- refuse collection

Unit Task 3 Advantages and disadvantages of contract services

Advantages
1. No need to train staff for short term tasks
2. The job itself will be fully insured with reliable and fully trained operators
3. Reputable cleaning services are generally available 24/7
4. Outsourcing will allow you to concentrate on other areas
5. No need for specialized equipment by the establishment
6. The cleaning cost is known over a period of time

Disadvantages
1. It weakens the management role in supervision
2. Security problems due to high labour turnovers in contract companies
3. The housekeeping staff have no time to practice their skills
4. There is possibility of using cheap cleaning agents which can affect surfaces

Unit Task 4: Factors to consider when engaging contract services

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Unit Task 5: Work specifications of contractor
1. Definition of terms and exact details of work to be done.
2. Include details of frequencies of service
3. Provision of supervisors may be a requirement laid down in a specification and also details of how a
contract is to be monitored, channels of communication in case of complaint.
4. Details of provision which will be made by clients e.g. stores, changing facilities, sluices, and those
will be made by the contractor e.g. uniforms, security, waste disposal, access to equipment, etc, must
be identified.
5. Any restrictions imposed on the contractor must be made clear e.g. working hours, restriction on
chemicals used, staffing restrictions, e.g. minimum wages, union membership, etc
6. Insurance requirements of the contractor must be covered in the specification.
7. Duration of the contract, breach of contract, or termination arrangement must be covered

Unit Task 6: Pricing a contract

Pricing your services when starting out can seem rather difficult..
After you've bid on a few jobs you can adjust your pricing to accurately reflect your place in the market.
When pricing your services, keep in mind these things:

Net Profit - You need to operate with a profit. Generally speaking, you need to project your expenses, taxes
you'll pay, and the salary you will draw. Your cash flow should be enough to run the business and still have
some left over for future expansion, major purchases, etc.

Supply and Demand - Is the market flooded with commercial cleaners or is there a shortage in your area? If
you're stepping into a starved market, you can price your services at a premium. If not, you may need to lower
your prices or offer a specialty service others are lacking to get your foot in the door.

Check Out the Competition - What does your competition charge? You can find out by calling other
companies just outside of your area. This way you're not viewed as a competitor. You can assume that
companies in your area will have similar pricing structures.

Visit with Supply Stores - Contact the janitorial supply stores in your area. These people can provide a wealth
of information. Let them know you're going into business and you're calling to determine supply prices for your
future needs. Since they love to have new customers, you will be in a position to ask other questions about the
business environment that they otherwise might not be inclined to answer.

What should you expect to earn for your services?

The rates for commercial cleaning varies depending on your location. The cost of living in your area, the types
of cleaning services you provide, plus the points mentioned above all determine your price. Rates can range
from earnings of $15 an hour up to $40 or more. Of course, you will be charging your customer a set price, but
your mindset when pricing jobs should be to think in terms of the value of your time. If you think a job will take
about 2 hours and you think $30 an hour is a reasonable rate, then charge that customer $60.
Put together some financial projections, do a little research and set your price. Remember, you don't have to be
precise. Just be careful not to set your prices so low that you're working for free or on a minimal profit margin.

Unit Task 7: Contract checking system

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Contract penal code
- Reports
- Check lists

635
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Group discussions
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.7 EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS

Theory

19.3.7T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
b) identify challenges arising from emerging trends
c) explain ways of coping with challenges arising from the emerging issues

19.3.7 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
ii) manage challenges arising from the emerging trends and issues

Content
19.3.7T 1 Emerging issues and trends
19.3.7T 2 Challenges
19.3.7T 3 Coping with challenges

Practice

19.3.7P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
b) manage challenges arising from the emerging trends and issues

Content
19.3.7P 1 Identifying emerging trends
in accommodation
management
19.3.7P 2 Managing challenges
arising from the emerging
trends and issues

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching

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- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

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20.3.0 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT
21.3.0 SALES AND MARKETING FOR HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
22.3.0 HUMAN RELATIONS
23.3.0 RESEARCH METHODS

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ELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III

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24.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
24.4.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitude to effectively
perform supervisory or management duties in a food and beverage production establishment.

The trainee will be involved in all aspects of food production. He/she will employ both mental and
physical abilities in conjunction with available resources so as to acquire the desired skills.

24.4.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the organisation of food and beverage production outlets
b) appreciate the use of equipment and tools for a variety of food and beverage production outlets.
c) apply international food and beverage production manipulative skills
d) direct operations in any food outlet profitably
e) evaluate the existing methods of food and beverage production in relation to meeting the
expectations of the management
f) promote health and safety of the employees, guests and property
g) appreciate the need for quality food and beverage products in order to attract and maintain
guests
h) adopt emerging trends in food and beverage production

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 24.4.01 INTRODUCTION TO THE
CATERING INDUSTRY

Theory

24.4.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) outline the history of the catering industry
b) identify types of catering operations
c) describe the development of hotels in Kenya
d) Classify types of catering outlets

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: history of the catering industry

The hospitality industry has emerged as the way hoteliers and caterers would like their industry to be perceived. It
conveys an image that reflects the tradition of service that goes back over many centuries to the earliest days of inn-
keeping.

The impetus to the growth of hotels and subsequently the modern hospitality industry was provided by the railways.
The profitable companies began to invest in large comfortable hotels generally located near the main railway
stations and by1902 there were 70 major hotels owned and controlled by them.

Task 2: types of catering operations

(a)Commercial catering
i) Hotels and restaurants
 Wine bars
 Fast foods
 Takeaways
ii) Quick service
 Delicatessen
 Salad bars
iii) Private clubs
iv) Chain catering organizations
v) Licensed house(pub) catering
 Speciality restaurant
vi) County hotels
vii) Consortia
viii) Motels/travel lodges
ix) Guest houses
x) Youth hostels
xi) Airline services
xii) Prisons
xiii) Armed forces

(b) Welfare catering

i) Hospital catering
ii) School meal service

Task 3: The development of hotels in Kenya

The first hotel to be recorded in Kenya was built in Mombasa called ‘The grand Hotel’ located at the present site of
the Manor Hotel.

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In Nairobi the main contributory factor to development of hotels was the construction of the railway line which
reached ‘Nyarobe’ (Nairobi) at the turn of the 19th century. With the onset of business activities in Nairobi, came the
establishments of the first catering units. These were mainly to cater for the railway personnel.

The first hotel to be constructed for this purpose was believed to have been built by a Mr. Mac john on Victoria
street (now Tom Mboya street). In 1902 alittle shop which was to become the forerunner of ‘The Stanley’ hotel was
constructed and managed by a lady called Mrs. Mayence Bent.

Soon the railway employees built their own establishment – ‘The Railway Club’ which catered for their interests.
This was open to all Europeans, but not as popular as Mrs. Mayence Bent’s hotel. The hotel soon flowed into the
next building which was constructed by a Mr. Dan Noble to serve as a proper hotel premises. This hotel building
was to be known as the first Stanley Hotel.

In 1904, a fire burned down Mrs. Mayence Bent’s hotel. It was re-constructed and acquired the name ‘The New
Stanley Hotel’. Mr. Ringer built another hotel in the same year called the Norfolk. By 1906 four hotels were in
existence and a flourishing business.

In 1927 Mr. Abraham Block bought the famous Norfolk hotel. In 1946/47 he bought The New Stanley and also
acquired out span hotel the world’s famous’ Treetops’. In1950 the Block Hotels limited became a public company
which followed massive expansion and today The Block Hotels is one of the biggest chains of hotels.

Task 4: Classification of catering outlets

Classification Scheme
 AA classification system – use of stars
 Tourist Boards classification system
 Classification by type

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
1. Identify types of catering operations
2. Giving examples in each case, classify catering outlets using the three classification schemes

24.4.02 KITCHEN ORGANIZATION

Theory

24.4.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the personnel structure in the kitchen
b) discuss professional ethics of the kitchen staff
c) explain the interdepartmental relationship
d) explain work schedules used in the kitchen
e) describe the records maintained in the kitchen department
f) prepare and maintain duty rotas, work schedules, and staff records used in the kitchen

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Unit Tasks
Task 1: Organisational structure in
the kitchen
 Factors affecting number of staff required
- output
- type of menu required
- labour – serving equipment available
- use of pre-prepared foods
- efficiency of work flow
 Personnel and their duties
- Chef de Cuisine (Head Chef): Responsible for:
o Menu planning
o Costings
o Control of material; portions, wastage, security etc
o Staff; rotas, engaging induction etc.
o Purchasing and maintenance of equipment and utensils
o Staff welfare
- Sous Chef (Second Chef)
o Assistant kitchen manager
o May be assigned a particular area of responsibility
o Assists with the running of the kitchen
- Che de Partie (Section
Chef)
In charge of the section. There are various section chefs as described below:
o Chef saucier (sauce
cook) – responsible for cooking all meat, poultry, game, offal dishes and their garnishes
and sauces
o Chef garde manger (larder cook) – responsible for the preparation of all hot and cold
sweets including cakes, pastries and all iced confectionary
o Chef poissonnier (fish cook) – responsible for cooking all fish except for plain grilled and
deep fried fish which are done by the rotisseur
o Chef rotisseur (roast cook) – responsible for roasting, grilling and deep frying.
o Chef potager (soup cook) – responsible for all soups, egg and farinaceous dishes
o Chef entremmettier (vegetable cook) – responsible for cooking all vegetables including
potatoes, with exception of deep fried items. Also supplies other parties with vegetable
garnishes
o Chef tournant (relief chef) – takes over from other section chefs on their days off.
- Other chefs
o Chef de nuit (night
chef) – responsible for the whole kitchen through out the night to deal with any orders
that may reach the kitchen via room service
o Chef communard (staff cook) – responsible for the preparation of staff meals with the
exception of management and certain senior staff.
o Breakfast chef – responsible for preparing breakfast
- Commis chef (assistant chef) – assistant cooks known as commis. The most senior commis in
the section is referred to as first commis, next, second commis etc.
- Aboyeur (kitchen announcer) – calls out the food orders when they arrive at the hot plat. Also
assists the chef de cuisine and sours chefs with aspects of administration
- Ancilliary staff
o Kitchen porters (kps) – responsible for the general cleaning of the kitchen and for
carrying things.

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 o Plongeur (pot washer) – in large establishments – responsible for washing up plates,
crokery, glass and silver service equipment.
o General assistants or kitchen hands – extra helpers employed mainly in large
establishments as a backup. They are unskilled
o Still room supervisors
o Store keepers – responsible for the store room.

Head Chef

Still Room
Kitchen Porter/Plongeur

Second Chef
(Sauce Chef)

Larder/Breakfast/ Fish roast cook Vegetable soup Pastry cook

staff cook
cook

1st Commis chef Commis chef Commis chef

1st Commis chef

Trainee
Trainee
(Apprentice)
(Apprentice)

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Apprentice is a trainee e.g. students on attachment

Task 2: Professional ethics of the kitchen staff

 Personal qualities of the chef
- Reliability
- Commitment
- Communication
- Self control
- Artistic flair
- Honesty
- Skilled
- Knowledgeable
- Attention to detail
- Sobriety
- Meticulousness
- Self organisation
 Should have a food handlers certificate
 Should not be suffering from any infectious disease/cuts, wounds etc
 Should be well groomed

Task 3: Interdepartmental relationships with other departments of the hotel include:

 Housekeeping
 Purchasing/stores
 Front office
 Marketing and sales
 Accounting
 Security
 Housekeeping
- Supplies cleaning materials
 Stores
- In-charge of purchasing of
commodities required for production
- Receiving, storing, issuing
 Front office
- Receives guests
- Registers the guests
- Bookings
 Marketing and sales
- Markets the hotel products
 Accounting
- Receives daily sales
- Provide petty cash
- Calculate profits
 Security
- Provides to both guests and visitors

Task 4: Works Schedules

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Scheduling refers to listing the actual work to be undertaken by particular members of staff during a
particular period of the days

Reasons:
 Make the best use of staff
 Ensure coverage of work
 Ensure fair allocation of work
 Saves time and energy
 Employees work becomes easy because they know exactly what they are required to do and when
 Minimizes complaints that other employees are not doing their share

Methods of scheduling work

 Multi-skilling; when staff have more than one skill, they can switch from one kind of task to the other.
 Use of part time, causal and overtime
- Part time staff increase productivity by cutting down some aspects of labour costs like pension,
meals, medical cover etc.
- Casuals are called in during the busy periods and days
- Overtime payment for all time staff improves productivity by motivating them
 Flexible working – a system of no fixed hours
- Staff report to work when most needed
- Employees work extra hours on busy days and less on quiet days
- Staff are allowed to choose hours and shifts
- Staggered scheduling
e.g. work in shifts depending on work flow i.e rush time and show time or peak and off peak hours
 Use of technology
- Use of labour scuring equipment
that can improve productivity because one member of staff can do more work when assisted
by a machine.

Task 5: Records used in the kitchen

 Requisition book
 Order book
 Stock sheets
 Standard specification sheet
 Requisition sheets
 Price lists
 Duty rotas
 Food production checklist

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Resource persons
 Charts
 duty rota
 work schedules
 staff records

EVALUATION

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 Evaluation questions
1) Discuss the reasons for organizing a kitchen
2) Discuss the factors that affect the kitchen design
3) Discuss the roles of the kitchen staff in an establishment that your have worked

24.4.03 RECIPES

Theory

24.4.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term recipe
b) discuss factors to consider when compiling recipes
c) convert basic recipes to the required yields
d) cost recipe

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: definition of the term recipe
 This is a precise written formula for preparation and cooking of a menu item
 A recipe is a set of instructions that show how to prepare or make something, especially a culinary
dish.
 A set of directions with a list of ingredients for making or preparing something, especially food.
 A list of materials and directions for preparing a dish or drink; any procedure for accomplishing
something.

Task 2: factors to consider when compiling recipes

 The number of people to be catered for
 Style of service
 Type of establishment
 The preferences of the clientele
 The type of menu
 Time available for preparation and production
 The skills of the personnel in the establishment
 Availability of ingredients
 Cost of ingredients

Task 3: conversion of basic recipes to the required yields

 The following guidelines apply:
 Establish the yields the basic recipe at hand caters for e.g 8 portions
 Establish the yields one intends to produce e.g. 40 portions
 Divide the intended portions by the portions provided for by the basic recipe at hand e.g. 40/8 = 5
 Multiply the number obtained by the amount of each ingredient provided e.g. if the basic recipe
for beef for 8 portions is 1Kg, multiply this by 5 i.e 1x5 to get 5Kg as the amount required to
produce 40 portions

Task 4: costing recipes

 The cost of any individual dish may be established by adding together the cost of all ingredients
and dividing by the number of portions.

 The cost of the meal may be established by adding up the total cost of all dishes in the menu and
dividing by the number of portions.

 Unit of purchase refers to the amount that can be obtained when shopping

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COSTING SHEET

Dish & Ingredients Quantity Unit of Cost per Cost of Total Cost Total Cost
yield Required Purchase Unit Amont of of Meal
Used Dish
Steak & Topside beef 800g Kg: Kshs 200 160.00
Kidney Pie Ox kidney 400g Kg: Kshs 240 96.00
(10 pax) Onion 200g Kg: Kshs 100 20.00
Parsley 1 tspn Bunch: Kshs 10 10.00
Soy sauce 7 ml Litre: Kshs 65 0.50
Demi-glace 1 lt Litre: Kshs 120 120.00
Tomato paste 750g Kg: Kshs 100 75.00

481.50
Parsley Potatoes 11/2 kg Kg Kshs 50 150.00
potatoes Parsley 2 bunches Bunch Kshs 10 20.00
(10 pax) Salt I0 g Kg Kshs 50 0.50
170.50
Steamed Spinach 3 bunches Bunch Kshs 10 30.00
Spinach Salt 5g Kg Kshs 50 0.25
(10 pax) 30.25
682.25 818.70
NB: Assumption for the costing sheet is profit margin is 20% of the total amount used in production of the
meal. Therefore price per portion = 818.70/10 = 81.87 ~ Kshs 82

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Resource persons
 Charts
 Kitchen equipment
 Service equipment
 Costing sheets
 Calculators
 Sample recipes

EVALUATION
1. Convert basic recipes into standard recipes of 20 portions
2. Prepare a costing sheet for a three course meal for 20 people

24.4.04 MENU PLANNING

Theory

24.4.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in menu planning
b) describe types of menus
c) explain factors to consider when planning different menus
d) cost and price a given menu
e) prepare a time plan for the production and presentation of a given menu

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Unit Tasks:

Task 1: terms used in menu planning

Menu is a list of dishes to be served in a given meal.

Task 2: types of menus

9. Table d’hôte
A set menu forming a complete meal at a set price A choice of dishes may be offered at all courses. Choice
and number of courses is limited to two, three or four.

10. A La Carte
Menu with all the dishes individually priced.
Customers compile their own menu from the list.
The meal is cooked to order.
The customer should be prepared to wait for this service.

11. Party/function Menus

Menu for banquets or functions of all kinds.
All guests start the meal at the same time.
Seasonable foods must be available if the menus are printed well in advance to avoid embarrassments.

4. Ethnic/Specialty menus
Can be al carte or table d’hôte specializing in the food or religion of the country or in a specialized food
itself e.g.

a) Ethnic: - Chinese, Indian, Kosher, Kenyan, African etc

b) Specialty: - steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian etc
Kitchen staff must know how to obtain and use the ingredients.
The ambience (mood) of the restaurant must reflect the menu.

5. Hospital menus/Institutional menus.

It’s a form of a menu given to the patient. The day before service the patient ticks his/her preferences.
A dietician is usually involved with menu compilation to ensure nothing is given to the patients that would
be detrimental to their health.
The patient’s meals are usually 2-3 courses.

6. Menu for people at work

Menus served to people at the work place.
They vary in standard and extent from one employer to another depending on the company policy.
They are usually served in staff canteens or cafeteria.
Some companies charge for the meals and some ask for a token sum and offer meals at a subsidized
price/rate.
The menu offers 2 or 3 course meal with a selection of items.

7. Traditional menus/Ethnic menus

Traditional recipes form a sound foundation of knowledge for the chef/caterer.
However fashions in food change and customers look for new dishes, different combinations of food, fresh
ideas on menu etc
Some of the most successful menus contain a sensible balance of traditional and contemporary dishes.

8. Menu for children

They emphasize on healthy eating and a balanced diet in schools.
Schools with children from different cultural and religious backgrounds should have appropriate items
available o the menu.

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Most establishments provide special children’s menus which concentrate on favorite foods.

Task 3: factors to consider when planning different menus

Several factors direct what kind of menu to make
1. Nutrition requirements
- Proteins
- Starches
- Vitamins
- Fats
- Mineral salts

2. Health consideration
- Sickness
- Deficiencies like scurvy, diabetes, kwashiorkor

3. Availability of foodstuffs
- Seasonal foods like
- Fruits
- Vegetables
4. Number of courses
- Appetizer
- Main dish
- Dessert
5. Sequence of courses

6. Nutritional balance
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Water
- Roughage – acts as a “broom” along the digestive system.
- Fats and oils

7. Occasions
- Funerals - Festivities like
- Wedding - Christmas
- Birthday - Ramadhan
- Graduation Ceremony - Easter holiday
- National holiday celebration
-

Task 4: cost and price a given menu

When costing include the following
 Cost of individual ingredients in a recipe
 Cost of each recipe
 Total cost of each dish
 Total cost of the whole meal
 Profit margin and price per portion

Task 5: prepare a time plan for the production and presentation of a given menu

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A production time plan should include the following
 Menu
 Food order list
 Costing
 Timed order of work
 Presentation and garnishing

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Time plan
 Magazines

EVALUATION

1. Prepare a time plan for the preparation, production and presentation of a three course meal for 40
technical training officers who are attending the launch of the modular system curriculum. Include
a choice in each course

24.4.05 KITCHEN SUPERVISION

Theory

24.4.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the elements of supervision
b) discuss functions and the responsibility supervisor
c) discuss the challenges of kitchen supervision

Unit Tasks:

24.4.5 Kitchen Supervision

Task 1: Elements of supervision
 Forecasting - working a head to foresee possible and probable outcomes and to allow for them
e.g. a forthcoming function.
 Planning – how many meals to prepare, how much to have in stock, how many staff will be
needed, which staff and when etc. This allows for necessary action to be taken.
 Organizing – ensuring that what is wanted is where it is wanted, when it is wanted in the right
amount and at the right place.
 Commanding – supervisor gives instructions to staff on how, what, when, where. That is
giving orders and maintaining a degree of discipline.
 Coordinating – the skill required to get staff to co-operate and work together. Supervisor has
to listen to staff, deal with their queries solve problems and be helpful.

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  Controlling – controlling people and products, preventing pilfering, improving performance,
checking that staff arrive on time, do not leave before time etc.
 Involves inspecting and tact

Task 2: Responsibilities of a supervisor

 Delegation – giving a certain amount of responsibility to other staff
 Motivation – supervisor needs to know what gives staff satisfaction from the work they do.
 Welfare – includes good working conditions, freedom from fear of being sacked,
discrimination, job security
 Understanding – supervisor needs to try and understand people, to anticipate problems and
build up a ream spirit to overcome the problems. Entails being fair and giving staff
encouragement.
 Communication – supervisor must be able to communicate effectively it to convey orders,
instructions information. Manual skills requires the supervisor to posses the right attitude

Task 3: Challenges of kitchen supervisor

 Unwillingness to accept change

 Working long hours
 Difficult to keep staff motivated
 Dealing with different personalities
 Dealing with staff personal problems (welfare)
 Working with people who have un-equal qualification – understanding one another may be
difficult

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Magazines
 Journals
 Kitchen

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the elements of supervision
2. Discuss ways of motivating staff
3. Discuss the qualities of a good supervisor
4. As an employee discuss how you would like to be supervised

24.4.06 PRODUCTION EVALUATION

24.4.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe production checklist
b) describe product analysis
c) prepare a production checklist
d) analyse production system

Unit Tasks: NOTE TASK 1& 2 HANDWRITTEN

Task 1: production checklist

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Task 2: product analysis

Task 3: prepare a production checklist

Task 4: analyze production system

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Textbooks
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Production checklist

EVALUATION
1. Evaluate the dishes prepared during the practical using the production checklist
2 Analyse the day’s production

24.4.07 EGGS

24.4.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the grades of eggs
b) draw and label the structure of an egg
c) state the factors to consider when selecting eggs
d) explain the correct storage of eggs
e) explain the uses of eggs in cookery
f) supervise the preparation, production and presentation methods of egg dishes
g) evaluate egg dishes
h) evaluate the egg dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Grades of eggs

 Grade A – naturally clean, fresh eggs internally perfect with intact shells and an air cell not
exceeding 6 mm (1/4”) in depth
 Grade B – eggs which have been down graded because they have been cleaned or preserved
or because they are internally imperfect, cracked or have an air cell exceeding 6 mm (1/4”) but
not more than 9 mm (3/4”) in depth
 Grade C – are eggs which are fit for breaking for manufacturing purposes but cannot be sold
in their shells to the public

Task 2: Structure of eggs

Structure of eggs – cooking explained 147 or google or principles of catering

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting eggs

 Check that the eggs are not broken or cracked
 It is advisable to purchase eggs where there is a fast turnover

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  Shell should be clean, undamaged and slightly rough
 White a large proportion of thick white to thin white
 Yolk – firm, round/domed shaped, good yellow colour
 Smell – pleasant – bad eggs smell of hydrogen supplied

Task 4: Storage of eggs

 Eggs should be stored in a cool dry place, preferably under refrigeration
 Store away from possible contaminants such as raw meat
 Stock should be rotated – first in first out
 Hands should be washed before and after handling eggs
 Cracked eggs should not be used
 Store eggs with their blunt end that is the one with the air space facing upwards
 Egg dishes should be consumed as soon as possible after preparation, if not for immediate
use, keep in refrigeration

Task 5: Uses of eggs in cookery

 Hors-d’oeuvre
 Soups
 Egg dishes
 Sauces
 Meat and poultry
 Meat and poultry
 Pasta
 Salads
 Sweets and pastries
 Savouries
 Enriching
 Thickening
 Colouring
 Binding
 Clarifying
 Aerating
 Garnishing
 Main meals

Task 6: Preparation, production and presentation

 Beating
 Whisk
 Frying
 Boiling – hard boiled and soft boiled
 Poaching
 In cocotte
 Scrambled
 French fried
 Omelette

Task 7: presentation of egg dishes

 the dish should look attractive
 well garnished
 the correct temperature
 food should be served on clean dishes
 edges of the dishes should be free from smudges

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Task 8: evaluate the egg dishes

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Explain the uses of eggs in cooking and diets
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation of meats and meat products
3. Prepare, produce and present egg dishes
4. Store eggs appropriately.

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24.4.08 MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

24.4.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify various types of meat and meat products
b) draw and label the structure of meat
c) state the factors to be considered in selecting different types of meat and meat products
d) explain the correct storage of meat and meat products
e) supervise preparation, production and presentation of meat dishes and meat products

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of meat and meat products

Terms used for meat from different animals
ANIMAL TERM OF MEAT
MEAT PRODUCT
1. Cow/bull Beef Sausage, bacon,
Calf -cow Veal canned beef
Gelatin
2. Goat Goat meat
3. sheep mutton
4. Poultry Chicken Sausage, eggs,
- Chicken Duck canned chicken
- Duck Goose
Turkey
- Goose
- Turkey
5. Pigs Pork Sausages, bacon
.canned pork,
ham, brawn

Task 2: The structure of meat

See cooking explained 3rd edition pgs 126-127 for diagrams and content

Task 3: Factors to be considered in selecting different types of meat and meat products
 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat e.g. beef should be bright red)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone
 Texture should be firm and elastic
 The dish to be prepared
 The method of cooking
 Ascertain if it has been inspected by a reputable meat inspector

Task 4: Storage of meat and meat products

Handling
 Always buy from a butchery which is clean and well ventilated
 All meat handlers should maintain high level of personal hygiene.

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 All meat handlers should require a medical certificate
 All meat should be inspected by a qualified meat inspector and certified by stamping the meat.
 Different types of meat should be handled separately e.g. a chopping board for each type of meat.
Chicken chopping board, Beef chopping board, fish chopping board
 Use meat products as soon as they thaw or removed from the refrigerator to prevent contamination
Storage
 Hung fresh meat to allow it to become tender
 Store meat under cool temperatures of 1°c.
 Suspend meat on hooks
 Store each type of meat separately
 Store meat products as per the recommended temperature e.g. freezing -18°c, Refrigeration/chilling 2 to
4°c

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of meat dishes and meat products
Preparation
 Trimming  Singeing
 Cutting  Sealing
 Deboning  Barding
 Marinating  Carving
 Larding  Tenderising
 Trussing


Production
 Boiling  Frying
 Stewing  Baking
 Roasting  Braising
 Grilling
Suggested recipes
Grilled pork chops, mutton curry, roast lamb, beef, goulash, braised beef, kofta curry, mince stew, Irish
stew, carbonnade, stroganoff, beef olives.

Presentation

 Clean serving equipment

 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Equipment and tools
 Charts on food commodities

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of meats and meat products used in cooking and diets.
2. Explain the uses of meats and meat products in cooking and diets

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 3. Explain the production methods of meats and meat products
4. Explain the various methods of storing different meats and meat products.
5. Store various meats and meat products appropriately.

24.4.09 POULTRY

Theory

24.4.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify various types of poultry
b) draw and label the cuts of poultry
c) state the factors to consider when selecting types of poultry
d) explain the storage of poultry
e) supervise the preparation and production and presentation of poultry

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of poultry

POULTRY TERM OF POULTRY

POULTRY PRODUCT

- Chicken Chicken Sausage, eggs,

canned chicken
- Duck Duck
- Goose Goose
Turkey
- Turkey
Quail
- Quail

Types of chicken
Table on weight and portions of fowls in practical cookery pg. 297
 Spring chickens/poussin - 4-6 weeks old used for roasting and grilling
 Broiler chickens - 3-4 months old used for roasting, grilling, casserole
 Medium roasting chicken – fully grown, tender prime birds used for roasting, grilling, sauté,
casserole, supreme and pies
 Large roasting or boiling chicken used for roasting, boiling, casserole.
 Capons – specially bred, fattened cock birds used for roasting
 Old hens – used for stocks and soups

Task 2: The cuts of poultry

Figure and names of cuts of chicken fig. in practical cookery pg. 299 fig. 9.34`

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting types of poultry

 Plump breast, pliable breast bone at the vent end and firm flesh
 Skin white and unbroken with no bruising. Broiler chickens have a faint bluish tint
 Pleasant fresh smell
 Spurs showing no signs of development
 Tight, fine and even scales on legs
 Sticky skin with a bluish-grey tinge and an unpleasant smell indicate the bird in deteriorating in quality

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 Method of cooking to be used
 Occasion
 Clientele’s preferences

Task 4: Storage of poultry

 Chilled birds should be stored between 30C and 50C
 Oven ready birds are eviscerated and should be stored in a refrigerator
 Frozen birds must be kept in deep freeze until required but must be completely thawed, preferably
in a refrigerator before being cooked to reduce the risk of food poisoning
 Frozen chicken should be checked that :
o The packaging is undamaged
o There are no signs of freezer burns, which are indicated by white patches on skin

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of poultry

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Skinning  Deboning
 Gutting  Marinating
 Slaughtering  Larding
 Plucking  Trussing
 Tenderising  Singeing
 Hanging  Sealing
 Trimming  Barding
 Cutting  Carving

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
Suggested recipes
Chicken curry, stew, roast, grilled, Maryland, fricassee, Tandoori, tikka, Ala-king

Presentation
The following are guidelines on presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

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LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Charts on food commodities
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of poultry.
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation methods of various poultry.
3. Explain the various methods of handling and storing different poultry.
4. Store various poultry appropriately.

24.4.10 GAME

Theory

24.4.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able:
a) identify types of game
b) state the factors to consider when selecting types of game
c) describe the storage of game
d) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of game dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: types of game

Feathered game – pheasants, partridges, wild duck, grouse, guinea fowl e.t.c
Furred game – hares, rabbits, antelope, deer, antelope e.t.c

Task 2: factors to consider when selecting types of game

 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone
 Ascertain that it has been inspected by a reputable meat inspector
 The age of the animal
Additionally:
Feathered game
 Plump well fleshed breast with a pliable breastbone
 Minimal bruising
 Smooth legs
 Not excessive bleeding
 A gamey smell that is not unpleasant
Furred game
 Claws should be long and sharp
 The tips of the ears should tear easily
 The flesh should be plump, well fleshed, free from excessive bleeding and bruising
 The lower jaw bones

Venison

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  Flesh should be reddish brown in colour free from any signs of blood clots, excessive bleeding and
bruising
 Should be young up to 4 years in age – older animals will only provide dry, tough flesh
 Have a gamey smell without being unpleasant

Task 3: storage of game

Handling
 All meat should be inspected by a qualified meat inspector and certified by stamping the meat.
 Different types of meat should be handled separately e.g. a chopping board for each type of meat.
Storage
 Hung fresh meat to allow it to become tender
 Store meat under cool temperatures of 1°c.
 Suspend meat on hooks
 Store each type of meat separately
 Store meat products as per the recommended temperature e.g. freezing -18°c, Refrigeration/chilling 2 to
4°c

Task 4: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of game dishes.

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Skinning  Trimming  Trussing

 Gutting  Cutting  Singeing
 Slaughtering  Deboning  Sealing
 Tenderising  Marinating  Barding
 Hanging  Larding  Carving

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Braising

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Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Charts on food commodities
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of game used in cooking and diets.
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation of various game
3. Explain the various methods of handling and storing different games.
4. Store various game meats appropriately.

24.4.11 FISH AND SEAFOODS

24.4.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify fish and seafood
b) draw and label the structure of fish
c) state the factors to consider when selecting fish and seafoods
d) describe the correct storage of fish and seafood
e) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of fish and seafood dishes

Unit Tasks: NOTE TASK 1 -4 and EVALUATION HANDWRITTEN

Task 1: classification of fish and seafood

Task 2: the structure of fish

Task 3: factors to consider when selecting fish and seafood
Task 4: storage of fish and seafood

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of fish and seafood dishes
Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Scaling
 Trimming
 Cutting
 Filleting
 Marinating

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  Larding
 Sealing

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Braising

Suggested recipes
Stewed whole fish, fish in batter, pan fried, fish
in breadcrumbs, fish cakes, kebabs, fish fingers,
and fish meuniere.

Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment

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EVALUATION
1. explain three classes of fish
2. discuss points to observe when buying whole fish
3. describe the production procedure of a named fish dish

24.4.12 PULSES

Theory

24.4.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms
b) identify the types of pulse
c) explain the use of pulses in cookery
d) identify factors to be considered when selecting pulses
e) describe the storage of pulses
f) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of dishes made from pulses
g) evaluate dishes made from pulses

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

 Pulses are dried seeds of legume plants. They include beans, peas, Soya beans, cow peas, black peas, green grams,
pigeon peas
 Nuts are any seeds within hard shells and edible kernels; they include ground (peanuts), cashew nuts, macadamia
nuts and almonds

Task 2: Types of pulse

 Fresh
 Frozen
 Canned
 Dried

Task 3: Use of pulses in cookery

 As a main dish
 In the preparation of meat substitutes
 To expand meat dishes
 To enrich other foods e.g. added into cereals in the preparation of flour
 In the preparation of salads and soups

Task 4: factors to be considered when selecting pulses

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season

Task 5: storage of pulses

 Keep pulses and nuts in clean containers in well ventilated store.

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 Store the pulses and nuts when well dry.
 Ensure all pulses and nuts are completely dry before storage
 Always use old stock first before the new stock (new harvest)
 Pulses should be treated before storage. Ensure the treated pulses are thoroughly cleaned before use
 Sacks for storing pulses and nuts should be placed on a rack to prevent moisture and attack by rodents.
 The store should be well lit to ensure easy visibility.
 Take note of the expiry dates of all products of pulses and nuts

Task 6: preparation, production and presentation of pulses dishes
Preparation
 Sorting
 Soaking
Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Boiling
 Stewing

Suggested recipes
Lentil soup, bean goulash, dengu curry lasagne.

Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1) Identify the different types of pulses
2) Describe the different preparation methods of pulses
3) Explain the importance of proper storage of pulses
4) Write recipes for various pulse dishes

24.4.13 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

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 Theory

24.4.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms
b) identify types of cereals
c) draw and label the structure of cereals
d) explain the uses of cereals in cookery
e) identify factors to consider when selecting cereals
f) describe the correct storage of cereals
g) describe the preparation, production and presentation of cereal dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
This are seeds of cultivated grasses and are used as sraple foods in the diet of most people.

Task 2: Types of cereals

Wheat, oats, rice, barley, maize, sorghum, millet, rye
Types of flour made from wheat
White flour - is milled and sieved to remove the outer skin and the germ
Whole meal – The whole grain is ground into flour
Germ flour – mixture of 75% white flour and 25% cooked germ. The germ is cooked to reduce rancidity
Starch reduced flour – most of the starch is removed, leaving mainly gluten and proteins
Cereal products
 Wheat products: pasta, semolina, gnocchi, breakfast cereals
 Rice products: rice flour, rice paper, breakfast cereals
 Oat products: rolled oats, ground oatmeal, breakfast cereals
 Maize products: cornflour, custard powder, blancmange powder, breakfast cereals
 Barley products: pearl barley, malt extract and malt flour, beer, breakfast cereals
 Rye products: rye flour, breakfast cereals

Task 3: The structure of cereals

Check KIE book 3 pg 89; or cooking explained pg 62 (structure of wheat grain)

Task 4: Uses of cereals in cookery

 As main ingredient for starch dishes
 As a main meal e.g breakfast cereals
 As a cereal product e.g wheat flour. Cornflour, maize flour

Task 5: Factors to consider when selecting cereals

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season
 Personal preferences

Task 6: Storage of cereals

 Should be completely dry to avoid aflatoxin poisoning
 Grain store should be well ventilated and dry to avoid the accumulation of moisture , which can lead to
development of mould

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  Should be well preserved using, using recommended preservatives.
 The grain store should be free from pests such as weevils and rats
 Storage containers should be placed on racks to avoid ants and dampness
 Toxic chemicals such as herbicides, pesticides, should not be stored in a food store to avoid food contamination
 The stock should be checked to ensure it is in good condition
 The old stock should be used before the new one

Task 7: Preparation, production and presentation of cereal dishes

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared

 Winnowing
 Sorting
 Soaking
 Kneading
 Sieving
 Folding in
 Blending
 Browning

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be prepared
 Boiling
 Steaming
 Baking
 Roasting

Suggested recipes
Rice dishes, pasta.

Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment
 Food commodities

EVALUATION
1. Explain the value of cereals in the diet

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2. List the commonly used cereals in food production
3. Discuss factors to consider when selecting cereals

24.4.14 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Theory

24.4.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the types of milk and milk products
b) explain the uses of milk and milk in food production
c) identify factors to consider when selecting milk and milk products
d) explain the storage of milk and milk products
e) describe the preparation and production and presentation of milk dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Types of milk and milk heat treatment
 Pasteurized milk – is heated to a temperature of at least 71.70C (161)F) for 15 seconds and then cooled
quickly to less than 100C (500F)
 UHT (ultra – heat-treated milk. Milk is homogenized and then heated to a temperature of at least 1350C for
1 second, then packed under sterile conditions.
 Sterilized milk – milk is pre-heated to 500C, separated and standardized to produce whole, semi-skimmed
or skimmed milk. Filled bottles are then passed through a steam pressure chamber at a temperature 1100C
and 1300C for 10-30 minutes then cooled in a cold water tank.
 Homogenized milk – milk is forced through a fine aperture which breaks up the fat globules to an even nice
so that they stay evenly distributed throughout the milk and therefore do not form a cream line.
 Whole mile (blue cap) – comes as pasteurized or pasteurized homogenized and has a fat content of an
average 3.9%
 Semi – skimmed milk (green – cap or light blue) – comes as pasteurized and has a fat content of between
1.5 and 1.8%
 Skimmed milk – comes as pasteurized and UHT and contains just 0.1% fat
 Evaporated milk – a concentrated sterilized product with a final concentration about twice that of the
original milk
 Condensed milk – concentrated in the same way as evaporated milk but with addition of sugar. It is not
sterilized but is preserved by the high concentration of sugar it contains.
 Dried milk – milk produced by the evaporation of water from the milk by heat or other means to produce
solids containing 5% or less moisture
 Soya milk – can be offered as an alternative for people with an intolerance to cows milk or strict
vegetarians
 Goats milk – nutritionally similar to cows milk and can be useful for people with a lactose intolerance
 Rice milk – an alternative to dairy milk for vegans and those with an intolerance to lactose. It is heat stable
which makes it a good replacement for cows in corking.
 Coconut mil – high in saturated fat but low in calories – it can be served as a drink but is more often used
for cooking e.g. as a marinade and rice dishes.

Types of milk
 Cream - clotted cream
- Double cream
- Whipping cream
- Sterilized cream
- Single cream
- Half cream

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 Yoghurt
- low fat
o plain
o natural fruit
- very low fat
- whole milk/creamy
 Cheese
- Cheddar
- Cottage cheese
- Cream cheese
- Processed cheese
- Low fat cheeses
- Mozzarella
- Home – produced cheeses
 Butter
- Clarified butter e.g. ghee and concentrated butter
- Unsalted and salted

Task 2: Uses of milk and milk products in food production

 Uses of milk
- Drinks – in hot chocolate, coffee, milk shake
 Soups – e.g. cream of chicken soup tomato soup
 Sauces – in bread sauce, custard
 Batters e.g. pancakes, Yorkshire pudding
 Egg custard – type mixtures e.g. bread and butter pudding
 Milk puddings e.g. rice pudding, milk jelly
 Baked goods e.g. bread, scones, cakes
 Glaze – for brushing cover the surface of scones to give a smooth, shiny surface
 Uses of yoghurt – in food preparation
- Drinks
- Desserts
- Salad dressings, dips and sauces
- A substitute for cream or cream fillings
- Toppings
- Garnish for soups
 Uses of cream
- beverages e.g. coffee
- Soups
- Sauces
- Salad dressing
- As a topping e.g. in fruit salad, sponge cakes
 Uses of cheese in cookery
- Snacks e.g. sandwiches, roast
- Sauces
- Toppings e.g. pizza
- Dips and spreads
- Biscuits e.g. cheese straws
- Soufflés
- Flans
- Fondues
- Cheese cakes

 Uses of butter in food production

- For spreading

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 - As a base for making soups, sauces, compound batters
- For making cakes and pastries, butter icings and frostings
- For shallow frying foods
- As a glaze on cooked foods
- In sandwiches it acts as a protective layer, preventing moist foods from penetrating the bread
- Also gives the finished product a delicious flavour

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting milk and milk products

 Milk
- Buy from a reliable supplier
- Milk containers should be clean
- Milk type purchase should meet customer satisfaction
- Temperature should be appropriate e.g. fresh, chilled, dried
- Should not have an unpleasant smell
- Colour should be appropriate (off – white) – depends on the type purchased
 Cream
- Depends on its use
- Buy cream from the chill cabinet only
- Half cream helps to lower the intake of fat
 Cheese
- The skin or rind of cheese should not show spots of mildew, as this is a sign of damp storage
- Cheese when cut should not give off an over strong smell or any indication of amounts
- Hard, semi-hard and blue vein cheese when cut should not be dry
- Soft cheese when cut should not appear runny, but should have a delicate creamy consistency
- Choose cheeses that have a lower fat content
- Use a strong flavoured cheese, such as mature cheese or parmesan, but use in small amounts
- If strong flavours are preferred it is advisable to buy mature varieties
- Processed cheese is useful for sauces, burger toppings and sandwiches
- Cream cheese is useful for making cheese cakes
 Yoghurt
- Should have been stored in a chilled cabinet. Do not buy it if the cap is blown or domed in the
centre
- Plain yoghurt is very versatile – low fat yoghurts are ideal in the context of the healthful diet
- If yoghurt is not for immediate use, choose yoghurt that has been heat melted after fermentation
- Large pots of multi packs of yoghurt are more economical
- Flavorings can be added to natural yoghurt
 Butter
- Flavour should be rich, creamy and mellow
- Colour of butter varies from delicate pale yellow to a rich, bright colour
- Texture should be smooth and creamy and remains firm when chilled.

Task 4: Storage of milk and milk products

 Guidelines for keeping milk fresh
- Keep milk from different deliveries separately
- Milk keeps better if it is kept in its original container
- Milk must be stored in the refrigerators
- Milk should be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onion and fish
- Fresh milk should be ordered daily
- Tinned milk should be stored in cool, dry ventilated room
- Dried milk is packaged in air tight tins and should be kept in a dry store
- Sterilized milk will keep for 2 -3 months if unopened but once opened must be treated in the same
way as pasteurized milk
- UHT will keep un-refrigerated for several months. Before using, always check the date stamp
which expires 6 months after processing. Once opened it must be refrigerated and will keep for 4
-5 days

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  Storage of cream
- Fresh cream should be stored in the container in which it is delivered
- Fresh cream must be stored in the refrigerator until required
- Cream should be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onion and fish
- Fresh cram should be ordered daily
- Tinned cream should only be thawed as required and not refrozen.
- Artificial cream should be kept in the refrigerator
 Storage of cheese
- All cheese should be kept in a cool, dry, well ventilated stored
- While cheeses should be turned occasionally if being kept for any length of time
- Keep away from other foods which may be spoilt by the smell
 Storage of yoghurt
- Non heat related yoghurt can be stored for about 10 days
- If yoghurt is kept longer than the recommended storage time the bacteria multiply enough to
increase the acid level and flavour of yoghurt is impaired
- If yoghurt has been treated after fermentation it will last longer
 Storage of butter
- Should be kept refrigerated – below 50C (410F) for optimum quality
- If kept at room temperature it deteriorates and exposure to light causes varicidity
- Should be kept covered in a cool dark place away from strong flavours or smells which could taint
its delicate taste

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text book
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate the following milk products:-
a) Cream and yoghurt
b) Cheese and butter
2. Explain the uses of cheese in cookery
3. Discuss the importance of proper storage of milk

24.4.15 VEGETABLES

Theory

24.4.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) classify vegetables
c) explain the uses of vegetables on cookery
d) identify factors to consider in selecting vegetables
e) explain the storage of vegetables
f) describe preparation, production and presentation of vegetable dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

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The term vegetable includes any edible part of any plant.

Task 2: Classification of vegetables

9. Roots  Carrots
 Beetroots
 Onions
 Radishes
 Garlic
 Ginger
10. Tubers  Arrow roots
 Cassava
 Sweet potatoes
 Yams
11. Pods and seeds  Green peas
 French beans
12. Fruit vegetables  Tomatoes
 Cucumber
 Green pepper (capsicum)
 Hot paper
 Baby marrow
 Pumpkins

13. Flower fruits  Cauliflower

 Broccoli
14. Leafy vegetables  Kales
 Spinach
 Cabbages
 Lettuce
 Amaranthus (Terere)
 Nightshade (Managu)
15. Stems and shoots  Leeks
 Celery
 Asparagus
 Bean sprouts
16. Fungi  Mushrooms

Task 3: uses of vegetables on cookery

a. Used for soups and accompaniments for meat dishes
b. For pickling

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 c. As hors d’oeuvre
d. For salad ingredients
e. For garnishing eggs, fish, poultry, rice, pasta e.t.c.
f. As a hot vegetable to accompany starch dishes
g. Flavouring savoury dishes
h. To decorate cold buffet items
i. Flavouring for stews, braises, chutney, ketchup e.t.c

Task 4: Factors to consider in selecting vegetables

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment.
 Free from signs of damage, frost pests and disease
 Green vegetables should have crisp fresh leaves with a bright colour.
 Root vegetables should have unblemished skins free from spongy discolored patches
 Legumes should be firm crisp and not too big, pods should not be too full or the vegetable may be coarse
textured.

Task 5: Storage of vegetables

 Store in a cool dry, well ventilated place
 For potatoes store in darkened bins or on slanted racks
 The refrigerator is a facility that is used for storing foods requiring consistent not too cold temperatures 4-6°c up
to 0°c such as vegetables
 Stems, leaves, flowers, roots and seeds should be stored in a refrigerator, covered in a bowl or pan or in a
polythene paper to prevent them from weathering
 Fresh vegetables may be stored in a vegetable rack away from bright light. . Usually green vegetables in
refrigerator should not be stored in a dark area to prevent leaves turning yellow.
Task 6: Preparation, production and presentation of vegetables
Methods of preparing vegetables
 Cutting
 Chopping
 Shredding
 Slicing
 Blanching
 Refreshing
 Dicing
 Grating

Methods of producing vegetables

 Steaming
 Braising
 Stewing
 Baking
 Frying
 Sautéing
 Stir-frying
 Boiling
Methods of presenting vegetables
The following are guidelines for presentation of vegetables dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures

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 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. discuss the role of vegetables in the diet
2. identify types of vegetables
3. explain six methods used in preparing vegetables

24.4.16 FRUITS

Theory

24.4.16 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) classify fruits
c) explain the uses of fruits in cookery
d) identify factors to consider when selecting fruits
e) explain the storage of fruits
f) describe preparation, production and presentation of fruits dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Fruit is the edible seed bearing portion of some cultivated or wild shrub, trees and plants. Fruits can be eaten raw and
served at the beginning and the end of a meal.

Task 2: Classification of fruits

CLASS EXAMPLE
6. Stone fruits  Avocado
Have a hard un edible  Plums
kennel inside the fruit  Peaches
 Cherrie
 Apricots
 Mangoes
 Grapes
7. Soft fruits fleshy  Strawberries
 Blackberries
 Pawpaw
 Ripe bananas
 Water melons

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  Sweet melons
8. Citrus fruits  Oranges
 Lemons
 Lime
 Tangerine
9. Tropical  Passion fruits
 Yellow passion
 Guavas
 Tree tomato fruit
 Bananas
 pawpaw
10. Hard fruits  Apples
 Pears

Task 3: Uses of fruits in cookery

Raw fruits - much of the fruits we eat are raw. Raw fruits are an important source of vitamin C and dietary fibre and
should be included frequently in the diet as a dessert, salad or a snack
Cooked fruits – some varieties of fruits are unpalatable if eaten raw. These varieties are always cooked e.g. gooseberries,
rhubarb. Others are cooked in making of pies, puddings, jams and jellies

Task 4: Factors to consider when selecting fruits

 Buy fruits in season
 Choose good quality fruit
 They should appear fresh and firm to the touch
 Should be clean free from disease or pest damage and un-bruised.
 They should be free from moulds, shriveling or wilting

Task 5: Storage of fruits

 Fresh fruits should be stored in a refrigerator. Other fruits may be stored in a cool ventilated place

 Store fruits at 10°c and bananas at above 13°c to prevent them from blackening (turning black)

Task 6: preparation, production and presentation of fruits dishes

Methods of preparing fruits
 Cutting
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Peeling
 Coring
Methods of producing fruit dishes
Fruits can be eaten:-
 Raw-salads, juices, snacks, garnishes, cocktails, platters.
 Cooked – jams, jellies, fritters, puddings, pastries, pies, cakes, syrups.

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Methods of presenting fruit dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Fruit should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve fruit dishes at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1. Classify fruits
2. Discuss the uses of fruits in food production
3. Discuss the storage of fruits

24.4.17 FATS AND OILS……handwritten

Theory

24.4.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) explain the sources of fats and oils
c) factors to consider in selection of fats and oils.
d) explain the uses of fats and oils.
e) explain the storage of fats and oils.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

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EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.18 CONVENIENCE FOODS………handwritten

Theory

24.4.18T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define convenience foods
b) classify convenience foods
c) explain the uses of convenience foods
d) explain factors to consider in selection of convenience foods
e) explain storage of convenience foods.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION

24.4.19 RECHAUFEE’ DISHES…….., handwritten

Theory

24.4.19T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term rechauffe
b) describe the preparation, production and presentation of rechauffe dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:

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Task 2:

Suggested recipes
Shepherds pie, fish cakes,

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.20 CATERING SYSTEMS-------------------handwritten

Theory

24.4.20T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the term catering system.
b) describe types of catering systems.
c) explain factors to consider when selecting a catering system.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.21 LOCAL DISHES

Theory

24.4.21T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe type of local dishes
b) explain methods of preparation, production and presentation local dishes

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Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of local dishes

Kenyan local cuisine includes

Riftvalley (Kalenjin, Maasai, Turkana, Samburu)
Central (Kikuyu)
Coast (Taita Mijikenda, Swahili, )
Western (Luhya)
Eastern (Meru Akamba Embu)
Nyanza (Kisii, Luo)

Task 2: preparation, production and presentation local dishes

Preparation
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Cutting
 Marinating
 Carving
 Tenderising
 Shredding
 Blanching
 Refreshing

Production

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Steaming
 Sautéing
 Stir-frying
 Steaming

Presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books

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 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Discuss the different types of local dishes
2. Plan, prepare, produce and present a three course meal for forty Luhya ladies attending a bridal shower for your
sister.

24.4.22 INTERNATIONAL DISHES

Theory

24.4.22T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
a) describe types of international dish
b) explain preparation production and presentation of international dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: types of international dish

Caribbean cookery
An abundance of exotic fruits and vegetables, fresh fish and shell fish, pork, poultry are mainly used in the Caribbean.
Pulses and cereals are cooked all combined and seasoned to emphasize on aroma.

Chinese cookery
The main styles of cookery in china are canton, Peking shanghai and Szechwan.
In canton style rice is mainly used sweet and sour dishes are flavoured and a lot of dishes are cooked by steaming
Peking cookery features noodles steamed dumplings and pancake dishes, more foods are deep-fried.
Shanghai cookery uses more of flour and oil, greater use of garlic ginger and other spices. Noodles are used instead of
rice.
Szechwan cookery has more use of hot spices and chilies

Greek cookery
It uses well flavoured herbs and spices. Foods are stewed, grilled or roasted. Olive oil yoghurt and lemon juice are used
to enhance the products. Fish is greatly used in different varieties. Lamb veal and poultry are also popular.

Indian cookery
Tandoori cookery is very popular. Vegetables herbs and spices are widely used these include red chilies curry leaves
cloves garlic ginger etc.

Japanese cookery
They include rice sushi, deep fried dishes, and barbecued chicken skewers. The sushi cooking is very popular where raw
fish shell fish raw vegetables and vinegar.

Other international dishes include Mexican, Spanish, American, African, Indonesian, Middle Eastern, Israel, and Thai

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Task 2: preparation production and presentation of international dishes
Preparation

Slicing
 Dicing  Tenderising
 Chipping  Shredding
 Cutting  Blanching
 Marinating  Refreshing
 Carving

Production
 Boiling  Baking
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Sautéing
 Grilling  Stir-frying
 Frying  Steaming

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Presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. discuss the different types of international dishes
2. Plan, prepare, produce and present a three course meal for forty Nigerian foot balers attending a football
tournament in Kenya.

24.4.23 FUNCTION CATERING----------handwritten

Theory

24.4.23T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define function catering
b) explain types of function catering
c) describe the process of planning for functions
d) cost meals for functions
e) discuss the organisation of production for functions
f) discuss the importance of evaluating functions

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

EVALUATION

24.4.24 EMERGING TRENDS

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 Theory

24.4.24T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in food production management.
b) describe the challenges of emerging trends in food production.
c) explain the coping mechanism of the emerging trends

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet

EVALUATION

REFERENCES
i. St. Andrews Church Woman’s Guild (1994) The Kenya Cookery Book and Household
Guide. Nairobi: Kenway Publications

ii. Coller M. & Sussams C. (1990) Success in Principles of Catering. London: John Murray

iii. Taylor E.& Taylor J. (1990) Mastering Catering Theory. London: Macmillan Press

iv. Davies J. & Hammond B. (1988) Cooking Explained. London: Longman Limited

v. Foskett D., Ceserani V. & Kinton R. (2004) Practical Cookery 10th Edition. London: Book
Power

vi. Foskett D., Ceserani V. & Kinton R. (2003) The Theory of Catering 10th Edition .
London: Book Power

vii. Clarke D. & Herbert E. (1992) Food Facts. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Limited

viii. Ministry of Education – Kenya Institute of Education (1989) Secondary Homescience

Form 4 Pupil’s Book. Nairobi : Kenya Literature Bureau

ix. Ministry of Education – Kenya Institute of Education (1989) Secondary Homescience

Form 3 Pupil’s Book. Nairobi : Kenya Literature Bureau

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25.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES MANAGEMENT

25.4.1 Introduction
This Module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitude required
to perform the duties of a Supervisor in Catering and Accommodation Establishment.

25.4.2 General Objectives

By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) supervise and guide personnel in service and sales in catering establishment
b) appreciate the need of having knowledge of human relations skills
c) apply management techniques when performing supervisory duties
d) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research work to improve
service delivery in his/her work.

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25.4.01 SUPERVISORY ASPECTS OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES

25.4.01 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
a) explain the organizational structure of food and beverage staff
b) explain the importance of staff training
c) explain the importance of customer relations
d) discuss measures of performance of food and beverage staff
e) explain revenue control in food and beverage service
f) explain legal aspects in food and beverage service

Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Organizational Structure of food and beverage staff

F figure(Insert organization structure) shows a typical restaurant staff structure. Positions commonly found are:
 Food and Beverage Manager.
In a large organization, a Food and beverage manager is usually responsible for the success of the food and
beverage operations. He or she will be responsible for such matters as compiling the menus (in consultation with kitchen
staff) to make sure that the required profit margins are achieved. Purchasing food and beverage items and deciding
portion size and
staff recruitment and training .
 Restaurant Manager.
In operations where there are several bars and restaurants, such as large hotels, each restaurant may have its own
manager responsible to the Food and Beverage Manager. He or she will be responsible for the work of staff within that
restaurant and for seeing that the policies of the Food and Beverage Manager are carried out. Either the Restaurant
Manager or the Head Waiter will be responsible for staff duty rosters.
 Head Waiter
Responsible for all the service staff in the restaurant and for seeing all the preparation, service and clearing work is
efficiently carried out. In smaller establishments he/she may also be responsible for taking reservations and for greeting
and seating guests. In larger establishments there may be a special Reception Head Waiter with these duties.
 Station Head Waiter
Is responsible for the service of a station or group of tables. He/she takes the orders and carries out the service at the
tables of the station.
 Waiter
Preparation and maintenance of work area
Maintaining good customer and staff relations
Making recommendations and assisting guests in making selections
Order taking and recording
Service and clearing of food and beverages
 Trainee Waiter/ Commis
Clears sideboards
Fetches and carries
 Wine Waiter/ Sommelier
Responsible for the service of all alcoholic drinks to the tables
 Lounge Waiter
Responsible for service of food and beverage in the lounge
 Floor Waiter
Responsible for complete service to rooms or suites

Unit task 2 Importance of staff training

 Optimum Utilization of Human Resources - Training and Development helps in optimizing the utilization of
human resource that further helps the employee to achieve the organizational goals as well as their individual
goals.

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 • Development of Human Resources - Training and Development helps to provide an opportunity and broad
structure for the development of human resources' technical and behavioral skills in an organization. It also
helps the employees in attaining personal growth.

• Development of skills of employees - Training and Development helps in increasing the job knowledge and
skills of employees at each level. It helps to expand the horizons of

 human intellect and an overall personality of the employees.

• Productivity - Training and Development helps in increasing the productivity of the employees that helps the
organization further to achieve its long-term goal.

• Team spirit - Training and Development helps in inculcating the sense of team work, team spirit, and inter-
team collaborations. It helps in inculcating the zeal to learn within the employees.

• Organization Culture - Training and Development helps to develop and improve the organizational health
culture and effectiveness. It helps in creating the learning culture within the organization.

• Organization Climate - Training and Development helps building the positive perception and feeling about
the organization. The employees get these feelings from leaders, subordinates, and peers.

• Quality - Training and Development helps in improving upon the quality of work and work-life.

• Healthy work-environment - Training and Development helps in creating the healthy working environment. It
helps to build good employee, relationship so that individual goals aligns with organizational goal.

• Health and Safety - Training and Development helps in improving the health and safety of the organization
thus preventing obsolescence.

• Morale - Training and Development helps in improving the morale of the work force.

• Image - Training and Development helps in creating a better corporate image.

• Profitability - Training and Development leads to improved profitability and more positive attitudes towards
profit orientation.

• Training and Development aids in organizational development i.e. Organization gets more effective decision
making and problem solving. It helps in understanding and carrying out organisational policies

• Training and Development helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, better attitudes, and
other aspects that successful workers and managers usually display.
 Training and Development demonstrates a commitment to keeping employees on the cutting edge of
knowledge and practice.

Unit task 3 Importance of customer relations

Unit task 4 Measures of performance

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Unit task 5 Revenue control in food and
beverage service

Unit task 6 Legal aspects in food and

beverage service

There are wide variety of legal requirements for food and beverage operations. These ranges from company law to the
licensing regulations or employment law.

Licensing
Licensed premises must, in order alcoholic liquor obtain a liquor license. The annual liquor is held once in an year by
the liquor licensing board. The premises must be ‘fit’, i.e. meet the requirements of the local authority, Police and fire
authority. Furthermore good order must be maintained, i.e.
 No drunkenness
 No violence
 No riotous conduct
 No prostitute
 No gaming (Unless also licensed)

Young Persons
It’s an offence to serve a persons under 18 in a licensed bar knowingly or un-knowingly. Its also an offence to allow
persons under 18 to consume alcoholic beverages. Similarly it’s an offence for persons under 18 to purchase or attempt
to purchase, or consume alcoholic beverages in a bar.

Sale of Goods and Trade Description

The sale of goods Act applies to the sale of goods by description. It clarifies that there is a implicit contract when the
caterer accepts the order of a customer. According to the Act the customer can refuse to pay or demand replacement if:

 The goods supplied do not correspond with the description, e.g. roast chicken which is in fact poached and
quickly grilled
 A displayed item is not what it seems, e.g. a sweet trolley where the cream, which reasonably one would expect
to be fresh, is in fact artificial. (Its makes no difference if the customer has partly or entirely consumed the purchase)
 Its in edible

The Trade Description Act makes it a criminal offence to misdescsribe goods or services. Care must be therefore
taken when:
 Wording menus and wine list
 Describing menu and beverage items to customers
 Describing conditions e.g. cover and service charges or extras
 Describing the service provision

A persons charged under the Act will have to prove that reasonable precaution were taken to ensure description would
not be misleading. However the Act also provides that defense of a charge would be if the description was:
 Result of pure mistake
 Result of information from another person
 Fault of someone else
 Result of accident or other cause beyond control of person concerned
 The person charged could not reasonably know the description was misleading

Discrimination
Discrimination on grounds of colour, race, creed or sex are outlawed. There must not be:
 Direct discrimination: e.g. refusing service to customers of particular, colour, race, creed or sex

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  Indirect discrimination: e.g. denying consumer services by imposition of unjustifiable conditions or
requirements which have colour, race, creed or sex implications.
 Discrimination through victimization: (a) e.g. refusal of provision: refusal of admission on basis of ethnic
origins or sex: (b) e.g. omission of provision: providing services to ethnic customers that are markedly inferior to
those available to the public in general or which may only be available at a price premium.

Health and Safety

There is a common law duty to care for all law full visitors. Essentially safety a civil duty and negligence is a criminal
offence. The implication for staff are that they should:
 Understand the food hygiene regulations and their responsibility to act within the bounds of these regulations
 Notify management of any major illnesses
 Perform duties in a hygienic manner and keep within food hygiene regulations
 Familiarize with all escape routes and fire exits in the building
 Take reasonable care for health and safety of themselves and others
 Report to duty manager any hazards which may cause injury or ill-health to customers or staff

25.4.02 BEVERAGE KNOWLEDGE

25.4.02T Specific Objectives:

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 explain the origin of different beverages
 classify the beverages
 explain beverage terminologies
 explain appropriate care and storage of beverages
 describe the types of wine and beverage lists
 outline the service procedures of beverages
 compile beverage lists
 design wine and drink lists
 match wine to food.

25.4.02 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Origin of beverages

Tea
While everyone knows where tea originated, no one knows when the now worldwide custom of tea infusion began. Its
origin is concealed in the shimmering mists of exotic legends of which the following is but one.
One of the Emperors of China, who lived 5,000 years ago, was an excellent ruler and always delighted in setting his
subjects good examples. One of these was that he always boiled his drinking water. One day a few leaves from the
branches which were burning under the pot of boiling water fell into it, giving it a delightful scent and flavor and
making the water a drink indeed fit for an emperor. The branches were those of the wild tea plant.
Apart from such charming fantasies however, what is certain about tea drinking is that it was widely practiced in China
a early as the 6th Century. In fact the first history of tea, the "Cha Ching", was written by a China-man around 800 AD
and in it is recorded the fact that in 793 AD the drinking of tea had become so widespread that a tax was levied on it.
The new drink spread to China's neighbor Japan, very quickly, the earliest record of tea drinking in that country was in
729 AD when the Emperor Shomu invited 100 Buddhist monks to take tea in his palace.
From that time on a most elaborate ritual grew up round the making of tea. It is called Cha-no-yu and is a long and
intricate ceremony in which the hostess, the guests, all the tea-making utensils and even the room in which the tea is

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taken play set parts. Nowadays tea is made and drunk according to Western standards but the old ceremony is still
taught and widely practiced.
By the time that the first European explorers returned from the Far East, tea had long been the national drink of both
China and Japan but it was not until the end of the 16th century that the English first heard of it.
Shortly afterwards, in 1610, the first consignment of tea reached Holland from whence the first imports came to
England.
Tea was first sold in the coffee houses that had sprung up all over the country but such was its almost immediate
popularity, not only as a drink but as a medicine that was reputed to have almost magical healing properties, that it soon
ousted coffee from general favor and by 1750 had become the principal beverage of all classes.
One of the main reasons for this was Britain's supremacy of the seas so making it easy for regular cargoes of tea to be
brought from China.
On the Continent, however, the main trade routes to the East were through the Mediterranean and overland so that
coffee, which lay so much nearer to hand, was easier to import. The result has been that apart from Britain and Holland,
both great maritime nations, coffee has remained the chief beverage on the continent.
In Russia, too, tea drinking became a national habit as their traders had direct access to China.
It may seem remarkable but it is nevertheless true that the habit of tea drinking in Britain led to three very important
consequences.
When tea was first imported from China the necessary utensils in which to infuse it and also those from which it was
drunk were imported with the tea itself, but later, various firms began to design and make teapots and cups and saucers
with the result that British pottery and earthenware industries received a tremendous impetus.
Before the year 1700 earthenware teapots and cups were being made in Staffordshire followed, early in the 18th
century, by the famous Staffordshire glazed teapots. Fifty years later the world famous firm of Wedgewood was
supplying most of the country with tea sets, while the colorful and exquisite porcelain of Worcester, Derby, Chelsea and
Bow graced the tea tables of the rich.
The second of the consequences inspired one of the most picturesque chapters in maritime history.
In 1833 the East India Company's monopoly of the tea trade, which it had held for many years, was abolished. As a
result, merchants began to look for faster transport than had been provided by the heavy, slow East India-men. Thus was
born the more beautiful and graceful of all the world's ships, the tea clippers. The first was the "Rainbow", launched in
1845 in New York, which did the return journey from New York to China in less time than the old ships had sailed one
way. This was followed in quick succession by many other famous clippers such as the British "Lightning", which
reached an average speed of 18 knots for 24 hours, an all-time record for sailing ships, and the still famous "Cutty Sark".
The third - and more tragic - consequence was the loss of America.
Tea drinking had been brought to the New World by the British and Dutch colonists and was as popular there as it was
at home.
It was in 1765 that the British Parliament began to tax the American colonies without the consent of their Assemblies
and tea was one of the commodities which was taxed. The colonists refused to pay it and in December 1773, to
demonstrate their determination to resist these taxes, they raided three tea ships that were in the harbor and threw
overboard £10,000 worth of tea. This was the celebrated and now historical "Boston Tea Party" which was the spark
that set off the American War of Independence and so lost America to the British Empire.
In 1823 wild tea was discovered in Assam. It was cultivated and with such good effect that in 1839 the first shipment of
Indian tea was brought to London.
In the meantime, Ceylon, which was dependent almost entirely upon its flourishing coffee trade, fell a victim to the
dreaded coffee blight and in 10 years the coffee industry was entirely wiped out. The planters then turned to tea and in a
very few years their tea production was rivaling that of India.
By the end of the century the export of tea from these two new sources was far greater than that of China.
Today India and (Ceylon) Sri Lanka exports millions of pounds of tea annually. The tea plant, which has so changed the
drinking habits of the world, is a hardy evergreen called Camellia Sinensis and would, if left in its natural state, grow
about thirty feet high.
Three types of tea are made, although they all come from the same plant, the difference being in the way the leaves are
processed.
The three varieties are called Black Tea, Green Tea and Oolong.

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Coffee

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 A cup of coffee

Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee
plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee is one of the
most traded commodities in the world, often described as being second only to crude oil[1] although this
often repeated "fact" should be subjected to more careful scrutiny.[2] Due to its caffeine content, coffee can
have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.[3]
It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in Arabia and
the south west of Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee expanded in the Arab world.[4] The earliest credible
evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the
Yemen in southern Arabia.[4] From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to
Indonesia, and to the Americas.[5]
Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of
the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown species are Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea
robusta) and Coffea arabica; less popular species are liberica, excelsa, stenophylla, mauritiana, racemosa.
These are cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are
picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted, undergoing several physical and chemical changes.
They are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavour. They are then ground and brewed to
create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.
Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used
in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of
Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.[6] It was banned in Ottoman Turkey in the 17th century for political
reasons,[7] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

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Preparation
Main article: Coffee preparation

Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown crema

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed in order to create a beverage. All methods of preparing coffee require the
beans to be ground and mixed with hot water for long enough to extract the flavor, but without boiling for more than an
instant; boiling develops an unpleasant "cooked" flavor. Finally the spent grounds are removed from the liquid, and the
liquid is drunk. There are many variations in the fineness of grind, the ways in which the water extracts the flavor,
additional flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and the removal of the spent grounds.
The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Extracting as much as possible from the beans (for
economy) tends to impair flavor[citation needed].
The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most coffee is roasted and
ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee beans can be ground at home, and it is possible,
though complex, to roast raw beans.
Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the bean; an electric grinder
smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the beans. For most brewing
methods, a burr mill is deemed superior because the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted.
The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the finest
grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between the
extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee-brewing machines.[62]
Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured.
Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.[63] It is prepared
by grinding or pounding the beans to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil for no more than
an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface
and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.[63]
Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee by gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker hot water drips
onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic, or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through
the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or
pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter.[64] (The Chemex coffeemaker operates under a similar principle but
uses only an hourglass shaped flask.) In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam
pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by
removing from the heat, by an internal timer,[64] or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches
a certain temperature. This thermostat also serves to keep the coffee warm (it turns on when the pot cools), but requires
the removal of the basket holding the grounds after the initial brewing to avoid additional brewing as the pot reheats.
Repeated boiling spoils the flavor of coffee.
Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière or coffee press).
Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter
which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom.
Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it
stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.[65] The coffee is poured from
the container; the filter retains the grounds at the bottom.
The espresso method forces hot (but not boiling) pressurized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under
high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the
amount of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical
constitution. A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.[62] The drink

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"Americano" is popularly thought to have been named after American soldiers in WW II who found the Italian way of
drinking espresso too strong; baristas would cut the espresso with hot water for them.

Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the common fern design layered into this
latte.
Coffee may also be brewed in cold water by steeping coarsely-ground beans in cold water for several hours, then
filtering[citation needed].
Presentation

French petit noir

A coffee cake.
Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee
may be served with no additives or sugar (colloquially known as black) or with milk, cream, or both. When served cold,
it is called iced coffee.
Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is served alone as a shot or
in the more watered-down style café américano—a shot or two of espresso with hot water added[66] (reversing the
process by adding espresso to hot water preserves the crema, and is known as a long black). Milk can be added in
various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a cafè latte,[67] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a
cappuccino,[66] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[68] The use of steamed milk to form
patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art.
A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. Instant
coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.[69] Canned
coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, and South Korea. Vending
machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot
and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are
typically lightly sweetened and preblended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the United States.[70]
Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for
thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and
costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is
preheated.[71]

Unit task 2 Classification of beverages

Definition: A drink, or beverage, is a liquid which is specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition to filling
a basic human need, beverages form part of the culture of human society. The beverages are classified as follows:

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 1. Alcoholic beverages
An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol
Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits.
 Beer has been a part of human culture for 8000 years.. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed
alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing
and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains barley, millet bananas, sugar cane, wheat,
maize, rice are widely used. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural
preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included.
 Wine is an alcoholic beverage typically made of fermented fruit juice. Examples of fruits used to make wine
include grapes, pawpaw, apples. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without
the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using
various types of yeast. Yeast consumes the sugars found in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different
varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the type of wine being produced.
 Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant wines are normally named
after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically
known as fruit wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term vin de pays). Others, such as
barley wine and rice wine (i.e., sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit more
than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to
the higher alcohol content, rather than production process. [4] The commercial use of the English word "wine"
(and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions. [5]

 Spirit
It’s a A distilled beverage, liquor, or spirit is a drinkable liquid containing ethanol that is produced by means of
distilling fermented grain, fruit, or vegetables.[1]This excludes undistilled fermented beverages such as beer and
wine, and often the term hard liquor is used to contrast distilled beverages from (implicitly weaker) undistilled
ones.
Beer and wine are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as most yeasts cannot reproduce when the
concentration of alcohol is above this level; consequently, fermentation ceases at that point.
The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% ABV. Popular spirits
include brandy, fruit brandy (aka eau-de-vie / Schnaps), gin, rum, tequila, vodka, and whisky.
Distilled beverages that are bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, and
American schnapps, are liqueurs. In common usage, the distinction between spirits and liqueurs is widely unknown or
ignored; consequently all alcoholic beverages other than beer and wine are generally referred to simply as spirits.
Fortified wines are created by adding a distilled beverage (often brandy) to a win

2. Non-alcoholic beverages

A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol. Non-alcoholic mixed drinks (including punches,
"virgin cocktails", or "mocktails") are often consumed by children, people whose religion restricts alcohol consumption,
recovering alcoholics, and anyone wishing to enjoy flavorful drinks without alcohol. They are often available as
alternative beverages in contexts (such as bars) where the norm is to drink alcoholic beverages.
Examples include Shirley Temples, Virgin Marys, and virgin-style Piña Coladas. Non-alcoholic beverages contain no
more than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that traditionally have no trace of alcohol such as
sodas, juices, and sparkling ciders. It also includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-
alcoholic beers and dealcoholized wines. Non-alcoholic beer can contain a small amount of alcohol (the exact
percentage varies by country), so purchasers of non-alcoholic beer in some US states must be at least 21.

Soft drinks
The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard drink" and the term "drink", the
latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries connotations of alcoholic content. Beverages like colas, sparkling
water, iced tea, lemonade, squash, and fruit punch are among the most common types of soft drinks, while hot
chocolate, hot tea, coffee, milk, tap water, alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall into this classification. Many carbonated
soft drinks are optionally available in versions sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric sweeteners.

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Hot Beverages
Hot beverages include the following:
o Coffee-based beverages
 Cappuccino
 Coffee
 Espresso
 Café au lait
 Frappé
 Flavored coffees (mocha etc.)
 Latte
o Hot chocolate
o Hot cider
 Mulled cider
o Glühwein
o Tea-based beverages
 Flavored teas (chai etc.)
 Green tea
 Pearl milk tea
 Tea
o Herbal teas
 Yerba Mate
o Roasted grain beverages
 Sanka
Cocktails
A cocktail is a style of mixed drink. Originally a mixture of distilled spirits, sugar, water, and bitters, the word has
gradually come to mean almost any mixed drink containing alcohol.[2]
A cocktail today usually contains one or more types of liquor and one or more mixers, such as bitters, fruit juice, fruit,
soda, ice, sugar, honey, milk, cream, or herbs.[3]
They are usually a mixture of one or more ingredients

Fresh fruit can be

used to make
cocktails with other
ingredients like
 Fortified wines
 Eggs
Grape fruit cocktail  Cream
Ingredients

i) 3 pieces fully ripe grape fruits

ii) 1 piece ripe orange
iii) 3 pieces cocktail cherries

Method
i) Wash and prepare the grape fruit and oranges
ii) Extract the juices using juice extractor
iii) Chill and mix in cocktail glasses
iv) Serve the glass on the side dish/plate lined with paper napkin

Others
Masala buttermilk.

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Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending
upon their thickness and solid ingredients.
 Buttermilk
 Soup
 Yogurt
Unit task 3 Beverage terminologies
 Aperitifs
It’s a pre-dinner drink taken to stimulate the appetite. Most aperitifs are dry to taste because dry beverages
stimulate the appetite, while sweet drinks tend to dull appetite. In spite of this some guests may prefer sweet drinks
such as a sweet sherry before a meal.
A good waiter will never make a guest uncomfortable because of the drink they chose no matter how in appropriate
it is. Popular aperitifs include:
 Dry champagne
 Pre-diner cocktails
 Dry sherry
 Dry Vermouth
 A proprietary aperitif e.g. Campari
 Table wines
Table wine is a wine term which is used in two different meanings in different countries: to signify a wine style and
as a quality level within wine classification.
These include red, white and rose wines and are referred to still wines as they lack carbonation. These wines are
further classified into dry and sweet wines. Dry will mean that there is little or no sugar content
 Dessert wines
Dessert wines are rich and sweet. They are designed to be consumed with sweet food items.
 Fortified wines
These are wines fortified by addition of alcohol either during or after fermentation. This increases the alcohol
content from 15 to 21 %. Examples are sherry, port, Madeira and Marsala. This wines are drank before or after a
meal
 Champagne and spackling wines
Sparkling wines get their sparkle or effervescence from carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is produced naturally in the
process of fermentation and can be retained to produce a sparkling wine.
 Spirits
Spirits are distilled alcoholic beverages. Distillation is the process of converting liquid into vapour by heating and
then condensing the vapour back to liquid form. Almost any fruit or vegetable can be crushed to liquid, fermented
and then distilled to make a spirit. Examples of spirits are: whiskies, gin, rum, vodka and brandy.
 Beers

 Liqueurs
 Cocktails
 Aerated waters

Unit task 4 Service procedures of different beverages

After the food order has been taken the wine list is presented to the host so that He/She may order wine for the party to
accompany the meal the have ordered. The sommelier of the wine waiter should be able to advice and
suggest wines from the wine list. It should be remembered that all red wines are served at room
temperatures, white and rose wines chilled and sparkling wines well chilled.
Serving Temperatures
 For red wines: 15.5 – 18o C ( 60 -65 oF)
 Some young red wines also may be drunk cool at about 12.5 – 15.5o C ( 55 -60 oF)
 White wines: 10 – 12.5o C (50 -55 oF)
 Dessert wines, champagne and other sparkling white wines: 4.5 -10o C (40 – 50 oF)

Glasses for wines

The following wines may be served in the types of glasses indicated below
 Champagne and other sparkling wines:
- Flute
 German and Alsace wines: German wine glasses

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  White wines: Medium - size wine glass
 Rose wines: Flute
 Red wines: Large wine glass

Scan from food and beerage service by Lillicrap 6th edition Page 230 and page 180: serving food and drink; table and
function by Ann Gureid
 White wines
i) Obtain the wine from the dispense bar check that the order is collect and the wine is properly
temperatured and clear
ii) Take to the table in a ice bucket
iii) Present the bottle to the host showing the label
iv) Ensure the collect glasses are place on the table for the wine to be served
v) See that a clean serviette is tied to the handle of the ice bucket
vi) Cut the foil, remove and wipe the top of the cork with the serviette
vii) Remove the cork in the accepted fashion. Smell the cork in case the wine ‘Corked’. Place the cork in
the ice bucket
viii) If the wine concerned is a chateau-bottled wine, then the cork would generally be placed on the side
plate at the head of the host cover. The cork should have the name of the chateau concerned and the
year of the wine printed on it.
ix) Wipe the inside of the neck of the bottle with serviette
x) Wipe the bottle dry
xi) Hold the bottle for pouring in a fashion that the label may be seen. Use the waiters clothe folded, to
catch any drips.
xii) Give a taste to the host, pouring from the right. He/She should acknowledge that the wine is suitable -
collect taste, bouquet and temperature.
xiii) Serve ladies first, then gentlemen and the host last. Always commencing from the host right.
xiv) Fill each glass two thirds full. This leaves room for an appreciation of the bouquet.
xv) Replace the remaining wine in the wine bucket and refill the glasses when necessary.
xvi) If a fresh bottle is required, then fresh glasses should be placed upon the table
xvii) On finishing pouring a glass of wine, twist the neck of the bottle and raise it at the same time. This
prevents any drips from falling on the table clothe.
 Red Wine
The cork should be removed from the bottle of red wine as early as possible so that the wine may attain room
temperature naturally. If the red wine to be opened is young the bottle may stand on an under plate or coaster on the
table and be opened from this position, the basic procedure being similar to opening a bottle of white wine. There is
no technical reason why the red should be served in the bottle in a wine basket or wine cradle.

If the wine is of age and or is likely to have heavy sediments, then the wine should be decanted. It should be placed
in a wine basket and first presented to the customer. Placing the bottle in a wine basket keeps the bottle relatively
and ensures that sediments are not shaken up. The procedure of serving red wine is the same as that of the whine
wine.

It should then be opened in the basket and poured in one operation into a clean decanter.

Procedure for decanting wine

i) Handle the bottle carefully or use a candle or decanting basket to prevent disturbing the sediments.
ii) Present the bottle to the customer to confirm that the wine is correct
iii) Obtain a clean, dry decanter at room temperature,
iv) Warm the decanter if you need to raise the temperature of the wine.
v) If you are use a straining funnel, place it inside the neck of the decanter and, if necessary, line it clean,
dry muslin.
vi) Open the bottle following the procedure for still wines.
vii) Take care not to turn of jerk the bottle.
viii) Use a candle or other light as a background to highlight the level of wine in the bottle.
ix) Raise the bottle slowly and pour the wine gently holding the bottle against the wine so that you can see
inside.

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 x) As soon as the sediments, which appears as dark
cloud in the wine get near to the shoulder of the
bottle slow down and stop pouring to prevent the
sediments entering the decanted wine.

Scan from Serving food and drink: Table and function Page 200

 Sparkling Wine

The wine should be served well chilled in order to obtain the full effect of secondary fermentation in the bottle,
namely effervesce and bouquet. The sparkle in the wine is caused by carbon dioxide gas which is trapped in the
bottle and dissolved in the wine. Care should be taken when opening sparkling wines

Procedures
i) After presenting the bottle to the host it should be placed in a wine cooler. Tear a way the foil cover to
reveal the wire muzzle covering the cork.
ii) Hold the bottle at an angle between 30 and 40o from the upright. Point the cork away from your body
and away from the table area, other members of staff or windows.
iii) Keep your hand over the cork, carefully untwist the wire muzzle. Slide your thumb under the wires and
lift off the muzzle any carp over the cork. Once the muzzle is removed, you should not take your hand
off the cork.
iv) Holding the cork with your left hand, wrap the bottle with a service clothe
v) Keeping your left hand on the cork, gently turn the bottle not the cork
vi) As the cork eases out, release it slowly until it gently pops out.

NB: Make sure that you have a glass close by in case the wine begins to fizz out. Serve immediately by pouring into the
customers’ glasses. With each glass wait until the froth subsides then fill each glass about two thirds full. Seal an
unfinished bottle with a stopper.

Scan from Serving food and drink: Table and function Page 199

 Service of Beer
Beer should be served at a temperature of 12.5 – 15.5 (oC (55 -60 oF) with lagers generally cooler than other beers
at 8.0 -10.5 oC (48 -51 oF). Many different varieties of bottled beers are also served chilled. Also draught beer on its
own route from the keg/cask to the pump often passes through a chilling unit. Draught beers should have a small
head on them and the bar person should ensure that He/She serves the correct quantity of beer with a small head and
not a large head to make up the quantity required. One may note the good condition of the beer if the head or froth
clings to the inside of the glass. All glasses should be spotlessly clean with no finger marks, grease or lipstick on
them. Otherwise the beer will go flat very quickly. Extra care must be taken when pouring beer in hot weather as
this causes the beer to work much more. The neck of the bottle should not be placed in the beer when pouring,
especially when two bottles are being held and poured from the same hand. Where bottled beers have sediments,
when pouring a little beer must be left at the base of the bottle holding the sediments back.

Have an illustration here

Procedure or serving Beer

i) Carry a cold beer glass an opener a bottle of beer to the table on a service tray
ii) Hold the tray behind the head of the guest to be served
iii) Pick up the glass at its base and place it on the guest’s right
iv) Place the tray on the table and open the beer holding with the right hand and with the label clearly
showing to the guest

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 v) Check for flatness and chipping of the bottle
vi) Pour the beer into the glass on the table so that the flow is directed to the inside opposite edge of the
glass. Pour slowly so that a head can form.
vii) Continue pouring until the glass is full with a well rounded head.
viii) If the bottle still contain some beer, place it on the table to the right of the glass, with the label facing
the guest.

Types of beer glasses

 Half pint/pint tankards for the draught beer
 Pint tumblers for draught beer
 Tumblers for any bottled beer
 34.08 cl (12 fluid oz) short stemmed beers for Bass/ Worthington/Guinness
 Lager glass for lager
 22.7.2, 28.4.0, 34.80 cl (8,10,12flz) Paris goblets for brown/pale/strong ales

Scan beer glasses introduction to F&B service by Graham Brown PG 129

Service of Liqueurs
Liqueurs are generally offered from a liqueur trolley. The wine butler should present the trolley immediately the
sweet course is finished to ensure that any liqueur required will be on the table by the time coffee is served. The
wine butler must have good knowledge of liqueurs, their bases and flavours, and their correct mode of service.
Traditionally all liqueurs were served in an Elgin-shaped liqueurs glass but many alternatives are now used.
If a guest asks for a liqueur to be served frappe, then its served on crushed ice. A larger will then have to be used.
The glass should be two thirds filled with crushed ice and then the measure of liqueur poured over. Two short
drinking straw should be place into the glass and then served, e.g. Crème de Menthe frappe.
If a liqueur is requested with crème, them the crème is slowly poured over the back of a teas spoon to settle on the
top of selected liqueur, without mixing with it. And no circumstances should the liqueur and cream be mixed
together, e.g. Tia Maria with cream.

Basic Equipment Required in Liqueur Trolley

 Assorted liqueurs
 Assorted glasses
- Liqueur/brandy/port
 Draining stand: 25 and 50 ml measures
 Service salver
 Jug of double cream
 Teaspoon
 Drinking straws
 Cigars
 Matches
 Cigar cutter
 Wine list and check pad
Other items served from liqueur trolley may be brandy and port. For service brandy requires a 25 ml measure and
port a 50 ml measure

Service of cocktails
Cocktails should always served well chilled in an appropriately sized glass with the correct garnish, straw, umbrella
according to the policy of the establishment. Many cocktails are served in the traditional V-Shaped cocktail glass
but if to be consumed as a long drink, then a larger glass such as a slim jim should be better suited. The key
consideration here should be the total presentation of the cocktail as seen visually by the customer.

Service On Non Alcoholic Beverages

Water
i) Water goblets should be kept on the right at the tip of the large knife
ii) Water is served from the right after the guest has taken his seat
iii) Water is served from a jug with a folded waiter clothe under it to prevent it from spilling on to the table
iv) Water should be filled ¾ below the rim of the glass
v) Water should always be chilled, unless the guest asks for water at normal temperature

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 vi) The water jug should be covered with a folded waiter clothe when kept out of the side board

Refreshing Drinks
i) Aerated drinks like coca cola, lemonades and others are served in high-ball glasses
ii) Tall drinks e.g. shakes, floats and house cocktails are served in Tom Collins
iii) Certain tall drinks require long spoons which must be presented on quarter plates with a doily paper on
it
Coffee and Tea
The exact procedure for servicing coffee and tea at table will vary depending on the venue, the style of
service and equipment available
The preparatory steps for coffee and tea service are the same
Procedure
i) Take the order
ii) Place the accompanying items (Sugar, Milk and if required cream and lemon) An under liner may be
used to present these items. Make sure the sugar bowl has clean spoon with it.
iii) Place a cup and saucer and a teaspoon from each guest right. If coffee or tea are being served with
cheese or dessert or afternoon, the cup and saucer are placed to the right of the cover
iv) If tea or coffee are being served at the end of a meal after the table has been cleaned the cup and saucer
should be placed near the centre of the cover
v) The handle of he cup should be to its right and the teaspoon should be placed at a 45 o angle on the
saucer just behind the handle
Teas
The ritual for serving tea allows the guests to pour for themselves
Present the teapot and its accompanying hot water port on an under plate with a tea-strainer and a small
napkin
A strainer unnecessary if tea bags have been used. If teabags have been used they should be served with tea
bag strings and labels hanging out so that the customer can see the type of tea being used. Napkin is used
to assist the guests to hold the hot pots while pouring
Place the under plate to the right of the guest of the guest with the with the handles of tea pot and hot water
pot directed to the guests

Coffee
Coffee is served from the right of the guest. If the coffee pot has a short spout, pick the cup and bring it up
to the pot to fill it. If the pot has a long spout, pour the coffee straight into the cup on the table. In formal
silver service present the coffee pot and milk jug on an under liner and then pour coffee and milk for the
guests. Coffee and tea can both be prepared and served from gueridon. If specialty coffees and teas are
served the gueridon enables you to make the most of their presentation liqueur coffee are particularly suited
to preparation on the gueridon

Hot Chocolate
This is usually served in cups prepared in the still area. The cups are served from the guests right.

Unit task 5 Care and storage of beverages

Beer
Faults in beer can usually be contributed to poor cellar management
Cloudy beer
This may be due too a low temperature in the cellar or more often, may result from the beer pipes not having been
cleaned properly

Flat beer
This may result when a wrong spile has been used – a hard spile builds up pressure, a soft spile releases pressure. When
the cellar temperature is too low, beer often becomes dull and lifeless. Dirty glasses and those that have been refilled for
a customer who has been eating food, will also cause beer to go flat.

Sour
This may result in
 The beer being left on ullage for too long .

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 Sourness may also be caused by adding stale beer to a new cask.
 By beer coming in contact with old deposits of yeast which have become lodged in the pipeline from the cellar

Beer Storage and equipment

Beer engines
These are pumps pulled by hand using a handle in the bar. They must be cleaned weekly when the pipe-line are cleaned
and must be stripped down and inspected on a monthly basis. New washers may be needed, etc. Some engines work by
carbon dioxide top pressure, which applies force downwards on to the beer in the cask and drives a measured amount up
into the bar when a button is pressed

Dip-sticks
These are used to determine how much beer is left in the cask. The dip-stick is placed into the cask through the shive.

Electrical impelled pumps

Electrical impelled pumps, situated in the cellar, dispense an accurate amount of beer into the glass in the bar when the
bartender presses the button.

Filters
Filters must only be used in the cellar to return sound beer to the cask – for instance, beer which has been drawn out of
the popes before pipe-cleaning started. Filters must be kept clean and used with clean filter papers
To filter beer is not in itself illegal, but to return to cask any over-spill or ‘slops’ is an offence. To mix or dilute beer in
the cask, or to adulterate any produce for sale, is also an offence
Pipe Cleaning
These are used to clean pressurized container pipe-lines. With the gas turned off, the assembly head should be taken
form the keg and locked onto the two-gallon cleaning bottle containing cleaning fluid. The CO2 should be turned on and
the pipes filled with the fluid. Afyer about one hour the process should be repeated using clean water. Automatic beer-
line cleaning equipment is also now popular.

Scotches
Triangular blocks of wood which are used to prevent a beer cask from rolling from side to side.

Shives and spiles

Shives are round pieces of hard wood which are placed in the bung-hole of the beer cask just before it is sent out of the
brewery after filling. The shive has a small hole in the centre which does not go completely through the wood. When the
cask is vented, the hole is completed by punching ot the thin centre section with a wooden mallet. The hole will permit
gas to escape from the cask. Spiles are used in the hole to allow or prevent the CO2 gas fromescaping. They are small
pegs made of different types of wood. The hard-wood spile, when placed in the shive, does not allow any gas to escape.
Instead, pressure builds up in the cask and the beer regains its conditional (frothy head). The softer porus spile is made
from bamboo and when placed in the shive, it allows the gas to escape and so prevents the beer from being too gassy
and difficult to serve.

Stillions
Cask in use (on ullage) will be supported on stillions (or thrawls). A stillion is the wooden rack or brick platform upon
which the casks are placed for service. Keg pressurized beer containers are usually situated together in one area of the
cellar along with the necessary CO2 gas cylinders or bracketed to the wall.

Factors determining good cellar management

i) Good ventilation
ii) Cleanliness
iii) Even temperature of 13 -15 oC
iv) Strong draughts and wide ranges of temperatures should be avoided
v) On delivery, all casks should be placed immediately upon the stillions
vi) Casks remaining on the floor should be bung uppermost to better withstand the pressure
vii) Spilling should take place to reduce excess pressure in the cask
viii) Tappings should be carried out 24 hours before a cask is required
ix) Pipes and engines should be cleaned at regular intervals

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x) All beer lines should be cleaned weekly with diluted pipe-clening fluid and other cellar floor washed down weekly
with weak solution of chloride and lime (mild bleach)
xi) Beer left in piped after closing time should be drawn off
xii) Returned beer should be taken that the cellar is not overstocked
xiii) Care should be taken that the cellar is not overstocked
xiv) All spiles removed during the service should be replaced after closing time
xv) All cellar equipment should be kept scrupulously clean
xvi) Any ullage should be returned to the brewery as soon as possible
xvii) Re-ordering should be carried out on one set day every week after stocking the bottle stocks of beers, wines,
minerals, etc. strict rotation of stock must be exercised, with new crates placed at the rear and old stock pulled out
front for first issue (FIFO).

Storage of wines

Wine should be stored in a cellar which is:

i) Free from vibrations, excessive dampness, draughts and unwanted odours
ii) Very clean
iii) Well ventilated
iv) With only subdued lighting
v) A constant cool temperature of 12.5 oC (55 oF) help wine develop gradually
Table wines should be stored on their sides in bins so that the wine remains in contact with the cork. This keeps the cork
expanded and prevents air from entering the wine thus turning it into vinegar.
 White, spackling and rose wines are kept in the coolest part of the cellar and in bins nearest the ground to allow
warm air rise away.
 Red wines are best stored in the upper bins. Commercial establishment usually have special refrigerators or cooling
cabinets for keeping their sparkling, white and rose wines at serving temperatures

Other Drinks
Spirits, liqueurs, juices and minerals waters are stored upright in their containers, as are fortified wines. The exceptions
are port-style wines which are destined for lying down.

Foreign bodies
Foreign bodies or extraneous matter may be the result of production slip-ups
Unit task 6 Wine and beverage lists
Types of wines and drinks lists
(a) Bar and cocktail lists
These may range from a basic standard list offering the common everyday aperitifs such as sherries, vermouths, bitters,
and selection of spirits with mixes, beers and soft drinks together with a limited range of cocktails to a very
comprehensive list offering a good choice in all areas.
The actual format and content would be determined of operation and clientèle you wish to attract.

Dependent on this, the emphasis may be in certain areas such as:

 Cocktails: traditional or fashionable
 Malt Whiskies
 Beers
 New World wines
 Non-alcoholic drinks

Unit task 7 Matching wine to food

A few general pointers are set out below that may be followed when advising the customer on which beverage to choose
to accompany a meal. However, it must be stressed that customers should at all times be given complete freedom in
their selection of wines.
1. Aperitif are alcoholic beverages that are drunk before the meals. If wine will be consumed with the meal, then
the Aperitif selected should be a 'grape' (Wine – based ) rather a 'grain' (Spirits – based) Aperitif, since the
later can spoil or dull palate.

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The aperitif is usually a wine base beverage. It is meant to stimulate the appetite and therefore should not be sweet. Dry
and medium dry Sherries, dry vermouth and Sercial or Vedelho Madeira are good examples of Aperitifs
2. The starter courses are best accompanied by a dry white or dry rose wine
3. National dishes should be complemented by national wines of that country. For instance Italian red wine should
be served with pasta.
4. Fish and shell fish dishes are best suited to well chilled dry white wines
5. Red meats such as beef and lambs blend and harmonize well with red wine
6. While meats such as veal and pork are acceptable with medium white wines
7. Game dishes require heavier and more robust red wines to complement the flavour of these dishes
8. Sweet and desserts are served at the end of the meal and here its acceptable to offer well chilled sweet white
wines. These wines harmonise best with dishes containing fruit.
9. The majority of cheeses blend well with port and other dry robust red wines. Port is the traditional wine
harmonizing best with Stilton cheese.
10. The grain and fruit best brandies and liqueurs best harmonizes will with coffee .
A few general guidelines will ensure the most appropriate wine are selected to accompany a meal.

 Champagne and sparkling complement most foods

 Serve red with red meat and whine wine with white meat
 If unsure, often a rose will suffice
 Serve white wine before red wine
 Serve dry wine before sweet wine
 Serve a 'good” before a 'great' one.
 Commence with a grape aperitif rather than a grain aperitif prior to the meal.
 Make sure your wine is at the correct temperature

25.4.03 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE PROCEDURES

25.4.03T Specific Objectives:

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
d) carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place
e) carry out the details of briefing sessions
f) identify tools used in selling food and beverage
g) take food and beverage orders
h) serve food and beverage using the correct sequence
i) bill served food and beverage
j) practice skills when serving food and beverage
k) perform post-service tasks
l) carry out supervisory tasks

25.4.03 C Unit Tasks

The trainee should have the ability to:
i) carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place
ii) carry out the details of briefing sessions
iii) identify tools used in selling food and beverage
iv) take food and beverage orders
v) serve food and beverage using the correct sequence
vi) bill served food and beverage
vii) apply the right skills when serving food and beverage
viii) perform post-service tasks
ix) carry out supervisory tasks

Content
Unit task 1 Carrying out mis-en-scene and
mis-en-place
Unit task 2 Carry out briefing sessions

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Unit task 3 Food and beverage selling tools

Unit task 4 Taking food and beverage orders

Presenting the menu
, After showing customers to the table the waiter or the restaurant manager may present the menus or the menu may
already be on the table.
Sometimes the menu or the specials of the day are displayed on a board in this case point the board out to customers.
In some pretentious restaurants, the host is given a menu with prices, while the host's guests have un-priced menus.
Draw customers' attention to the menu, explain how it works. Is it A la carte - individually priced or is it all at a set
price, mention any information not in the menu, e.g. what the dish and soup of the day is, or any dishes which are
unavailable.
Describe dishes or special offers you have been asked to promote.
Advising on customers' choice
You should be ready to tell customers about:
· any items not available
· specialities of the day and special promotions, as briefed by your supervisor/manager/the chef
· for each dish the main ingredients and summary of how it is made
· dishes that take a long time to prepare, and those which might suit someone in a hurry
· dishes available for vegetarians and those on special diets (e.g. no dairy products) or with allergies to certain
foods (e.g. celiacs or nuts)
· what variations to dishes are possible, e.g. baked potato, not chips, with any main course
 price of dishes not on menu.
Taking the order
The aims are the same - whether you are using a hand-held terminal linked to a computer, a simple order pad, or relying
entirely on your memory.
1 To find out what the customers require to eat and drink.
2 To pass this information on to those responsible for preparing the food and drink (computerised systems print
the order out in the kitchen and dispense bar).
- To calculate the amount which customers have to pay. If payment has been made in advance, or the
meal is part of a package (e.g. hotel prices which include breakfast and/or dinner), this information
helps check for discrepancies between meals served and meals paid for.
Copies of orders may also be used to:
· compare the amount of food purchased with the number of meals served
· monitor popularity of different items
· account for or marry up to customer orders with the amount of cash taken.
Some restaurants operate a system where all orders are taken by the restaurant manager, head waiter or waitress. In
some establishments the customers may write their own order down and present it to the staff.
Preprinted order forms with dish/item names, and hand-held computer terminals are no common methods for taking
orders. Tick or type in the code allocated to the dish or press the preprogrammed key. Some systems will give you a
prompt for with additional selling opportunities 'Ice cream?' (with apple pie) or reminders 'How done?' (for steak).
Customer skills when taking orders
1 If the customers are not ready to order, offer to return to the table.
2 Face the customers as they make their choice. Look at them when they speak.
3 Show respect for the customers and try to project your wish to help them enjoy their meal. This may mean a
strictly upright posture and 'Thank you, ma'am', or sitting at the table with a customer dining alone, or kneeling
on the floor beside a group of customers. It may mean being jovial and chatty, or quiet and respectful.
4 Decide whose order you should take first. It is usual to take women's orders before men's, and the host last.
Asking who's ready to order is another possibility, customers sometimes take turns to order or one will order
for the rest of the party.
5 Be patient when customers are indecisive or change their minds. Offer some suggestions, or try to gently
guide them to a decision.
6 Prompt for further requirements. 'Would you like a side salad?' Done well, this will boost sales and increase
customer satisfaction.
7 Don't promise what can't be delivered: 'That should be no problem, but I'll just check with the chef.'
Read back the order to check you have each detail correct. Mistakes annoy customers and cause trouble with the
kitchen.

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  Ensure the guests are ready to order.
 Take the order of the guests on the right of the host right but the guest's left.
Work anti-clockwise around the table, finishing with the host's order.
 Take the order up to and including the main course.
 Note any special requirements e.g special dietary needs or service requirement eg quick service.
 Repeat the order to the guest to ensure that the order is correct.
 Transfer the order to the kitchen docket (using either a manual or computer system) including the special
instructions.
 Record the sale for billing purposes, following the house control system.
 Place the order with the kitchen.

Unit task 5 Sequence of serving food and beverage.

A written checklist of service ensures that there is consistency of service offered and acts as a guide. Those procedures
vary in diffferent establishments but they are the generally acepted procedures for restaurant table service.
 Greet and seat the guests.
 Open the napkins.
 Offer iced water.
 Take orders for aperitifs.
 Serve the bread and butter.
 Offer the menu , suggest specials and inform the guest of variations to the menu.
 Allow time for the guests to make their choices.
 Take the food order up to and including the main course.
 Offer the wine list.
 Transfer the food order to the kitchen and cashier dockets and place the order with the kitchen.
 Take the wine order.
 Serve the wine.
 Correct the covers, up to and including the main course.
 Serve the first course.
 Clear the first course.
 Top up wines and open fresh bottles as ordered.
 Serve additional starter courses.
 Clear the course preceding the main course.
 Call away the main course.
 Serve the salad.
 Serve the main course.
 En-quire (after the guests have had the opportunity to taste the food) whether the meals are satisfactory.
 Clear the main course.
 Clear the side plates, salad plates and butter dishes.
 Check and if necessay change ash trays.
 Brush/crumb down.
 Offer hot or cold towells.
 Offer the wine list for the selection of dessert wines.
 Offer the menu for dessert, suggesting specials and inform guests of varriations on the menu.
 Take dessert or cheese order.
 Transfer the dessert order to the kitchen and cashier dockets and place the order with the kitchen.
 Correct the covers.
 Serve the desert wine or other selected beverages.
 Serve the desert or cheese course.
 Take the order for coffee/tea.
 Transfer the coffee/tea order to the cashier docket.
 Take the after dinner drinks order.
 Correct the cover.
 Serve the after dinner drinks.

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  Serve the coffee/tea.
 Serve petits fours.
 Prepare the bill.
 Offer additional coffee/tea.
 Present the bill when it is requested.
 Accept payment and tender change.
 Offer additional coffee/tea.
 See the guests out of the restaurant.

Unit task 6 Billing served food and beverage

Unit task 7 Practicing interpersonal skills
when serving food and beverage.

Unit task 8 Performing post-service tasks.

Unit task9 Performing supervisory tasks

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Textbook
- Wine and drink list
- Beverage lists
- Big ‘5’
- Materials and Equipment
- Resource person
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Research work
- Observation
- Demonstrations
- Field trips
- Role playing
- Compiling beverage list
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Assignments
- Reports

25.4.04 THE BAR

25.4.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
h) define terms
i) identify types of bars and bar lay-outs
j) explain factors to consider when setting up a bar
k) set up a bar
l) carry out bar service
m) carry out post service tasks

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25.4.04C Unit Tasks

Unit task1 Definition of terms

Unit task 2 Types of bars and bar lay-outs
Unit task3 Factors to consider when setting up a bar
Unit task4 set up a bar
Unit task 5 carry out bar service
Unit task 6 carry out post service tasks

25.4.05 SPECIALIZED FORMS OF SERVICE

25.4.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 definition of terms
 describe specialized forms of service
 carry out bookings of specialized forms of service
 carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place of specialized forms of food and beverage service
 carryout out post service tasks
 discuss challenges of specialized forms of service

25.4.05 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Meaning of specialized service

Unit task2 Specialized forms of service

a. Floor/Room service
Floor or room service varies from basic 'in room' tea and coffee making facilities, as well as mini-bars, to vending
machines on floors, or to the service of a variety of meals in rooms. In five-star hotels 24-hour room service is expected.

FULL & PARTIAL ROOM SERVICE

Service may be operated from a floor pantry. An alternative system is where all food and beverages come from a central
kitchen and are sent to the appropriate floor by lift and then taken to the rooms possibly in a hot trolley.
Floor service staff must have considerable experience as they have to deal with the service of all types of meals and
beverages.
Floor service staff work on a shift system as the service has to be provided 24 hours a day. The guests may call for
service by pressing a button which lights up a series of coloured light5s in the corridor or pantry. The customer may
telephone directly to the floor pantry or reception or restaurant or dining room. A food or wine check must be made out
for all request from the guest. In the event of a special luncheon or dinner parties a bill must be made out and presented
to the host who will sign to show that the services listed have been received. All checks once signed by the guest should
be passed immediately to the reception or control so that the services rendered may be charged to the account.
The pantry holds equipment required for the preparation and service of any meal. This include:
 sink unit
 hotplate
 refrigerator
 lift to central kitchen
 salamander
 open gas range
 small still set or other coffee making machine
 cutting boards
 knives
 storage space shelves and cupboards for china
 china
 silverplate, hollow-ware
 cutlery, flatware
 glassware
 cruets, worchester sauce, sugar, etc

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  linen
 gueridon trolley
 chafing lamps and suzzette pans
 wine service equipment, wine buckets, stands baskets, etc
Sufficient equipment must be available to enable efficient service to be given at all times and a high standard
maintained.
The service staff carry out all their own pre-service preparation (mise-en-place) before the service of a meal. This
includes the checking and refilling of cruets and their accompaniments, laying up of tables, washing and polishing of
glasses, cleaning of trays and so on. A strict control of all equipment is essential and to this end it should be noted that
some establishments provide a different style and design of china, etc, for the service of meals on the floors.
Finally, it is sufficient to say that the floor service staff should ensure that all rooms are cleared as soon as meals are
finished so as not to be in the way when rooms are being cleaned.

Breakfast only service

in some hotels only breakfast service is available, which is provided by the housekeeping staff. An example of a
breakfast menu is shown below

Insert image fromFood and beverage service by Lilicrap Pg 328

this menu also acts as an order which, when completed is hang on the outside of the guest bedroom. The bottom portion
of the card is detachable and sent to the billing office for charging the guests account. The remaining portion goes to the
floor service pantry or central kitchen. Trays are then made up and delivered to the room within the appropriate time
range.

Laying-up of a breakfast tray is almost the same as a full English or Continental breakfast in the restaurant with a few
exceptions which are :
 A tray cloth replaces the table cloth
 Underplates are usually left out because of lack of space and to reduce weight
 There will be no ashtray or table number on the tray
Before taking the tray to the room or apartment it is important to check that nothing is missing and that the hot food is
hot. The beverage and toast should be the last in the tray for this reason.
Insert image fromFood and beverage service by Lilicrap Pg 329
Positioning of items on the tray is important. The items should be placed so that everything may be easily reached as it
helps balance the tray. Any bottled sauce should be laid flat to avoid accidents when carrying. On arriving on apartment
door the staff should knock loudly, wait for a reply and then enter. Place the tray on the bedside table. After about 45
minutes the staff should return to the room, follow the same procedure and ask if it is convenient to clear. When
breakfast service is finished all equipment must be washed up and foodstuffs ie milk, butter, rolls and preserves should
be returned to the still room or place in the refrigerator or store cupboard for reuse.
Standard stock for facilities for making tea and coffee are:
 teacup and saucer
 teaspoon (one per person)
 tea/coffee pot (or both)
 kettle (self switching)
 selection of tea, coffee, sugar, chocolate, creamer, non-sugar sweetener and biscuits.
The stock should be replaced each day by the room attendants.

b. Lounge service
Ranges from the service of continental breakfast, morning coffee, luncheon snacks, afternoon tea, dinner or late evening
snacks as well as alcoholic beverages.

ORGANISATION
In first class establishments, lounge staff may possibly from their own service pantry. However, in most instances, the
lounge staff work and liaise with the still-room or one of the dispense bars for the service of all types of beverages
required.
The staff may have a small service cupboard which hold the following items:
1. Small linen stock
2. Salvers
3. Ashtrays
4. Assorted glasses

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 5. Cups, saucers and teaspoons for the service of hot beverages
6. Dry goods: coffee, sugar and sugar
7. Check pads, bill pads, stock sheets for alcoholic drinks
8. Basic alcoholic drink stock for use when guests must be served in the lounge because bars are closed to
include:
-spirits -brandies -mineral water
-aperitifs -liqueurs -soft drinks
-wines
9. Cocktail snacks:
-cocktail onions -salted peanuts -gherkins
-cocktail cherries -olives -cheese sticks etc
10. Other beverages:
-horlicks -bovril -cocoa
-ovaltine -tisanes -chocolate
The lounge staff must be prepared for the service of the following in the lounge:
 Morning coffee
 Aperitifs and cocktails before the luncheon
 Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after luncheon
 Afternoon tea
 Aperitifs and cocktails before dinner
 Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after dinner
 Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after dinner
 Service of late night beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic
 Other snacks throughout the day depending on the type of establishment
A tight control must be kept on all items served. It is normal for a chance guest to pay cash for a service rendered, but a
resident may not wish to pay cash and the lounge staff must then ensure that the guest signs the check to confirm the
services received.
The check must have the appropriate room number against it. The amount outstanding should then be charged to the
guest's account which will be paid when he/she leaves the establishment at the end of the visit.
All checking should be in triplicate with one copy to the supply section, a second to the cashier for billing and the third
remains with the waiter for reference during service.
Stocking should be held at regular intervals with the occasional spot checks on certain items. Stock sheets should be
completed daily.
Lounge staff commence preparation in the morning ensuring the lounge is clean and keep it presentable at all times.
For some service in the lounge, e.g. afternoon tea, a buffet may be set up to display the range of foods on offer.
Alternatively, a gueridon may be used to offer a selection of foods to customers seated within the lounge areas.

c. Hospital Tray service

The development of the hospital catering service goes back to the National Health Act 1947.
Before this time all hospitals were dependent on income from patients’ fees, private donations, proceeds from garden
parties etc.
Owing to this, the service of food and drink varied considerably from one hospital to another and generally went bad to
worse.
Very little consideration was being given to such things as providing an attractively served meal, correct nutritional
value, supplying a wide variety of food, or serving hot and freshly cooked food.
The long term effect of the 1947 Act was that considerable change gradually took place.
This meant that all meals should reach the patient quickly, look attractive and have the correct nutritional value.
To this end, the American Ganymede system was introduced in 1964.

THE PATIENT
When in hospital, likes and dislikes become more important to the patient.
This is an important factor that the catering officer must not overlook.
Patients may be said to fall into six categories:
1. Medical: usually in hospital for a long time
2. Surgical: only stay in hospital for a short time
3. Geriatric: older people who require hospital treatment and may have special needs
4. Orthopedic: these patients are not normally physically ill but may often be unable to
move without help
5. Maternity

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 6. Pediatric: children
MEAL TIMES
The timing of patients’ meals generally follows the same pattern:
Breakfast 7.30 – 8.00 am
Lunch 12 noon
Tea 3.00 – 3.30 pm
Supper 6.00 – 6.30 pm
Later hot drink Anytime between 8.00 and 10.00 pm

TRAY SERVICE
The Ganymede system is now one of a number of commercially available tray service methods used in hospital catering.
Individual patient trays are made up on a conveyor system according to the patient’s pre-ordered requirements.
Differing methods are used to keep the food hot or cold, ranging from the heated or chilled pellet method to specifically
insulated trays.
Trays once completed are transported to the wards in ambient cabinets.
Beverages are added at ward sites before presentation to the patient.
The advantages of this system are that:
 The patients receive their meal presented appetizingly on the plate and piping hot
 Labor and administration costs can be reduced
 Time originally spent in the ward ‘plating up’ meals may now be put to better use by completing other
duties
 The patient is able to select the meal required from a given menu
The menu, on which there is a choice, is given to each patient the day before. They then mark off their requirements for
lunch, dinner and breakfast for the following day by putting an 'X' in the appropriate box.
These menus are then collected and sent to the catering manager. All order cards are then collated and a production
schedule is drawn up.
At service time, depending on the type of dish, extra portions are available in case they required.
The patient may also mark on the card if he/she requires large or small portions.
The private patient's choice of menu is larger and more varied than the main wards, and here the service is similar to
hotel room service.
Microwave ovens are also used in hospitals to provide quick re-heating facilities for food at certain periods of the day
and night.
It can be seen that the systems are devised to boost the morale of the patient by continually presenting him/her with well
cooked food, attractively plated-up and piping hot.
At the same time over the period of a week or a forth-night, the patient ha a wide and varied selection of dishes from
which to choose.

Airline Tray service

The first catering seen on planes could best be described as a packed lunch of assorted sandwiches plus a flask of tea.
Then it was a case of ‘take it or leave’.
Airlines now have a catering commissary.
A commissary is a term used to cover the:
- Catering
-Cabin requirements
-Bonded stores
-Cleaning and other passenger requirements.
Where short distances and flight times are involved, only snack-type meals, or sandwiches, and beverages are offered.
Where long distances are involved, then the airline staff have time to give an extensive service of food and beverages.
For the economy and tourist flights all meals must be of the same size, with all portions identical.
The meals are arranged in individual portion containers, sealed, chilled and then stored until required.
For the first-class passenger, who receive a food and beverage service equivalent to that of a first-class hotel or
restaurant, there should be little portion control.
The service must be aisle, and served with the appropriate garnish and vegetables.
This, combined with the use of fine bone china glassware, and silver plated tableware, creates an atmosphere of content
and well-being whilst the meal is being served.
The economy or tourist class meal is often served on a plastic or melamine tray using disposable place mats, cutlery,
tableware, glasses for drinks and serviettes.
Great use is made here of pre-portioned foods such as salt, peppers, mustards, sugars, cream, cheeses, dry biscuits and
preserves.

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 d. Rail service
Food and beverage operations on trains are conventional restaurant kiosks.
On sleepers, a limited type of room service is provided. However, these services are provided on the move away from
the home base and suppliers.
The problems of rail catering are therefore similar in organization to off-premises catering.
Rail catering is moving towards the operation of a tray system similar to airlines.
The food and drink is served on trays to passengers at any seat, i.e. not within a restaurant car where tables are laid as in
a restaurant.

e. Home Delivery
More recently home delivery has become part of the profit sector. Services range from Indian and Chinese takeaway
deliveries, to restaurants providing full meals (hot, or cold for customers to re-heat).
Methods of delivery, which endeavor to ensure preservation of the product in the heat retention presentation packages,
vary.
The most sophisticated are the Meals on Wheels services. This is because of the nature of the customer demand being
met (the elderly) where consideration for nutritional value is uppermost.
The most simple, but nevertheless effective, is the pizza home delivery system which utilizes thick cardboard with
internal corrugations to provide a form of insulation to keep the pizza hot.
The time required for heat retention is limited by the extent of the delivery area.
Unit task 3 Challenges of specialized forms of service

25.4.06 FUNCTION CATERING

25.4.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define terms
 identify types of function catering
 discuss factors to consider in function preparation
 describe duties and responsibilities of function catering staff
 discuss function administration procedure
 plan, organize and execute various catering functions
 discuss post service tasks
 discuss challenges in function catering

25.4.06 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Definition of terms

 Service of food and beverages at a specific time and place, to a given number of people, to an agreed menu and
price.
 Outdoor catering is a specialized form of function catering and may be organized in several ways.
Unit task 2 Types of functions
11. There are two types of functions
 Formal meals/Banquets e.g. Luncheons, dinners, wedding breakfasts etc
 Buffet receptions e.g. Wedding receptions, cocktail parties, buffet teas, anniversary parties, dances,
conferences etc
 A further

Unit task 3 Concept of function catering

Unit task 3 Factors to consider in function
Unit task 4 Duties and responsibilities
function catering staffing

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Unit task 5 Function administration
procedures
Unit task 6 Post-service Tasks
Unit task 7 Challenges in function catering

25.4.07 SALES PROMOTION

25.4.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of sales promotion
c) advertise foods and beverages
d) merchandize food and beverages
e) demonstrate skills of personal of food and beverages
f) discuss challenges experienced in sales promotion

25.4.07 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Definition of terms

-Sales promotion
- It is a form of temporary incentive highlighting aspects of a product that are not
inherent in it.
Is a day-to-day operation relating to discount offers, price reductions, and special offers, such as a free
bottle of wine with every meal for two. They are designed to appeal to a certain section of the market for
example weekends, evenings, food festivals etc.

-Merchandising
Merchandising is the art of displaying products attractively to promote sales.
It is appoint of sale promotion of their facilities using non-personal media.

-Personal selling
Is oral communication with potential buyers of a product with the intention of making a sale. It is done
through contacts with local organizations, committees or directly to the clients usually by senior restaurant
staff.
Is also a paid form of promoting a facility on a personal basis.

-Advertisement
Form of communication used to influence individuals to purchase products or services. It communicates a
message that includes the name of the product or service and how that product or service could potentially
benefit the consumer. It attempts to persuade potential customers to purchase or consume a particular brand
of product or service.

It is a paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified
sponsor sales promotion used to convey messages which will influence consumer attitudes and behavior
favorable to the seller.

Unit task 2 Importance of sales promotion

- Is to increase sales during off-peak periods by attracting new customers
- Gain publicity in local press and on local radio
- Stimulate and keep the interest of regular customers

Unit task 3 Aspects of sales promotion

- advertising
The major forms of advertising that may be employed by food service facilities include the following

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 1. Direct mail. This involves communicating by post to specified customers. These may be new and
potential customers, or to past or well established customers. It involves direct mailing of personalized
letters, brochures, pamphlets and leaflets.
2. Press advertising. Advertising in national or local newspapers, magazines, guides etc.
3. Broadcasting. In radio, television, cinema etc
4. Signs and posts. Signs and posters advertising a catering facility may be positioned along streets in
towns and cities.
5. Miscellaneous advertising media. These include other forms of advertising media that may be used in
addition to major channels discussed above. For example, door-to-door leaflet distribution, leisure
centre entrance tickets, theatre programmes, shop windows etc

Merchandising
 Floor stands or bulletin boards for example in a reception or waiting area advertise special events
forthcoming attractions etc. Arriving guests will read the notices on these stands.
 Posters. Posters have a wider circulation than the previously described floor stands. They may be
displayed in reception areas, elevators, cloakrooms, in the restaurant or in ant strategic position where
people can read.
 Wall displays
 Tent cards. These are often placed on restaurant dining tables to promote special events, attractions etc.
 Clip-on Menu clip-on is most commonly used in restaurants to advertise specialty items. They may
also be used on wine lists to promote a particular wine.
 Children’s menus. Children’s menus and portion sizes are particularly applicable to those catering
operations who attract family custom, for example resort hotels, fast-food units, medium-priced
restaurants etc.
 Visual food and beverage display. Visual selling in a catering operation can be enhanced by the use of
several techniques: Displays, Trolleys, Gueridon cookery

- personal selling
One of the main characteristics of service industries is the increased contact time between service staff
and customers, and the attitudes and behavior of an operation’s service employees are important parts
of the total product the customer is buying.
The objectives, requirements and techniques of personal selling need to be fully integrated into the
overall marketing policy of the organization.
The fact that an establishment may have a sales department does not relieve the catering department of
its sales functions and responsibilities.
When customers enter a restaurant, their first personal contact with the restaurant staff is usually the
waiter who shows them to their table.
When the waiter comes to take customers’ orders, there is another chance for the employee to promote
the menu, restaurant’s specialty, a side salad, additional vegetables, wine to accompany the meal,
rather than simply being an order-taker.
Training service staff can help increase their awareness of the different ways in which they personally
can contribute to an operation’s sale.
These training programmes can include basic sales functions of the waiter e.g. asking customers if they
would like a drink when they arrive at the restaurant to more in depth sensitivity training.
These will include being taught selling phrases and responses that may be used when taking a
customer’s order.
The ‘personal touch’ plays a more important role in the total service product.

25.4.07T 4 Challenges in sales promotion

 Increased competition and unethical practices adopted by some of the companies.
 Low level understanding of customer knowledge
 Dissimilar customer perception
 Quality of sales representatives
 Recruitment process of sales promotion representatives
 High training and re-training costs of sales promotion personnel
 Busy sales promotion personnel giving less time to sales calls
 Poor territory knowledge in terms of business value at the level of sales promotion representatives
 Unknown value of revenue from each sales personnel

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  Sales forecasting from field sales level to actual level
 Absence of analysis on the amount of time invested on profitable and not-so profitable customers
and lack of time-share planning towards developing customer base for future and untapped
markets

25.4.08 EMERGING TRENDS

25.4.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
i) identify emerging trends in food and beverage service and sale management
j) discuss the challenges posed by emerging trends in food and beverage service and sales management
k) discuss ways of managing challenges posed by emerging trends

25.4.08 C Unit Tasks

The trainee should have the ability to:
 identify emerging trends in food and beverage service and sales management
 manage the challenges posed by the emerging trends

Unit task 1 Identification of emerging trends

in food and beverage service and
sales management
Unit task 2 Challenges
Unit task 3 Managing challenges

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Appendix I: Housekeeping Tools and Equipment (Class of 20)

1 Mops 3x20
2 Mops buckets 3x20
3 Buckets 2x20
4 Basins 3x20
5 Waste paper baskets 1x20
6 Dust bins 5
7 Dust pans 1x20
8 Dust pans brushes 1x20
9 Brooms 1x20
10 Deck brushes 1x20
11 Cobweb brushes 1x20
12 Hand brushes 1x20
13 Soft brushes 1x20
14 Squeegees 1x20
15 Vacuum cleaner 5
16 Carpet sweepers 5
17 Floor scrubbers 3
18 Floor polishers 3
19 Beds 8
20 Trolleys 20
21 Yellow dusters 5
22 Cleaning cloths 40
23 Rags 20
24 Abrasive pads 12
25 Ladders 3

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Appendix II: Kitchen Equipment and tools

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1 Cooker +Oven 10
2 Refrigerator 1
3 Freezer 1
4 Work Units 10
5 Bain Marie 1
6 Weighing scale 4
7 Stock pot 2
8 Sauce pan with lid 20
9 Frying pan 10
10 Sieve 10
11 Colander 2
12 Conical sieve 1
13 Rolling pins 10
14 Rolling boards 10
15 Genera; utility knives 10
16 Measuring cups (set) 10
17 Measuring spoons (set) 10
18 Measuring jugs 10
19 Pastry brush 10
20 Icing set 10
21 Assorted baking tins (set) 10
22 Mixing bowls (anorted rizen-3) 10
23 Wooden spoons 10
24 Cooking sticks 10
25 Graters 10
26 Whisks (anorted rizen-3) 10
27 Perforated spoons 10
28 Fish slice 10
29 Frying baskets 2
30 Fryer 1
31 Steamer 1
32 Trays 10
33 Blender 2
34 Hand mixes 2
35 Pastry cutters (anorted risen and designs) 2 sets
36 Dustbin with liners 10
37 Squeegee 4
38 Mop buckets 5
39 Moppers 10
40 Broom (sweeping) 10
41 Scrubbing broom 10
42 Fire extinguisher 1
43 Fire blanket 1
44 Store-equipment 1
45 Store-ingredient 1
46 Roosting fork 10
47 Spider 10
48 Commercial weighing scale 1

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Appendix III: Laundry Tools and Equipment (Class of 20)

1 Laundry baskets 5
2 Laundry brush 5
3 Basins 20
4 Buckets 20
5 Laundry sinks 5
6 Hand irons 3
7 Calendars 1
8 Tumble dryer 1
9 Washing machines 2
10 Steam presses 2
11 Boiler 1
12 Hangers 30
13 Linen shelves 1 Unit
14 Linen Cupboard 1 Unit

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Appendix iv: Restraurant

1 Refrigerator 1
2 warmer 1
3 Sideboard 5
4 Salver 10
5 Water dispenser 1
6 Water Jugs 10
7 Dinner plates 50
8 Dining tables (4-seater) 10
9 Soup plates 50
10 Under plates (soap) 50
11 Fruit bowls 50
12 Side plates 50
13 Joint Knives 50
14 Joint forks 50
15 Soup spoons 50
16 Dessert fork 50
17 Dessert spoon 50
18 Fish knife 50
19 Fish fork 50
20 Butter knife 50
21 Butter pats 10
22 Cruet set 10
23 Flower vase 10
24 Table napkins 50
25 Table cloth 20
26 Slip cloth 20
27 Buffet cloth 5
28 Buffet skirting 5
29 Trays 10
30 Tumbler 50
31 Glassware (Assorted) 50
32 Tea cup with saucer 50
33 Coffee cup with saucer 50
34 Tea spoon 60
35 Sugar basin 10
36 Tea pot 10
37 Milk jug 10
38 Coffee pot 10
39 Cream jug 10
40 Dance boat 20
41 Toast rack 10
42 Tea strainer with slop basin 10
43 Under plates 20
44 Soup tureen 10
45 Soap ladle 10
46 Fruit basket 10
47 Service spoon 10
48 Service fork 10
49 Bar tongs 10
50 Ice basket 2
51 Wine basket 10
52 Tot measure 2

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 53 Boston shaker 1
54 Mixing glass 2
55 Bar spoon 2
56 Beer mugs (anorted) 20
57 Wine glasses (anorted) 20
58 Liqueurs glasses (anorted) 20
59 Spirit glasses (anorted) 20
60 Cocktail glasses (anorted) 20
61 Decants 10
62 Wine stands 2
63 Cutting board and kite (set) 2
64 Flask (hot water) 3
65 Still room with facilities 1
66 Hand wash basin 1
67 Hand dryer 1
68 Chafing dishes 5
69 Service spoons (anorted) 5

Ref
Food and Beverage Service 4th Edition
Dennis R Lillicrap, John A Cousins 1994

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