Syllabus Content

• Spring
• Bellows
• Diaphragm
• Bourdon tube
• Their features and applications
 Introduction-Basic Principle
• Mechanical displacement is the most
common way to extract information from
mechanical devices.
• So we use mechanical sensing or elastic
sensing devices.
• The initial concept is to convert force
into displacement
• The mechanical elements used to convert
the applied force into displacement are
usually elastic members.
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Most mechanical input measuring
systems employ mechanical springs of
one form or another.
• Common types of springs are:
 Cantilever
Helical spring
Spiral spring
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Cantilever:
• Deflection at the free end:
•
• Where
•
• = Length of cantilever m
• E = Modulus of Elasticity,
• I = moment of inertia =
• b = width of cantilever, m
• t= thickness of cantilever, m
• Stiffness of cantilever
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Helix Spring:
• A close coiled helical spring subjected to a
compressive force F.
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Helix Spring:
• Displacement of spring:

•
• = applied force N
• D = mean diameter of coiled spring, m
• d = diameter of spring wire, m
• n = number of wires
• G = shear modulus

• Stiffness of spring
•
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Spiral Spring:
• Flat spiral spring subjected a torque T:
 Mechanical Spring Devices
• Spiral Spring :
• Displacement of spring:

•
• = modulus of elasticity
• b = thickness of spring m
• l = length of spring wire, m
• T = Torque Nm
• Stiffness of spring
• Maximum stress
 Pressure Sensitive Primary Devices
• Most pressure-measuring devices use
elastic members to sense pressure at the
primary stage.
• These elastic members are of many types
and convert the pressure into mechanical
displacement which is later converted
into electrical form using a secondary
transducer. These devices are sometimes
called pressure-sensitive primary devices
or primary-sensing devices
 Pressure Sensitive Primary Devices
• Working:
• The fluid whose pressure is to be measured is
made to press the pressure-sensitive element,
and since the component is an elastic member,
it deflects causing a mechanical displacement.
• The displacement is proportional to the
pressure applied.
• The displacement is then measured with the
help of electrical transducers.
• The output of the electrical transducers is
proportional to the displacement and, hence,
to the applied input pressure.
 Bourdon Tubes
• Types of Bourdon tubes:
(1) C type
(2) Spiral
(3) Twisted Tube
(4) Helical
 Bourdon Tubes
• Bourdon tubes are made up of
elliptically flattened tubes bent in such a
way as to produce a specific shape.
• One end of the tube is sealed or closed.
• The other end is open for the fluid to
enter.
• When the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured enters the tube, the tube tends
to straighten out because of the pressure
applied.
 Bourdon Tubes
• This causes a movement of the free end
(closed-end), and the displacement of
this end is amplified through mechanical
linkages (lever and gear arrangement).
• The amplified displacement of the free
end may be used to move a pointer on a
scale calibrated in terms of pressure or
may be applied to an electrical
displacement transducer whose output
may be calibrated in terms of the
pressure applied.
 Bourdon Tubes
Advantages:
• Simple construction,
• Low cost
• High pressure range
• Good accuracy except at low
pressures
 Bourdon Tubes
Disadvantages:
• Low spring gradient- which limits
up to measurement capability upto a
pressure 3 MN
• Susceptible to shocks and vibrations
and are subject to hysteresis.
 Bourdon Tubes
• Types of Bourdon tubes:
(1) C type
(2) Spiral
(3) Twisted Tube
(4) Helical
 Bourdon Tubes
• Types of Bourdon tubes:
(1) C type
The tube which is oval in section is formed
into an arc of and hence the name C for
the configuration
The displacement of tip is


E = modulus of elasticity
P = applied pressure
 Bourdon Tubes
• The relationship between the displacement
of the tip and the applied pressure is non-
linear, i.e., each pressure increment does
not produce a corresponding tip movement.
• However, a linear relationship between the
deflection of the pointer and the applied
pressure is obtained using the geared sector
and pinion movement or other mechanical
means.
• The accuracy of C-type bourdon tubes
varies from ±0.5 to ±2 % or poorer.
• It is used for pressure transmission and
control applications, such as indication.
 Bourdon Tubes
2. Spiral Type:
• The displacement of tip varies inversely
as the wall thickness and depends upon
the cross-sectional form of the tube.
• It also varies directly as the length of
arc “a” which in turn depends upon the
angle subtended by the arc through
which it is bent.
• Therefore, the displacement of the free
end (tip) may be increased by
increasing the length of the arc of the
tube without changing the wall
thickness.
 Bourdon Tubes
2. Spiral Type:
• When the angle through which the arc is bent
reaches , its length can be increased
further in two ways:
• Tube can be made in the form of
 a spiral, or
 it can be made in form of a helix.
• An increased displacement of the free end
can be obtained by increasing the number of
turns in the spiral or helix thereby avoiding
the need for further magnification.
 Bourdon Tubes
2. Spiral Type:
• Magnification is obtained through the
use of geared sector and pinion is used in
C type bourdon tube.
• But while using spiral or helix-type
bourdon tubes there is no need for
further amplification
 Bourdon Tubes
3. Helical Type:
• A helical bourdon element is similar to the
spiral element, except it is wound in the form
of a helix.
• The displacement of the tip of a helical
element is larger than that of the spiral
element.
• Usually, a central shaft is installed within a
helical element, and a pointer is driven from
this shaft by connecting links.
• The system transmits only the circular motion
of the tip to the pointer which is directly
proportional to the changes in pressure.
 Bourdon Tubes
3. Helical Type:
• The number of coils employed in helix
elements depends upon the pressure to be
measured.
• The accuracies obtainable from helical
elements may vary from ± 0.5 % to ± 1 % of
span.
 Bourdon Tubes- Material
Helical Type:
• Bourdon tubes are made of different materials -
brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, bronze,
phosphor bronze, and beryllium copper.
• The choice of type of material to be used
depends upon its elastic characteristics that are
suitable for the pressure range, process medium,
temperature, and corrosive resistance to the
media to be used.
• Phosphor bronze is used in low-pressure
applications where the atmosphere is non-
corrosive while in applications where corrosion
or high pressure is a problem, stainless steel or
Monel are used.
 Bellows
• A metallic bellows is a series of circular
parts, resembling the folds in an
accordion as shown
 Bellows
• These parts are formed or joined in such a
manner that they are expanded or
contracted axially by changes in pressure.
• The metals used in the bellows
construction must be thin enough to be
flexible and ductile enough for reasonably
easy fabrication and have a high resistance
to fatigue failure.
• Most commonly used materials are brass,
bronze, beryllium, copper, alloys of nickel
and copper, steel and Monel.
 Bellows
• The displacement of bellow element in
given by:

•
• Where P = pressure
• b = radius of each corrugation, m
• N = number of semi-circular corrugations,
• t = thickness of wall, m
• D = mean diameter, m
• E = Modulus of elasticity,
• = Poisson’s ratio
 Bellows
• Bellows can move over a greater distance
than required in a pressure application,
and therefore, to give it maximum life and
to have better accuracy, its movement is
generally opposed by a calibrated spring so
that only a part of the maximum stroke is
used. This system is called spring-loaded
bellows.
 Bellows
• There are three main configurations in
which bellows element are used and these
are for measurement of absolute, gauge
and differential pressures.
 Bellows
• There are two bellows A and B. The pressure
applied to bellows A is and that to bellows B
is
 Bellows
• There are two bellows A and B. The pressure
applied to bellows A is and that to bellows B
is
1. In case it is desired to measure the absolute
pressure, bellows B is evacuated and the
resultant pressure is the absolute pressure.
2. When measurement of gauge pressure is desired,
bellows B is opened up to atmospheric with
pressure and therefore, the readings of the guage
is the gauge pressure.
3. The measurement of differential pressure P = -
is done when pressure is applied to
bellows A and pressure is applied to bellows
 Bellows
• Advantages of bellows:
• Their simple and rugged construction
• Moderate price
• Their usefulness for measurement of low,
medium and high pressures and their
applicability for use in measurement if
absolute, gauge and differential pressures.
• The reduction of drift and hysteresis
allows their use in functions requiring
span accuracy.
 Bellows
• Disadvantages of bellows:
• They are not suited for dynamic
measurements on account of their greater
mass and longer relative movement.
• Also, they need a temperature
compensating device to avoid errors
resulting from changes in ambient
temperature.
 Bellows- Some Applications

• Aerospace systems: fuel, pneumatic,

hydraulic, and engine systems.
• Power transmission system: Bellows pressure
gauges are typically installed on the discharge
side of a pump to measure the pressure of
fluid (oil) in the system.
• Electrical interrupters: An electrical
interrupter uses an insulated gas to separate
electrical contacts to open or close an electrical
circuit. A bellows pressure gauge reads the
pressure of the gas.
 Diaphragm
• The operating principle is the same as that of
bellows. The pressure to be measured is applied to
the diaphragm, causing it to deflect, the deflection
being proportional to the applied pressure.
• The movement of the diaphragm depends on
thickness and diameter.
• The movement is slight and hence it does not
require any springs.
• The movement of a diaphragm is used to sense the
pressure. The unknown pressure is applied to one
side of the diaphragm. The edge of the diaphragm
is rigidly fixed and causes a deflection on account
of applied pressure.
 Diaphragm
• The diaphragm, which is a skinny
membrane under pressure and, thus, under
radial tension, may use capacitive or
inductive transducers to produce an
electrical output that is proportional to the
output pressure fluctuations.
• Since the membrane can withstand only
limited force values, thin membrane
diaphragms are suitable for resistance and
piezoelectric transducers, which require
more significant displacements than are
produced by membrane diaphragms.
 Diaphragm
• Diaphragm are of two types:
1. Flat type
2. Corrugated type
 Diaphragm
Corrugated diaphragms give more significant
deflections, generally 2 % of the diaphragm
diameter due to their increased surface area.

Pressure
= deflection at the centre of the diaphragm, m
= Poisson’s ratio
= Young’s modulus
= radius of diaphragm m
= thickness of diaphragm m
=diameter of diaphragm, m
This is a linear relation between P and till
 Diaphragm
• In order to maintain linear relationship
between deflection of plates and applied
pressure, the deflection of the centre of
plate should be less than half its thickness
or which are essentially flexible
discs.
 Diaphragm
In some cases, a diaphragm element may
consist of a single disc, while in others, two
diaphragms are bonded together at their
circumference by soldering or pressure
welding to form a capsule.
A diaphragm may consist of one capsule or
two or more capsules connected together with
each capsule deflecting on applying pressure.
The total deflection is the sum of the
deflections of individual capsules.
 Diaphragm
• Material used for diaphragm: phosphor
bronze, stainless steel, beryllium copper,
Ni-span C, Monel, nickel.

• Buna N Rubber (Nitrile Rubber), Nylon,

and Teflon are used in corrosive
environments.
 Problem
 A cantilever is used as a primary sensing element for
measuring force. The measured deflection is 1 mm.
Suppose each of the dimensions length, width and
thickness of the cantilever are doubled for the same
material and force, the deflection will be __________.
𝟑 𝟑
Solution: we know 𝟏 𝟑
𝟏𝟐

Since , and are doubled, hence x changes to

 Problem
 A differential bellows arrangement is shown in Fig. for
measuring absolute pressure. It uses two bellows each of
natural length 50 mm, effective area = 1500 and
stiffness = 0.5 N/mm. Bellow A is evacuated and a contains
a spring of stiffness 3 N/mm. Find the required natural
length of the spring if the bellows are to be equally
compressed to a length 40 mm when a pressure of 100 kN/
absolute is applied to B. Also, find the displacement of
the output point C for a change of 10 kN/ is applied
pressure.
 Problem
 Solution:
• At pressure 100 KN/
Force applied F = PA =
Compression of spring = 150/3 = 50 mm
Thus, Natural length of spring = 50 + 40 = 90 mm

• When the pressure 10 kN/ is applied

Force F = =15 N
Total stiffness = spring stiffness + stiffness of bellows
= 3 +2 x0.5 = 4N/mm
Displacement of point C = 15/4 = 3.75 mm