3F 3.

Conchae
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  5 bony ridges on the lateral walls on each
side of the nasal cavity
RESPIRATION  Increases the surface area of the nasal
cavity
 Movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the  Cause air to churn so that it can be cleansed,
cells within tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide in
humidified, and warmed
the opposite direction
 Has four events: 4. Nasolacrimal ducts
1. Ventilation (breathing) - movement of air into and out  Carry tears from the eyes
of the lungs  Open into the nasal cavity
2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the  Inside the nares - stratified squamous epithelium with
air in the lungs and the blood coarse hairs
3. Transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood  Rest of the nasal cavity - pseudostratified columnar
4. Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and the epithelial cells with cilia and goblet cells
tissues

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Regulation of blood pH - alter blood pH by changing CO2
levels
- increase in CO2 increases acidity in the blood, and
decreases blood pH
2. Voice production - air movement past the vocal cords
makes sound and speech possible
3. Olfaction - sensation of smell occurs when airborne
molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity
4. Innate immunity - respiratory system protects against
some microorganisms and other pathogens

ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Functions of Nose and Nasal Cavity:

1. Trap large dust particles
 DIVISIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 2. Cilia sweep the debris laden mucus toward the pharynx,
I. Upper Respiratory Tract then swallowed > acid in the stomach kills pathogens
a) Nose / Nasal Cavity 3. Air is warmed / humidified by the blood vessels underlying
b) Pharynx the mucous epithelium
c) Larynx
 Paranasal Sinuses
II. Lower Respiratory Tract - air filled spaces within bone
a) Trachea Reduce the weight of the skull, produce mucus, and influence
b) Bronchi the quality of the voice by acting as resonating chambers
c) Lungs 1. Maxillary
2. Frontal
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT 3. Ethmoidal
4. Sphenoidal
1. NOSE
I. External Nose  Sneeze Reflex
 Visible structure that forms a prominent feature of - an involuntary response triggered when foreign substances
the face dislodge from the nasal cavity
 Composed of hyaline cartilage - Sensory receptors detect the foreign substances > action
 Bridge consists of bone (vomer and perpendicular potentials are conducted along the trigeminal nerve (CN V) >
plate of the ethmoid bone) medulla oblongata > reflex

II. Nasal Cavity 2. PHARYNX

 Extends from the nares (nostrils) to the chanae  Common passageway for both respiratory and digestive
(posterior end of the pharynx) system
 Landmarks: - respiratory : larynx (air is carried)
 Nares - nostrils; external opening of the nose - digestive : esophagus (food and drink is carried)
 Choanae - openings into the pharynx  Three Regions:
 Important structures in the Nasal cavity: 1) Nasopharynx
1. Nasal septum - divides the nasal cavity into left - superior part of the pharynx
and right parts - posterior to the choanae
2. Hard palate - forms the floor of the nasal cavity
and separates nasal from the oral cavity
 - superior to the soft palate (separated the nasopharynx
from the oropharynx and forms the floor of the
nasopharynx)
- consists of pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
- where the auditory tubes open
 Uvula - posterior extension of the soft palate
 Contains the pharyngeal tonsil that protect the oral
cavity from any foreign matter

2) Oropharynx
- extension of the uvula to the epiglottis - houses the vocal cords which is the primary source of voice
- where the oral cavity opens into production
- where foods, drink, and all all pass through - air moving past the vocal folds which causes them to vibrate
- stratified squamous epithelium which protects against and produce a sound
abrasion - tension of the vocal folds controls the pitch of the voice and
- where the swallowing reflex is initiated: the size of air moving inside will influence the loudness of the
 Soft palate is elevated > closes the sound
nasopharynx > prevents food from passing into
the nasopharynx LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Consists of:
 Palatine tonsil - lateral walls near the border 1. TRACHEA
of the oral cavity - windpipe : where air flows into the lungs
 Lingual tonsil - posterior part of the tongue - attached to the pharynx which is inferior to the cricoid
cartilage
3) Laryngopharynx - esophagus is posterior to it
- posterior to the larynx - 16 - 20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage (tracheal rings)
- from the tip of the epiglottis to the esophagus - posterior wall of trachea is devoid of cartilage (only smooth
- where the food and drink pass to the esophagus with muscles)
small amount of air - divides into the right and left main bronchi at T5
- stratified squamous epithelium and ciliated columnar - consists of psuedostratified columnar epithelium with cilia
epithelium and goblet cells
- Cough Reflex
3. LARYNX  One way of expelling foreign substances
- also known as the voicebox  Sensory receptors in the trachea > AP > vagus nerve
- extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea (CN X) > medulla oblongata > cough reflex > smooth
- has three Main Functions: muscles of the trachea contracts > decreases the
 Maintains an open airway trachea’s diameter > air moves rapidly through the
 Protects the airway during swallowing trachea > expel mucus and foreign substances
 Produces the voice
- has 9 cartilages: 3 PAIRED; 3 UNPAIRED  Tracheobronchial Tree
- Cartilages found in larynx: - as soon as air enters trachea:
a. Thyroid Cartilage 1) Main bronchi
 aka Adam’s apple 2) Lobar bronchi (secondary)
 Single and largest cartilage - supplies the lobes of each lung
 Attached superiorly to the hyoid bone - has two on the left and three on the right
b. Cricoid cartilage 3) Segmental bronchi (tertiary)
 Most inferior cartilage of the larynx 4) Bronchopulmonary segments
 The base of the larynx where the other cartilages rest 5) Bronchioles
c. Epiglottis 6) Terminal bronchioles
 Consists of elastic cartilage rather than hyaline 7) Respiratory bronchioles
 Superior part projects superiorly as a free flap toward 8) Alveolar ducts - long, branching ducts with many
the tongue openings into alveoli
 Protects the airway during swallowing by preventing 9) Alveolar sacs
swallowed materials from entering the larynx by 10) Alveoli - small air-filled chambers where the air and
covering the glottis the blood come into close contact with each other
 Ensures that the only thing that enters the airway is - the amount of cartilage decreases and the amount of smooth
air muscle increases as it reaches the alveoli
d. Cuneiform - top - relaxation and contraction of the smooth muscle within the
e. Corniculate - middle bronchi and bronchioles > change the diameter of airways
f. Arytenoid - bottom - during exercises, bronchi and bronchioles dilate due to the
stimulation of sympathetic nervous system > more air flow
- in asthma, there is constriction of airways making it hard for 1) Diaphragm - large dome of skeletal muscles that separates
the air to pass and breathing difficult the thoracic cavity from the abdomincal cavity
2) External intercostals - elevate the ribs and sternum
2. BRONCHI
- left and right main bronchi  Muscles of Expiration
- Left Bronchi: more horizontal than the right - normal, quiet expiration > respiratory muscles are
- Right Bronchi: wider, shorter, more vertical relaxed because of the elastic properties of the thorax
 Large diameter increases the likelihood that particles and lungs
will become lodged in the area - only happens during labored breathing
 Greater increase in thoracic cavity volume
3. LUNGS  All the inspiratory muscles are active to
- principal organs of respiration accommodate more air
- cone shaped  Internal intercostals and the abdominal
- base resting on the diaphragm muscles contract forcefully
- apex extending superiorly about 2.5 cm above the clavicle 1) Internal Intercostals - depress the ribs and sternum
- Right lungs has three lobes
 Superior, middle and inferior lobes AIRFLOW
- Left lungs has two lobes
 Superior and inferior lobe  Two physical principles that govern flow of air:
- lobes are separated by deep, prominent fissures on the lung 1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure
surface - volume of a container increases > pressure within
- important structure in the lungs: Respiratory Membrane the container decreases
 Where the gas exchange between air and blood 2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an
occurs area of lower pressure
 Formed by walls of alveoli and surrounding capillaries - the greater the pressure difference, the greater
 Consists of 2 layers of simple squamous epithelium rate of airflow
and alveolar fluid - air flows because of pressure differences between
 Surfactant - chemical, secreted by cells within walls the outside of the body and the alveoli inside the
of the alveoli that reduces the tendency of alveoli to body
recoil
LUNG RECOIL
PLEURA
 Thoracic volume and lung volume decrease during quiet
 Surrounds each lung expiration
 Lined with a serous membrane called the pleura  Due to the elastic properties of its tissues and alveolar
 Parietal Pleura - lines the wall of the thorax, fluid has surface tension
diaphragm, and mediastinum  Surface tension - causes the alveoli to recoil properly due
 Visceral Pleura - covers the surface of the lung to water molecules
 Pleural fluid - between the two pleura; 2 functions:  2 factors that keep the lungs from collapsing:
 As a lubricant 1. Surfactant
 Hold the pleural membranes together 2. Pressure in the pleural cavity

VENTILATION SURFACTANT

 Breathing  Lipoprotein molecules produced by secretory cells of the

 Process of moving air into and out of the lungs alveolar epithelium
 Two phases of ventilation:  Single layer on the surface of the thin fluid layer lining the
1. Inspiration (inhalation) - movement of air into the alveoli, reducing surface tension
lungs  (-) Absence of the surfactant > surface tension causing
2. Expiration (exhalation) - movement of air out of the the alveoli to recoil can be ten times greater
lungs  (+) Presence of the surfactant > reduces the tendency of
 Regulated by changes in thoracic volume which produce the lungs to collapse
changes in air pressure within the lungs

PLEURAL PRESSURE
RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
 Pressure in the pleural cavity
 Muscles of Inspiration  If less than the alveolar pressure > alveoli tend to expand
- quiet inspiration > muscles of inspiration contract > and opposed by the tendency of the lungs to recoil
increase the volume of the thoracic cavity
- largest change in thoracic cavity volume is due to the
contraction of the diaphragm
 3. Vital Capacity = IRV + TV + ERV
- the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from the
respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration
4. Total Lung Capacity - IRV + ERV +TV + RV

GAS EXCHANGE
 Diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood in
the pulmonary capillaries
 Major area of gas exchange is in the ALVEOLI
 Anatomical dead space
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES - area where gas exchange does not occur: respiratory
passageways
 Measures of the amount of air movement during portions  Bronchioles
of ventilation  Bronchi
 Total lung volume: 4-6L in a young normal male adult  Trachea
 Spirometry - the process of measuring volumes of air  3 Factors that influence the exchange of gases:
that move into and out of the respiratory system 1) Thickness of the membrane
 Spirometer - the device used to measure these 2) Total surface area of the respiratory membrane
pulmonary volumes. There are four different pulmonary 3) Partial pressure of gases across the membrane
volumes measured in spirometry.

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS

 Four Pulmonary Volumes:
1. Tidal Volume (500 ml)  Increased thickness in some respiratory diseases
- volume of air inspired or expired with each breath  Example: pulmonary edema wherein fluid accumulates in
- increases during physical activity the alveoli and the respiratory membrane thickens
2. Inspiratory reserve volume (3000 ml)  Gases must diffuse through a thicker than normal
- air that can be inspired forcefully beyond the resting layer > rate of gas exchange is markedly decreased
tidal volume
3. Expiratory reserve volume (1100 ml) SURFACE AREA
- air that can be expired forcefully beyond the resting tidal
volume  Total surface area of the respiratory membrane is about
4. Residual volume (1200 ml) 70 sq m2
-volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages  Greater surface area = greater tendency for molecules to
and lungs after maximum expiration diffuse
 Conditions which decrease surface area:
 Respiratory Capacities  Surgical removal of lung tissue
- sums of two or more respiratory volumes  Destruction of lung tissue by cancer
 Degeneration of the alveolar walls
1. Functional residual capacity = ERV + RV
- amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal PARTIAL PRESSURE
expiration
2. Inspiratory capacity = TV + IRV  The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of
- amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal gases, such as air
expiration  Measurement of the concentration of gases
 Gases diffuse down their pressure gradient: from areas of  In the lungs, HIGH PO2 > hemoglobin holds as much
higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure O2 as it can.
 In the tissues, PO2 is lower > hemoglobin releases
O2 in the tissues > cells
 Factors that increase the amount of O2 released from
oxyhemoglobin:
1) Low PO2
2) High PCO2
3) Low pH
4) High Temperature

CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT

 7% is transported as CO2 in the plasma

 25% is transported bound to blood proteins, primarily
hemoglobin
 70% is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions.
 In the TISSUE CAPILLARIES:

- carbonic anhydrase-enzyme inside RBCs increases the

rate at which CO2 reacts with water to form H+ and HCO3 and
promotes the uptake of CO2 by RBCs

 IN THE LUNG CAPILLARIES:

 HCO3 - + H+ = H2CO3 > CO2 + H20 > CO2 diffuses
into the alveoli and is expired

 MOVEMENT OF GASES  CO2 and pH relationship

LUNGS  CO2 levels inc > blood pH dec
 Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary  H+ that results from the dissociation of H2CO3 is
capillaries because the PO2 in the alveoli is higher responsible for the decrease in pH (in tissue
than in the pulmonary capillaries capillaries )
 CO2 diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the
alveoli because the PCO2 is greater in the RHYTHMIC BREATHING
pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli
 Normal = 12-20 breaths per minute
TISSUES  Rate of breathing is determined by the number of times
 O2 diffuses out of the blood into the interstitial fluid. respiratory muscles are stimulates
PO2 is lower in the interstitial fluid than in the  Controlled by medulla oblongata that stimulate the
capillary. Oxygen then diffuses from the interstitial muscles of respiration
fluid into cells. PO2 is less in cells than in the
interstitial fluid > 02 is used in cellular respiration RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
 CO2 from the cells > CO2 diffuses from cells into the
interstitial fluid from and from the interstitial fluid into  Medullary Respiratory Center
the blood  Two dorsal respiratory groups - responsible for
stimulating contraction of the diaphragm (initiate
OXYGEN TRANSPORT breathing)
 1.5% of the O2 remains dissolved in the plasma  Two ventral respiratory groups - responsible for
 Oxyhemoglobin (98.5%) - O2 combines reversibly with stimulating the external intercostal, internal
heme groups of Hgb intercostal, and abdominal muscles
 Pre-Botzinger complex - part of the ventral
 Ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2 depends on the PO2 respiratory group
in the blood  Pontine Respiratory Group
 High PO2 = hemoglobin binds to O2  Play a role in switching between inspiration and
 Low PO2 = hemoglobin releases O2 because the expiration
body needs O2
 Therefore,
 EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING

1. Breathing increases abruptly.

 AP in the motor pathways stimulate skeletal muscle
contractions
 Body movements stimulate proprioreceptors in the joints
of the limbs. Nerve fibers from these proprioreceptors
extend to the spinal cord to connect with sensory nerve
tracts ascending to the brain. Collateral fibers from these
nerve tracts connect to the respiratory center

2. Breathing increases gradually.

 After the immediate increase in breathing, breathing
continues to increase gradually
 If the exercise intensity becomes high enough > O2
depletion > anaerobic > skeletal muscles produce
lactate > contributes to decrease in blood pH > carotid
bodies are stimulated > increases breathing

EFFECTS OF AGING ON
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Decreased vital capacity, maximum ventilation rates,

and gas exchange
- decrease vital capacity due to reduced ability to fill the
lungs and empty the lungs due to weakening of
respiratory muscled and stiffening of cartilage and ribs
2. Mucus accumulates within the respiratory passageways
due to less efficient movement by cilia
3. Increased residual volume due to increase diameter of
NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING alveolar ducts and bronchioles > inc the dead space >
decreases the amount of air available for gas exchange > gas
 Higher brain centers can modify the activity of the
exchange across the respiratory membrane declines.
respiratory center
 Hering-Breuer Reflex
- limiting the extent of inspiration
- muscle of inspiration contract > lungs fill with air >
sensory receptors that respond to stretch are located in
the lungs are activated > AP from the lung stretch
receptors are then sent to the medulla oblongata > inhibit
the respiratory center neurons and cause expiration

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

 Level of CO2 in the blood is the major driving force

regulating breathing
 Small increase in the CO2 level (hypercapnia) > powerful
urge to breathe
 Change in CO2 level > change in pH > chemoreceptors
in the medulla oblongata are sensitive to small changes
in H+ concentration > stimulate rapid breathing
 Blood CO2 levels increase such as in increased physical
activity when the body’s cell are producing more CO2 as
waster > blood pH will decrease

*Role of O2:
- blood O2 levels decline to a low level (hypoxia) > AP to the
respiratory center > increase rate and depth of breathing >
increases O2 diffusion from the alveoli into the blood