Chapter 1: Complex numbers

Ulrich Schlickewei

Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt

October 2023

Table of contents

1 Complex numbers: definition and representations

Definition and arithmetic of complex numbers
Representations of complex numbers

2 Applications

Complex numbers 1
 Recap: From natural numbers to real numbers

• Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, ...}

Equation such as 5x+2=2 don't have a solution in IN.

To solve this, extend IN by introducing negative numbers

• Integer numbers Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... }

Equation such as 5x=2 don't have solution in Z

To solve this, extend Z by introducing fraction.

• Rational numbers Q Z, q

Equations such as x^2=2 don't have solutions in Q

To solve this, extend Q by arbitrary decimal numbers.

• Real numbers R as set of all decimal numbers all numbers on the real line are included
in R

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 2

 **Statement not 100% precise
When passing from natural to real numbers, we successivly introduced solutions to
algebraic equations

Summarizing, we observe how departing from natural numbers N and arithmetic operators +, −, · and
/ we came to real numbers R:

• At each step we investigated certain algebraic equations with no solutions with the available sets of
numbers.

• We then introduced solutions to these equations as new numbers.

• Finally we extended the definition of arithmetic operations in such a way that the basic arithmetic
laws also hold for these new numbers.

• Typically these newly introduced sets of numbers proved useful in applications beyond the solution
of the original algebraic equation.

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 3

 Also in the real numbers there are algebraic equations with no solutions

Equation with no solution:

x^2+1=0 <=> x^2=-1

Introducing i as a solution, this i is now a new number and it's called an "imaginary" unit
i.e. i^2=-1
*i really exists according to professor

Set of complex numbers is then obtained by extending R by i

Typical example of a complex number is something like:
2i, i+2, 3-4, 1/2i

Summary: the set of complex numbers is the extension of the real numbers by the
imaginary unit i

Definition (Set of complex numbers, real part and imaginary part, real and purely imaginary numbers)

• The set of complex numbers is

C = {z | z = x + i · y, x,y ∈ R } .

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 4

 und
• Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if and only if x1 = x2 y1 = y2. In particular,
2+3i /= (is not equal) to 3+2i
• Thus, a complex number z = x + i · y is uniquely represented by two real numbers x and y. We call
these
"Re of zeth and Im of zeth"

real part: x = Re(z) and imaginary part: y = Im(z).

• A complex number of the form z = 0 + i · y = i · y is called a purely imaginary number.

• The real numbers are in a natural way identified with a subset of the complex numbers by
identifying a real number x with the complex number z = x + i · 0 = x.
Re(2+3i)=2
Im(2+3i)=3 (CAREFUL LM(2+3I) IS NOT EQUAL TO 3i)
Complex numbers can be visualized in the complex plane

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 5

 Re as subset of C
Rez=z
The reflection of a complex number over the real line is called complex conjugation
Definition (Complex conjugation)
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is the complex number z∗ (sometimes also
denoted by z) obtained by inverting the sign of the imaginary part:

z∗ = x − iy.

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 6

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 7
 Review question
Representation of complex numbers in the complex plane
Draw the following complex numbers in the complex plane:

z1 = 3 + i · 4, z2 = 1 − i · 2, z3 = 2i

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 8

 The absolute value of a complex number is defined as the length of the
corresponding vector in the complex plane
Definition (Absolute value of a complex number)
The absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is defined as

p
|z| = |(x + i · y)| = x2 + y2 ∈ R≥0.
Note: in the representation in the complex plane, the absolute value corresponds to the distance of the
number to the origin.
Defines the absolute value as the distance of my point Z from the origin.
If I want to compute this, the |z|^2=x^2+y^2

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 9

 Review question
Absolute value of complex numbers
Determine
1 |1 + i | 1^2 + 1^2
2 |i | 1

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 10

 Arithmetic operations in C are introduced in such a way that the arithmetic laws
from R continue to hold
Let’s now introduce arithmetic operations +, − ,· and / on the set complex numbers x + i · y so that

• For real numbers x = x + i · 0 the newly introduced operations coincide with the well-known real
arithmetic operations (principle of permanence),

• the arithmetic operations on C satisfy the well-known laws of arithmetic (e.g. laws of distributivity
and associativity) and

• i2 = i · i = −1

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 11

 Addition:
(2+3i)+(4-5i)= 2+3i+4-5i (used associativity)
2+4+3i-5i (used commutativity)
6+(3-5)i (used distributivity)
*How do I define the addition of these above?
*associativity allows me to execute these operations all I want (leave the brackets)
*next, use commutativity, sort them anyway I want = 2*3+2*1i+3i*3+3i*1i
Multiplication
*using distirbuty, you can factor out i Extend the fraction 1+i
Division Not complete yet, check schreenshot 2

=(2+3i)(3+1i) 14+6i = =14+6----------i * 1-------i=(14+6i)*(1- =6+11i+3i^2

i)-----------------

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 12

 Side fact: For z=x+iy z*z^x= x^2+y^2 =|z|^2 E R =x^2-i^2y^2
(x+iy)*(x-iy) =x^2+y^2
=x^2-(uy)^2 --- binomial formula
=3+11i Get rid of the i in the denominator
Summary: Addition und subtraction
Definition (Addition and subtraction of complex numbers)

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 13

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 14
Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 15
 Summary: Multiplication and division

Definition (Multiplication and division of complex numbers)

• Multiplication: Using the laws of distributivity and associativity we obtain:

(x1 + i · y1) · (x2 + i · y2) = (x1 · x2 − y1 · y2) + i · (x1 · y2 + x2 · y1)

• Division: The division is the inverse operation to multiplication. We write a quotient as a fraction
z1
z 2 , expand its denominator with z2∗ so that it becomes real:

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 16

 z1 z x1x2 + y1y2 y1x2 − x1y2
· z2z
Example:
In this context, i is a fixed number
1
-
i

Complex numbers Complex numbers: definition and representations 17

 Table of contents

1 Complex numbers: definition and representations

Definition and arithmetic of complex numbers
Representations of complex numbers

2 Applications

Complex numbers 18
 In algebraic form complex numbers are easy to add and subtract

Definition (Algebraic form)

The representation of a complex number as an algebraic term

x+i·y e.g. 2 + 3i

with real component x and imaginary component i · y is called algebraic form or cartesian form.

Properties of the algebraic form:

• Addition and subtraction can be computed in a very concise way in algebraic form: they are
executed component-wise.

• The formula for multiplication and particularly for division are rather cumbersome.

Complex numbers 19
 In order to introduce polar coordinates we need to talk about angles – let’s briefly
review the notion of radians

y
The length of the arc between (1,0) and P
definied by (alpha sign)

radians

Complex numbers 20
The graphic below gives a good overview of angles on the unit circle

Note: The angles in this graphic are in the interval [0, 2π). Alternatively, one can convene that angles are
from the interval (−π, π]. Both conventions are used in the literature.

Quelle: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einheitskreis

Complex numbers
21
Numbers in the complex plane can be represented by polar coordinates
y

How does the tansformation between polar and cartesian coordinates work?

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 y

ϕ x

Summary: A complex number can be represented by polar coordinates for the

corresponding point in the complex plane

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Summary: We need the arctangent in order to convert algebraic coordinates into
polar coordinates

Complex numbers 24
 Compute polar coordinates from algebraic form
The polar coordinates (r,ϕ) of a complex number z = x + iy ∈ C can be computed from its algebraic form
as follows:

p
• r = x2 + y2 ∈ R≥0 is the distance of z to the origin (0,0).
• ϕ ∈ (−π,π] is the angle with tan(ϕ) = yx . It can be computed using the following formula:

 y
x > 0, i.e. x in the
1st or 4th quadrant
arctan x for

x for x < 0, y > 0, i.e. x in the 2nd quadrant

=y
ϕ x − π for x < 0, y < 0, i.e. x in the 3rd quadrant

for x = 0, y > 0 for x = 0, y < 0

Summary: In the other direction the conversion from polar form into algebraic form
relies on trigonometric functions
Complex numbers 25
Review question
Polar coordinates and polar form of some complex numbers

Complex numbers 26
 Determine the polar coordinates and the polar form of the complex numbers z1 = 1,
1
z2 = i, z3 = −i, z4 = 1 − i.
2
(Using a geometric reasoning, there is no need for the arctangent function here).
3

Complex numbers 27
Review question
Algebraic form from polar form

Determine the algebraic form of

z
.

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In the complex numbers, trigonometric and exponential functions are closely linked
by Euler’s formula

We will now transform the polar form into the exponential form which is particularly useful for
multiplying complex numbers. To do so, we will replace the trigonometric functions by the complex
exponential function using the Euler formula:

Theorem (Complex exponential function, Euler formula)

• The exponential function exp can be extended from the real numbers to the complex numbers,
i.e. complex arguments can be inserted in the function.

• For ϕ ∈ R Euler’s formula holds true:

exp(iϕ) = eiϕ = cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ).

We will see the reason for this theorem in the course of the second term when talking about power
series.

Euler’s formula allows to define the exponential form of a complex number

Definition (Exponential form of a complex number)
Using Euler’s formula we can express any complex number

Complex numbers 29
 z

with polar coordinates (r,ϕ) in exponential form

z = r · eiϕ.

Complex numbers 30
Review question
Algebraic form from exponential form
Determine the algebraic form of
z.

Complex numbers 31
Review question
Exponential form from algebraic form
Determine the exponential form of
√ √
z=7 2+i·7· 2.

Complex numbers 32
Multiplication and division can be expressed very easily using the exponential form
When doing calculations with the complex exponential function, the common exponential laws continue
to hold. In particular,

eiϕ1 eiϕ2 = ei(ϕ1+ϕ2).

Complex numbers 33
Summary: Multiplication and division of complex numbers in exponential form
Multiplication and division of complex numbers in exponential form
• The product of two complex numbers z1 = r1eiϕ1 and z2 = r2eiϕ2
can be computed as

z1 · z2 = (r1 · r2) · ei(ϕ1+ϕ2).

Thus, the multiplication of complex numbers has the following geometric interpretation:
• Multiply absolute values, • Add angles.

• Consider now the division of complex numbers as the invers

operation to multiplication.
We find for z1 = r1eiϕ1 and z2 = r2eiϕ2 :

z1 r1 i(ϕ1−ϕ2)
= · e . z2 r2
Thus, the geometric interpretation of division is
• Divide absolute values, • Subtract angles.
Summary: Complex conjugation in exponential form
Complex conjugation in exponential form
Complex numbers 34
 The complex conjugation of a number z = reiϕ in exponential form is given by

z .

Geometrically, this means that the absolute value remains unchanged while the angle changes its sign.

Complex numbers 35
Review question
Multiplication, division and complex conjugation of complex numbers in exponential form

Let
z1 = 2ei π3 , z2 = −2, z3 = −i.
Compute in exponential form:
1 z1 · z2
2
2

3 z 1 · z 3∗

z z3
Review question
Geometric action of function
Consider the function f : C→C, z 7→ z3.

Describe the geometric action of f.

Complex numbers 36
 Table of contents

1 Complex numbers: definition and representations

2 Applications
Algebraic equations
Superposition of harmonic oscillations

Complex numbers Applications 37

 Surprisingly, by adding to the real numbers a root of −1 we can take arbitrary roots
in the complex numbers

• The starting point of this chapter on complex numbers was the equation

z2 = −1

which has no real solution, that is, −1 has no real root.

• With the introduction of i we now dispose of two solutions i and −i for this equation.
• We are now going to extend this stepwise:
• Taking arbitrary n-th roots
• Fundamental theorem of algebra for polynomials for degree n.

Using the exponential form of complex numbers it is easy to see that in C arbitrary
n-th roots exist

Complex numbers Applications 38

 Definition (n-th root)
For a complex number c 6= 0 and a natural number n an n-th root of c is a number z ∈ C which satisfies
the polynomial equation

zn = c.

Complex numbers Applications 39

 Summary: n-th roots in exponential form

Write the complex number c 6= 0 in exponential form c = reiϕ. Then:

n-th roots
• There exist n distinct solutions to the equation zn = c = r · eiϕ.
• There are
z 0, 1, ... , n − 1

• Geometrically, the solutions lie on a circle around the origin in the complex plane with√
radius n r. They mark a regular n-polygon on this circle.

Complex numbers Applications 40

Complex numbers Applications 41
 Review question
3rd roots
Determine the solutions of the equation
√
3
z = − 3 + i.

(Hint: First convert to exponential form).

Complex numbers Applications 42

 The fundamental theorem of algebra says that every algebraic equation has a
solution in the complex numbers

Not only n-th roots can be found in the complex numbers. In fact, the following very strong result holds:

Theorem (Fundamental theorem of algebra)

Any equation of degree n

anzn + an−1zn−1 + ··· + a1z1 + a0 = 0

with n ∈ N and complex coefficients a0, ... , an ∈ C; an 6= 0 has at least one solution C, in other words:

Any non-constant polynomial pn(z) with complex coefficients has at least one complex zero.

Comments

Complex numbers Applications 43

 • The proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra is not easy and requires more profound
knowledge in algebra.

• Unfortunately, the fundamental theorem only ensures the existence of zeros, however it does not
clarify how to find them.
As early as 1826 N.H. Abel showed that for polynomials of degree at least 5 there is no closed
algebraic formula (similar to the p/q-formula) to compute zeros of a polynomial.

Using the fundamental theorem of algebra it is easy to show that any complex
polynomial splits into linear factors

Complex numbers Applications 44

 Summary: Factorization of complex polynomials

Factoring out a linear factor, linear factorization of a polynomial

• Let pn(z) be a complex polynomial of degree n ≥ 1, let z1 be a zero of this polynomial.

The the linear factor z − z1 can be factored out, that is there exists a polynomial pn−1(z) of degree n
− 1 with pn(z) = (z − z1) · pn−1(z).

• Each complex polynomial pn can be decomposed in a product of linear factors

pn(z) = a(z − z1) · (z − z2) · ··· · (z − zn).

This process is called linear factorization of a polynomial. Up to the order of the factors, the linear
factorization is unique. Of course, a linear factor can arise more than once.

Review question
Factorization of a polynomial of degree 3
Determine the linear factorization of the polymial

Complex numbers Applications 45

 p(z) = z3 − 3z2 + 4z − 2.

(Hint: You can use that z1 = 1 is a zero of p.)

Complex numbers Applications 46

 Table of contents

1 Complex numbers: definition and representations

2 Applications
Algebraic equations
Superposition of harmonic oscillations

Complex numbers Applications 47

 Superpositions of harmonic oscillations
Vector addition for treating superpositions of harmonic oscillations
Let’s see how Euler’s formula can help to describe a harmonic oscillation (e.g. a mechanic pendulum or
an AC current) with complex vectors and to use vector addition for treating superpositions of harmonic
oscillations in an easy way.

Complex numbers Applications 48