Lecture 2
Lecture 2
Lecture 2
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Content
THERMODYNAMICS 2
Enthalpy
THERMODYNAMICS
3
Caloric equation of the system state
h = f (p, T),
THERMODYNAMICS 4
Wording of the first law of
thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS 5
First law of thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS 7
Wording of the first law of
thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS 8
Equation of the first law of thermodynamics
q = u2 – u1 + l
ТЕРМОДИНАМИКА 9
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Content
THERMODYNAMICS 11
Wording of the second law of
thermodynamics
“Heat cannot by itself pass “Not all of the heat received from
from a colder to a hotter heat source can be converted
body, i.e., without into work, but only a certain
compensation” part of it. Another part of it
Clausius (1850) must inevitably go into the
heat sink”.
Thomson (1851)
14
The second law of thermodynamics is a
consequence of the irreversibility of thermal
processes.
15
Entropy
ds = dq/T, J/(kgK)
Clausius (1850)
ds is a total differential
ds = dq/T, J/(kgK)
Clausius (1850)
ds is a total differential
S=ms, J/K
18
Caloric parameters of state
Tds = du + pdv
20
Ts-diagram
2
q = sq. 1–2–s2–s1 = T(s)ds.
21
1
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS 23
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
RESEARCH METHOD
The main goal of the study of thermodynamic processes
is to find:
the finite state parameters, achieved by the process;
work done;
24
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
RESEARCH METHOD
or
Dependences of heat capacity cp or cv on parameters
state
25
Notion of ideal gas
THERMODYNAMICS 26
Ideal gas equation
Clapeyron (1834)
pv=RT
where R – gas constant, J/(kg·K)
for mass m
pV=mRT
where V - volume, occupied by gas, m3
for one kmol
pV R T
where Vμ – molar volume, m3/kmol
Rμ = 8314,4 – molar gas constant, J/(kmol·K)
THERMODYNAMICS 27
Molar gas constant
R
R
The molar mass μ kg/kmol for some gases have the following values:
nitrogen – 28, ammonia – 17, argon – 40, hydrogen – 2, air – 29, oxygen
– 32, carbon oxide – 28, carbon dioxide – 44.
THERMODYNAMICS 28
Heat capacity, enthalpy and entropy
of ideal gases
du dh
0 and 0
dv T dp T
cp - c v R
30
Polytropic process
The process, characterized by a constant value of heat
capacity cn, is called polytropic.
u u2 u1 cv (T2 T1 )
h h2 h1 cp (T2 T1 )
33
Polytropic process heat
q cn (T2 T1 )
n k
q cv (T2 T1 )
n 1
34
Specific work of polytropic process expansion
R
pdv = (T1 T2 )
n 1
Factor out T1 and replace RT1 with p1v1
p1v1 T2
(1 )
n 1 T1
or .
p1v1 p2 n 1
1
n 1 p1 n
35
Specific technical work
tech R(T2 T1 )
Substituting the value l, we write
n
tech R(T1 T2 )
n 1
tech n 36
Special cases of polytropic process
37
Analysis of the basic ideal gas processes
isobaric process
isothermal process
isochoric process
adiabatic process
38
Analysis of the basic ideal gas processes
Parameters ratio
isobaric process
isothermal process
isochoric process
adiabatic process
39
Analysis of the basic ideal gas processes
isobaric process
isothermal process
isochoric process
adiabatic process
40
Analysis of the basic ideal gas processes
isobaric process
isothermal process
isochoric process
adiabatic process
41
ISOCHORIC PROCESS
In the isochoric process, specific volume v remains
constant, but pressure and temperature of the working
medium change. Isochores in Ts-coordinates
are logarithmic curves. The
smaller the value of specific
volume v, the more to the left
will pass an isochore, i.e., the
smaller the entropy value will
be at a predetermined
temperature T.
As for ideal gas h = cpT, then
hs-diagram will bear a
complete similarity to Ts-
diagram. 42
v1>v2
ISOCHORIC PROCESS
Using the equation of ideal gas state pv = RT, we obtain
the process equation
p2 T2
=
p1 T1
Polytropic index of isochoric process:
cp cv
n =
cv cv
Process specific heat:
qv u2 u1 + pdv u2 u1 c v (T2 T1 )
44
р2>р1
ISOBARIC PROCESS
Using the equation of ideal gas state pv = RT, we obtain
the process equation
v 2 T2
=
v1 T1
Polytropic index of isobaric process:
n 0
Process specific heat:
qp h2 h1 vdp h2 h1 cp (T2 T1 )
Isotherm in pv-coordinates
is an equilateral hyperbola.
In pv-diagram isotherm is an
equilateral hyperbole, but in
Ts-diagram – a horizontal
line.
46
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
Using the equation of ideal gas state pv = RT, we obtain
the process equation
p2 v 2
=
p1 v1
Process polytropic index:
n 1
Process hat capacity ct
Change in internal energy and enthalpy equals:
ut h 0
In the isothermal process of ideal gas its internal energy
and enthalpy remain constant.
47
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
To calculate the amount of heat delivered, use the first law
of thermodynamics
dq = du + pdv
As du = 0 q = = pdv
49
ADIABATIC PROCESS
Polytropic index:
cp
n= =k
cv
where k – adiabatic index or Poisson ratio
All ratios given are obtained by replacing the polytropic
index n with the adiabatic index k
50
ADIABATIC PROCESS
Specific work of expansion (compression):
R p1v1 p2 k -1
(T1 T2 ) 1
k -1 k 1 p1 k
Specific technical work:
k
tech R(T1 T2 )
k 1
or tech k
All ratios given hold only for monatomic ideal gases, since
their heat capacities cv and cp don’t depend on temperature.
For di- and polyatomic gases cv, cp = f(T) and,
consequently, the adiabatic index k = f(T) also depends on
temperature.
51
Behavior of the adiabatic process in pv- and Ts-
diagrams
52
Behavior of the adiabatic process in pv- and Ts-
diagrams
53
MIXTURES OF IDEAL GASES
Content
ТЕРМОДИНАМИКА 55
BASIC NOTIONS AND DEFINITIONS
molar concentration z;
volume concentration r.
m1 m2 mi
g1 g2 gi
or m m m
g1 g2 g3 ... 1
i.e., the sum of all mass fractions equals one.
Department of Nuclear and Thermal Power 59
Plants, TPU
VOLUME CONCENTRATION
mi Vi i i
gi ri
m V
Vi
ri
V
Dalton law
Clapeyron equation
Avogadro law
n
p p1 p2 ... pn pi .
i 1
рiV=miRiT