MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement

 Three basic muscle types are found in the body:
 Skeletal muscle
 Cardiac muscle
 Smooth muscle
 Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
 Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
 All muscles share some terminology (prefixes):
 myo and mys refer to “muscle”
 sarco refers to “flesh”

 Classification of Muscles
 Location (with reference to the bones)
 Skeletal muscles – attached to the bones (axial and appendicular)
 Non – skeletal – not attached to the bones
 Structure: Striated and Smooth
 Action: Voluntary and Involuntary
 Function
 Somatic –used in moving from one place to another
 Visceral –regulate internal environment
 Integumentary –move the skin; facial expression
 Origin
 Myotome – epimere – mesoderm (myotomic)
 Splanchnic – hypomere – mesoderm (splanchnic)

 General Types of Muscles

 Parietal : skeletal, voluntary, striated, somatic, myotomic
 Visceral: non-skeletal, involuntary, smooth, visceral, splanchnic
 Branchiomeric: skeletal, voluntary, striated, visceral, splanchnic
 Integumentary: non-skeletal, voluntary, striated, integumentary, myotomic or
splanchnic
 Terminologies
 Levator - raises an opening
 Depressor - lowers an opening
 Sphincters - regulates an opening

 Skeletal Muscles
 Skeletal Muscle Characteristics
o Most are attached by tendons to bones, cells are multinucleate, striated (have
visible banding) and voluntary (subject to conscious control)
 Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle
o Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue
 Endomysium- encloses a single muscle fiber
 Perimysium- wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
 Epimysium- covers the entire skeletal muscle
 Fascia- on the outside of the
 Skeletal Muscle Attachments
o Epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment
 Tendons- cord-like structures, mostly collagen fibers, often cross a joint
due to toughness and small size
 Aponeuroses- sheet-like structure, attach muscles indirectly to bones,
cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
o Sites of muscle attachment: bones, cartilages and connective tissue coverings
 Skeletal Muscle Functions
o Produce movement
o Maintain posture
o Stabilize joints
o Generate heat
 Microscopic Anatomy
o Sarcolemma- specialized plasma membrane
o Myofibrils- long organelles inside muscle cell, aligned to give distinct bands
 I band = light band;, contains only thin filaments
 A band = dark band, contains the entire length of the thick filaments
Sarcoplasmic reticulum- specialized smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, stores and releases calcium and surrounds the
myofibril
o Sarcomere- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
 Organization of the sarcomere (myofilaments)
 Thick filaments = myosin filaments
 Composed of the protein myosin , has ATPase enzymes,
have heads (extensions, or cross bridges), myosin and
actin overlap somewhat

 Thin filaments = actin filaments

 Composed of the protein actin, anchored to the Z disc
  At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks actin filaments called the
H zone
 Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle Cells
o Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)- ability to receive and
respond to a stimulus
o Contractility- ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is received
o Extensibility- ability of muscle cells to be stretched
o Elasticity- ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching
 Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential
o Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
o Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by
that neuron
o Neurotransmitter—chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse
 The neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is acetylcholine (ACh)
o Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma
o Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium (Na+)
o Sodium rushes into the cell generating an action potential
o Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped
 The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
o Activation by nerve causes myosin heads (cross bridges) to attach to binding
sites on the thin filament
o Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the thin filament and pull them
toward the center of the sarcomere
o This continued action causes a sliding of the myosin along the actin
o The result is that the muscle is shortened (contracted)
 Steps in Muscular Contraction:
1) Impulse reaches axon terminal
2) Release of acetylcholine from vesicle
3) Ca diffuses into axon terminal
4) Release of Ac from axon terminal
5) Ac diffuses into synaptic cleft synaptic gutter
6) Ac combines with a receptor substance
7) Impulse starts at sarcolemma Impulse travels at sarcolemma enters T- tubule
8) Impulse enter cisterna of L-tubule
9) Release of Ca from cisternae Ca diffuses to sarcoplasm actin filaments
10) Troponin split from tropomyosin
11) Troponin combines with Ca
12) Tropomyosin moves deeper into the groove
13) Uncovering of active sites
14) Head of myosin gets attracted to active sites
15) Head tilts and move forward ATP --- ATPase  ADP + E
16) Creation of power stroke
17) Overlapping of actin filaments
 Steps in Muscle Relaxation
1) Ca pump pumps Ca from actin
2) Ca separates from troponin
3) Ca diffuses to sarcoplasm  then to cisterna
4) Troponin combines with tropomyosin
5) Covering of active sites
6) Actins return to their original position
 Chemical Reactions During Contraction
1) ATP --- ATPase  ADP + E
2) Glycogen  glucose
3) Glucose + O2  lactic acid
4) 1/5 lactic acid CO2 + H2O
5) 4/5 lactic acid  glucose

 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle

o Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
o Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same
interval
o Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing
responses
o Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
o Graded responses can be produced by changing: frequency of muscle
stimulation, and number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time
 Types of Graded Responses:
 Twitch- single, brief contraction, not a normal muscle function
 Tetanus (summing of contractions)- one contraction is
immediately followed by another, the muscle does not
completely return to a resting state, effects are added
 Unfused (incomplete) tetanus- some relaxation occurs
between contraction, results are
 Fused (complete) tetanus- no evidence of relaxation before the
following contractions, result is a sustained muscle contraction
 Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli
o Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
o More fibers contracting results in greater muscle tension
o Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy

 Energy for Muscle Contraction

o Initially, muscles use stored ATP for energy: ATP bonds are broken to release
energy, only 4–6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
o After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP
 Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
o When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus
o Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt: oxygen must be “repaid” to
tissue to remove oxygen deficit, oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated
lactic acid
 o Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to
contract less
 Types of Muscle Contractions
o Isotonic contractions- myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
contractions, muscle shortens and movement occurs
o Isometric contractions- tension in the muscles increases, muscle is unable to
shorten or produce movement
 Muscle Tone
o Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
o Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone
o The process of stimulating various fibers is under involuntary control
 Effect of Exercise on Muscles
o Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance
 Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more
flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue
 Makes body metabolism more efficient
 Improves digestion, coordination
 Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and
strength
 5 Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle Activity
o With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross at least at one joint.
o Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies proximal to the joint crossed
o All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: origin and insertion.
o Skeletal muscles can only pull, never push.
o During contraction, a skeletal muscle instertion moves toward the origin.
 Types of Ordinary Body Movements
o Flexion- decreases the angle of the joint, brings two bones closer together,
typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow
o Extension- opposite of flexion, increases angle between two bones
o Rotation- movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis, common in ball-
and-socket joints
e.g. Movement of atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head “no”)
o Abduction- movement of a limb away from the midline
o Adduction- opposite of abduction- movement of a limb toward the midline
o Circumduction- combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction;
Common in ball-and socket joints
 Special Movements
o Dorsiflexion- lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
o Plantar flexion- depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
o Inversion- turn sole of foot medially
o Eversion- turn sole of foot laterally
o Supination- forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
o Pronation- forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
o Opposition- move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand
 Types of Muscles
o Prime mover- muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
 o Antagonist- muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
o Synergist- muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent
rotation
o Fixator- stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
 Naming Skeletal Muscles
o direction of muscle fibers Example: Rectus (straight)
o relative size of the muscle Example: Maximus (largest)
o location of the muscle Example: Temporalis (temporal bone)
o number of origins Example: Triceps (three heads)
o location of the muscle’s origin and insertion Example: Sterno (on the sternum)
o shape of the muscle Example: Deltoid (triangular)
o action of the muscle Example: Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
 Head and Neck Muscles
o Facial muscles
 Frontalis—raises eyebrows
 Orbicularis oculi—closes eyes, squints, blinks, winks
 Orbicularis oris—closes mouth and protrudes the lips
 Buccinator—flattens the cheek, chews
 Zygomaticus—raises corners of the mouth
o Chewing muscles
 Masseter—closes the jaw and elevates mandible
 Temporalis—synergist of the masseter, closes jaw
o Neck muscles
 Platysma—pulls the corners of the mouth inferiorly
 Sternocleidomastoid— flexes the neck, rotates the head

 Muscles of Trunk, Shoulder, Arm

o Anterior muscles
 Pectoralis major—adducts and flexes the humerus
 Intercostal muscles
 External intercostals—raise rib cage during inhalation
 Internal intercostals—depress the rib cage to move air out of
the lungs when you exhale forcibly
 o Muscles of the abdominal girdle
 Rectus abdominis—flexes vertebral column and compresses abdominal
contents (defecation, childbirth, forced breathing)
 External and internal obliques— flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and
bend it laterally
 Transversus abdominis— compresses abdominal contents
o Posterior muscles
 Trapezius—elevates, depresses, adducts, and stabilizes the scapula
 Latissimus dorsi—extends and adducts the humerus
 Erector spinae—back extension
 Quadratus lumborum—flexes the spine laterally
 Deltoid—arm abduction

 Muscles of the Upper Limb

o Biceps brachii—supinates forearm, flexes elbow
o Brachialis—elbow flexion
o Brachioradialis—weak muscle
o Triceps brachii—elbow extension (antagonist to biceps brachii)

 Muscles of the Lower Limb

o Gluteus maximus—hip extension
 o Gluteus medius—hip abduction, steadies pelvis when walking
o Iliopsoas—hip flexion, keeps the upper body from falling backward when
standing erect
o Adductor muscles—adduct the thighs
o Muscles causing movement at the knee joint
 Hamstring group—thigh extension and knee flexion
 Biceps femoris
 Semimembranosus
 Semitendinosus
 Sartorius—flexes the thigh
 Quadriceps group—extends the knee
 Rectus femoris
 Vastus muscles (three)
o Muscles causing movement at ankle and foot
 Tibialis anterior—dorsiflexion and foot inversion
 Extensor digitorum longus—toe extension and dorsiflexion of the
foot
 Fibularis muscles—plantar flexion, everts the foot
 Soleus—plantar flexion

 Abnormalities: Skeletal Muscles

 Hypertrophy – increase in the size and shape of the muscle
 Atrophy – decrease in the size and shape of the muscle
 Muscle cramps – involuntary spasmodic contractions of the muscle
 Familial periodic paralysis – hereditary paralysis
 Fasciculation – brought about by an abnormal impulse conducted by the anterior motor
neuron
 Fibrillation – spontaneous contraction of the individual muscle fiber
 Rigor mortis – muscle assume a contracted state for an indefinite period of time
 Non Muscular Movement
 Amoeboid movement (WBC, coelomic cells, Amoeba, embryonic tissues, in wound
healing & many cell types growing in tissue culture)
 Ciliary/Flagellar Movement (Paramecium, free living flatworms – cilia Euglena,
Trypanosoma (parasitic blood plasma) - flagella)
 Muscular Movement (Muscular Movement in Invertebrates)
  Pedal Locomotion- waves of activity in the muscular system that are applied to the
substrate (flatworms, some Cnidarians, gastropod molluscs (snail), earthworms )
 Looping movements (leeches & some insect larvae (caterpillar), polychaete worms)
 Water-vascular system (echinoderms (sea stars) – 5 arms with water vascular canal
each + tube feet hydraulic pressure drives movement)
 Flight- in Arthropods (have wings)
 Jumping - some insects (fleas, grasshoppers, leaf hoppers)
 Smooth Muscles
 Smooth Muscle Characteristics
o Lacks striations, spindle-shaped cells, single nucleus, involuntary (no conscious
control) and found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
 Cardiac Muscles
 Cardiac Muscle Characteristics
o Has striations, usually has a single nucleus, branching cells, joined to another
muscle cell at an intercalated disc, involuntary and found only in the heart