Comatose Patient III

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A practical approach to coma diagnosis in

the unresponsive patient


M A R T I N A . S A M U E L S , MD

• Diagnosis of coma in the unresponsive patient can be done in a relatively short time by making key
observations that will confirm disease of either the brain stem or the hemispheres, the two locations in
which coma originates. Determining the location of the lesion is the primary goal in early assessment
of the unresponsive patient. Examination of the patient's eyes is the single most important step in
understanding coma.
• INDEX TERMS: UNCONSCIOUSNESS; BRAIN STEM; EYE MANIFESTATIONS; 0 CLEVE CLIN J MED 1992; 59:257-261

IAGNOSIS OF THE unresponsive patient coma, the deepest level of unconsciousness. The varia-

D is a major issue in the practice of neurologi-


cal medicine, internal medicine, and emer-
gency medicine. If the patient is in a coma,
the disease is either in the ascending reticular activat-
ing system (a diffuse array of nuclei and tracts extend-
tions in a patient's mental status along the spectrum
are somewhat analogous to the conditions produced by
anesthesia. The first signpost is confusion or inatten-
tion, the inability to maintain a coherent stream of
thought or action. The ability to count backwards by
ing from the brain stem to the thalamus), or the disease sevens from 100 (the "serial sevens" test) is a classic
is bilateral and diffuse in the hemispheres. In assessing test of attention. Drugs, toxins, and metabolic en-
an unconscious person, the primary goal is to deter- cephalopathy can cause inattention or confusion,
mine the location of the lesion. Certain simple obser- which is the most common abnormality in mental
vations made in an orderly fashion will provide the status seen in a general hospital setting. Generally, the
information necessary for a diagnosis in an hour's time. cause can be attributed to drugs.
The next step toward coma is drowsiness, the state
DEGREES OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS of apparent sleep that is overcome with a verbal com-
mand. A still greater degree of unconsciousness is
The unresponsive patient may be at any depth of stupor, in which the patient looks asleep, cannot be
unconsciousness along a spectrum from nearly alert to aroused by a verbal command, but responds to a painful
or noxious stimulus. Placing a small piece of cotton
inside the patient's nostril will produce the necessary
From the Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, stimulus, as well as provide a means for assessing the
Boston. motor system of the comatose person.
Address reprint requests to M.S., Division of Neurology, Brigham
The greatest degree of unconsciousness is coma, in
and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115.
*This article was adapted from a talk given at The Cleveland
which a stimulus produces either a reflex response or
Clinic Foundation's "Intensive Review of Internal Medicine" no response at all. When a stimulus elicits antigravity

MAY•JUNE 1992 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2 31


Coma • SAMI KI.S

posturing from the comatose person, the response tal meningioma, metastatic or primary tumors, hemor-
could indicate either decerebration or decortication, or rhages in the brain, and contusions. Prefrontal lobe
both. In humans, the location of lesions in decerebra- disease, usually bilateral, tends to produce abulia. An
tion or decortication is not well defined, but both are unusual and unexplained characteristic of abulic
common in coma caused by brain stem pathology. patients is their ability to carry on a telephone conver-
Finally, pseudocoma, or hysterical coma, is a condi- sation, even though they are unable to talk face-to-
tion in which the patient is in a deep trance and face. This phenomenon is called the "telephone sign"
cannot be aroused by painful stimuli. A coma for which and is almost pathognomonic of frontal lobe trouble.
there is no physiological cause, pseudocoma is diag- In this situation, the clinician can resort to taking a
nosed by excluding all known causes of coma. history via telephone.
Among psychiatric conditions, only catatonia and
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMA the dissociative state can produce akinetic mutism.
Catatonic schizophrenia, once a common disease and
Consciousness is characterized by two qualities: (1) still prevalent in developing countries, is now very rare
wakefulness, which is regulated by nuclei in the core of in industrialized societies. A century ago, catatonic
the brain stem, and (2) awareness, which is controlled schizophrenics existing in states of waxy rigidity as
in the cortex, bilaterally and diffusely. Conversely, un- immobilized akinetic mutes were a common sight in
consciousness has two qualities: (1) permanent un- mental hospitals. Today, however, catatonia is general-
wakefiilness and/or (2) lack of awareness. Accordingly, ly produced by severe depression.
there are only two causes of unconsciousness: (1) brain The dissociative state, in which part of the per-
stem coma, which looks like sleep and renders a sonality is split off from the rest, can produce hysterical
patient incapable of arousal, and (2) bilateral hemi- mutism. Such patients may believe that a weakness of
sphere disease, in which the patient looks awake but is their nervous system renders them incapable of speak-
neither aware nor able to respond in any way to any ing above a whisper. Speech therapy over a period of
stimulus. The latter, which may be termed "hemi- several weeks may "give the patient a way out" and
sphere coma," is often regarded as a "vegetative state." restore the ability to speak.
From a practical perspective, determining whether The "locked-in" syndromes refer to patients who are
the patient looks awake or asleep is the first observa- paralyzed and are, in fact, awake. The classic condition
tion to be made, for it reveals something about the is the pontine infarct, but high cervical spinal cord
underlying pathogenesis of unresponsiveness. In assess- injuries and severe dystonias from drugs like prochlor-
ing unresponsive patients, two important points should perazine can also cause paralysis and acute loss of func-
be stressed. First, assume that the unresponsive patient tion.
can hear every word that you speak. Second, never
move the head or neck of an unresponsive patient, DIAGNOSIS OF T H E COMATOSE PATIENT
awake or asleep, until the possibility of a neck injury
has been ruled out. The history
In dealing with a comatose patient, who is incapable
Unresponsive, with open eyes of providing a history, it is important to find family,
Although the unresponsive patient who appears to police, ambulance personnel, or anyone who can pro-
be asleep is the type of patient commonly seen, it is vide the answers to key questions in the history. How
appropriate to discuss the unresponsive patient whose rapid was the onset? Are there possible drugs or toxins?
eyes are open and who appears to be awake. The un- Has this happened before?
responsive patient who appears to be awake is actually Studies have shown that drugs and toxins are the
in a state of akinetic mutism, which may be attributed most common causes of coma in emergency depart-
to one of three syndromes—abulia, psychiatric dis- ments, regardless of socioeconomic status. All drugs—
eases, and locked-in syndromes. over-the-counter, prescription, and illegal, including
Abulia is the absence of effervescence and spon- alcohol—taken singly or in combination, are suspect.
taneity. The abulic patient will respond in a slow, vis- Trauma, fever, and headaches are all obvious clues
cous manner, with long delays between the question in the diagnosis of coma. The trauma that occurred in
and answer. Abulia of varying degrees can be caused by the recent past, however, is an important part of the
a number of conditions, including hydrocephalus, fron- history that must be provided by family or friends. The

i 10 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 59 NUMBER 3


l'OMX • S\Ml H -

simple question "Any theories?" can often elicit vital Testing for eye movements
information from family members. The eye movements come from the brain stem. It
follows, therefore, that if the eyes are moving, the
Examination of the patient brain stem is intact. However, if the eyes are roving,
If the history has failed to differentiate between with rapid and smooth motion, a loss of inhibition
hemisphere disease and brain stem disease, an evalua- resulting from bihemisphere coma is indicated. On the
tion of brain stem functions is the appropriate next other hand, if the eyes aren't moving, it will be neces-
step in the examination of the comatose patient. sary to make them move. Since one must never turn
The brain stem sets posture. If, therefore, the the head of a comatose patient, it is impossible to use
patient looks comfortable, the brain stem is not in- the doll's head maneuver to test the vestibular ocular
volved. On the other hand, a patient who looks un- reflex, which tends to turn the eyes in the direction
comfortable is likely to have a brain stem problem. opposite that in which the head is turned. The alterna-
This is an important triage point and one that can be tive practice of putting ice water in one ear inactivates
made by radio communication with an emergency the vestibular system on that side for about 30 to 40
medical technician in the field. seconds, thus achieving the same effect as that of turn-
Respiratory patterns are useful in the diagnosis of ing the head.
the source of the coma. Cheyne-Stokes breathing is a The diagnosis of the comatose patient with no eye
complicated respiratory pattern that is not seen in the movement can be accomplished by putting 50 mL of ice
critically ill patient with brain stem disease. One must water in the left ear and observing any eye movement.
consider hyperventilation as the nervous system's ef- If the brain stem is normal, the eyes will turn conjugate-
fort to compensate for systemic acidosis, but hyperven- ly and fully toward the side of the ice water infusion in
tilation per se does not provide information to localize what is the slow phase of the eye movement. If the
the problem. hemispheres are functioning, the slow phase will be
Apneustic breathing, on the other hand, is an une- followed by a fast phase in which the eyes come jerking
quivocal brain stem pattern characterized by a deep back to the right. Likewise, ice water infused into the
inspiration followed by a long pause—the "inspiratory right ear will effect eye movement to the right during
cramp"—and a slow expiratory phase, with perhaps the slow phase and a jerking movement to the left
five cycles per minute. Even more critical is ataxic during the fast phase in the patient who has neither
breathing, which is a grave sign of brain stem failure. brain stem coma nor hemisphere coma.
Both apneustic and ataxic breathing call for intuba- Thus, ice water caloric-induced nystagmus, in which
tion. the slow phase is driven by the brain stem and the fast
Finally, automatisms are measures of brain stem phase is driven by the cortex, is the perfect test of a
function. Although coughing, swallowing, and hic- comatose patient in whom the differential diagnosis is
cuping are nonspecific automatisms, yawning and brain stem coma vs hemisphere coma. Furthermore, it is
sneezing are not present in the patient with brain stem the perfect test for hysterical coma, a condition that can
disease. generally be reversed by the power of suggestion.
Quite simply, then, a patient who looks comfort-
able, has normal or Cheyne-Stokes breathing, and Other diagnostic observations
yawns spontaneously probably has good brain stem In the unresponsive patient with a dilating pupil
function. On the other hand, uncomfortable-looking (called Hutchinson's pupil), the dilating pupil is always
posture, apneustic breathing, and occasional swallows on the side of the herniating mass. Hutchinson's pupil
or coughs suggest brain stem failure and the need for indicates a surgical emergency.
intubation. When a patient has good pupillary reaction and
Examination of the cranial nerves is the final step in poor eye movements, a drug is likely to be involved. A
determining the location of the impairment. In the sedative (eg, benzodiazepine) plus alcohol, a bar-
comatose patient, observation of pupillary reaction biturate plus alcohol, or some combination of these
and eye movements will provide the necessary infor- products is a highly possible cause of unresponsive-
mation. Indeed, examination of the patient's eyes is ness.
the single most important step in understanding coma. If there is the slightest reason to suspect meningitis,
The shape and size of the pupils and their reaction to the spinal fluid of a comatose patient should be check-
direct and consensual light should be recorded. ed. If a radiologic image can be obtained in a matter of

MAY • JUNE 1992 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2 31


1. Draw blood and start IV
2. Thiamine, 1-2 mg/kg IV push
3. Dextrose, 1 g/kg IV push
4. Naloxone, 0.01 mg/kg IV push

Brainstem intact Brainstem fails


(ie, bilateral cerebral disease) (ie, disease of ARAS)
1. Toxic screen I
2. CT scan (or MRI) Herniation No evidence of
(transtentorial, herniation
Operable Inoperable Normal CT (or MRI) cerebellar, central)
lesions lesions I
(eg, subdurals) (eg, bilateral LP
infarcts) J
I
Neurosurgical Supportive care Treatable Blood (eg, Normal 1. Call neurosurgeon 1. Toxic screen
care infection subarachnoid (eg, acute 2. Hyperventilation sent
found hemorrhage) bilateral (to p C 0 2 of 25 mm Hg) 2. Metabolic
(eg, infarction, 3. Mannitol 1 g/kg screen sent
bacterial widespread IV as 2 0 % solution (LFTs; BUN;
meningitis) hypoxia) 4. CT scan (or MRI) if CBC; ABGs; lytes; BS;
i I time is available calcium)
Antibiotics Angiogram Supportive care 3. CT scan
(ie, treat (or MRI)
cerebral edema,
1 I
maintain vital Operable Inoperable Normal
signs) lesion (eg, cerebellar lesion (eg, pontine
I 1 hemorrhage) hemorrhage)
Aneurysm I I
Normal
I or AVM Neurosurgical Supportive
I care care
Supportive measures
Neurosurgical I
(eg, antispasm,
anti thrombolytic) Treatable Subarachnoid LP
I infection hemorrhage normal
Repeat angiogram found I I
i ' r I Neurosurgical Supportive
Normal Aneurysm Antibiotics care care
I or AVM
No treatment |
Neurosurgical care

FIGURE. Diagnosis and treatment protocol in the comatose patient. (From: Samuels MA, ed. Manual of neurologic therapeutics.
4th ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1991. Reprinted with permission)

a few minutes, that should precede the spinal tap; traumatic comas.
however, if several hours will be required to get an
image, proceed with the spinal tap immediately. More PROTOCOL FOR DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
people die when a spinal tap is not done than die when
it is done. Assume that certain basic procedures—clearing of
the airway, application of a collar to immobilize the
Unnecessary procedures neck, intubation—have been carried out by emergen-
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is almost never cy personnel in the field or in the emergency depart-
called for in an emergency department, and certainly ment. The treatment of every unresponsive patient
not before testing for blood levels of barbiturates and begins with steps 1 through 4 of the accompanying
allowing time to pass. Brain death is not diagnosed in protocol flowchart (Figure). If the coma does not
an emergency department. reverse, a history is obtained, and the patient is ex-
Testing for reflexes is not particularly useful in diag- amined in the manner described in this article. On the
nosing coma. Proprioceptive (deep tendon) reflexes basis of information obtained from the history and
are tests of the peripheral nerve, the root, and the physical examination, the clinician determines
spinal cord, but not of the brain stem or the hemi- whether or not the brain stem is intact. Depending on
spheres. One is unable to test coordination in uncon- the state of the brain stem, a protocol in the accom-
scious people. panying flowchart is selected. In this manner, the
The Glasgow coma scale was invented for trauma definitive diagnosis is made and appropriate treatment
research and is not a very useful measure of non- is determined.

i 10 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 59 NUMBER 3


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Anch A, Browman CP, Mitler MM. Sleep, a scientific perspec- phia: Davis, 1980.
tive. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988.
Rockoff MA, Marshall LF, Shapiro HM. High dose barbiturate
Fisher CM. The neurological evaluation of the comatose patient. therapy in humans: a clinical review of 60 patients. Ann Neurol
Acta Neurol Scand 1969; l(Suppl 36):56. 1978; 6:194.
Fishman RA. Brain edema. N Engl J Med 1975; 293:706. Ropper AH, Kennedy SK, Zervas NT. Neurological and neurosur-
Levy DE, et al. Predicting outcome from hypoxic-ischemic coma. gical intensive care. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1983.
JAMA 1985; 253:1420.

MAY • JUNE 1992 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2 31

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