UNIT - III:

Input-Output Organization: Peripheral Devices

Input-Output (I/O) organization refers to the way in which data is

transferred between the central processing unit (CPU) and
peripheral devices. Peripheral devices are external devices connected to
a computer system that provide additional functionality and capabilities.
These devices can be categorized into input devices, output devices, and
storage devices.

**Input Devices:**

Input devices are used to input data and commands into the computer
system.

1. **Keyboard:** Allows users to input alphanumeric characters and special

commands.

2. **Scanner:** Converts physical documents or images into digital form

for computer processing.

3. **Microphone:** Captures audio input for applications such as voice

recognition or recording.

**Output Devices:**

Output devices present information or results to the user.

1. **Monitor/Display:** Displays visual output, including text, graphics,

and video.

2. **Printer:** Produces hard copies of digital documents or images on

paper.

3. **Speaker:** Outputs audio for applications such as music, games, or

voice communication.
Input-Output Interface:
An Input-Output Interface serves as a communication link between the
central processing unit (CPU) and peripheral devices. Its primary function
is to MANAGE THE FLOW of data between the CPU and external
devices, ensuring PROPER INTERACTION and data transfer.

Key aspects of Input-Output Interfaces include:

1. **Addressing:** The interface often uses specific addresses to identify

and communicate with different peripheral devices. These addresses are
crucial for the CPU to send and receive data to and from the correct device.

2. **Data Transfer Methods:**

- **Programmed I/O (PIO):** The CPU actively manages data transfer

between itself and peripherals. This method requires the CPU to initiate
each data transfer.

- **Interrupt-Driven I/O:** The peripheral device interrupts the CPU

when it is ready for data transfer. This method allows the CPU to perform
other tasks while waiting for the peripheral to be ready.

- **Direct Memory Access (DMA):** DMA allows peripherals to transfer

data directly TO AND FROM memory WITHOUT CPU
INTERVENTION, freeing up the CPU for other tasks.

3. **Control and Status Registers:** The interface includes registers that

store control information and status flags. These registers help manage and
monitor the state of data transfer between the CPU and peripherals.

4. **Data Buffering:** Buffers may be employed to temporarily store data

during transfer between the CPU and peripherals. This helps in managing
speed mismatches between the CPU and the peripheral device.
Asynchronous Data Transfer Modes:
Asynchronous data transfer is a mode of communication between two
devices where data is transferred without a synchronized clock signal. This
means that the sending and receiving devices operate
independently regarding their internal clocks.

1. **Start-Stop Signaling:**

- **Start Bit:** The sender initiates data transmission by sending a start

bit, indicating the beginning of a data frame.

- **Data Bits:** The actual data bits follow the start bit. The number of
data bits in a frame can vary (typically 7 or 8 bits).

- **Parity Bit (Optional):** Parity may be used for error checking. It can
be odd, even, or none, depending on the system.

- **Stop Bit(s):** One or more stop bits signal the end of the data frame.
The stop bits give the receiving device time to prepare for the next
frame.
2. **Asynchronous Serial Communication:**

- **UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter):** UART is a

common asynchronous serial communication protocol used for connecting
devices serially. It is widely employed in serial ports for communication
between devices like computers and peripherals.

3. **Characteristics:**

- Asynchronous communication is often characterized by its simplicity

and ease of implementation.

- It is well-suited for short-distance communication between devices.

4. **Advantages:**

- Flexibility: Asynchronous communication is flexible and tolerant of

variations in the timing of data transmission.

- Compatibility: Devices with different clock frequencies can

communicate asynchronously.

- Simplicity: The absence of a shared clock simplifies the hardware and

reduces implementation complexity.

5. **Disadvantages:**

- Slower Speeds: Asynchronous communication may be slower compared

to synchronous methods due to the start and stop bits.

- Overhead: The additional start and stop bits increase the overall frame
size, leading to increased overhead.

6. **Applications:**

- Serial communication over RS-232 is a classic example of asynchronous

data transfer.
Priority Interrupt:

Priority interrupt is a mechanism used in computer systems to MANAGE

AND PRIORITIZE MULTIPLE INTERRUPT REQUESTS FROM
VARIOUS DEVICES. In a multitasking environment priority interrupt
handling ensures that higher-priority tasks are serviced first.

1. **Interrupt Priority Levels:**

- Devices are assigned different priority levels based on their importance

or urgency.

- A higher-priority interrupt request takes PRECEDENCE { ప్రాధాన్యత/

Prādhān'yata } over a lower-priority one.

2. **Interrupt Vector Table:**

- The interrupt vector table is a data structure THAT ASSOCIATES EACH

INTERRUPT WITH A SPECIFIC MEMORY ADDRESS containing the
corresponding interrupt service routine (ISR).

- The table is organized based on the priority levels assigned to each

interrupt.
3. **Interrupt Controller:**

- An interrupt controller is a hardware component responsible for

managing and prioritizing interrupt requests.

4. **Masking and Unmasking:**

- The interrupt controller can mask or unmask interrupts based on their

priority levels.

- Masking PREVENTS a lower-priority interrupt from being serviced

while a higher-priority interrupt is being processed.

5. **Cascade Configuration:**

- In systems with a large number of devices, multiple interrupt controllers

may be cascaded to handle a broader range of priority levels.

- The cascaded controllers work together to manage interrupt priorities

effectively.
Direct Memory Access:
Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a feature of computer systems that allows
peripherals to transfer data to and from the main memory (RAM)
WITHOUT THE DIRECT INVOLVEMENT OF THE CENTRAL
PROCESSING UNIT (CPU). DMA enables more efficient and faster data
transfers by offloading {unload} the data transfer tasks from the CPU,
freeing up the CPU to perform other computations.

Here's how DMA typically works:

1. **Initiation of DMA Transfer:**

- When a peripheral device, such as a disk drive or a network interface

card, needs to transfer a block of data to or from memory, it sends a request
to the DMA controller.
2. **DMA Controller:**

- The DMA controller is a specialized hardware component responsible

for managing data transfers between peripherals and memory.

- It has its own set of registers to store information about the data
transfer, such as the source and destination addresses, transfer size, and
transfer direction.

3. **Transfer Execution:**

- Once configured, the DMA controller takes control of the system bus
and manages the data transfer between the peripheral and memory.

- THE CPU IS FREE TO PERFORM OTHER TASKS while the DMA

controller handles the data movement.

6. **Interrupts:**

- Once the DMA transfer is complete, the DMA controller can generate an
interrupt to notify the CPU that the transfer has finished.

- The CPU can then respond to the interrupt, if necessary, to perform any
post-transfer tasks or initiate additional actions.

Benefits of DMA:

1. **Increased Performance:**

2. **Reduced CPU Overhead:**

3. **Efficient Data Movement:**

4. **Support for High-Speed Devices:**

Input – Output Processor (IOP):
An Input-Output Processor (IOP) is a specialized processor or controller
responsible for managing communication between the central processing
unit (CPU) and peripheral devices in a computer system. The primary
function of the IOP is to handle Input-Output (I/O) operations efficiently,
freeing the CPU from the task of directly managing these operations and
allowing it to focus on computation tasks as like as DMA.

1. **I/O Control:**

- The IOP controls the flow of data between the CPU and peripheral
devices, managing input and output operations.

- It interprets I/O requests from the CPU and initiates the necessary
actions to transfer data to or from peripheral devices.

2. **Data Buffering:**

- IOPs often include buffers to temporarily store data during I/O

operations. Buffers help in managing speed mismatches between the CPU
and the peripheral device, allowing for smoother data transfer.

3. **Interface with Devices:**

- IOPs have interfaces that allow them to connect to various types of

peripheral devices, such as storage devices (hard drives, SSDs),
communication devices (network interfaces), and input/output devices
(printers, displays).

4. **I/O Instructions Interpretation:**

- The IOP interprets I/O instructions issued by the CPU and translates
them into actions that control the peripheral devices. This involves reading
and writing data, sending control signals, and managing status
information.
5. **Direct Memory Access (DMA):**

- Some IOPs incorporate Direct Memory Access (DMA) capabilities. DMA

allows peripherals to transfer data directly to and from memory without
CPU intervention, enhancing overall system performance.

6. **Command and Control:**

- IOPs execute commands from the CPU related to I/O operations. These
commands include reading or writing data, controlling device functions,
and handling status information.

Serial Communication:
Serial communication is a method of transmitting data between two devices
or components in a sequential manner, ONE BIT AT A TIME, OVER A
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL. This is in contrast to parallel
communication, where multiple bits are sent simultaneously over separate
channels.

1. **Serial Data Formats:**

- Serial communication supports different data formats, such as

asynchronous and synchronous transmission.

- **Asynchronous Transmission:** Each character is sent with start and

stop bits to synchronize the sender and receiver, allowing them to agree on
the timing of the bits.

- **Synchronous Transmission:** Data is sent CONTINUOUSLY

without start and stop bits, and the sender and receiver must be
synchronized using a common clock signal.
2. **Baud Rate:**

- The baud rate (or bits per second, bps) represents the speed at which
data is transmitted in serial communication.

- A higher baud rate allows for faster data transmission but may require a
more stable and noise-free communication channel.

3. **Serial Ports:**

- Serial communication is often facilitated through serial ports, which are

hardware interfaces on devices that support serial transmission.

- Examples include RS-232, RS-485, and Universal Serial Bus (USB)

ports.

4. **RS-232:**

- RS-232 is a common serial communication standard used for connecting

devices over short distances.

- It defines the electrical characteristics of the signals, including voltage

levels and connectors.

5. **UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter):**

- UART is a hardware component or protocol that enables serial

communication. It is often integrated into microcontrollers or provided as a
separate IC.

- UART manages the framing of data, including start and stop bits, and
facilitates the conversion between parallel and serial data.

6. **USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous

Receiver/Transmitter):**

- USART is an enhanced version of UART that supports both

asynchronous and synchronous transmission.
Introduction to Peripheral Components

Peripheral components, often referred to as peripherals, are devices or

hardware components that are connected to a computer system to provide
additional functionality or input/output capabilities. These devices extend
the capabilities of the central processing unit (CPU) and the main system,
enhancing user interactions and expanding the range of tasks a computer
can perform. Here is an introduction to some common types of peripheral
components:

1. **Input Devices:**

- **Keyboards:** Input devices that allow users to enter text and

commands into the computer by pressing keys.

- **Mice and Pointing Devices:** Devices that enable users to interact

with graphical user interfaces by moving a cursor on the screen.

- **Scanners:** Devices that convert physical documents or images into

digital formats by scanning.

2. **Output Devices:**

- **Monitors/Displays:** Output devices that present visual information

generated by the computer, allowing users to view text, graphics, and
multimedia.

- **Printers:** Devices that produce hard copies of documents or images

on paper or other media.
Interconnect (PCI) Bus:

The Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus is a standard interface

that facilitates communication and data transfer between various hardware
components within a computer system. Originally developed by Intel, the
PCI bus has evolved over time, and its variations include PCI Express
(PCIe).

Here is an overview of the PCI bus:

1. **Purpose:**

- The PCI bus is designed to connect peripheral devices and expansion

cards to the motherboard of a computer.

- It provides a standardized way for these components to communicate

with the central processing unit (CPU) and each other.

2. **Architecture:**

- PCI uses a parallel data bus architecture, where multiple data lines
transmit information simultaneously.

- Traditional PCI operates on a 32-bit or 64-bit bus width, while PCI

Express uses serial point-to-point connections.

3. **Compatibility:**

- PCI is backward compatible, allowing newer PCI devices to work with

older PCI slots, although at the speed of the older slot.
4. **Expansion Slots:**

- PCI slots on the motherboard accommodate various expansion cards,

including graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, and other
peripherals.

- PCI Express slots are commonly used for modern high-speed devices,
such as graphics cards and high-performance storage solutions.

5. **Data Transfer Rates:**

- The original PCI standard supports data transfer rates of 133 megabytes
per second (MB/s) for a 32-bit bus.

- PCI Express offers significantly higher data transfer rates, with versions
such as PCIe 3.0 providing speeds of up to 8 gigatransfers per second
(GT/s) per lane.

5. **Configuration:**

- Traditional PCI allows for a bus mastering configuration, where certain

other devices can take control of the bus for more efficient data transfers.

- PCI Express introduces a switch-based architecture, enabling multiple

devices to share bandwidth more effectively.

The evolution from traditional PCI to PCI Express reflects the industry's
need for faster and more efficient data transfer in response to
advancements in computing and multimedia applications. PCIe has become
the dominant standard for connecting high-speed components in modern
computers and servers.
Introduction to Standard Serial Communication Protocols like
RS232, USB, IEEE 1394:
Standard Serial Communication Protocols play a crucial role in enabling
data transfer between electronic devices. These protocols define the rules
and specifications for the exchange of information, ensuring compatibility
and reliability. Here's an introduction to three common serial
communication protocols: RS-232, USB, and IEEE 1394 (FireWire).

### RS-232 (RECOMMENDED STANDARD 232):

**Purpose:**

- RS-232 is a standard for serial communication between devices over

relatively short distances.

- Originally designed for connecting modems to computers, RS-232 has

been widely used for various applications, including data acquisition
{పెరుగుదల}, industrial control systems, and connecting peripherals.

**Characteristics:**

- **Signal Levels:** Uses voltage levels to represent binary data (positive

for 1, negative for 0).

- **Asynchronous:** Data is sent without a shared clock signal; instead,

both communicating devices must agree on a specific baud rate.

- **Point-to-Point:** Typically used for communication between two

devices.
**Connectors:**

- Uses a standard 9-pin or 25-pin D-sub connector, with a male connector

(DTE - Data Terminal Equipment) on one end and a female connector
(DCE - Data Communications Equipment) on the other.

### USB (Universal Serial Bus):

**Purpose:**

- USB is a widely adopted standard for connecting peripherals to computers

and other devices.

- Originally introduced as a replacement for various legacy connectors, USB

has evolved into a versatile interface for data transfer and power delivery.

**Characteristics:**

- **Plug and Play:** Devices are automatically recognized and configured

by the operating system.

- **Multiple Devices:** Supports daisy-chaining through hubs, allowing

multiple devices to be connected to a single USB port.

**Versions: **

- USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB 3.1, and USB 3.2 represent different
generations, with each offering improved data transfer rates and
capabilities.

**Connectors:**

- USB connectors include Type-A (standard), Type-B (square connector

often used by printers), and various smaller connectors like Micro-USB and
USB-C.
### IEEE 1394 (FireWire):
**Purpose:**

- IEEE 1394, commonly known as FireWire, was designed for high-speed

data transfer between devices, particularly multimedia equipment such as
camcorders and external hard drives.

**Characteristics:**

- **High Data Transfer Rates:** Originally introduced as a high-speed

alternative to USB 1.1.

- **Isochronous Communication:** Suitable for real-time applications,

such as audio and video streaming.

**Versions:**

- FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394a) and FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b) represent
different versions with varying data transfer rates.

**Connectors:**

- FireWire connectors include 4-pin (commonly found on small devices), 6-

pin, and 9-pin configurations.

Each of these serial communication protocols has its own strengths and
applications, and the choice depends on factors such as data transfer speed,
distance, and the specific requirements of the connected devices. While RS-
232 is often used for simple, short-distance communication, USB and
FireWire provide faster and more versatile connectivity, especially used for
multimedia devices and modern peripherals.