CH11-IOawf Management and Disk Scheduling

Operating
Systems:
Internals
and
Design
Principles
Eighth Edition
By William Stallings
Chapter 11
I/O Management
and Disk Scheduling
suitable for communicating with remote devices

modems, digital line drivers
Communication
suitable for communicating with electronic equipment

disk drives, USB keys, sensors, controllers
Machine readable
suitable for communicating with the computer user

printers, terminals, video display, keyboard, mouse
Human readable
External devices that engage in I/O with computer

systems can be grouped into three categories:
Data Rate
Devices differ in a number of areas:
the
the nature of errors, the way in which they are reported, their consequences, and
available range of responses differs from one device to another
Error Conditions
different data encoding schemes are used by different devices
Data Representation
data may be transferred as a stream of bytes or characters or in larger blocks
Unit of Transfer
the effect on the operating system is filtered by the complexity of the I/O module that controls the device
Complexity of Control
the use to which a device is put has an influence on the software
Application
there may be differences of magnitude between the data transfer rates
101
Keyboard
Mouse
Modem
Floppy disk
Laser printer
Scanner
Optical disk
Ethernet
Hard disk
Graphics display
Gigabit Ethernet
102
104
Data Rate (bps)
105
106
107
Figure 11.1 Typical I/O Device Data Rates
103
108
109
the processor issues an I/O command on behalf of a process

if non-blocking processor continues to execute instructions from the process
that issued the I/O command
if blocking the next instruction the processor executes is from the OS, which
will put the current process in a blocked state and schedule another process
a DMA module controls the exchange of data between main memory and an
I/O module
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Interrupt-driven I/O
the processor issues an I/O command on behalf of a process to an I/O module;

that process then busy waits for the operation to be completed before proceeding
Programmed I/O
Three techniques for performing I/O are:
Direct I/O-to-memory
transfer
I/O-to-memory transfer
through processor
Programmed I/O
No Interrupts
Direct memory access (DMA)
Interrupt-driven I/O
Use of Interrupts
The I/O module has a local memory of its own and is, in fact, a
computer in its own right
The I/O module is given direct control of memory via DMA
Same configuration as step 2, but now interrupts are employed
A controller or I/O module is added
Processor directly controls a peripheral device
The I/O module is enhanced to become a separate processor, with

a specialized instruction set tailored for I/O
Control
Logic
Address
Register
Data
Register
Figure 11.2 Typical DMA Block Diagram
Request to DMA
Acknowledge from DMA
Interrupt
Read
Write
Address Lines
Data Lines
Data
Count
I/O
I/O
(c) I/O bus
DMA
I/O
I/O
I/O bus
System bus
(b) Single-bus, Integrated DMA-I/O
I/O
DMA
(a) Single-bus, detached DMA
I/O
I/O
Memory
Memory
Memory
Figure 11.3 Alternative DMA Configurations
Processor
DMA
Processor
I/O
DMA
Processor
The area that has received the

most attention is disk I/O
Important because I/O

operations often form a
bottleneck
Most I/O devices are extremely

slow compared with main
memory and the processor
Major effort in I/O design
Efficiency
Use a hierarchical, modular

approach to the design of the I/O
function
Diversity of devices makes it

difficult to achieve true generality
Applies to the way processes view

I/O devices and the way the
operating system manages I/O
devices and operations
Desirable to handle all devices in

a uniform manner
Generality
Layers should be defined so that changes in one layer do not require

changes in other layers
Each layer performs a related subset of the functions required of the

operating system
Leads to an organization of the operating system into a series of

layers
Functions of the operating system should be separated according to

their complexity, their characteristic time scale, and their level of
abstraction
Communication
Architecture
Device
I/O
Scheduling
& Control
Hardware
(b) Communications port
Logical
I/O
Device
I/O
Scheduling
& Control
Hardware
(a) Local peripheral device
(c) File system
Hardware
Scheduling
& Control
Device
I/O
Physical
Organization
File
System
Directory
Management
User
Processes
Figure 11.4 A Model of I/O Organization
User
Processes
User
Processes
Stream-oriented device
transfers data in and out
as a stream of bytes
no block structure
terminals, printers,
communications ports,
and most other devices
that are not secondary
storage are examples
Block-oriented device
stores information in
blocks that are usually of
fixed size
transfers are made one
block at a time
possible to reference data
by its block number
disks and USB keys are
examples
Perform input transfers in advance of requests being made and perform

output transfers some time after the request is made
No Buffer
Without a buffer, the OS

directly accesses the device
when it needs
Single Buffer
Operating system assigns a

buffer in main memory for
an I/O request
complicates the logic in the operating system
swapping logic is also affected
Disadvantages:
Generally provides a speedup compared to the lack of system buffering
when the transfer is complete, the process moves the block into user
space and immediately requests another block
is done in the expectation that the block will eventually be needed
Reading ahead/anticipated input
Input transfers are made to the system buffer
output to the terminal is

similarly one line at a time
user input is one line at a

time with a carriage return
signaling the end of a line
appropriate for scroll-mode

terminals (dumb terminals)
Line-at-a-time operation
Byte-at-a-time operation
used on forms-mode
terminals
when each keystroke is
significant
other peripherals such
as sensors and
controllers
Double Buffer
Also known as buffer swapping
A process can transfer data to or

from one buffer while the
operating system empties or fills
the other buffer
Use two system buffers instead

of one
Circular Buffer
Used when I/O operation must

keep up with process
Each individual buffer is one

unit in a circular buffer
Two or more buffers are used
with enough demand eventually all buffers become full and their advantage
is lost
When there is a variety of I/O and process activities to service,

buffering can increase the efficiency of the OS and the performance of
individual processes
Technique that smoothes out peaks in I/O demand

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Operating

suitable for communicating with remote devices

suitable for communicating with electronic equipment

suitable for communicating with the computer user

External devices that engage in I/O with computer

Devices differ in a number of areas:

different data encoding schemes are used by different devices

data may be transferred as a stream of bytes or characters or in larger blocks

the use to which a device is put has an influence on the software

there may be differences of magnitude between the data transfer rates

Data Rate (bps)

Figure 11.1 Typical I/O Device Data Rates

the processor issues an I/O command on behalf of a process

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

the processor issues an I/O command on behalf of a process to an I/O module;

Three techniques for performing I/O are:

Direct memory access (DMA)

The I/O module is given direct control of memory via DMA

Same configuration as step 2, but now interrupts are employed

A controller or I/O module is added

Processor directly controls a peripheral device

The I/O module is enhanced to become a separate processor, with

Figure 11.2 Typical DMA Block Diagram

(c) I/O bus

(b) Single-bus, Integrated DMA-I/O

(a) Single-bus, detached DMA

Figure 11.3 Alternative DMA Configurations

The area that has received the

Important because I/O

Most I/O devices are extremely

Major effort in I/O design

Use a hierarchical, modular

Diversity of devices makes it

Applies to the way processes view

Desirable to handle all devices in

Layers should be defined so that changes in one layer do not require

Each layer performs a related subset of the functions required of the

Leads to an organization of the operating system into a series of

Functions of the operating system should be separated according to

(c) File system

Figure 11.4 A Model of I/O Organization

Perform input transfers in advance of requests being made and perform

Without a buffer, the OS

Operating system assigns a

complicates the logic in the operating system

swapping logic is also affected

Generally provides a speedup compared to the lack of system buffering

is done in the expectation that the block will eventually be needed

Reading ahead/anticipated input

Input transfers are made to the system buffer

output to the terminal is

user input is one line at a

appropriate for scroll-mode

Also known as buffer swapping

A process can transfer data to or

Use two system buffers instead

Used when I/O operation must

Each individual buffer is one

Two or more buffers are used