Liberal Arts Humanities International

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A - Liberal Arts /Humanities and Social Sciences
Southeast Asian College Students’ Levels of Perception and Satisfaction Towards 1

Virtual Learning Education in the New Normal: The Philippines-Thailand Experience
Cliff Ransom Wendell B. Lilangan, Phrakittisarasuthee,
Phrakhru Vinaiyakankovit, Phramaha Sayan Pemasilo, Samran Srikammul
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1
Southeast Asian College Students’ Levels of Perception and Satisfaction

Towards Virtual Learning Education in the New Normal: The Philippines-
Thailand Experience
Cliff Ransom Wendell B. Lilangan, Phrakittisarasuthee, Phrakhru Vinaiyakankovit, Phramaha Sayan
Pemasilo, Samran Srikammul
Holy Angel University, Angeles City, Philippines
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The research entitled ‘Southeast Asian College Students’ Levels of Perception and
Satisfaction Towards Virtual Learning Education in the New Normal: The Philippines-
Thailand Experience’ is aimed to 1) find out the level of satisfaction towards virtual learning
education of the students, and 2) to find out the levels of satisfaction towards virtual learning
education of the students from the representative schools, namely; Philippines and Thailand.
The research participants consisted of 151 Filipino undergraduate students and 372 Thai
undergraduate students. The research instrument is 5-scale Likert questionnaires in both Thai
and English version in a Google form. This research used descriptive statistics, correlation,
and T-test for independent samples in the measurement and analysis of the results. The
findings were tabulated and explained accordingly in relation to the research questions or
statement of the problem. The research results revealed that there have been some basis for
level of perception of students between two countries as shown in some details. For the level
of satisfaction between two countries, there was a significant difference between the two
countries. This might imply that students from the two countries differ in terms of their
respective resources, status, and culture.
Keywords : Virtual Learning Education, Perception, Satisfaction Learning in the New

Normal Era
Introduction
The years succeeding the rise of COVID-19 pandemic have been unusual years. With
the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire globe became affected in one way or
another. From businesses to social gatherings, from entertainment to small and medium
enterprises, and from tourism to education, all things were impacted in one way or the other.
Life, it appears, would never be the same again.
It was in December of 2019 when the first official case of COVID-19 was initially
detected, confirmed, and reported in Wuhan city, within the Hubei province of China. The
COVID-19 is a disease caused by the novel corona virus named and called SARS-CoV 2
(Hua & Shaw, 2020). Several months after the earliest infection was reported, the number of
COVID-19 cases beyond China saw a dramatic and drastic increase (Bedford et al., 2020).
This prolonged threat and risk which gradually spread worldwide pushed the World Health
Organization (WHO) to make a pronouncement, declaring this COVID-19 a pandemic
sometime in March 2020 (WHO, 2020).
Number of infections and active cases brought about by the virus have been reported
around the globe, ranging from hundreds to even more than a million. Numbers of recovered
patients and casualties have been tallied and reported (WHO, 2021). This changed the way
things have to be conducted. One particular area of life that got affected the most is the world
of education.
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With governments around the world imposing lock-downs and quarantine measures
against mass gatherings, the educational system has been badly hit (Schoening & Wilcox,
2022; Ritchie et al., 2020). To say that the year 2020 was severely impacted is an
understatement. Yet the brighter side to this was that the education system around the world
and in Southeast Asia gave in to the process of revolutionizing and adapting to these
seemingly difficult and challenging circumstances which put the traditional way of learning
to a test. Classroom human interactions have now been done through virtual learning process,
thus altering the educational landscape, leading to the newly adopted term, the “new normal”
(Cuaton, 2020).
Narrowing it down to the local level, students from all levels are now confronted with
the internet issue. Not all learners have strong access to high-speed internet connections while
some, unfortunately, do not really have access to internet connections at all (Dayagbil et al.,
2021).
The American educational system also faces the issue about the socioeconomic
disadvantaged learners who like in some Asian countries, have also very limited or no
personal direct access to fast internet connection in the midst of this COVID-19 pandemic.
American school districts also resort to transition to online virtual learning during this crisis
which has global ramifications (Reilly, 2020; Auxier & Anderson, 2020).
Virtual learning environments where both learners and lecturers are somewhat
isolated with no in-person contact with the use of information and communication technology
to delivery lectures and instructional materials require the practice of academic self-
regulation and proficiency in utilizing online learning resources. However, a number of
students reported that online learning has given them more negative outcomes than benefits.
Students who underwent online studies reported that they lack focus and attention due to
numerous factors at home and feared for possible criticisms and humiliation when
participating in classes (Coman et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2011; Zakariah et al., 2016).
It’s important to note that students’ satisfaction is linked with their perceptions about
studies and actual experiences, and that students’ academic performance is also linked to their
satisfaction. This applies to an online learning environment as well (Landrum, 2020).
Factors that may affect students’ satisfaction in virtual learning are computer
competency, technology orientation, and smooth delivery of course contents (Jan, 2015).
Apparently, students’ online instruction perception can critically affect their satisfaction.
A study by Hassan et al. (2021) investigated the perceptions and online course
satisfaction of university students in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) through survey
questionnaires. The study suggests that there is a need to enhance students’ perception in
higher education taking virtual classes by applying practical recommendations such as but
not limited to how instructors should be interacting with students addressing their concerns as
well as creating a more conducive online learning environment (Hassan et al., 2021).
In another research article, Tan et al. (2021) reviewed more than 61 peer-reviewed
research pertaining to students’ perception to online learning. Favorable perceptions included
1) motivation and satisfaction, 2) effectiveness, 3) good engagement, 4) ease of navigation, 5)
comfort and flexibility, 6) positive online experience, 7) improvement of learning outcomes,
and 8) acceptance by majority of the students. Unfavorable perceptions included 1) lack of
interaction, 2) ambiguous interaction, 3) lack of technological skills and competency, 4) lack
of support, and 5) academic dishonesty.
Most of the researches that were ventured into are of western studies and other parts
of the world and only a few researches about this have been done in Asia, so with this
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background in mind, this research aims to determine how this so-called “new normal” in the
education setting is viewed through the lens of the college students of representative schools
in two Southeast Asian countries, namely the Philippines, and Thailand, one representative
school from each country mentioned, in terms of how these students cope and respond with
virtual learning education as they get to experience online classes for the entire semester.
Review of Related Literature

Various nations particularly those affected by COVID had resorted to virtual learning
in the academic landscape to address the needs of both teachers and learners. On the part of
the learners, online education came as a new mode which cannot be avoided because the
existing situation demands it. Gaps in research, particularly among Southeast Asian nations,
are identified. In Southeast Asia, both the Philippines and Thailand became the main focus of
online learning context in this study.
Defining Perception and Satisfaction

Perception refers to the way one thinks about something and the idea of what it is like.
It is the way one notices things with physical senses as well as the natural ability to
understand or notice things quickly. In the area of philosophy, psychology, and cognitive
science, perception is the process of obtaining consciousness or understanding sensory
information (Khadka & Maharjan, 2017). Learner-instructor interaction and learner-content
interaction integrated together with the efficacy of technology are reasonable marks of
positive student perceptions (Kuo et al., 2013).
In investigating perception, Applied Psychology students in a graduate program were
surveyed in regard to their online practicum course, establishment of an online presence, the
encouragement of a mind-shift in their online practicum, the support towards problem-
solving within technology, and the support towards being open and flexible in an over
dynamic nature of technology, the result (Wilcox & Lock, 2017).
Satisfaction pertains to the social, cognitive, and teaching presence as essential to
students’ learning (Mahmood et.al, 2012). As a person’s expectation goes higher, his or her
satisfaction also becomes higher (Tao, 2014). In the parlance of learning, five elements of
student satisfaction were introduced: learner relevance, active learning, authentic learning,
learner autonomy, and technology competence (Ke & Kwak, 2013).
International Online Learning Context

Worldwide, the most dominant and common method that countries utilize to continue
the educational process of schools and universities is through online studies. The number of
universities that offer online programs in addition to the traditional model increases every
year. Because countries delved into online studies without past experience and context, the
time and results of students’ work of the near future will show whether the online way of
education brought good results (Milicevic et al., 2020).
Alarmed about the spread of COVID-19 and the pursuance to contain it, vast number
of educational institutions such as public and private universities, colleges, technical training
institutes, and vocational school, were closed in regards to face-to-face classes globally. The
rising concerns for Corona virus shed light to the vulnerabilities in education systems
worldwide. A clear solution for this is having flexible and resilient education systems.
Through meta-analysis methodology and pertinent literature, universities around the globe
are revealed to opt towards online learning or E-learning. This ensures that learning
institutions would not be interrupted. Staff readiness, confidence, and student accessibility
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were also revealed to be a major function in ICT integrated learning. Online and remote
learning are necessities in time of lock downs and social distancing due to COVID-19
pandemic (Ali, 2020).
In India, as an example, all educational institutions were closed by the second week of
March 2020. Out of 364 students, 72.8% were using mobile data and 17.8% were using
broadband facilities. The first year students were the only students who were exposed to 3
different online platforms. Among those respondents, 63.6% posted to be partial towards
Impartus, and this was followed by YouTube, and then Google Classroom (Rafi et al., 2020).
The online and remote learning integrated with ICT is truly novel in most education
systems. Several institutions focused on creating interactive networks for online classes.
Video conferencing tools such as Zoom and WebEx are used in addition to learning
management systems such as Infrastructure Canvas, Blackboard, and Google Classroom.
Aside from those, there are applications that track students when they are taking online tests.
Proctorio and Google Chrome plugin, is one of the applications available to use. Because
numerous students have no past experience to remote learning, it is important to delve into
the motivation behind the ICT integrated remote learning (Lata & Sonkar, 2020).
As educational institutions transitioned to remote learning without past experience,
this resulted in less than optimal learning experience for the students. In the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia (KSA), researchers were commissioned to study the state of online learning pre-
and post-COVID to culminate in recommendations on how to effectively build infrastructure
and capacity to deliver high quality online learning. In one of the commissioned studies, there
were eight dimensions, each with several sub dimensions which included survey and
interview data, that were contextualized within the higher education environment of the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in terms of development and analysis. Such dimensions or areas
mentioned here were about leadership, curriculum design and planning, planning, online
teaching and learning, assessment, technology, student support, training and support, and
evaluation and continuous improvement (O'Keefe, et al., 2020).
Through survey method and E-Learning Readiness Scale, the relationship between e-
learning readiness and academic achievement in an online course in higher-level education
were examined. The scale was comprised of 33 items and six sub parts and these are: (1)
computer self-efficacy, (2) internet self-efficacy, (3) online self-efficacy, (4) self-directed
learning, (5) learner control, and (6) motivation toward e-learning. The results indicated that
self-directed learning is the strongest predictor of academic achievement. The study
concluded that e-learning readiness has to be carefully taken into consideration within a new
education learning system or online and remote learning (Torun, 2020).
Determining Perception
Perception refers to the way one thinks about something and the idea of what it is like.
Moreover, it is the way one notices things with physical senses as well as the natural ability
to understand or notice things quickly. In the area of philosophy, psychology, and cognitive
science, perception is the process of obtaining consciousness or understanding sensory
information (Khadka & Maharjan, 2017). As a person’s expectation goes higher, his or her
satisfaction becomes higher (Tao, 2014).
At a Midwestern university, the attitudes and perceptions of students who were
enrolled in at least one online-only course during the Fall 2012 semester, were explored. It
aimed to uncover concrete issues and to use explicit feedback to strengthen the course design
and course delivery. The findings emphasized the importance of moving from describing a
phenomenon and determining what can be done about it to “action science.” In addition,
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instructional videos and tutorials received significant substantial positive feedback from
students and were considered indispensable for assisting students in maneuvering through a
web-based course. It was recommended that the student’s expectations and experiences are to
be considered in the areas of course format, technological support, interaction with faculty
and peers, course flexibility and pace, assessment and feedback, and overall communication
(Huss, 2013).
In delving deeper into the salient points of Huss (2013), the preparedness of students
for an online experience was found to be the first implication in online learning. Beginning
with the motive for choosing an online course in the first place, many students took an online
course because a face-to-face option was not available or did not fit their desired schedule.
The second reason was “strictly convenient.” Only a few, a little more than 7% of the
students took an online course because they believed they learn best in that environment. In
simple terms, a student who took an online course because it was a last or only resort, or was
intrigued merely by the expediency of not having to drive to campus, may be quite
unprepared for the format, the technology, and the self-reliant nature of an online course
(Huss, 2013).
Furthermore, a study by Shawaqfeh et al. (2020) measured pharmacy students
perceptions on virtual learning during COVID-19 pandemic. Through survey, the researchers
determined the students’ virtual learning experiences in four domains - preparedness, attitude,
barriers, and areas of development. Results showed that 61.4% of the students agreed that the
College of Pharmacy was well-prepared for online learning while only 19.9% disagreed.
When it comes to attitudes, 49.2% showed positive attitudes toward their online learning
experience while 26% showed negative attitude. Finally, 34% of the students were able to
identify some barriers while 39% did not identify any.
Measuring Satisfaction
The need to measure satisfaction is very significant in assessing the success or
effectiveness of online learning. By investigating the relationship of both e-course
satisfaction and online learning readiness and the effect of the materials used in e-learning on
student satisfaction,it was uncovered that the student satisfaction tends to increase when more
materials were provided to the students. It was recommended that a lot more engaging and
interactive activities such as animation, virtual classroom, video, forum, survey, chat and
email be also given to the students in online learning (Topal, 2016).
The interplay of perception and satisfaction plays a crucial role in the success of
online learning. Such was revealed when satisfaction was measured among students who took
an online class in Alabama, USA wherein levels of student satisfaction were determined.
Results showed that students who found distance learning more convenient reported higher
satisfaction with their online course (Simpson, 2012).
In that study, the instrument used was the Aman’s Satisfaction Survey Measures
(ASSM) developed by Dr. Richard Aman. It encompasses several parameters pertaining to
online learning satisfaction such as learning outcomes, assessment and measurement,
learning resources and materials, learner interactions, and online course technology (Simpson,
2012).
Philippines Online Learning Context

Using the technologies that have emerged in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic has
actually trail-blazed the way for the stakeholders in establishing online relationships with the
same goal of ridding boredom brought about by quarantine, give relief efforts, and teach the
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virtual community in relation to COVID-19 while simultaneously having a safe environment.

Socio-educational implications of these virtual education learning methods made feasible
because of technology have been presented in their paper most especially on how virtual
learning impact social relations and human behavior (Toquero & Talidong, 2021).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) takes a great role in any
developing country. Opportunities come alongside to anyone proficient in this field.
Therefore, it is important for a nation to produce ICT literate citizens required to survive and
develop in this digital age. In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) is
continuously introducing ICT into its system. Places that are far are being reached to make
certain that no area shall be left out speaking of technology. Because the Philippine education
encapsulates technology, learning processes are not transformed digitally.
As of the moment, students could actually link or access to thousands of learning
materials uploaded in DepEd Online Learning Portal. Despite all of these efforts from the
Department of Information and Communcation Technology which the responsible department
of the government regarding this, DepEd is still facing great challenges in providing
innovative education.
In the practice of distance education (DE), the rapid advances in information and
communications technology in the digital age is practically important. In the Philippines, DE
professionals use the term “open and distance e-learning” (ODel) in reference to new aspects
of distance education. There are several so-called ‘open’ universities and ‘distance education’
institutions and schools that have shifted from predominantly print-based mode to an online
mode of delivery through the use of virtual learning environment and a myriad of web
technologies. Faculty training programs in Online Distance Learning must strive to create a
broader range of O-Del competencies in a systematic and coherent way (Arinto, 2013).
In spite of all these creative solutions the government and educational institutions
apply, Filipino students still face challenges with access in technology due to their already
existing economic problems. Just like in many parts of the world, internet access is a major
crisis many students face in adapting virtual learning. Numerous Filipino students reported
that access to internet connection is a crisis making them “walk an hour an half” to gain
access or delay project submissions until midnight when that is the only time internet is fast
(Rotas & Cahapay, 2021).
Thailand Online Learning Context

The COVID-19 Pandemic or 2019-nCoV as the name of the virus (Department of
Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health Thailand) has been spreading worldwide since
December 2019 which has started to spread out of Wuhan City, China. Thailand is the second
place in the world that the novel virus Corona was found and it was reported as the first case
found in Thailand on January 13, 2020 by the Ministry of Public Health Thailand (World
Health Organization-Thailand, 2020).
In Thailand, in order to prevent the transmission of the disease, the Ministry of Public
Health of Thailand has announced some policies regarding practices of preventing its people
from COVID-19 which are D, referring to ‘distancing’ which means to avoid touching or
contracting with people in a close proximity, M is for ‘mask wearing’ all the time in order to
prevent transmitting and receiving the disease, H is for ‘hand washing’ for them to clean their
hands and prevent contracting germs and prevent such from transmitting to others, T is for
‘testing’ which is having temperature check when people travel and enter anywhere, and
lastly, another T which is ‘Thachana,’ an application to trace the people’s timelines and track
the place where the people as well as the patients have been. Hence, online learning is
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necessary is an effective tool for Thai students to keep themselves on track with their study
by keeping their social distancing and it helps reduce the spreading and receiving the virus.
Online learning consists of some advantages and drawbacks as follows (Thairath
Online News, 2020); some of these advantages include saving the cost of traveling both for
teachers and students; online application and programs that help online class attendance
management, taking quizzes that are convenient for lesson evaluation, and effective way for
communication among teachers and students through online; more convenient ways to
retrieve more information as an online tool. Some of the drawbacks are that online learning is
one-way communication which may lead to misunderstanding while the course content is
being conveyed to the students; the limited access of the technological devices such as
televisions, mobile phones, tablets, or internet connections; there is no full concentration
towards the course contents since mobile phones might be secretly used during the class time;
lack of careful consideration of the content found in the internet since some unreliable
sources of online content may be accessed by students; students’ parents might be the ones to
complete their children’s assignments or homework or these parents will give the answers to
the test questions; and last but not the least, the lack of time of the parents to supervise their
children due to the parents’ already heavy workload.
In Thongpreecha (2021), the government policy and guidelines concerning teaching
and management during COVID-19 pandemic in a school in Bangkok, Thailand. This
research is qualitative research altogether with documentary data studying. The research
results reveal that the sample the research participants are able to follow the government
policy and guidelines concerning Teaching and Learning Management during COVID-19
Pandemic due to the readiness to have the technology gadgets and the school also has a
meeting to organize and prepare for the online learning. Students are trained about studying
online in case they need to.
In Chaleoykitti et al.. (2020), the effect that the pandemic has caused to the nursing
study management. In this research, specific terms concerning COVID-19 are also mentioned
as well as the new ways of learning context in a new normal. The findings are the following:
1) the putting off of the nursing practicum in which during the pandemic, the research
participants are not able to travel to study in a laboratory or in a hospital, hence the practicum
process needs to be postponed to protect themselves from receiving and spreading the virus, 2)
The lateness of graduation of the nursing students since the nursing students as the sample in
this study are required to perform some practicum duties in a hospital but due to the
pandemic time, they need to postpone the practicum process, hence it causes also the
postponing of the graduation procedure as well, 3) The changing of the classroom context,
Classroom are changed from offline into online. Some applications such as Microsoft Teams
or Google are often used for the online learning during the online both learning and testing
processes. Moreover, according to the research findings, a factor which plays an important
role is ‘the disciplinary’ of the students themselves as well as the obstacle concerning
technology devices such as the lack of the access to the internet. While one advantage could
be that the travelling time to school could be deducted as well as the cost of traveling can be
eliminated (Chaleoykitti, Artsanthia, & Daodee, 2020), 4) The changing of teaching
procedures-Video recording in course content have been made for the nursing students to be
reviewed. The data used in online teaching are kept in Google Drive or in Microsoft
OneDrive or Microsoft Stream. The teaching procedures have been changed via video
Conference. One drawback could be in that some students are needed to work part-time and
which leads to the lack of computer devices and time to study.5) The adaptation of the score
keeping system and grading are made. ‘Turning crisis into opportunity’ is produced during
the pandemic. Active learning is turned into ‘Teach more Less learn’. The classroom lecture
8
is turned into online learning which is ‘Transformative Learning’. It arouses the students to
understand their own feelings in order to think and observe their thoughts and comprehend
the vision of the world. One needs to change oneself and study more.
In Imsa-ard (2020), the perception towards the abrupt transition from face-to-face
onsite classroom into obligatory online learning due to the pandemic situation in Thailand.
The number of the research participants is 310 students studying at a university. Snow ball
sampling and interview process are made throughout the research procedures. Interviewing
process is made with 15 participants. The research results reveal that most of the participants
prefer onsite lessons rather than online learning and they also prefer onsite classes in the
future as well. Moreover, they are also confident that their instructors will be able to give
them assistance and instruction towards online learning (Imsa-ard, 2020).
A study by Tanawongsuwan (2020) best describes the difference between onsite and
online learning in Thailand. The study investigated factors such as communication with
professors, interaction and collaboration with classmates, class activity organization and
participation, lab training, assignment giving, assignment submission, self-study and review,
and commute on both onsite and online learning, and consequently, compared. The findings
described how online classes did poorly in the area of lab training, student concentration,
student interaction and collaboration and class activities. On the other hand, onsite learning
could not fare well in the area of commute and self-study.
Thailand Onsite Learning During The Pandemic

COVID-19 has spread quickly all over the world since the early of 2020 as well as in
Thailand which has affected the schooling system in Thailand as well. Hence, learning has
been done online for a long period of time during the pandemic time. Until the pandemic
situation was getting better, since the number of the COVID-19 patients was reducing, on-site
classes were started to be conducted for schools on November 1 after the announcement of
Thailand’s Ministry of Education (Bangkok Post Group, 2021) while there have been also
some regulations every school has to follow before the onsite protocol was to be started such
as the number of the teachers, at least 85% of the teachers in a school in red or dark red zones
need to be fully inoculated, while 85% of the teachers in other zones need to get their first
vaccination.
For the university section, on-site, together with online learning has started on June 14,
2021 according to the announcement of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research
and Innovation (2022) while adjustment to the pandemic situation in the area where
individual university is located has been applied while following the standard issued by the
Commission on Higher Education Standards for the online and on-site learning environments
to be organized effectively. The Nation Thailand (2022) has also mentioned about another
example of a school which has recently reopened its learning system to arrange fully on-site
program despite of some negative COVID-19 patients found in the school, while the students
need to be screened by using ATK (Antigen Test Kit). Once being tested negative, they will
be allowed to enter the school. Hence, earlier is an example of COVID-19 screening protocol
done in Thailand.
Siamrath Online (2021) has mentioned that many students preferred to study on-site
in which Kasikorn Research Center (2021) revealed that 79.1% of the students have
struggling with their electronic devices which means the students have not been ready to
study online. The research result also showed that most of the students (50.9%) used their
own mobile phone as their learning tool to study in a course and their parents were also
concerned about their eye sights since they had to stare at the devices for a long time. While
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some of the parents (37.8 %) thought that the internet might not be a good tool as it might not
be safe for their children to receive some fake news or a chance to meet with some scammers
which might be harmful to their children. Hence, on-site learning has been used in Thailand
once the pandemic situation has been getting better.
Statement of the Problem

This research generally aimed to find out how Southeast Asian college students of
representative schools from the Philippines, and Thailand view the online learning classes or
virtual learning education in terms of their perceptions and their level of satisfaction.
Specifically, the study would answer the following questions:
1. How may virtual learning experience of students from the representative school be
described in terms of:
1.1 Reason for taking on-line class;
1.2 Time professors respond to emails;
1.3 Frequency professors communicate;
1.4 Medium professors use to communicate;
1.5 Medium professors used to respond to questions;
1.6 Connection through video/audio message;
1.7 Type of feedback;
1.8 Time outputs are graded and returned;
1.9 Inclusion of online learning modules;
1.10 Frequency of new content;
1.11 Option to work ahead:
1.12 Devices used;
1.13 Importance of cutting edge technology; and,
1.14 Kind of interaction?
2. How may the level of satisfaction towards virtual learning education of the students from
the representative schools be described?
3. How may the levels of satisfaction towards virtual learning education of the students from
the representative schools be described?
3.1 Philippines
3.2 Thailand
Significance of the Study

This study is deemed to be beneficial to the following entities or groups of people:
Administration- The administration of each representative school will find the results
to be useful to them especially as the administrators craft their school guidelines and policies
in response to global pandemic such as the COVID-19 situation, enabling them to ascertain
and respond to the various challenges brought about by virtual learning education, and the
implications and impact on their respective schools as each tries to grapple and skillfully
adjust and adapt to the online learning education and the many mechanisms involved in the
overall management of academic concerns.
Future researchers- They may be able to expand the scope of what this research will
accomplish. This study may shed more light and angles for the future researchers to consider
and look into. They may include more representative schools to have a wider scope of
realization and comparison, letting them have more conclusive pieces of evidence as to the
implications of virtual learning education in the Southeast Asia region.
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Module developers- The findings and results of the study may help guide the
developers of learning modules since schools also have made use of the modules as part of
their learning management system (LMS). Module developers from each of the mentioned
countries, the Philippines, and Thailand may create more modules that will best suit their
respective students as they see fit. Needs for each country may vary and the module
developers will surely take this fact into consideration.
Students - They may be able to understand that students from other countries go
through what they are going through and may draw some inspiration and comfort that they
are not entirely alone in their struggle. The students of the representative schools from each
country may find this study interesting knowing that the results may further support the fact
that virtual learning education does have strong implications in the way these students adjust,
be it in synchronous or asynchronous learning sessions.
Teachers - The teachers, like the students, also have to adjust and adapt to the various
learning management systems brought about by the virtual learning education. Through this
study, they may be able to see through the findings and results and hopefully will be able to
respond more to the needs of their students as different issues must be faced, assessed, and
solved or at least mitigated. These teachers serve as the primary conduit of learning for the
students to keep on studying in the midst of the COVID-19 trial that has global implications.
Methods
This chapter shows the different ways for this paper to answer the research questions
and will identify and explain each component. It will talk about the design used, the
participants and the kind of statistical sampling being chosen, the research instrument to be
employed, the procedure of gathering data, the statistical analysis to measure and analyze the
data, and the ethical consideration to be considered.
Research Design
This study employed the descriptive and correlative design. This correlational
research design examined the relationship between two or more non-manipulated variables,
in this case, the perception of Southeast Asian college students and level of satisfaction
among the representative schools of the Philippines and Thailand towards virtual learning
education in the new normal.
Research Setting
A private higher educational institution in Angeles City, Pampanga, Philippines and
another private university, (one among eight campuses) from Ayutthaya, Thailand were the
setting and locale of this research. However, to avoid undue influence, the names of the
universities were not mentioned to the respondents.
Research Participants and Sampling

The respondents came from one representative school of the Philippines and another
representative school from Thailand. The Raosoft sample calculator, which was set at 95%
level of confidence, was used to generate the sample sizes from both representative schools.
Out of the 11,508 students enrolled the first semester from the representative school in the
Philippines, a sample size of 372 was taken, and out of 246 officially enrolled from the
representative school in Thailand, a sample size of 151 was included. This was for the
Academic Year 2021-2022. All students sampled from both countries were least 20 years old
and above, which was the legal age in Thailand, and would not be under direct influence of
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the researchers. All the participants also experienced both onsite learning before the
pandemic and online learning learning during the pandemic.
Research Instrument
This research had two survey questionnaires, one for perceptions and the other
questionnaire for the level of satisfaction. Regarding the level of perception, this research
fully adopted an existing survey questionnaire prepared by John A. Huss and Shannon Eastep,
both from Northern Kentucky University, United States of America. As to the level of
satisfaction, this research adopted an existing questionnaire about the level of satisfaction
prepared by Dr. Richard R. Aman with his student satisfaction questionnaire which was also
adopted by Jill Mask Simpson of the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA.
which explicitly stated that these mentioned items or questions all pertain to level of
satisfaction (Simpson, 2012).
This questionnaire about the level of satisfaction had undergone careful review from a
panel of experts and was proved to be valid indeed. The construct validity was raised and met
in the development of the questionnaire through the structuring of the questions revolving
around 161; its reliability was tested through Cronbach alpha and the measures of its
reliability were all gotten from correlation coefficients of inter-item correlations and item-
total sub scale scores. These inter-item correlations between .30 to .70 have been found to be
acceptable. Moreover, there was Principal Component Factor Analysis as well in the measure
of reliability.
The questionnaire on perceptions comprised 16 items while the one on satisfaction
consisted of 18 items. The statements contained in both existing questionnaires were
universal and applicable to all students involved in online courses and teaching in whatever
department these students may be in.
The 16-item questionnaire on perceptions asked students for their reason for taking an
online class, how quickly and frequent professors responds to emails, how frequent
professors communicate, their preferences for medium of communication, whether they see
video message, their perception on type and frequency of professor’s feedback, the devices
used, and how important cutting edge technology and regular interaction is with their
classmates. The 18-item questionnaire on satisfaction determined their agreement on aspects
of objectives of online courses and its relevance, impact, variety, accessibility, timeliness,
functionality, and their overall satisfaction.
The Thai version of the questionnaire was translated by a Thai professor who holds a
Master’s degree in English and teaches English in the same university as the research setting.
Data Gathering Procedure

The research revolved around college students of representative schools of the
Philippines, and Thailand. After, having identified the number of students that served as the
sample size from each representative school, all the researchers involved sent them the survey
questionnaire in the form of a Google form link. This survey questionnaire was written both
in English and Thai for the selected students in Thailand while it was in English for the
Filipino students. The Google form link was deactivated once sufficient valid responses had
been collected.
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Data Analysis
This research used descriptive statistics, correlation, and T-test for independent
samples in the measurement and analysis of the results. The findings were tabulated and
explained accordingly in relation to the research questions or statement of the problem.
Ethical Consideration
This research strictly adhered to the code of ethics by being aware of the rights and
privacy of the respondents and schools involved and engaged. All the questions and answers
gathered for this study were treated with utmost confidentiality and used only for academic
purposes. The researchers had no conflict of interest that could compromise the results of the
study. The respondents were given informed consents and informed assents. The names of
students remained hidden and if needed to mention, researchers used code names. Important
information given by the respondents held by the researchers was kept until the research was
over. The respondents had the right to refuse answering the questionnaire should they refuse
their data stored or find the questions too sensitive for them. No harmful consequence came
the participant upon refusal. In the entire conduct of the study, there would be no monetary
value doled out to the respondents and they too would be made aware about this agreement.
Data extracted from the research was stored in secured external hard disk drive. The
data was destroyed after two (2) years prior to finishing the research. The respondents were
informed regarding this one so that these gathered data conformed to the Data Privacy Act.
Results
This section presents the results of the descriptive and correlative analysis of the
research. The results section presents data that answers the four statement of the problem - 1)
level of perception, 2) level of satisfaction, 3) significant difference in perception, and 4)
significant difference in satisfaction
Table 1 shows the comparison of the level of perception towards virtual learning
between the two countries. As shown, students from the two countries have different
perceptions of virtual learning.
In the Table 1, most of the Filipino students believed that their reason is “Face-to-face
did not fit my schedule or was not an option” with 43% of the total respondents. Furthermore,
25% find online classes as strictly convenient for their schedule, 5% understand that they
learn best in an online environment. In Thailand, 79% of the Thai students believed that their
reason is “Strictly convenient” for their schedules. The other 16% find that face-to-face
learning did not fit in their schedule was not an option due to most schools implementing
online schools out of government regulation. Additionally, 40% of the students stated that
they learn best in an online environment.
When it comes to how students perceived their professor’s response to emails, 33% of
the Filipino students responded that their professors respond to their emails “within a few
hours”, 26% perceived that their professors respond “within 12 hours”, 33% perceived
“within a few hours”, and 12% perceived “within 1 - 2 days.” In Thailand, 42% of the Thai
students perceived that their professors respond to their emails “within 24 hours”, 21%
perceive that their professors respond “within 12 hours”, 29% responded “within a few
hours”, and lastly, only 8% perceive that their professors respond “within 1 - 2 days.”
When it comes to the frequency the students communicate with professors, 33% of
the Filipino students responded that they communicate with their professors several times a
week, 51% responded that they communicate weekly, and 16% communicate daily. In
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Thailand university, 22% of Thai students communicate with their professors several times a
week, 71% perceived that they communicate weekly, and only, 7% of Thai students perceived
that they communicate daily.
Students’ from both countries greatly differ when it comes to how they perceive their
professors’ medium to communicate. Most Filipino students amounting to 69% perceived that
their professors usually use email announcement integrated in course management system,
2% perceived that their professors preferred text messages, 6% perceived that their professors
use audio, and 24% perceived that their professors use chat messages to communicated.
Meanwhile, 17% of the Thai students perceive that their professors communicate through
email announcements integrated in course management system, 22% of the students
perceived that their professors uses text messages, 11% perceived that their professors use
audio, and 47% perceived that their professors use chat messages.
In the area of “Medium professor use to respond to question”, 78% of the Filipino
respondents responded that the responds were received by email, 3% responded that they
receive responses through phone calls, 3% receive responses through audio messages, and
16% receive video tutorials via email. Furthermore, 25% of the Thai students responded that
they received responses from their professors via email, 35% via phone call, 21% via audio
message, and 26% receive video tutorial via email.
Most of both Filipino which is 51% and Thai students which is 85% responded that
they had connection through video/audio message, 6% of the Filipino students while 11% of
Thai students responded that they had not connected through video/audio message, 43% of
Filipino students and 4% of Thai students responded that they have never experienced a video
or audio message from a professor.
For the feed backing as well, most of both Filipino which is 54% and Thai students
which is 46% said that they received score and written overall feedback on the assignment,
36% of Filipino students and 25% of Thai students perceived that their feedback was scored
and has specific feedback on individual items, 7% of Filipino students and 15% of Thai
students perceived that feedback with a grade and score were enough, 3% of Filipino students
and 14% of Thai students perceive that their feedback were scored and had audio or video
feedback on items missed.
Most of both Filipino which is 57% and Thai students which is 78% showed their
responses that their professor returned their assignments/exams to them within 4 – 7 days. On
the other hand, 43% of Filipino students and 22% of Thai students perceived that their
assignments/exams were returned to them within 1 - 3 days.
For the online learning module, most of both Filipino which is 77% and Thai students
which is 78% responded that they studied online class with the content/audio and video
messages from the instructor, 16% of Filipino students and 9% of Thai students received
content only when they studied online class, and 7% of Filipino students and 14% of Thai
students studied online class with only content and audio messages.
When it comes to how frequent the students should receive new contents, most of
both Filipino which is 67% and Thai students which is 65% said that new contents should be
released weekly, 23% of Filipino students and 21% of Thai students should receive new
contents more than once per week, and 9% of Filipino students and 15% of Thai students
should receive new content every 2 weeks.
Most of both Filipino which is 80% and Thai students which is 91% responded that
they had option to work ahead while 20% and 9% of Filipino and Thai students, respectively,
responded that they had no option to work ahead.
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For devices, most of the Filipino students which is 63% used laptop, 20% used
desktop, 16% used smart phone, and 1% used tablet. In Thailand, 23% used laptop, 6% used
desktop, 61 % of Thai students used smart phones, while the remaining 10% used tablet.
Most of both Filipino which is 66% and Thai students which is 59% perceived cutting
edge technology as very important, 31% and 39% deemed it somewhat important, and 3%
and 2% of Filipino and Thai students, respectively, deemed it not very important.
For the regular interaction with classmates, most of the Filipino students which is 63
% and 59 % of Thai students also deemed that it was very important for the virtual learning,
31% of Filipino students and 39% of Thai students perceived that regular interaction with
classmates are somewhat important, 3% and 2% deemed it not very important, and 1% of
Filipino students, and none of Thai students deemed it not important at all.
In the last area, 56% of Filipino students perceived that the kind of interaction they
had were small group discussion board, 16% were large class discussion board, 26% were
small group projects, 2% were voice generated discussions, and 4% were video generated
discussions. In Thailand, 26% of Thai students responded that they had small group
discussion board, 15% had large class discussion board, 22% had small group projects, 20%
had voice generated discussions, and 17% had video generated discussions.
In general, students from the Philippines have different expectations and experience in
most aspects than of the students from Thailand.
Table 1
Comparison of Level of Perception Towards Virtual Learning
Philippines Thailand
Indicators
Percentage Percentage
Reason for taking online class
Face-to-face did not fit my schedule or was not an option 43 16
Strictly convenient 25 79
I learn best in an online environment 5 40
None of the above 27 21
Time professors respond to emails
Within 24 hours 29 42
Within 12 hours 26 21
Within a few hours 33 29
Within 1-2 days 12 8
Frequency professors communicate
Several times a week 33 22
Weekly 51 71
Daily 16 7
Medium professors use to communicate
Email Announcement in Course Management System 69 17
Text 2 22
Audio 6 11
Message 24 47
Medium professor use to respond to questions
Email 78 25
Phone call 3 35
Audio message 3 21
Video tutorial sent by email 16 26
Connection through video/audio message
15
Indicators
Percentage Percentage
Yes 51 85
No 6 11
I have never experienced a video or audio message from a
43 4
professor
Type of feedback
Score and written overall feedback on the assignment 54 46
Score and written specific feedback on individual items 36 25
Just a grade/score is enough 7 15
Score and audio/video feedback on the assignment and
3 14
items missed
Time outputs are graded and returned
Inclusions in online learning module
Content/audio and video messages from instructor 77 78
Content only 16 9
Content and audio messages 7 13
Frequency of new contents
More than once per week 23 21
Weekly 67 65
Every 2 weeks 9 15
Option to work ahead
Yes 80 91
No 20 9
Devices used
Laptop 63 23
Desktop 20 6
Smart phone 16 61
Tablet 1 10
Importance of cutting edge technology
Very important 66 59
Somewhat important 31 39
Not very important 3 2
Not important at all 0 0
Regular interaction with classmates
Very important 63 59
Somewhat important 31 39
Not very important 3 2
Not important at all 1 0
Kind of interactions
Small group discussion board 56 26
Large class discussion board 16 15
Small group projects 26 22
Voice generated discussions 2 20
Video generated discussions 4 17
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Table 2 presents the comparison of the level of satisfaction toward virtual learning
between the two countries. Based on the results, both students from the country of origin
agreed on the indicators set on the level of satisfaction.
In the Philippines, respondents rated the indicators saying “The objectives for this
online course were provided at the beginning of this course and were clearly described” the
highest with a mean of 4.19. The indicator saying “The course resources and materials for
this online course were easily accessible during the course” was rated second the highest with
a mean of 4.13, while the indicator saying “The course assessment methods for this online
course were closely related to the course objectives” was rated with a mean of 4.10. However,
the indicator with the lowest rated mean was the overall satisfaction which has 3.82.
In Thailand, the respondents consistently mean rate 3.81 on six (6) indicators namely:
1) “The course technology for this online course functioned very well”, “The course
interaction with the instructor for this online course helped me reach the course objectives”,
“ The course resources and materials for this online course were easily accessible during the
course”, “The course assessment methods for this online course were clearly described”, and
“The course assessment methods for this online course were clearly described.” The second
to the highest rated indicator was “The course resources and materials for this online course
included a wide variety of resources and materials” which has a mean of 3.80, while the
indicator saying “The course technology for this online course was helpful in reaching the
course objectives” has a mean of 3.79. However, the indicator with the lowest mean rate was
indicator saying, “The objectives for this online course were provided at the beginning of this
course and were clearly described” which has a mean rate of 3.62.
In general, both countries rated high (3.82 mean rate) satisfaction. This means that
with the current resources and instructions they have, the students from both countries are
satisfied with the current systems of online learning.
Table 2
Comparison of Level of Satisfaction Towards Virtual Learning
Indicators
Mean Description Mean Description
The objectives for this online
course were provided at the
4.19 Agree 3.62 Agree
beginning of this course and were
clearly described.
The course objectives for this
online course were closely related 4.01 Agree 3.67 Agree
to what I was expected to learn.
The course objectives for this
online course assisted with guiding 4.01 Agree 3.74 Agree
my learning activities.
The course assessment methods
for this online course were
provided at the beginning of the
course.
for this online course were clearly 3.97 Agree 3.81 Agree
described.
for this online course included a
17
Indicators
Mean Description Mean Description
variety of assessment methods.
for this online course were closely 4.10 Agree 3.77 Agree
related to the course objectives.
The course resources and materials
for this online course were easily 4.13 Agree 3.81 Agree
accessible during the course.
The purpose of course resources
and materials for this online 4.07 Agree 3.74 Agree
course were clearly described.
for this online course helped me 4.05 Agree 3.78 Agree
reach the course objectives.
for this online course included a
wide variety of resources and
materials.
The course instructor for this
online course interacted with me 3.99 Agree 3.78 Agree
in a timely fashion.
The course interaction with the
instructor for this online course
helped me reach the course
objectives.
The amount of course interaction
with other students for this online
course was helpful in reaching the
course objectives.
The course technology for this
online course was readily available 4.07 Agree 3.81 Agree
during the course.
online course functioned very 4.03 Agree 3.81 Agree
well.
online course was helpful in 4.06 Agree 3.79 Agree
reaching the course objectives.
Overall, I am satisfied with this
online course.
Table 3 shows the statistical test on the significant difference in the level of
satisfaction between the two countries.
As shown, there is a significant difference in the level of satisfaction between the two
countries. This may imply that students from the two countries differ in terms of their
respective resources, status, and culture. Well, even both of the students from the two
countries, Philippines and Thailand showed the similar results in some aspects, there were
still some areas which showed different results because Filipino students showed high scores
in all aspects of the level of satisfaction towards virtual learning than Thai students.
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Table 3
Level of Satisfaction Difference Between the Two Countries
Countries Mean T-value P-value Remarks
Philippines 4.03
4.53 0.000 Significant
Thailand 3.76
Note: Significant at 0.05 level of significance
Discussion
The current study explores the level of perception and satisfaction of college students
from Thailand and Philippines in an online environment of learning and the significant
differences of these between the two selected countries.
Majority of the Filipino students (43%) said that face-to-face sessions did not fit in
their or was not an option as a reason for taking online class. In spite of that, a paper by Race
(2020) revealed after conducting a survey questionnaires to students, only a little bit more
than 20% of them perceived that online classes are flexible in both schedule and strategy.
Responses from most Filipino students about their professor’s frequency and mode of
communication, response, and feedback, specifically pertaining to 33% of the students
reported that their professors respond within a few hours, 51% report that they communicate
with their professors weekly, 51% communicate through video/audio message while 77%
receive online learning module through same mediums, 78% and 69% find their professors
response and update, respectively, are through email, 57% reported that their assignments or
exams are returned within 4 - 7 days, and 54% described their professors’ feedback as scored
and has written overall feedback on the assignment, proved the findings of Ancho and Arrieta
(2021). Their paper described the Teacher Professional Development (TPD) before and
during the COVID-19 pandemic in most universities in the Philippines. TPD during COVID-
19 brought more importance on orienting professors using online applications and websites
as well as on utilizing online applications for more efficient performance in both teaching and
feedback.
Smartphones and laptops are the two most common devices Filipino college students
used in their online classes. Specifically, 63% of the Filipino students use laptop to connect,
66% deemed cutting edge technology as important, 63% saw regular interaction with
classmates are also very important, and 56% of those interactions are often through small
group discussion board. This data is congruent to a research by Moralista and Obucado (2020)
when they investigated the perception in state universities in the Philippines. Their study
describes that students from state universities also use smartphones and laptops and that
smooth relay of information through education online platforms are significantly important.
The results of this paper in section about level of perception in the Philippines is also
similar to that of the results by Avila et al. (2021) wherein the participants in their study
believed that their university branch’s online learning is moderately successful, professors
were moderately helpful, and that their professors utilizes educational technology to its
potential.
When it comes to the level of satisfaction in the Philippines, the students all agreed
that objectives of the online course were met and were related; that online courses assisted
with guiding students’ learning activities; that course assessment methods were provided at
the beginning, were clearly described, were including a variety of assessment methods, and
were relevant; that the course resources were accessible, helped the students reach the course
objectives, included a variety of resources and materials, and its purpose was clearly
described; that course instructor interacted in a timely fashion and helped reach the course
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objectives; and that the amount of course interaction was helpful, that the course technology
was functioning very well and helpful. In addition, all students was overall satisfied with the
online course.
In Thailand, the university uses two protocols: onsite learning and online learning.
However, most students apply onsite learning.
Since onsite learning is more prominent at the Thai university, inquiries for the
professors are answered face-to-face. If face-to-face is unavailable, the use of social media
platforms via mobile phones are often the viable options to students. Because mobile phones
are deemed convenient, emails are seldom used.
Communication between Thai students/respondents and their professors are accessible
and uncomplicated. Thai respondents often communicate when they are issues that need to be
cleared up and understood such as when the students needed to take a test prior their
graduation. Specifically, communication with professors are weekly as perceived by 71% of
the Thai students.
Thai respondents receives brief information concerning course management via
message where the files can be saved. Daily announcements are received via Line group.
Since most Thai respondents have onsite classes, phones and utilizing phone calls are more
convenient for them. In online learning, subjects are often done through video presentation or
audio message. This enables students communicate with the professors directly and virtually.
Additionally, 42% of the students receive email responses from their professors within 24
hours. However, 47% of the students receive updates through chat messages while 35%
receive professor’s response through phone call. Majority of Thai students (85%) also
connect to their professors through video/audio message.
Feedback regarding their assignments and outputs is deemed significant for Thai
respondents. According to data, 78% of the assignments or exams are returned within 4 - 7
days and 46% receive feedback that are scored and has written overall feedback.They see it
as an opportunity to develop their knowledge concerning a particular content. Most Thai
professors return their student’s assignments within a week since it may take some time for
the professors to complete it. Thai professors utilizes audio and video messages to
communicate with student
Thai students (65%) receive new content of the curriculum every week. Once
published, Thai students are given new set of tasks to work ahead or new lectures for them to
study for the upcoming class. Additionally, 78% of the students receive content through audio
and video messages which provides 91% of the students the option to work ahead.
Since smart phones are always on hand for every Thai student, smart phones are
always used to communicate with their professors as well as to update themselves about the
class. To be specific, 61% uses smartphones. Thai students preferred to have an updated
version of the technology which is very beneficial for them. Several students (59%) deem
cutting edge technology and regular interaction with classmates as very important while 26%
interacts with their classmates through small group discussion board. Hence, all in all Thai
students at a university level responded that regular interaction was important for them to
study.
Thai students in a class in most sections are not big. That’s why small group
discussion is one of the viable option students do to aid students focus well on a subject.
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To summarize, Thai students mainly use smart phones to communicate with their
professors as well as to attend their online classes. Professors often take a week to turn in and
give feedback on their student’s assignments or outputs.
The results on the level of perception in Thailand, however, is somewhat
contradictory that of the results of a study by Imsa-ard (2020). When it comes to Thai
student’s perceptions towards their instructions, they disagree that their instructors could
organize their lessons efficiently. When it comes to their perception towards willingness to
online learning, they disagreed that they are willing to learn online in the future and that
online learning is more comfortable. Furthermore, they agreed that they prefer face-to-face
classroom rather than online learning.The study concluded with the researcher saying that the
online learning did not enhance the quality of learning. In addition, the students found
themselves easily distracted and demotivated.
When it comes to the level of satisfaction in Thailand, the students all agreed that
objectives of the online course were met and were related; that online courses assisted with
guiding students’ learning activities; that course assessment methods were provided at the
beginning, were clearly described, were including a variety of assessment methods, and were
relevant; that the course resources were accessible, helped the students reach the course
objectives, included a variety of resources and materials, and its purpose was clearly
described; that course instructor interacted in a timely fashion and helped reach the course
objectives; and that the amount of course interaction was helpful, that the course technology
was functioning very well and helpful. In addition, all students was overall satisfied with the
online course.
Due to the type of questions the instruments used, the significant difference in the
level of perception between the students from the Philippines and Thailand difficult to
determine. However, there is a significant difference in terms of level of satisfaction between
the students from Thailand and the Philippines.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic situation forced drastic changes in the educational system
on a global scale. To overcome transition, various educational institutions and organizations
put an effort to design and implement online/distance education. After determining the virtual
learning experience of the Thai and Filipino students and analyzing the level of satisfaction of
the students from the representative schools in Philippines and Thailand, the following can be
concluded.
The level of perception towards virtual learning of most of the Thai students overall
fell on a satisfaction level which the Thai students were able to study online and they could
adjust themselves with their virtual learning during the pandemic well. The research results
revealed that most of the Thai students regularly kept in touch with their professors, got
themselves updated, received some feedback concerning their lessons and assignments and
responses from their professors mostly once a week, while they always connected themselves
with their professors through video or audio message via their smartphones. Moreover, most
of the Thai students agreed that they had received course objectives for the online courses
which guided them with useful and needed information which was not interfered by virtual
learning during the pandemic.
On the part of the Filipinos, it can be concluded that the level of perception towards
virtual learning fell on the same satisfaction level as most Filipino students find virtual
learning ideal for their schedule. Results showed that most students use the convenience of
their laptop to communicate with and work on their online learning module from their
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professors. Communication between Filipino students and professors were usually through
email and video or audio message that continues every week. On a regular basis, Filipino
students found that their professors usually reply within the day or 24 hours but turned in
their assignments and exams, at most of the time, with overall feedback, within 4-7 days. In
spite of that, Filipino students appreciated the option that they could work ahead and new
contents of their module are available every week. Moreover, Filipino students deemed it
very important to communicate with their fellow classmates most through small group
discussion board. Because of the continual communication with the professors and
classmates, majority of the Filipino student found cutting edge technology important in
virtual learning during the pandemic.
The basis for level of perception of students between two countries has been shown in
Table 1. The statistical test cannot be employed for the perception because of the type of
questions that exist.
In level of satisfaction between two countries, there was a significant difference
between the two countries. This might imply that students from the two countries differ in
terms of their respective resources, status, and culture. Further research on this is
recommended.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are forwarded for consideration in light with what
has been concluded.
1. The future research could be conducted with more respondents from other
Southeast Asian countries for a much better and more extensive comparison in terms of
output which will provide broader insights in order to realize the level of the satisfaction of
the virtual learning in the new normal as well as to be able to adapt whatever respondents
from other countries practice for virtual learning as these students do their best to continue
learning and growing in the so-called new normal.
2. A higher number of the respondents should be recruited for a reason of
generalization of the population which will increase the validity and reliability value of the
research results.
3. Future researchers could explore the factors that contributes to significant
differences between the two countries in terms of level of perception and satisfaction.
4. Depending on their country of origin, module developers could utilize and consider
the results from this study to help and guide them in developing modules that could better
satisfy students in their online learning.
5. Students could better understand the how contents of course assessment methods,
availability of course resources, the timeliness of course instructors, and frequency of course
interaction can affect their satisfaction in online learning.
6. Teachers could adjust and adapt their teaching methods such as in feedback and
timeliness of interaction with students to better bring more learning and satisfaction to
students.
22
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26
The Triarchic Model of Psychopathy and Humor Styles: Sex Differences

and the Non-moderation of Sex
Mary Ann B. Felker*1, Vince Michael I. Furman1, Ichiro S. Muramatsu1, John Omer M. Punzalan,
Reymond Neal C. Cruz1,2
1
Department of Psychology, College of Arts and Sciences, Angeles University Foundation
Angeles City, Pampanga, Philippines
2
Office of Total Quality Management, Angeles University Foundation, Angeles City, Pampanga, Philippines
*
Email : [email protected]
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the relationship of psychopathic traits under the triarchic
model (i.e. boldness, meanness, and disinhibition) with benign (i.e. self-enhancing, and
affiliative) and injurious (i.e. aggressive, self-defeating) humor styles). Additionally, sex
differences and the possible moderating role of sex in psychopathy and humor styles were
investigated. A total of 395 Filipino university students completed study measures on
psychopathy and humor styles. Our results revealed that the psychopathy traits relate to the
different humor styles in different ways. In particular, all psychopathy traits are positively
related to the aggressive humor style whereas only meanness and disinhibition are positively
related to the self-defeating humor style. Moreover, among the psychopathy traits, only
boldness is positively linked with benign humor styles. Significant small to large mean
differences were also observed between males and females for the aggressive humor style
and the meanness and boldness traits where males reported higher scores on those scales.
Lastly, sex did not moderate the relationship between any psychopathy trait and humor style.
This study underscores how variation in psychopathy traits leads to nuanced links with
different humor styles.
Keywords : Humor Styles, Triarchic Model of Psychopathy, Psychopathy
1. INTRODUCTION
Psychopathy is described as a cluster of numerous behaviors that includes a total
empathy deficit, limited affection for other people, and poor or insufficient feelings of guilt
and anxiety (Hare, 1978). Under the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy, it is a multi-faceted
condition characterized as a confluence of several personality traits reflecting varying degrees
of disinhibition, as characterized by impulsiveness, hostile behavior, poor self-control, and
poor emotional regulation; boldness, assertiveness, high self-confidence, and recklessness;
and meanness as contempt, aggressive behavior, satisfaction from inflicting pain, and lack of
empathy (Patrick et al., 2009). People exhibiting psychopathic traits are also commonly
described as superficially charming (Welsh & Lenzenweger, 2021) and may often employ
humor as a type of assertive self-presentation strategy to preserve and strengthen their
reputation when interacting with other people (Lobbestael and Freund 2021). People's use of
humor can be seen in two opposing lights, Martin (2003) narrowed the broad functions of
humor into two: (1) humor that is relatively benign and benevolent and (2) humor that can be
detrimental or injurious to the self or one's relationship with others. They then subdivided
humor into four other dimensions: affiliative, self-enhancing, aggressive, and self-defeating.
Humor that is classified as relatively benign includes the dimensions of affiliative and self-
enhancing humor styles.
Previous research has observed the links between the use of various humor styles and
individual differences in characteristics and personality traits. A study by Tanasić and
Marinković (2016) found that personality traits predict humor styles. Their findings indicated
that the best predictor of affiliative humor style is a high score on extraversion. Concerning
27
this, few research studies aimed to investigate the relationship between the maladaptive
variants of the Big Five personality traits and humor styles. Zeigler-Hill, McCabe, & Vrabel
(2016) studied this relationship using the DSM-5 pathological personality traits: antagonism,
detachment, disinhibition, negative affectivity, and psychoticism. The findings of this study
reported that the benign types of humor (i.e. affiliative and self-enhancing) are negatively
correlated with negative affectivity, detachment, and antagonism. While the injurious types of
humor (i.e. aggressive and self-defeating) had positive relationships with antagonism,
disinhibition, and psychoticism. Lobbestael and Freund (2021) proposed an assumption on
how people with psychopathic personality traits might be predisposed to using some humor
styles. They mentioned the use of self-enhancing humor may be predisposed to psychopathic
traits considering that humor can be regarded as a form of forceful self-presentation
technique used by people with psychopathic traits to sustain and improve their reputation.
Also, as cited from their research, both reactive and proactive aggression has been
scientifically associated with psychopathy, suggesting that the use of aggressive humor may
be predisposed in people with psychopathic traits (Reidy et al., 2007). With the possibility
that some personalities may be more predisposed to utilize a particular style of humor, we
hypothesized that certain dark personalities such as psychopathy will be more predisposed to
using humor in a more harmful manner or as a means to an end.
Both psychopathy and humor styles were found to have a relationship with sex. In
terms of the sex and humor styles relationship, several researchers found that males scored
higher in self-defeating humor (Martin et al., 2003) and aggressive humor (Martin et.al, 2003;
Wu et al. 2016) than females. However, newer research discovered that males scored higher
than females for all four humor styles and not just negative humor styles. Similarly,
inconsistencies also exist in terms of the sex and psychopathy relationship. Several studies
found that there are significant differences between males and females in terms of
psychopathy (Cale & Lilienfeld, 2002; Visser et al., 2010). However, another study found that
males and females did not differ significantly in two out of the three TriPM domains of
psychopathy (Sica et al., 2021). This piqued our interest and made us question how sex could
affect the relationship between humor styles and psychopathy.
The current study
Previous research has explored the relationship between psychopathy and humor
styles. The studies show a trend in the relationship between injurious humor and
psychopathy. However, few studies have extensively examined the possible moderating
effects of sex on their relationship. An analysis by Schermer (2019) of the prevalence of each
humor style across sexes, was done across multiple countries and found inconsistent results
which may have been subject to cultural differences. Further, research on psychopathy has
demonstrated that this phenomenon is more nuanced than the unitary concept would suggest.
Though the triarchic model offers a more comprehensive approach and form of measurement,
little is known about the relationship between this model and the humor styles previously
discussed. These gaps provide an opportunity for us to examine, within the Filipino sample, if
the components that make up the triarchic model of psychopathy have a relationship with
humor styles and if sex plays a moderating role. With these considered, we investigated
whether meanness, boldness, and disinhibition of the triarchic psychopathy model are
positively related to the four humor styles (affiliative, self-enhancing, self-defeating, and
aggressive) where those high in these traits may use benign and harmful humor as a form
self-presentation strategy (Lobbestael and Freund 2021). Furthermore, we also hypothesized
that sex affects the direction and strength of the relationship between humor styles and
psychopathy. Given that sex differences exist in both humor and psychopathy as individual
28
constructs, we investigated whether it can moderate the relations between psychopathy and
humor styles.
Extant research concerning humor and personality traits is growing. Nonetheless, we
have observed that there is less attention on the links between dark personality traits with
humor. In particular, that of psychopathy within the triarchic model of psychopathy. The
superiority theory of humor posits that comic amusement often comes at the expense or
misfortunes of others whereby it elevates the feelings of superiority over the target of ridicule
(Lintott, 2016). This theory also assumes that the affective response that is elicited from the
object of amusement, which is also assumed as a negative response, adds to the feeling of
superiority. This can help explain why people who are oriented toward injurious forms of
humor, specifically, aggressive types, thrive on the harm that they inflict on others.
Individuals who had psychopathic personality traits more consistently used injurious forms of
humor by laughing at others (Proyer et al., 2012). From this, we can infer the relationship
between psychopathic personalities and the use of injurious humor because of how
disparaging humor increases self-perceptions of superiority and at the same time derogates
the subject, both of which are commonly found in psychopathic personalities.
Nonetheless, apart from hypothesizing that people with psychopathic personality
traits are more inclined to use injurious humor styles, we also hypothesized that they are also
likely to use benign humor styles to maintain their charming personalities and reputation.
Using affiliative and self-enhancing humor styles would enable them to strengthen their
superficial charm and seemingly good public image. This is consistent with the findings of
Proyer et al. (2012) wherein they found that superficial charm, as a facet of psychopathy, was
correlated with the ability to laugh at oneself, which effectively increases this facet along
with feelings of grandiosity. This suggests that, although individuals high in psychopathy
tend to use injurious forms of humor, they also utilize other forms of humor to maintain a
manipulative lifestyle that enables them to reach a certain position or goal. The findings of
this study could shed light on the existing gaps and inconsistencies in the literature on the
relationship between humor styles (affiliative, self-enhancing, self-defeating, and aggressive)
and the triarchic model of psychopathy (boldness, meanness, and disinhibition). Upon
reviewing the literature on the TriPM to measure psychopathic traits, it has been noticed that
there is only very little literature that tackles the relationship of humor style and psychopathy
with the use of TriPM as its measure for psychopathic traits. Thus, this study would also be a
great addition to the very limited knowledge about the triarchic model of psychopathy as
related to humor styles. Investigating the moderating effect of sex on these two variables may
also potentially be useful for future research that would aim to study any related fields or
topics. This study may be particularly useful in investigating whether people with
psychopathic traits are more inclined to use any specific humor style.
2. Objectives
The general aim of the study aims to investigate the relations between the triarchic
model of psychopathy, sex, and humor styles. Specifically, the study aims to:
1. Examine the relationship between the triarchic psychopathy traits (meanness,
boldness, and disinhibition) and the four humor styles (self-enhancing, affiliative,
self-defeating, and aggressive).
2. Determine if there are sex differences in psychopathy and humor styles, and;
3. Investigate whether sex moderates the relationship between psychopathy traits
and humor styles.
29
3. Materials and methods

Research Design
The current study is an online cross-sectional study.
Participants
This study used the G*Power 3 Statistical Software (Faul et al., 2007) to calculate the
minimum number of participants required to detect a relationship of .2 with a power of .95 in
a moderation study. According to the calculation, a minimum of 266 participants is needed.
However, considering that moderated regressions suffer from lower power (Aguinis et al.,
2016), this sample size was aimed to increase depending on the duration of the data collection
process. At the end of the data collection period, a total of 400 respondents participated but
only 395 met the criteria. Out of these samples who met the criteria and whose data was
analyzed, 275, or 69.6% were female, while 120, or 30.4% were male. The participants of the
study who were included in the data analysis qualified in all of the three criteria which are; (1)
must be Filipino, (2) age must be in the span of 18 and 25 years old, and lastly, (3) is
currently an enrolled college student in any university residing in the Philippines.
Measures
The Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) (Martin et al., 2003). The HSQ is a 32-item self-
report measure of the tendency of which respondents to make use of benign or injurious types
of humor that are either directed to themselves or other people. It produces scores for each of
the humor styles which are classified into four styles: Affiliative, Aggressive, Self-Enhancing,
and Self-Defeating. Studies of the psychometric properties of this scale have reported that the
four HSQ subscales have presented good internal consistency (Martin et al., 2003) as well as
adequate construct validity (Martin et al, 2007). In the present study, each humor style scale
reported adequate internal consistency except aggressive humor style which only achieved a
coefficient of 0.62. The affiliative and self-defeating humor style scale achieved coefficient
alpha of 0.75 and 0.74, respectively. While the self-enhancing humor style scale got a
coefficient alpha of 0.70.
Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009). The TriPM is
a self-report scale consisting of fifty-eight (58) items intended to measure psychopathy in
terms of three distinct phenotypic constructs: boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The
TriPM psychopathy measure’s convergent validity was tested by examining the associations
between the TriPM and other psychopathy-related measures by Ustinavičiūtė (2019) and
colleagues. The samples used in the study were either incarcerated or on probation juveniles
and the results obtained from them supported the usefulness of the TriPM. In addition,
another study was done by van Dongen et al. (2017) aimed to further investigate the TriPM's
validity as well as its reliability. The results of their research provided evidence for the
measure's good construct validity as well as excellent internal consistency. The three
psychopathy subscales reported adequate internal consistency in the current study, with
TriPM boldness obtaining a coefficient alpha of 0.74, TriPM disinhibition obtaining a
coefficient of 0.78, and TriPM meanness achieving a coefficient of 0.85.
Procedure
The study was submitted to the Ethics Review Committee of the Angeles University
Foundation and was approved before data collection. With the help of online platforms such
as Google Forms, we were able to acquire data from our participants through online surveys.
The form was comprised of the following: an informed consent, a brief demographic
questionnaire containing questions regarding the participant's sex, age, nationality, college
program, and university/school, the Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ), and the Triarchic
30
Psychopathy Measure (TriPM). The participants were required to tick a box to give their
consent before proceeding with the questionnaires. We gathered participants by disseminating
publicity materials through social media platforms such as Facebook, Messenger, and
Instagram.
4. Results
For all study analyses, the Jamovi software was utilized. Table 1 reports the
descriptive statistics and reliabilities (means, standard deviations, ranges, skewness, kurtosis,
Cronbach's alpha coefficients) for the HSQ and TriPM variables. As shown in Table 2,
Cronbach's alpha values are presented as these are used to examine the reliability or internal
consistency of the scales. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the variables are all
considered acceptable in terms of their internal consistency except for the variable HSQ
Aggressive.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of psychopathy and humor styles scales
Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Cronbach's α
HSQ Affiliative 40.7 6.86 -0.2050 -0.0756 0.743
HSQ Self-Enhancing 36.6 7.06 -0.2801 0.2986 0.700
HSQ Aggressive 24.5 6.87 0.3784 0.1385 0.621
HSQ Self-Defeating 30.2 8.14 -0.0720 -0.3835 0.751
TriPM Boldness 25.7 7.20 0.1111 0.3708 0.734
TriPM Disinhibition 21.7 7.90 0.3311 -0.0400 0.785
TriPM Meanness 14.3 8.40 1.0523 1.3053 0.855
TriPM Total 61.8 16.05 0.8756 1.5553
Table 2. Correlation matrix of the psychopathy and humor styles scales

TriPM
HSQ HSQ Self- HSQ HSQ Self- TriPM TriPM TriPM
Disinhibiti
Affiliative Enhancing Aggressive Defeating Boldness Meanness Total
on
HSQ Affiliative —
HSQ Self-
0.335*** —
Enhancing
HSQ Aggressive 0.060 0.123* —
HSQ Self-Defeating 0.108* 0.201*** 0.303*** —
TriPM Boldness 0.298*** 0.223*** 0.128* -0.061 —
TriPM Disinhibition -0.136** -0.015 0.350*** 0.271*** -0.228*** —
TriPM Meanness -0.077 0.043 0.532*** 0.125* 0.239*** 0.526*** —
TriPM Total 0.027 0.115* 0.508*** 0.171*** 0.461*** 0.666*** 0.889*** —
Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001
Pearson correlations were computed between the study variables to determine whether
relationships exist among them. Cohen's (1988) guidelines for interpreting the magnitude of
correlation were used for the following interpretations. Specifically, r=0.10, r=0.30, and
r=0.50 were suggested as small, medium, and large magnitudes, respectively. As shown in
Table 2, we found out that there are several significant relationships between the TriPM and
Humor Styles. The differential differences among the TriPM sub-traits may be explained per
the TriPM's principle that psychopathy is not a unitary construct. Different elevations in the
sub-traits may turn to different manifestations of psychopathy, hence the different outcomes.
31
Table 3. Results of t-tests comparing males and females on the psychopathy and humor
styles scales.
Males Females
(N = 121) (N = 275) Statistic p Cohen's d
Mean SD Mean SD
HSQ Affiliative 40.6 7.06 40.8 6.77 0.236 0.774 0.0314
HSQ Self-Enhancing 36.2 6.71 36.9 7.23 1.014 0.369 0.0980
HSQ Aggressive 26.8 7.28 23.4 6.43 -4.620 < .001 -0.4970
HSQ Self-Defeating 31.1 7.64 29.9 8.32 -1.349 0.186 -0.1446
TriPM Boldness 28.1 7.39 24.8 6.92 -4.158 < .001 -0.4670
TriPM Disinhibition 22.9 8.23 21.2 7.70 -2.009 0.05 -0.2202
TriPM Meanness 18.3 9.30 12.6 7.30 -6.725 < .001 -0.7256
TriPM Total 69.3 16.85 58.5 14.50 -6.459 < .001 -0.7085
Note: t-tests were conducted in the following order female mean – male mean
Two-tailed independent t-tests were utilized to determine whether sex differences
exist among the variables. Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation values from the
Humor Styles Questionnaire and the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy for the male and female
samples. Certain significant sex differences in terms of humor styles and psychopathy were
observed. Large differences were particularly observed in aggressive humor, meanness, and
TriPM total. This indicates that males have a significantly higher tendency to utilize the
aggressive humor style and that they are also significantly higher in meanness and total
TriPM scores.
Table 4. Results of moderation analyses testing for sex as a moderator in the relationship
between the total and each facet of psychopathy, and each humor style.
HSQ Affiliative HSQ Self-enhancing HSQ Aggressive HSQ Self-defeating
p-
B β p B β p B β B β p
value
TriPM Boldness 0.30 6.50 < .001 0.24 4.95 < .001 0.08 1.66 0.096 -0.09 -1.66 0.097
Sex -1.24 -1.74 0.082 -1.61 -2.15 0.031 2.95 4.07 < .001 1.25 1.42 0.157
TriPM Boldness ✻ Sex 0.09 0.89 0.371 0.05 0.49 0.623 0.14 1.45 0.147 0.20 1.66 0.097
TriPM Disinhibition -0.12 -2.70 0.007 -0.01 -0.14 0.890 0.29 7.17 < .001 0.28 5.52 < .001
Sex 0.05 0.06 0.950 -0.72 -0.93 0.351 2.91 4.22 < .001 0.74 0.87 0.387
TriPM Disinhibition ✻ -
-0.03 -0.33 0.737 -0.08 -0.84 0.403 -0.03 0.756 -0.03 -0.25 0.806
Sex 0.31
TriPM Meanness -0.08 -1.85 0.065 0.06 1.27 0.201 0.42 11.5 < .001 0.11 2.26 0.024
Sex 0.04 0.05 0.959 -1.10 -1.43 0.152 0.92 1.45 0.147 0.59 0.67 0.504
TriPM Meanness ✻ Sex 0.11 1.24 0.215 -0.01 -0.06 0.954 0.01 0.11 0.915 -0.02 -0.24 0.809
TriPM Total 0.01 0.56 0.578 0.06 2.90 0.004 0.21 10.9 < .001 0.08 3.22 0.001
Sex -0.44 -0.58 0.559 -1.41 -1.85 0.065 1.04 1.62 0.105 0.21 0.24 0.814
TriPM Total ✻ Sex 0.03 0.66 0.509 -0.02 -0.38 0.706 0.03 0.75 0.455 0.02 0.45 0.655
32
Multiple regression analyses were utilized to determine whether sex moderates the
relationship between the variables. The Medmod module in Jamovi was used to test for
moderating effects. However, despite the discovered sex differences on the individual facets,
upon running multiple moderation estimates analysis for the total psychopathy and its traits to
all humor scales, it was found that sex does not play a moderating role in the relationship of
psychopathy and humor styles. All of the interaction terms were found to be insignificant.
Thus, the relationship between psychopathy and humor is the same regardless of sex.
5. Discussion
We aimed to examine the relations of the triarchic model of psychopathy with humor
styles, to see whether there are sex variations, and investigate whether sex has a moderating
effect on their relationship. We found that psychopathy traits are related to different humor
styles in distinct ways. We also found sex variations in both psychopathy and humor styles,
but sex did not moderate their relationship.
Psychopathy and the humor styles
We found that those who report higher levels of psychopathy are likely inclined to
engage in self-defeating humor style, aggressive humor style, and self-enhancing humor style.
Our finding that people with high psychopathy traits are more likely to use an aggressive
humor style is in line with the findings of Proyer et al. 's (2012). The results imply that highly
psychopathic individuals may indulge in comic amusement and disparagement of individuals
but also direct their aggressiveness as a self-presentation strategy of superficial charm.
Additionally, they found that people who have elevated psychopathic traits use injurious
forms of humor typically by laughing at the expense of others. People high in psychopathic
traits may be predisposed to using aggressive humor because reactive and proactive
aggression is associated with psychopathy (Reidy et al., 2007). An explanation as to why
people who use aggressive types of humor thrive on the harm that they inflict on others may
be offered by the superiority theory of humor. This theory suggests that amusement or
laughter that comes at the expense or misfortunes of others elevates feelings of superiority
over the subject of ridicule (Lintott, 2016). In general, we presume that people with high
scores in psychopathy tend to utilize aggressive humor because of their less emphatic nature.
Furthermore, laughing at another person's flaws or characteristics may boost their sense of
dominance. People who scored high in total psychopathic traits are also likely to engage in
self-defeating humor. These people may experience inward aggression manifested through
self-deprecating humor. Self-defeating humor may also be influenced by how poorly a person
with psychopathic traits controls impulses. Superficial charm or the ability to act charmingly
to gain something may also be enhanced by showing other people that one is capable of
disparaging the self. This is in consideration of the finding that people with elevated
psychopathy traits tend to present themselves as charming and favorably as they can (Welsh
& Lenzenweger, 2021). Martin (2003) also proposed that a self-defeating humor style could
be utilized to improve one's social relationships at the expense and detriment of one's self.
We found that high psychopathy scorers are also likely to use self-enhancing humor styles.
The same discovery was found by Knight (2015) and these results in which they found that
superficial charm is associated with the ability to laugh at oneself without a self-disparaging
tone, a key feature of self-enhancing humor style. This suggests that individuals who have
high psychopathy also tend to utilize benign forms of humor to maintain and improve their
reputation.
Boldness and the humor styles
Among the facets of the TriPM, boldness was the only facet that was observed to
have a unique positive relationship with both the affiliative and self-enhancing humor styles.
33
The results obtained regarding the relationship of boldness with affiliative humor are
supported by Lobbestael and Freund's findings (2021) where they discovered that a positive
relationship exists between psychopathy and affiliative humor. Using affiliative and self-
enhancing humor may serve functions for persuasiveness and social assurance to enhance the
perceived social value of the individual from their and others’ perspective. Individuals who
report high levels of boldness may use self-enhancing humor to further establish their image
to maintain their self-assurance or confidence, and their social dominance. It could be viewed
as a self-presentation strategy to maintain and improve their image.
Disinhibition and the humor styles
Individuals who scored high on disinhibition are inclined to use both the self-
defeating humor style and an aggressive humor style. Disinhibition is described in the TriPM
as having hostile behavior explains why people who are high on disinhibition tend to use
aggressive humor. This hostility may be translated through using aggressive humor and
laughing at another's expense. People who are high in disinhibition are also inclined to use
the self-defeating humor style which could be due to their inability to regulate their harmful
behavior. In the study of Cyders, Coskunpinar, and VanderVeen (2016), they found that
disinhibition has a relationship with harmful behaviors toward others and the self. Our
findings are also consistent with Zeigler-Hill, McCabe, & Vrabel (2016) who found that
people relied more heavily on aggressive and self-defeating humor when they reported higher
levels of disinhibition. On the other hand, it was also found that people who scored high on
the disinhibition psychopathy trait are less inclined to use an affiliative humor style, a form of
humor that is predominantly used to improve one's social relationships positively and
inclusively. Having poor emotional regulation, these particular people tend to show their
destructive behavior when they are experiencing emotional distress (Vahia 2013). Another
possibility is that these people may be trying to make harmless jokes about their peers but
end up being inappropriate and offensive due to poor self-regulation.
Meanness and the humor styles
People who scored high on meanness are likely to use both injurious humor styles.
Meanness in the TriPM is defined as aggressive resource-seeking without any regard for
other people (Patrick et al., 2009). Additionally, the term "mean" refers to characteristics
such as a lack of empathy, disdain for and lack of close attachments with others,
rebelliousness, and excitement seeking. Both injurious senses of humor are destructive, one
toward others and one toward the self. A lack of empathy may drive a person to act harshly
around other people, which in this regard, may be done through humorously disparaging
other people or one's self. Meanness was also found to be positively associated with a self-
defeating humor style. Self-defeating humor is used in an attempt to gain approval at one's
own expense. A possible explanation for this is that "mean" people tend to use self-defeating
humor sarcastically for other people to feel that they are way less superior to these people.
Drislane and colleagues (2014) found TriPM meanness to be the strongest significant
predictor of the trait, cold-heartedness, and Lobbestael and Freund (2021) found that cold-
heartedness is negatively associated with self-defeating humor. This means that the results of
our study posed an inconsistency in terms of the relationship between meanness and self-
defeating humor. An alternative explanation may be that meanness, directed as inward
aggression, leads to more self-disparaging forms of humor which are thought to be associated
with different constructs like negative self-schemas leading to depression (Dozois, Martin, &
Bieling, 2008). The findings that found the TriPM traits to be related to the self-defeating
humor style suggest that an individual is not invulnerable to one's destructive behavior. It's
intriguing to see how some psychopathy-related traits can be translated or manifested
inwardly.
34
Sex differences in psychopathy and humor styles

Among humor styles, only the aggressive humor style was observed to have
significant sex differences. Males significantly scored higher than the females from our
sample in aggressive humor. Similar findings were also found where males reported higher
scores in terms of aggressive humor than females (Kazarian & Martin, 2006; Martin et al.,
2003). Males were also found to have higher aggression than women (Denson et al., 2018;
Eliot, 2021). Furthermore, according to Wu et al. (2016), males may have less empathy for
other people, making males more likely to engage in aggressive humor. Furthermore, a study
that investigated humor styles across 28 countries (Schermer, 2019) found that males had
higher scores than females with regards to using aggressive humor style scores in 27 out of
28 studied countries. Similarly, a study on Filipinos conducted by Torres et. al., (2020)
further provides evidence that males more commonly use aggressive forms of humor. These
differences are subjected to the certain societal, sociolinguistic, and environmental
dimensions each sex is predisposed to experience and the fact that language is gendered.
Males more commonly push the idea of social hierarchy, therefore, utilizing aggressive
humor as a means to assert dominance.
With regards to the TriPM, we found that males were significantly higher than
females in terms of the total score and three facets. Previous research findings have shown
inconsistencies in terms of the sex differences in psychopathy. Drislane and Patrick (2017)
found that meanness and boldness were higher in men while the levels of disinhibition were
stable across sexes. In contrast, in Sica et al.’s (2021) study, males and females did not differ
significantly in their TriPM boldness or meanness scores. These inconsistencies pose a need
for further exploration of the matter. An explanation that may be further explored is the
possibility that these differences may differ across samples. Nonetheless, the current study's
results strengthen the evidence that meanness and boldness are significantly higher in men.
This may be the case because men may have less empathy for other people (Wu et al., 2016).
Males are also higher than women in terms of excitement or sensation-seeking traits (Cross et
al., 2013), and the same is in terms of arrogance (Grijalva et al., 2015). Males having higher
meanness traits may also be explained through a psychosocial standpoint. They may resort to
portraying aggressive behavior due to societal expectations for them to have a more dominant
and competitive personality. On the other hand, females are generally less self-assured than
males (Casale, 2020). Males also have a stronger social dominance orientation as explained
by self-stereotypes and responses to patriarchy (Schmitt & Wirth, 2009). These
characteristics among men may have contributed to their high scores in boldness.
As opposed to the findings of Drislane and Patrick (2017) that levels of disinhibition
are similar across sexes, we detected a small but significant difference in disinhibition. We
found males to have a slightly higher score than females. We presume that this was the case
because males may have a higher tendency of engaging in impulsive behaviors. However,
some studies suggest that there are no absolute and definite sex differences in terms of poor
impulse control or disinhibition (Mitchell & Potenza, 2015; Weinstein & Dannon, 2015),
while others suggest that the detection of differences would most likely depend on the
context (Weafer & de Wit, 2014). This is another interesting inconsistency that may be
further explored.
Non-moderation of sex in the relationship between psychopathy and humor styles
The current study's results failed to support our hypothesis concerning the moderating
effect of sex on the relationship between psychopathy traits and humor style. This means that
the relationship of psychopathy traits and humor styles are not conditionally dependent on
sex where the relationship is the same for males and females. Acknowledging that the effect
35
may be truly non-existent, we also present an alternative explanation, and possible limitation
of the study design to detect moderation. An alternative explanation is that sex presents itself
as a proxy variable. Sex, in our study, was operationalized in terms of assigned birth sex,
when it can also account for the expression of sexual identity and certain gender-oriented
characteristics. Sex, being perceived only as a physical characteristic does not showcase the
underlying traits of males and females that make them different from each other. Hyde (2005)
mentioned that females and males are similar to each other yet these similarities are not for
all aspects, especially in psychological variables. This may imply that the non-moderation of
sex in this study may have been influenced by the unaccounted gender-related characteristics
present for a particular sex or for both sexes. Thus, we also acknowledge the possibility that
sex does not play a moderation role in the relationship between psychopathy and humor
styles. In Zeigler-Hill, McCabe, & Vrabel (2016), found that sex did not moderate the
associations between pathological personality traits and humor styles. This may give us an
idea that perhaps, the non-moderation of sex exists in terms of the predictors of humor
similar to psychopathy and psychopathology. Although we suggest that specific gender-
related variables or characteristics, rather than just sex, be explored and used as moderators.
This is mainly because, upon the completion of the study, we observed the disadvantage of
only investigating proxy variables such as assigned sex as moderators to the relationship
among variables. Whether or not sex or gender plays a moderating role, there is a possibility
that the actual moderator is among the characteristics of these sexes and not the male-female
categories of sex. Thus, we suggest that future researchers look into this concern.
Implications of the study
Findings from our study shed light on how psychopathic traits within the triarchic
psychopathy model are related to humor styles. We find that the relations are nuanced where
trait variations in psychopathy traits relate to different humor styles in a distinct manner.
Another interesting observation between humor styles and psychopathy is how people with
certain psychopathic traits become victims of their own relatively destructive behavior. This
was particularly observed with how some of the TriPM traits are associated with self-
defeating humor. Variations among sexes were also highlighted where males, compared to
females, are more likely to exhibit psychopathic traits and use more aggressive forms of
humor. Given that there are findings of sex differences in the psychopathy and humor
literature, our study is one of the few that aimed to investigate its moderating effects.
However, despite finding sex differences in psychopathy and humor, our findings show that it
does not moderate their relationship. Our study findings add to the knowledge of the interplay
of psychopathy, humor, and sex differences.
Limitations and Recommendations
Several limitations were observed in the study. As mentioned above, a low number of
participants may have affected the results, particularly the statistical power to detect a
significant moderating effect. Thus, a larger sample size or pool of participants is
recommended for future researchers who would like to conduct a similar study. We also
recommend that future research should gather a more even number of respondents as ours
had a larger female sample than males. Second, the administration of data gathering was done
through online means, and context effects may have affected the answers. As mentioned by
Latkovikj and Popovska (2020), the online collection of data has its disadvantages such as the
possibility of participants having low motivation and reporting unreliable responses. A
possible range restriction in TriPM may have also influenced the results, given that our
sample only included college students. This suggests the possibility that the full range of the
construct was not measured, as the samples could only represent the lower end of the
psychopathy traits. Additionally, the HSQ facet for aggressiveness was found to have
36
inadequate internal reliability. The implication of this result for the aggressive humor style
includes the possibility that the estimates that involve this specific subscale may be
inaccurate or unreliable. Moreover, future researchers should explore how sex or gender as a
variable, usually operationalized as male-female categories, roles as a proxy variable. Perhaps
more gender-specific or associated characteristics closely associated with a particular sex
should be explored as moderators of psychopathy and humor.
6. Conclusion
Our study findings underscore the relations of psychopathy, within the triarchic model
of psychopathy, with humor styles. Generally, higher levels of psychopathy are related to a
propensity for both injurious styles of humor and self-enhancing humor. However, at the
trait-component level of psychopathy, we find that the relations are nuanced where trait
variations in psychopathy traits relate to different humor styles in a distinct manner.
Significant small to large differences between males and females were also observed where
males are more likely to exhibit psychopathic traits and use aggressive humor styles. Despite
these differences, we did not find any moderating effect of sex in the relationship of any
psychopathy trait or humor style. Either that it does not have any moderating effect, or that
our study sample is too small to detect moderation. We recommend further research to study
the role of sex in humor and psychopathy by studying particular sex and gender-associated
characteristics beyond that of male-female categorization since any effect of sex may simply
be a proxy for these actual characteristics.
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39
High School Teachers’ Technical Difficulties Amidst COVID-19 Pandemic

*Andre Brian D. Azarcon*1, Renith S. Guanzon2, Maria Christina F. Bagundol2
1
Lopez Jaena National High School
2
STI West Negros University, Philippines
*
Abstract
This study analyzed the technical difficulties of public high school teachers during the
pandemic in a secondary school in Murcia, Negros Occidental. It ascertained the technical
difficulties, specifically in Microsoft Office programs, multimedia platforms, and e-learning
resources. Further, the researchers determined significant differences between the levels of
technical difficulties when these teachers were grouped according to sex, age, civil status,
family income, and educational attainment. The instrument used to collect the data was a 45-
item self-made questionnaire that has passed the rigorous tests of validity and reliability and
has obtained a very high validity and a reliability index of excellent. Items were evenly
distributed in the three areas or constructs in focus.
The ensuing analysis revealed a low level of teachers’ technical difficulty in Microsoft
office programs but was found moderate in multimedia platforms and e-learning resources.
Subsequently, the Mann-Whitney U tests revealed that a significant difference was only
evident in e-learning resources when teachers were grouped according to age. Based on the
results of the study, a proposed intervention plan was formulated to lessen the technical
difficulties of these teachers and to further their learning in technology.
Keywords : Philippine education in the pandemic, technical difficulty, Microsoft Office,

multimedia platforms, e-learning resources
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic brought changes and disruptions in the history of
education, affecting almost 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries (United Nations,
2022). The world continues to struggle with the virus; however, technological privileges keep
nations more resilient because they better cope with the challenges, especially in their
governance, health, and educational sectors (Jiang & Ryan, 2020).
An Indonesian researcher named David Sulistiawan Aditya (2021) found that the
teachers perceived they were psychologically, technologically, and pedagogically ready for
digital teaching and learning in the midst of Covid-19 pandemic. The same researcher also
discovered that the digital learning problems were mostly prevalent in rural areas. Still
another problem he found was the different levels of students’ affordance of technology that
mainly led to digital learning inequality. Back home, this paper aimed to dwell more into
minute classroom challenges in Negros Island brought about by the heavy demands of
Microsoft Office applications, e-Learning, and other multimedia platforms with the aim of
finding creative means to solve the problem.
Moreover, in a report published by RAND Company, unequal internet connection has
been the biggest concern of the educators as it hurts the ability to learn the students in a
virtual education setting (Klein, 2020). Thailand encountered the same situation where
universities were not ready for online learning. In contrast, teachers need to acquire and learn
how to utilize the different e-learning tools independently (Sumabut & Tuamsuk, 2021).
Specific to the Philippine setting, the country also acknowledges the importance of
technology in education that it pursues paradigm-shifting from the book age to the computer
40
age. As added, the era of digitalization and technology is the key to "education during the
trying times" (Enicola, 2021).
However, Philippine remote schools still experience a scarcity of technological
resources, giving them extreme challenges in pursuing quality education (Orale & Quejada,
2018). As Figueroa, et al. (2016) asserted, far-flung schools, like those in Samar, have always
been deprived of much-needed resources like technology, making them far behind in learning
21st-century key skills. On the other hand, Nick Hutton, regional director of global software
company D2L, said that a successful teaching-learning process in a remote situation also
means optimizing faculty technical skills. Teachers should also be prepared to be
technologically equipped (Lacsamana, 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic has presented unprecedented challenges in various sectors,
with the education system being significantly affected. As schools transitioned to remote
learning, high school teachers found themselves grappling with a myriad of technical
difficulties that hindered their ability to effectively deliver education. Understanding the
extent of these challenges and their impact on teachers is crucial as it sheds light on the
broader implications for students' learning outcomes and the overall educational landscape.
By examining the high school teachers' technical difficulties amidst the COVID-19
pandemic, we can gain valuable insights into the specific obstacles they faced, and the long-
term implications for educational practices. This study not only highlights the difficulties of
educators but also emphasizes the urgent need for adequate support systems and resources to
ensure the continuity of quality education in times of crisis. Hence, exploring this topic is
therefore not only relevant but essential in paving the way for future preparedness and
resilience in the face of unforeseen challenges.
2. Objectives
This study aimed to determine the level of technical difficulties encountered by school
teachers in times of the educational crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, in a selected public
secondary high school in Murcia, Division of Negros Occidental, Philippines, during the
School Year 2021–2022. The study's findings served as a foundation for developing a
comprehensive intervention plan aimed at empowering teachers by addressing identified gaps
and enhancing their skill sets.
Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions:
1. What is the profile of respondents in terms of the following variables:

a. Age
b. Sex
c. Civil Status
d. Educational Attainment
e. Family Income
2. What is the level of technical difficulties encountered by high school teachers in terms
of the following areas:
a. Microsoft office application;
b. Multimedia Platforms; and
c. e-Learning Resources;
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of technical difficulties encountered by
high school teachers when grouped and compared according to the aforementioned
variables?
4. Based on the study's results, what intervention plan can be formulated?
41
3. Theoretical Framework
One relevant theory that can help understand the high school teachers' technical
difficulties amidst the COVID-19 pandemic is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
Developed by Fred Davis in 1989, the TAM explores the factors influencing individuals'
acceptance and adoption of technology.
In the context of high school teachers' technical difficulties during the pandemic, the
TAM can provide valuable insights into their experiences and reactions to the sudden shift to
remote learning. According to the TAM, individuals' acceptance and usage of technology
depend on two main factors: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (Venkatesh,
2000).
Perceived usefulness, according to Venkatesh (2000), refers to the degree to which
individuals believe that using a particular technology will enhance their job performance or
make tasks easier. In the case of high school teachers, their perception of how technology can
facilitate remote teaching, engage students, and maintain effective communication would
impact their acceptance and willingness to overcome technical difficulties.
Perceived ease of use, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which individuals
believe that using a particular technology is effortless and user-friendly. Teachers' comfort
with technology and their ability to navigate online platforms, troubleshoot technical issues,
and adapt to new tools will influence their experience with remote teaching and their ability
to overcome technical difficulties (Venkatesh, 2000).
By applying the TAM to the context of high school teachers' technical difficulties,
researchers and policymakers can gain a deeper understanding of the factors influencing
teachers' acceptance and adoption of technology during the pandemic. This knowledge can
guide the development of targeted interventions, training programs, and support systems to
address technical challenges and enhance teachers' technological proficiency, ultimately
improving the quality of remote education delivery.
4. Conceptual Framework
This study sought to determine the level of technical difficulties encountered by
school teachers in times of the COVID-19 pandemic during the School Year 2021 - 2022.
Three areas were considered which are Microsoft office application; Multimedia Platforms;
and e-Learning Resources.
Microsoft Office applications encompass a crucial area of high school teachers'
technical difficulties amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. These applications, including popular
tools like Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Teams, have become essential for remote
teaching and communication (Shelly et al, 2019).
One significant challenge teachers faced was the sudden transition from in-person
classrooms to online environments, requiring them to quickly adapt to using Microsoft Office
applications for various educational purposes. Inexperienced teachers or those with limited
technological proficiency encountered difficulties in effectively utilizing these tools to deliver
instructional content, create engaging presentations, manage virtual classrooms, and provide
timely feedback to students.
Teachers often encountered technical issues such as software compatibility problems,
connectivity issues, and difficulties in navigating the features and functions of Microsoft
Office applications. These challenges hindered their ability to create and share educational
42
materials, deliver engaging virtual lessons, and efficiently manage students' assignments and
assessments.
Multimedia platforms constitute a significant area of high school teachers' technical
difficulties amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. These platforms, which encompass various tools
and applications for video conferencing, content creation, and virtual collaboration, have
become integral for remote teaching and learning (Steinmetz & Nahrstedt, 2010).
One major challenge faced by teachers was the rapid adaptation to utilizing
multimedia platforms effectively. Many educators lacked prior experience in leveraging these
tools for instructional purposes, leading to difficulties in navigating their features, managing
online classrooms, and delivering engaging content.
Technical issues often arose while using multimedia platforms, such as connectivity
problems, audio or video glitches, and compatibility issues with different devices and
operating systems. These challenges hindered teachers' ability to deliver seamless online
lessons, engage students in interactive discussions, and ensure reliable communication.
The e-learning resources represent a significant area of high school teachers' technical
difficulties amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. These resources encompass digital tools, online
platforms, and educational materials used for remote teaching and learning (Moore &
Kearsley, 2011).
One prominent challenge faced by teachers was the selection and adaptation of
appropriate e-learning resources for their curriculum. Identifying high-quality resources
aligned with the curriculum objectives and student needs required careful evaluation and
exploration. Teachers had to invest time and effort in searching, vetting, and customizing e-
learning resources to ensure their relevance and effectiveness in the remote learning
environment.
Technical issues often emerged when using e-learning resources, including difficulties
in accessing or navigating online platforms, software compatibility problems, and
troubleshooting errors. Teachers had to familiarize themselves with various platforms and
technologies to integrate e-learning resources seamlessly into their virtual classrooms. This
process demanded technical skills, troubleshooting abilities, and adaptability to new digital
tools and interfaces.
The availability and accessibility of e-learning resources also posed challenges. Not
all students had equitable access to technology devices or reliable internet connections,
limiting their ability to fully engage with the resources provided by teachers. Teachers had to
find alternative solutions and adapt their instructional strategies to accommodate students
with limited access to e-learning resources, ensuring inclusivity and equity in remote
learning.
Furthermore, teachers encountered difficulties in designing engaging and interactive
activities using e-learning resources. Adapting traditional teaching methods to a digital
format required creativity and a deep understanding of the available e-learning tools.
Teachers had to explore features such as interactive quizzes, multimedia presentations, and
virtual simulations to create interactive and immersive learning experiences for their students.
The level of technical difficulties encountered by high school teachers was measured
in a continuum of a 5-part scale ranging from 5 as "very high level," 4 as "high level," 3 as
"moderate level," 2 as "low level" to 1 as the lowest or "very low level."
43

This study utilized a descriptive research design. This aims to accurately and
systematically describe a population, situation, or phenomenon and can use various research
methods to investigate one or more variables (McCombes, 2019). Specifically, this design
explores a population's characteristics; identifies problems within a unit, an organization, or a
population; or looks into variations in characteristics or practice between groups (Siedlecki,
2019).
As applied in this study, the descriptive research design determined the difficulties of
public high school teachers in terms of Microsoft programs, multimedia platforms, and e-
learning resources when they were grouped according to the different variables. These
difficulties were identified, analyzed, interpreted, and similarities and differences were
explained in the levels of technical difficulties across the other groups of respondents.
The study was conducted in one national high school in the Municipality of Murcia,
District of Murcia II, Division of Negros Occidental. The school is situated on a 12-hectare
farmland at Barangay Lopez Jaena, 15 minutes away from the municipality proper and 30 to
45 minutes away from Bacolod City. It caters to 4,000 learners from junior high school to
senior high school. In addition, the school serves as a catchment for students coming from
mountainous areas of Don Salvador Benedicto, Minoyan, Pandanon, and Canlandog,
respectively. It houses 101 teaching personnel and 14 non-teaching personnel. This secondary
school offers special programs like STE, SPA, and SPS. Recently, the school was awarded a
three (3) star school in School-Based Management-Wash in Schools (SBM-Wins) and
represented the Division of Negros Occidental in the regional competition. Lastly, the school
is also categorized as level three or in the advanced level of practice for School-Based
Management (SBM).
The respondents of this study were 88 secondary school teachers out of 113 in one
national high school in the municipality of Murcia, Negros Occidental, during the school year
2021-2022. To ensure that all eight departments in the school had a proportional number of
samples, the researchers employed a stratified random sampling technique. Thomas (2020)
stated that in stratified random sampling, researchers should divide a population into
homogeneous subpopulations called strata, and each stratum is then sampled. Table 1
presents the distribution of respondents by the department.
Table 1 Distribution of the Respondents
Population Sample Percentage

Departments
(N) (n) (%)
A 17 13 15
B 17 13 15
C 16 13 14.2
D 13 10 11.5
E 12 9 10.6
F 16 13 14.2
G 15 12 13.3
H 7 5 6.2
Total 113 88 100.0
44
The research instrument has been validated using the criteria set by Good and Scates
(Oducado, 2020). Three expert validators rated it and acquired an average of 4.87, interpreted
as excellent. In identifying the internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha was utilized (Glen,
2022). The questionnaire has garnered a value of 0.979, interpreted as excellent, which is far
greater than the minimum alpha value of 0.70 for the questionnaire to be reliable and
consistent enough to be used for the actual data collection.
Prior approval was sought from concerned school authorities before the conduct of
pilot-testing of the survey questionnaire and administering the same to its target respondents.
The latter were oriented to the purpose, scope, and voluntary nature of the study. Health
protocols were duly observed throughout the data-collection process. Finally, the data
gathered were tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted using the appropriate statistical tools.
The respondents answered a four-part researchers-made questionnaire, which
underwent validity and reliability testing before its administration. The descriptive and
comparative analytical schemes were employed to reveal the dynamics involved in the
processes. Frequency count, percentage, mean, and Mann-Whitney U test were used to treat
the descriptive and inferential data, respectively.
To analyze the data and address the different objectives, the researchers have
employed the descriptive and comparative analytical schemes and adhered to the following
statistical tools: frequency count and percentage to determine the profile of respondents,
mean to establish the level of technical difficulties in terms of Microsoft programs,
multimedia platforms, and e-learning resources, and Mann Whitney U test to find out
significant differences when respondents are grouped according to the aforementioned
variables. For the levels of technical difficulties, mean scores were interpreted as follows:
Mean Score Range Verbal Interpretation
4.50-5.00 Very High Level
3.50-4.49 High Level
2.50-3.49 Moderate Level
1.50-2.49 Low Level
1.00-1.49 Very Low Level
6. Results and Discussion

Respondents’ Profile
The respondents’ profile is summarized in Table 2, bringing the spotlight on age, sex,
civil status, educational attainment, and family income.
Table 2 Profile of the Respondents
Variables Categories Frequency Percentage
Younger (below 35 years old) 49 55.7
Age
Older (35 years old and above) 39 44.3
35 39.8
Male
Sex
Female 53 60.2
Single 33 37.5
Civil Status Married 55 62.5
Lower (Bachelor’s Degree) 62 70.5

Higher (Masters and Doctorate
Highest Educational Attainment 26 29.5
Degrees)
45
Lower (below P28,000) 57 64.8

Average Family Monthly Higher (P28,000 and above) 31 35.2
Income
88 100
Total
Table 2 shows the respondents’ demographic profile when grouped by age, sex, civil
status, educational attainment, and family income. Based on age groupings, 55.70% are
younger, whose ages are below 35 years old, while 44.30% are older with ages from 35 years
old and above. When grouped according to sex, 35 were males, while 53 were females. In
terms of civil status, 37.50% are single, while 62.50% are married. When grouped by
educational attainment, 62 had lower and 26 had higher educational attainment. Finally, when
grouped according to family income, 64.80% have lower income while 35.20% have higher
income.
Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties in Microsoft Programs
Table 3 shows the level of technical difficulties encountered by teachers according to
the area of Microsoft Office applications. Results show that the respondents have a "low"
technical difficulty level of the respondents on Microsoft Office applications (M=2.44). The
item that obtained the highest mean score is "entering data on my created spreadsheet in
Microsoft Excel" (M=2.63), while the item that scored the lowest is "setting the size and
orientation of my slides in MS PowerPoint" and "inserting tables, shapes, and images in MS
Word" (M=2.26).
The high difficulty mean score on the utilization of Microsoft Excel is supported by
the idea that a big portion of the population, though not the majority, already belongs to an
older group. Hence, many of them may be struggling with transferring data from papers into
their computers due to eyesight difficulties. On the other hand, using MS PowerPoint and
Word functions, obtaining low mean scores implies that the teachers have already been used
to manipulating the functions of MS PowerPoint and Word since they always deal with them
in making their reports, lesson plans, and visual aids.
These results support the study of Sajid et al. (2018), asserting that teachers were
competent in using Microsoft programs, especially the word document; thus, their difficulty
in manipulating such programs is low. However, this debunks the findings of Ogwu (2016),
asserting that teachers poorly utilize Microsoft packages for teaching and learning, resulting
in them becoming less competent in such Microsoft programs.
Table 3 Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties based on Microsoft Office Application
Items Mean Interpretation
As a teacher, I have difficulties in...
1. creating text documents in Microsoft Word. 2.38 Low Level
2. inserting tables, shapes, and images in Microsoft Word. 2.26 Low Level
3. changing the page layout (like margins, orientation, columns,
2.47 Low Level
indentation, and spacing) of my text document in Microsoft Word.
4. adding citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, and
2.49 Low Level
bibliography for my references in Microsoft Word.
5. navigating the review tab to check for the spelling, language,
2.52 Moderate Level
translation, and word count of my text document in Microsoft Word.
6. creating workbooks or spreadsheets in Microsoft Excel. 2.48 Low Level
7. entering data in my created Spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel. 2.63 Moderate Level
8. formatting cells like text wrapping, merging cells, adding decimal
2.5 Moderate Level
places, and changing currency in Microsoft Excel.
9. performing mathematical, statistical, and logical operations in the 2.61 Moderate Level
46
Microsoft Office Excel program.

10. creating graphs using excel to better present the totality of data. 2.45 Low Level
11. creating and opening existing presentations in Microsoft
2.42 Low Level
PowerPoint.
12. setting the size and orientation of my slides in Microsoft
2.26 Low Level
PowerPoint.
13. adding shapes, images, sounds, and videos to my presentation in
2.35 Low Level
Microsoft PowerPoint.
14. adding customed effects, transitions, and animations to my
2.36 Low Level
presentation in Microsoft PowerPoint.
15. presenting and navigating my presentation in Microsoft
2.38 Low Level
PowerPoint.
Overall Mean 2.44 Low Level
Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties in Multi-media Platforms
Table 4 shows the level of technical difficulties that secondary public school teachers
encounter in the new normal of multimedia platforms. Results show that they have a
"moderate" level of technical difficulties in the aforementioned area (M= 2.52). The item
with the highest mean score is "connecting to the internet due to connectivity issues"
(M=2.88) because the school where the respondents teach is located in a rural area with
insufficient cell sites making connectivity a problem. Also, many teachers reside in remote
areas and lack load allowances, making internet connection a luxury for them.
On the other hand, "setting the printer's resolution and quality from high to draft for
faster printing" got the least mean score (M=2.22). This is since teachers are already so used
to using their printers since they print hundreds of modules almost every week since distant
learning education took place.
The results confirm Konig et al. (2020) findings that teachers are faced with
significant challenges in adapting to distant teaching-learning and maintaining at least a
minimum amount of communication with their students.
Table 4 Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties according to Multi-Media Platforms

1. adding or inviting students to join my class in Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams,
2.6 Moderate Level
Zoom, etc.
2. holding virtual classes on Facebook, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and/or Zoom. 2.32 Low Level
3. creating or modifying assignments in Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams, and/or
2.38 Low Level
Schoology.
4. creating online forms and assessments that can be utilized by my students and
2.56 Moderate Level
colleagues.
5. setting a virtual meeting and disseminate the link so that students/colleagues can
2.56 Moderate Level
join.
6. creating a resource page for learning materials and instructions for the whole
2.58 Moderate Level
class in Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams, and/or Schoology.
7. screen sharing for my presentation during virtual classes on Facebook,
2.27 Low Level
Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and/or Zoom.
8. printing learning activity sheets and modules from .pdf, and/or .docx file
2.36 Low Level
format.
9. printing learning activity sheets and modules in different page handling
2.56 Moderate Level
(booklet, multiple, poster).
10. setting the printer’s resolution and/or quality from high to draft for faster printing. 2.22 Low Level
11. troubleshooting my printer. 2.67 Moderate Level
12. transferring files and digital-print modules through USB, Share-it, and/or Google
2.39 Low Level
drive.
47
13. connecting to the internet due to connectivity issues. 2.88 Moderate Level
14. performing my teaching duties since I don’t have my own laptop and/or computer. 2.67 Moderate Level
15. printing my modules and/or learner’s answer sheets since I don't have my own
2.82 Moderate Level
printer.
Moderate
Overall Mean 2.52
Level
Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties in E-learning Resources

Table 5 shows the level of technical difficulties encountered by teachers according to
the area of E-learning resources. Respondents have a "moderate" technical difficulty level in
the aforementioned area (M=2.81). The results show that respondents have the lowest mean
on "downloading educational videos from YouTube" (M=2.57). In contrast, the highest mean
score is "utilizing search engines because of the poor navigation set-up; thus, not user-
friendly” (M=2.95).
This implies that teachers don't get the chance to fully maximize the use of online
resources and search engines as brought about by their poor connectivity since most reside in
rural areas. Therefore, their lack of access to e-learning resources is a barrier to their
familiarity and utilization, leading them to have a "moderate" technical difficulty level.
These results correspond to that of Wahyuningsih et al. (2021), affirming that teachers
are not well equipped in terms of utilizing e-learning resources which may be rooted in their
lack of technical ability in the use of devices and tools in creating digital learning resources,
not being strategic in terms of organizing materials to be applied to learning resources, and
the lack of skills in managing digital learning resources. Teachers are therefore advised by the
latter researcher to work with educational technologists for them to be guided by the different
know-hows.
Table 5 Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties according to e-Learning Resources

1. accessing search engines (like google and bing) due to slow internet connectivity. 2.76 Moderate Level
2. searching the internet because my device/s lag/s whenever I use the browser. 2.92 Moderate Level
3. downloading educational videos from YouTube. 2.57 Moderate Level
4. shortening long URLs. 2.8 Moderate Level
5. accessing e-learning sites like Scribd, Coursera, Khan Academy, and or TedEd due
2.73 Moderate Level
to not having premium subscriptions.
6.updating and optimizing my browsers regularly. 2.93 Moderate Level
7. searching websites since they offer a poor user experience on smartphones and
2.75 Moderate Level
tablets and are slow to load on mobile devices.
8. utilizing search engines because of the poor navigation set-up, thus, not user-
2.95 Moderate Level
friendly.
9. utilizing images on the web because they are not search-friendly. 2.76 Moderate Level
10. searching the internet because the webpages load at a slow pace. 2.85 Moderate Level
11. searching the web because of poor internet searching strategies. 2.86 Moderate Level
12. I searched the web because e-learning applications are unavailable on my device/s. 2.75 Moderate Level
13. searching the web because I don’t have an updated antivirus to protect my
2.84 Moderate Level
computer from browsing or downloading from internet sites.
14. searching the web because there are too many hits, I am not sure which is to
2.89 Moderate Level
choose best.
15. utilizing Open Educational Resources like DepEd Commons due to log-in issues. 2.82 Moderate Level
Overall Mean 2.81 Moderate Level
48
Difference in the Level of Technical Difficulties of Public School Teachers in the New
Normal based on Microsoft Programs and Groupings by Selected Variables
Mann-Whitney U test was used in Table 6 to determine the significant difference in the
level of technical difficulties encountered by teachers in the area of Microsoft Office
applications when respondents are grouped according to the variables. Results show that
there is no significant difference in the level of technical difficulties in the new normal in the
area of Microsoft Office applications when respondents are grouped according to age
[U=932.000, p=0.843], sex [U=883.50, p=0.707], civil status [U=827.000, p=0.487], highest
educational attainment [U=725.000, p=0.458], and average family monthly income
[U=859.50, p=0.834].
Therefore, the results accepted the null hypothesis that the level of technical difficulties
encountered by teachers in the new normal in the area of Microsoft Office applications is not
significant when respondents are grouped according to their demographic profiles.
Results are parallel to the study of Mahdi & Al-Dera (2013), affirming that there is no
significant difference in the level of difficulty in the use of ICT, particularly of commonly
used programs like that of Microsoft Office, when respondents are grouped according to age
and sex. Likewise, the above difficulty level is not significant even though teacher
respondents are grouped according to their civil status, average monthly family income, and
highest educational attainment (Gelacio & Comighud, 2020). This implies that respondents,
regardless of their age, sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, and average monthly
family income, have just the same or common answers on items that measured their difficulty
level in Microsoft Office applications.
Table 6 Difference in the Level of Teachers’ Technical Difficulties according to Microsoft Office
Application and Selected Variables
Mann p- Sig.
Variable Category N Mean Interpretation
Whitney U value level
Younger 49 44.02
Age 932 0.843 Not Significant
Older 39 45.1
Male 35 43.24
Sex 883.5 0.707 Not Significant
Female 53 45.33
Single 33 46.94
Civil Status 827 0.487 0.05 Not Significant
Married 55 43.04
Highest Educational Lower 62 45.81
725 0.458 Not Significant
Attainment Higher 26 41.38
Average Family Monthly Lower 57 44.08
859.5 0.834 Not Significant
Income Higher 31 45.27
A Comparative Analysis on the Level of Technical Difficulties encountered by Public

School Teachers in the New Normal in Multi-Media Platforms when Grouped according
to Selected Variables
Mann Whitney U test was used in Table 7 to determine the significant difference in
the level of technical difficulties encountered by teachers in the area of multimedia platforms
when they are grouped according to variables. Results show that there is no significant
difference in the level of technical difficulties in the new normal in the area of multimedia
platforms when respondents are grouped according to age [U=818.50, p=0.249], sex
[U=843.50, p=0.473], civil status [U=877.00, p=0.792], highest educational attainment
[U=731.000, p=0.492], and average family monthly income [U=832.50, p=0.656].
49
The findings of the researchers debunk that of Villanueva & Niguidula (2019), which
indicated that the utilization of multimedia platforms is significant when teachers are grouped
according to their age and sex. On the other hand, Gelacio & Comighud (2020) noted that the
level of competence and utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
the school systems are not significantly different when teacher respondents are grouped
according to age, sex, as well as according to their civil status, average monthly family
income, and highest educational attainment.
Therefore, the results accepted the null hypothesis that teachers' level of technical
difficulties in the new normal in the area of multimedia platforms is not significant when
respondents are grouped according to their demographic profiles. This implies that
respondents, regardless of their age, sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, and
average monthly family income, have just the same or common answers on items that
measured their difficulty level in the area of multimedia platforms.
Table 7 Difference in the Level of Technical Difficulties Encountered by Public School

Teachers in the New Normal in Multi-Media Platforms when Grouped according to Selected
Variables
Mann p- Sig.
Whitney U value level
Younger 49 41.7 Not
Age 818.5 0.249
Older 39 48.01 Significant
Male 35 42.1 Not
Sex 843.5 0.473
Female 53 46.08 Significant
Single 33 45.42 Not
Civil Status 877 0.792 0.05
Married 55 43.95 Significant
Highest Educational Lower 62 45.71 Not
731 0.492
Attainment Higher 26 41.62 Significant
Average Family Lower 57 43.61 Not
832.5 0.656
Monthly Income Higher 31 46.15 Significant
Difference in the Level of Technical Difficulties by Public School Teachers in the New
Normal in e-Learning Resources according to Demographics
Mann Whitney U test was used in Table 8 to determine the significant difference in
the level of technical difficulties encountered by teachers in the new normal in the area of E-
learning resources when they are grouped according to variables. Results show that there is
no significant difference in the level of technical difficulties in the new normal in the area of
E-learning resources when respondents are grouped according to sex [U=762.000, p=0.155],
civil status [U=873.000, p=0.766], highest educational attainment [U=730.000, p=0.486], and
average family monthly income [U=854.000, p=0.796]. However, technical difficulty level in
the aforementioned area is found to be significantly different when respondents are grouped
according to age [U=689.000, p=0.025], indicating higher difficulty level among older
teachers.
Former results, therefore, accepted the null hypothesis, which states that teachers'
level of technical difficulties in the new normal in the area of multimedia platforms is not
significant when respondents are grouped according to their sex, civil status, highest
educational attainment, and average family monthly income. This implies that respondents,
regardless of their aforementioned demographic profile, have just the same or common
answers on items that measured their difficulty level in the area of multimedia platforms.
50
Meanwhile, the latter finding follows Czaja et al. (2006), affirming that age becomes
a factor in a person's technological competency. The latter asserted that an older person is not
that efficient in some technological areas brought about by the cognitive gap. Often, older
people are faced with computer anxieties, which sometimes impede them from utilizing
technology to the maximum extent.
The researchers, therefore, rejected the null hypothesis asserting that the level of
technical difficulties encountered by teachers in the new normal in the area of multimedia
platforms is not significant when grouped according to age. This leads to an implication that
responses of the subgroups on items are not the same, with older respondents having a greater
difficulty level on e-learning resources with a mean score of 51.33 than the younger
respondents with a mean score of 39.06. Therefore, with the significantly higher difficulty
level of older teachers, it is further implied that the latter should be well-assisted in
technological utilization. They should be more welcoming to the technological changes that
take place for them to cope with such trends.
Table 8 Difference in the Level of Teachers’ Technical Difficulties according to e-Learning
Resources
Mann Whitney p- Sig.
U value level
Younger 49 39.06
Age 689 0.025 Significant
Older 39 51.33
Male 35 39.74
Sex 761 0.155 Not Significant
Female 53 47.64
Single 33 45.55
Civil Status 873 0.766 0.05 Not Significant
Married 55 43.87
Highest Educational Lower 62 45.73
Attainment Higher 26 41.58
Average Family Monthly Lower 57 43.98
Income Higher 31 45.45
7. Conclusion
After analyzing the findings of this study, it can be concluded that teachers are indeed
getting better at utilizing Microsoft Office programs. Refresher courses or training, especially
in Microsoft Excel, are recommended to further enhance their skills in the said area.
However, their “moderate” difficulty level in multimedia platforms and e-learning resources
implies they struggle to maximize the potential benefits of those areas despite them having
the know-how of such, as brought about by the common factors like lack of better internet
connectivity and the non-availability of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
in the school system and perhaps, in their homes, too. Provisioning ICT-based equipment and
enhancing facilities is recommended to raise the teacher’s competence in the said areas.
Results further indicated the varying technical difficulties in the three areas when respondents
are grouped according to their demographic profile. However, the non-significance of the
mean score differences in the areas of Microsoft Office programs, multimedia platforms, and
e-learning resources (except when grouped according to age) implies that there is no inferior
nor superior subgroup in terms of their level of technological competence and/or difficulty in
the aforementioned areas. However, the significance of the mean score differences in the e-
learning resources when grouped according to age leads to a conclusion that younger teachers
tend to utilize and integrate more e-learning resources in the teaching-learning process than
the older group due to the former's lower difficulty level than the latter. Training and peer-to-
peer tutorials/assistance are recommended to help the more senior teachers cope and decrease
their difficulty level in the said area.
51
8. The Intervention Plan

Rationale
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) play a vital role in delivering
quality education to the learners amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the researchers
proposed a 1-year intervention plan which aims to upskill teachers’ competence and minimize
their difficulties in terms of Microsoft office programs, multimedia platforms, and e-learning
resource utilization. Their re-skilling will be made possible by the conduct of training and
seminars which are to update the educators about MS Office programs’ functions and updates
and to remind them of the importance of the use of e-learning resources and multimedia
platforms, as well as the proper use of such especially in the educational setting.
This proposed intervention plan will facilitate further teachers’ continuous learning of
technology to depreciate their technical difficulties as it was found out that public high school
teachers in this specific school are still having low to moderate levels of difficulty in the
utilization of technology in the workplace when grouped according to their demographics
such as age, sex, civil status, average monthly family income, and highest educational
attainment.
Objectives
This section presents the proposed one-year work plan to be implemented in one
national high school in the District of Murcia, Division of Negros Occidental.
After the implementation of the intervention plan, the teachers should have:
1. Revisited key competencies in using MS Office programs, multimedia platforms, and e-
learning resources utilization;
2. Acquired further competencies in the use of Microsoft Office programs, multimedia
platforms, and e-learning resources;
3. Integrated multimedia platforms in the teaching and learning process;
4. Enriched class discussions and personal awareness through e-learning resources,
especially those that are found in the DepEd commons; and
5. Become at least proficient in utilizing e-learning resources regardless of the teachers’ age.
52
PROPOSED INTERVENTION PLAN

Time Budgetary Persons Success
Areas of Concern Findings Objectives Strategies
Frame Requirement Involved Indicators
Difficulty in the To address the Conduct refresher This activity can None Master Teacher 90% ability of the
Microsoft Office familiarity with the teachers' need for the courses, training and be done during teachers to
Programs parts and functions familiarity and workshops with the use LAC sessions by Teachers utilize Microsoft
of Microsoft Office integration of of Microsoft Office the department Office Programs
Programs, Microsoft Office programs to revisit the or during In- ICT Coordinators
especially in Programs in the basics and reintroduce Service Training
Spreadsheet profession. the complex functions School Heads
of the tools
Inability to
integrate and utilize
Microsoft Office
programs in the
profession.
Multi-Media Moderate level of To integrate and make Utilization of school This activity can None Teachers 80% ability of the
Platforms difficulty with teachers familiar with facilities such as be done during teachers to utilize
multimedia and utilize the different computer laboratories LAC sessions by Students and integrate
platforms in multimedia platforms and internet the department Multimedia
delivering the in delivering the connectivity or during In- Master Teacher platforms in
lessons to the teaching-learning Service Training. delivering the
learners. process. Organize training and Teachers teaching-learning
workshops to use and It should be done process.
integrate multimedia first of the ICT Coordinators
platforms like Google opening of
Classroom, Facebook, classes. School Heads
Zoom, etc., to deliver
lessons to the learners.
E-Learning Moderate level of To introduce the Organize trainings and This activity can None Master Teacher 80% competency
Resources difficulty with e- different learning workshops in the be done during of teachers in
Learning resources. resources to the utilization of e-learning the department's ICT Coordinators accessing the web
teachers and to resources. LAC sessions or for E-journals,
Inability to utilize properly utilize and in-service School Heads blogs, E-books,
e-Learning integrate the said Reintroduce DepEd training. thesis and
resources as a resources into the Commons and PD LMS Younger and older dissertations, and
supplementary profession. to the teachers and Throughout the teachers other learning
53
Time Budgetary Persons Success

Areas of Concern Findings Objectives Strategies
Frame Requirement Involved Indicators
reference and address log-in-related academic year, resources that can
teaching basis. concerns through the when it is be found online.
To encourage peer proper channel. convenient for
Older teachers are teaching and learning the teachers to
less proficient in between older and Initiate peer tutoring collaborate with
utilizing E-learning younger teachers. between teachers that one another on
resources as are younger and older, the utilization of
compared to their especially during office E-learning
counterparts who hours, to encourage resources.
are the younger sharing of ideas and
ones. know-how on the use of
E-learning resources
Inability to access
DepEd-related e-
learning resources
such as DepEd
Commons and
Professional
Development LMS.
Internet
connectivity issues
54
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56
Oral Communication Performance in Relation to Selected Variables

Cyreljoy M. Ebrada
STI West Negros University, Bacolod City, Negros Occidental, Philippines
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the Oral Communication Performance in relation to the
Selected Variables of Grade 11 Students during the school year 2019-2020 in STI West Negros
University. The descriptive research design was used in this study. Out of 944 Grade 11 students,
only 281 were taken as samples. The sample respondents were identified using a simple random
sampling technique. The questionnaire was adapted from Horwitz et al. (1986). The Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) has three dimensions: anxiety about
communicating, tests, and anxiety about receiving a bad grade. The grades in the first semester
of Grade 11 students were taken as the basis for the oral communication performance in relation
to selected variables such as sex, junior high school origin, senior high school strand, and
English Language Anxiety. The data were analyzed using statistical tools like, mean, rank,
frequency counts, percentage, and chi-squared and gamma coefficient tests for relationship.
Findings showed that most of the students taken as sample size were female, most of their junior
high school origin is public, mainly from the Humanities and Social Sciences strand, and more
than half have moderate English language anxiety. Grade 11 students have a "Moderate Level"
of communication anxiety, test anxiety, and fear of negative feedback anxiety. Thus, students'
overall English Language Anxiety level is "Moderate" as well. The findings also revealed a
substantial correlation between sex, strand, and English language anxiety and oral
communication skills. At the same time, there is no association between their performance in
oral communication and junior high school origin.
Keywords : oral communication, oral communication performance, speech anxiety,

Communication apprehension (CA), Test Anxiety, and Fear of Negative
Evaluation, English Language Anxiety
1. Introduction
Oral communication is essential for people’s workplace performance as well as for Senior
High School students who are learning English. It can exist in many forms, including informal
conversations which occur spontaneously, and, in most cases, the content cannot be planned in a
structured environment (Rahman, 2010, p.3).
It occupies an essential part of the language courses of educational institutions (Brink &
Costigan, 2015, pp.384-409). It is also a dynamic skill primarily used in classrooms and
workplaces. It is an active and productive process that involves the reception, construction, and
conveyance of meaning through spoken words. It helps the speaker to build and share meaning
by using verbal and nonverbal symbols in different contexts (Wyse, Jones, Bradford, & Wolpert,
2013, pp.9-11).
Meanwhile, non-native English speakers often modify the language for global access
today when English is referred to as the international language and provide a means of
professional advancement. English positively leads scientific communication (Tardy, 2003,
pp.247-269) and information technology (Amamio, 2000, p.17).
57
Given the circumstances, Philippine academic units adopted English as a language of

instruction through Executive Order 210 Series of 2003: Establishing the Policy to Strengthen
the Use of the English Language as a Medium of Instruction in the Educational System after
seeing English as a potent tool for raising its international standing. Within 15 years of
implementing this policy, international studies showed that students who learn English as a
second language face speaking-related language anxiety as it negatively impacts the
development or status of second-language learners (Huang, 2014, p.8).
Hence, based on recent studies, the field of communication changes all segments of
society, and the importance of communication studies is an essential component. The Senior
High School Program included the course Oral Communication in Context for Grade 11 pupils in
response to this need. Since communication is said to be beneficial in all aspects and is used
every day, the results of this research will contribute to the repercussions of verbal
communication on the student's academic performance affected by various factors, including
English Language Anxiety.
Language anxiety has become a significant concern in second and foreign language
learning research over the last three decades and is a topic that triggers substantial differences of
opinion. As the first theory that emphasizes the specific nature of English language anxiety, this
study is anchored in Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope’s view of foreign language anxiety, which has
been used in several studies. Anxiety associated with learning a foreign language is a well-
known emotional element described as "a distinct complex of self-perception, beliefs, and
behaviors due to the peculiarities of language learning and about classroom instruction arising
process" (Horwitz and al., 1986). English language anxiety has three main factors:
Communication apprehension (CA), Test Anxiety, and Fear of Negative Evaluation.
In addition, the Communication Apprehension Theory of McCroskey (1977) regards oral
communication apprehension as an individual’s high, medium, or low level of dread or anxiety
related to speaking with another person or people. This also emphasizes the avoidance or
nonparticipation in to avoid experiencing fear or anxiety and subsequent withdrawal from
contextual or situational communication due to inadequate communication skills experienced by
an individual, which has shaped educational outcomes as a primary concern impacting secondary
school student’s academic performance. Therefore, focusing on oral communication
apprehension in the classroom is essential because it is critical to success in the intellectual
milieu.
Moreover, this study is also anchored on Social Learning Theory by Vygotsky (1978).
This theory explains how people learn in social contexts (learn from each other’s peers, teachers,
and experts) and informs how teachers construct active learning communities, influencing the
learning process. This theory contends that social interaction, rather than only an individual's
thinking, is the basis of learning and development. Therefore, students must participate actively
in classroom interactions and speaking activities because these may lead them to achieve good
academic performance. However, students may experience fear or oral communication
apprehensions that impede their active involvement in classroom activities, resulting in poor
performance and, ultimately, poor academic achievement. Since the study also focuses on the
relationship between students’ oral English communication and academic performance, this
study is pinned on the Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) of Cummins (1979).
In educational settings, both question-answer and conversational formats entail using academic
58
language. Conversationally proficient students need exposure to and practice with academic
language to function successfully at school.
These theories are applicable in determining the level of Oral Communication
performance of Grade 11 students in relation to selected variables. These present a phenomenal
issue and are mainly a negative factor in language learning. The differences in English language
learning situations and variance in underlying causes for classroom anxiety require more
research to examine students’ anxiety levels, causes and consequences of stress, and their
relationships with language proficiency in various second/foreign language learning contexts.
Moreover, the rationale for routinely considering sex and gender in implementation
research is multifold. Sex is essential in decision-making, communication, stakeholder
engagement, and preferences for the uptake of interventions (Graham, 2016). Depending on the
situation, program theories may behave differently within and between sexes, genders, and other
transversal traits. Likewise, males display more negative social behavior than females in the
classroom, which is thought to play a role in their academic performance (Downey & Yuan,
2005).
The discussion paper from the University of the Philippines School of Economics also
makes a significant indirect connection between high school education and the quality of the
school background. The high school background is essential when the entrance test score is used
as the dependent variable. The average performance of high schools from the Metro Manila
region is better than those from other regions. Similarly, high schools from well-funded first-
class cities perform very well compared to those from less financially endowed cities.
Besides, it is considerably alarming that Filipino senior high school (SHS) students are
still struggling with many issues in oral communication. For instance, some SHS students feel
uncomfortable speaking English during public speaking, group discussions, meetings, and other
interpersonal conversations (Bastida Jr. & Yapo, 2019). Generally, most studies in this field have
only focused on the value of having oral communication as a subject and context and not much
on the chosen strand to the student’s academic performance in the said subject. Hence, the
study’s results will be one of those bases for further research.
Meanwhile, the students must believe in their ability to speak the universal language. It is
not because English is a superior language to other languages that Grade 11 students need to
have strong communication skills; instead, it is because, for the time being at least, it is the
universal language for business, media, science, and a variety of other human endeavors.
Indeed, the main idea of this study is to improve the oral communication performance of
students, which is a core subject at STI West Negros University. Conducting this study within the
locale will not only add to the knowledge of English-speaking anxiety in the Philippines. Still,
considering some variables, it may also prove its relation to the lowering proficiency of English
usage in the country. To help students, teachers, and other stakeholders with the existing
problems of the students in STI West Negros University, hence, this study.
2. Objectives
This study aimed to determine the level of oral communication performance of Grade 11
students in relation to selected variables at STI West Negros University for the School Year
2019-2020. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions: 1) What is the
profile of the respondents in terms of sex, Junior High School Origin, and Senior High School
59
Strand; 2) What is the level of English Language Anxiety of Grade 11 students as a whole and in
terms of Test Anxiety, Communication Anxiety, and Fear of Negative Feedback Anxiety; 3)
What is the level of the performance in Oral Communication of Grade 11 students when taken as
a whole and grouped according to the variables mentioned above; and 4) Is there a significant
relationship between the Oral Communication performance of Grade 11 students and their
profile?

The conceptual framework of the study showed the variables of the study. The study’s
independent variables were sex, junior high school origin, senior high school strand, and English
Language Anxiety. Assessments on the student’s level of English Language anxiety, such as Test
Anxiety, Communication Anxiety, and Fear of Negative Feedback Anxiety, were measured in the
qualitative description of “Strongly Agree” (5), “Agree” (4), “Undecided” (3), “Disagree” (2),
“Strongly Disagree” (1), and qualitative interpretation as Very High Level, High Level, Moderate
Level, Low Level, and Very Low Level respectively as reflected in the criteria set forth by Carter
V. Good and Douglas B. Scates and these assessments may vary according to the variables as
given in the above profile of the respondents. Furthermore, these variables were correlated with
their Oral Communication academic performance.
The academic performance of the students was taken from their first semester (first and
second quarters) grades in Oral Communication and was categorized in the performance report
of the students as reflected in their respective report cards (Form 138); Descriptors were the
following: Outstanding (90-100%, Very Satisfactory (85-90%), Satisfactory (80-84%), Fairly
Satisfactory (75-79%) and Did Not Meet Expectations (below 75%). This study used the
descriptive research design to determine the level of Oral Communication performance of Grade
11 students in relation to selected variables such as sex, Junior High School Origin, Senior High
School strand, and English Language Anxiety at STI West Negros University for the School Year
2019-2020. In terms of data gathering, quantitative methods were implemented. The participants
of this study were determined through stratified random sampling to identify the respondents
from seven (7) strands. Furthermore, to assess the level of performance in oral communication of
the Grade 11 students, their grades in Oral Communication were taken from their first semester
(first and second quarters) and were categorized in their performance report as reflected in their
respective report cards (Form 138). On the other hand, a survey questionnaire on English
Language Anxiety adopted from Horwitz et al. (1986), who developed the Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), which comprises three dimensions— communication
anxiety, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation was answered by the Grade 11 students. For
the data analyses, frequency count and percentage, mean (or average), weighted mean, and chi-
square test of independence was utilized.
Also, the researcher obtained permission from the vice president for academic affairs
before gathering student data and sending it to the senior high school principal. Reproduction of
the standardized questionnaires was done as soon as the request was approved. Afterward, the
study's respondents rated their responses according to their experiences on a 5-point Likert-type
scale from strongly agree to disagree. The research instrument did not undergo the validation and
reliability process because it was a standardized questionnaire adopted from reliable and valid
sources. A panel of experts evaluated and endorsed the standardized questionnaire's validity and
reliability before it was used for test evaluations.
60
Variables Oral Communication Intervention

Sex Performance
 Male
 Female  Outstanding
Junior High School  Very Satisfactory
Origin  Satisfactory
 Private  Fairly
 Public Satisfactory
Senior High School
Strand  Did Not Meet
 ITMAWD Expectations
 STEM
 HUMSS
 MARITIME
 ABM
 CUART
 TOPER
English Language
Anxiety
 Test Anxiety
 Communication
Anxiety
 Fear of Negative
Feedback Anxiety
 Very High
 High
 Moderate
 Low
 Very Low
Figure 1 Schematic Diagram Illustrating the Relationship between the Independent and
Dependent Variables of the Study.
The following scale was used to interpret the mean of the student’s English Language
anxiety level.
Mean Score Range Description Interpretation Verbal Interpretation

Very high in test, communication, and
4.21-5.00 Strongly Agree Very High
fear of negative feedback anxiety
High in test, communication, and fear of
3.41-4.20 Agree High
negative feedback anxiety
Modern in test, communication, and fear
2.61-3.40 Undecided Moderate
of negative feedback anxiety
Low in test, communication, and fear of
1.81-2.60 Disagree Low
negative feedback anxiety
Very low in test, communication, and
1.00-1.80 Strongly Disagree Very Low
fear of negative feedback anxiety
To interpret the mean of the level of Oral Communication performance of Grade 11
students at STI West Negros University, the following scale was used.
Descriptors Verbal Interpretation
90-100% Outstanding
85-90% Very Satisfactory
80-84% Satisfactory
75-79% Fairly Satisfactory
below 75% Did Not Meet Expectations
61
4. Results
All the procedures were done per the specific objectives related to the oral
communication performance of Grade 11 students of STI West Negros University in relation to
selected variables.
Analysis of the data revealed that female dominates the sample size population of Grade
11 students in STI West Negros University-Senior High School Department. As of junior high
school origin, most of the respondents were public school completers. It also revealed that most
students aspired to become teachers, lawyers, police officers, or medical practitioners.
Table 1 Frequency and Percentage Distribution as the Profile of the Respondents in terms of sex,
junior high school origin, and senior high school strand.
With a mean score of 3.0, the findings indicated that the student’s test anxiety was
moderate. The student's responses in the area of communication anxiety earned a mean score of
3.1 which was interpreted as a moderate level of anxiety. They received a mean score of 3.2 for
their fear of receiving negative feedback, which was also considered moderate; respondents
received a mean score of 3.1, indicating that students' levels of English language anxiety were
moderate.
Table 2 Level of English Language Anxiety as a whole and in terms of Test Anxiety,
Communication Anxiety, and Fear of Negative Feedback.
Areas of English
Level Frequency Mean Interpretation
Language Anxiety
Very High 2
High 64
Test Anxiety Moderate 142 3.0 Moderate
Low 61
Very Low 12
Very High 12
High 81
Communication
Moderate 113 3.1 Moderate
Anxiety
Low 57
Very Low 18
Very High 21
Fear of Negative High 78
3.2 Moderate
Feedback Moderate 114
Low 58
Variable Grouping Classification Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 123 43.8
Sex Female 158 56.2
Total 281 100.0
Private 65 23.1
Junior High School Origin Public 216 76.9
Total 281 100.0
ITMAWD 38 13.5
STEM 66 23.5
HUMSS 68 24.2
MARITIME 16 5.7
Senior High School
Strand ABM 40 14.2
CUART 30 10.7
TOPER 23 8.2
Total 281 100.0
62
Very Low 10
Very High 5
High 76
As a Whole Moderate 139 3.1 Moderate
Low 49
Very Low 12
Total 281
Results showed a very satisfactory level of oral communication performance in relation

to sex, as both male and female students acquired a mean of 87.0 and 88.0, respectively. Also,
students from private and public junior high school origins’ mean scores, 87.0 and 88.0,
respectively, were interpreted as having satisfactory oral communication performance. ABM
students took an outstanding level of oral communication performance with a mean of 91.0. The
maritime strand had a satisfactory level, while the rest of the remaining strands were all
interpreted as having a very satisfactory level of oral communication performance. Besides,
students with a very high level of ELA had a mean of 83.0, interpreted as a satisfactory level of
oral communication.
Table 3 Level of Oral Communication Performance of Grade 11 students in terms of Sex, Junior
High School Origin, Senior High School Strand, and English Language Anxiety.
Level of Oral Communication
Variable Classification Mean
Performance
Male 87.0 Very Satisfactory
Sex
Female 88.0 Very Satisfactory
Private 87.0 Very Satisfactory
Junior High School Origin
Public 88.0 Very Satisfactory
ITMAWD 85.0 Very Satisfactory
STEM 90.0 Very Satisfactory
HUMSS 87.0 Very Satisfactory
Senior High School Strand MARITIME 83.0 Satisfactory
ABM 91.0 Outstanding
CUART 87.0 Very Satisfactory
TOPER 86.0 Very Satisfactory
Very High 83.0 Satisfactory
High 88.0 Very Satisfactory
English Language Anxiety Moderate 87.0 Very Satisfactory
Low 89.0 Very Satisfactory
Very Low 89.0 Very Satisfactory
Out of 281 students taken as a sample size, 100 students had an outstanding level, 111
students were very satisfactory, 55 students had a satisfactory level, 13 were fairly satisfactory,
and two did not meet expectations. Hence, when taken as a whole, the respondents get a very
satisfactory level of oral communication performance with a mean of 88.0.
Table 4 Level of Oral Communication Performance of Grade 11 students as a Whole.
Levels of Oral Communication Performance Frequency Mean Interpretation
Outstanding 100
Very Satisfactory 111
Satisfactory 55 88.0 Very Satisfactory
Fairly Satisfactory 13
Did Not Meet Expectations 2
Total 281
63
The results indicated a significant relationship between the oral communication

performance of STI West Negros University Grade 11 students and sex with X2(4) = 11.467 and
p-value = 0.022.
Table 5 Relationship between Oral Communication performance of Grade 11 students and Sex.
Level of Oral Communication Performance
Sex Very Fairly Did Not Meet Total
Outstanding Satisfactory
Satisfactory Satisfactory Expectations
Male 35 46 32 9 1 123
Female 65 65 23 4 1 158
Total 100 111 55 13 2 281
The table revealed insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis since the computed
test statistic was 2.710, less than the critical value of 9.488.
Table 6 Relationship between Oral Communication performance of Grade 11 students and
Junior High School Origin.
Junior Level of Oral Communication Performance
High
Very Fairly Did Not Meet Total
School Outstanding Satisfactory
Origin
Public 25 21 14 4 1 65
Private 75 90 41 9 1 216
Total 100 111 55 13 2 281
With X2(24) = 80.091 and a p-value less than 0.01, the chi-square test found a strong
correlation between the senior high school strand and oral communication performance.
Senior High School Strand.
Senior Level of Oral Communication Performance
High
Very Fairly Did Not Meet Total
School Outstanding Satisfactory
Strand
ITMAWD 8 12 12 5 1 38
STEM 36 25 3 2 0 66
HUMSS 19 31 16 1 1 68
MARITIME 0 4 9 3 0 16
ABM 23 17 0 0 0 40
CUART 9 14 6 1 0 30
TOPER 5 8 9 1 0 23
Total 100 111 55 13 2 281
Meanwhile, in the study's findings, there was a relationship between oral communication
performance and English Language anxiety using Gamma Coefficient (Goodman and Kruskal's
Gamma). It showed a negative correlation, which was statistically significant (G = -0.155, p <
0.041).
64

English Language Anxiety.
English Level of Oral Communication Performance
Language Very Fairly Did Not Meet Total
Outstanding Satisfactory
Anxiety Satisfactory Satisfactory Expectations
Very High 0 2 3 0 0 38
High 23 37 12 4 0 66
Moderate 47 53 29 8 2 68
Low 24 15 9 1 0 16
Very Low 6 4 2 0 0 40
Total 100 111 55 13 2 281
5. Discussion
Female dominates the sample size population of Grade 11 students in STI West Negros
University-Senior High School Department. Most of them had public junior high school origin
with a dense school population which might affect their exposure to the English language or the
opportunity to use media and technology in learning and acquiring communication skills. Utmost
came from the HUMSS strand and had moderate English Language Anxiety. Students usually
have test, communication, and negative feedback anxiety, but this anxiety is moderate. It appears
their anxiety is just enough for them not to become very anxious or very relaxed, which may
prevent them from achieving ultimate success in their language learning. They are likely able to
handle communication tasks, tests, and evaluations resulting in a very satisfactory oral
communication performance.
Moreover, there is a significant relationship between oral communication performance
and the variables such as sex, senior high school strand, and English Language anxiety. Still, no
significant association is noted between the junior high school origin and their performance in
oral communication. Specifically, the tendency for specialization in primary role type has
appeared in interaction situations, with men preponderantly performing the task role and women
the socio-emotional. Hence, individual verbal performance has contributed significantly to sex
differentiation of the communicators. With few writers who have been able to draw on any
structured research into the relationship of the strands in Senior High School wherein such a
program was launched nationwide last June 2016 to the academic performance in the English
communication context, this study contributes to this gap in the current literature on SHS strand
and language studies. More importantly, the findings of this study will serve as the basis for
further research.
Meanwhile, the study’s findings show a relationship between oral communication
performance and English Language anxiety using Gamma Coefficient (Goodman and Kruskal's
Gamma). It showed a negative correlation, which was statistically significant (G = -0.155, p <
0.041). This implies that the higher the English Language Anxiety, the lower the oral
communication performance. Lastly, the findings reveal no significant association regarding
junior high school origin, indicating that the levels of verbal communication performance are
almost equal even when compared to public and private schools.
65
6. Conclusion
Most Grade 11 students taken as sample size are females, completed their junior high
school in public schools, taking HUMSS, and have moderate English Language Anxiety. Also,
the level of English language anxiety among Grade 11 students of STI West Negros University is
moderate, even when grouped in terms of tests, communication, and fear of negative feedback
anxieties. The oral communication performance of the respondents indicates that they had a good
grasp of the subject matter, and their performance exceeded the average level or as close to
excellence. The oral communication performance of Grade 11 students of STI West Negros
University is affected by their sex, senior high school strand, and English Language anxiety.
Further studies must be conducted on other respondents with different profiles and
locales. Likewise, it is necessary to administer the study among students with various average
family incomes to study the profile of the students who need assistance and encourage possible
conferences or sessions. The student’s interest and inclinations in oral communication should be
heightened through well-supervised co-curricular activities related to language and
communication. Moreover, collaborative efforts of the school administrator and language
teachers, parents, and stakeholders should be made to implement an improvement plan for every
student. The teachers should also adhere to administering rubrics for the different learning tasks
to make the students accustomed to a performance-based outcome.
Furthermore, the partnership between the school and the broader community should be
encouraged and supported to facilitate experiential learning opportunities that benefit the
student’s fluency in oral communication. Also, a concrete plan should be formulated and
implemented to promote an English (speaking) program in school to develop self-confidence and
treat anxiety in speech.
7. Acknowledgements
With profound gratitude, the researcher expresses his deep indebtedness to the following
persons who rendered significant contributions in the preparation and realization of this thesis:
Foremost, God Almighty, for the Divine intervention, guidance, and mediation and who
has been so gracious in the fulfillment of this endeavor;
Dr. Trudy C. Cerbo, the researcher’s adviser, for shedding some light in discerning a
good topic for research, sharing her time and expertise;
Dr. Sharon L. Apohen and Mr. Marvin Elray R. Paclibar for their suggestions and
provisions in the analyses of data and statistical computation;
Dr. Maylin M. Tongcua, for her assistance as one of the panelists, together with Dr.
Luciano T. Magallanes, Dr. Nemesio C. Cañete, Dr. Orlando Z. Beñales, and Dr. Fatima G.
Bullos, for their valuable inputs and ideas that made this research work possible;
Dr. Wilfredo O. Hermosora, Vice President for Academic Affairs, and Dr. Rey T.
Eslabon, Senior High School Principal of STI West Negros University, for the approval of the
request to conduct the study in the said institution;
the faculty members in Senior High School for accommodation and help during the
conduct of the actual survey.
66
8. References
Books
Brink, K., & Costigan, R. (2015). Oral communication skills: Are the workplace priorities and
AACSB-accredited business programs aligned? Academy of Management Learning &
Education.
Downey, D., & Yuan, A. (2005). Sex Differences in School Performance During High School:
Puzzling Patterns and Possible Explanations. Sociological Quarterly, pp. 299–321.
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral Communication Apprehension: A Summary of Recent. Human
Communication Research, pp. 78–96.
Rahman, M. (2010). Teaching Oral Communication Skills: A Task-based Approach. English for
Specific Purposes World.
Wyse, D., Jones, R., Bradford, H., & Wolpert, M. (2013). Teaching English, Language, and
Literacy. Routledge.
Journal Articles
Amamio, J. (2000). Attitudes of Students, Teachers, and Parents of RVM Schools in Metro
Manila toward English and Filipino as Media of Instruction. UE Today, p. 17 (4).
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the
optimum age question, and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, pp. 19,
121–129.
Graham, S. (2016). Gender Differences in Language Learning: The Question of Control. The
Language Learning Journal, pp. 18–19.
Horwitz, E.K., Horwitz, M., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. Modern
Language Journal. 70, 125-132.
Tardy, C. (2003). The Role of English in Scientific Communication: Lingua Franca or
Tyrannosaurus Rex. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, pp. 3, 247-269
Internet periodicals
Bastida Jr., E. L., & Yapo, J. R. (2019). Factors Contributing to Oral Communication
Apprehension Among Selected Senior High School Students in Santa Rosa City, Laguna,
Philippines. Asia Pacific Journal of Contemporary Education and Communication
Technology, 5(2), 1-2.
Huang, Y. (2014). Taiwanese Graduate Students' Voices on Language Anxiety over Writing
Academic Papers. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, p. 5, 1219–1229.
Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.6.1219-1228 on April 2, 2021.
CYRELJOY M. EBRADA, a native of Bacolod City in the Philippines, is a professor of

English in the College of Education at STI West Negros University with a master’s degree in
English. Her enthusiasm for assisting English language learners in mastering English skills led
her to pursue studies in oral communication.
67
Responsiveness of Higher Education Institutions in the Philippines for 21st

Century Learners
Roger A. Martinez, Jr.
WCC-Aeronautical and Technological College, Binalonan Campus, Binalonan, Pangasinan, 2436, Philippines
Abstract
The ultimate goal of this review is to determine responsiveness of higher education
schools in the Philippines for 21st century learners specially in developing their skills to meet the
demands of the new industry specially becoming imperative to guarantee inclusive, equitable and
quality education to learners while promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all while dealing
with post-pandemic social issues. This review evaluates the components of best practices and
challenges that have been considered in 21st century skills frameworks and identifies the
teaching and learning methods and key stakeholders impacted. All nations around the world
consider the 21st century learners nowadays as they are influence by modern technology, their
phase of learning does not end with the four corners of their rooms, from the review countries
like US, Europe and Asia noticed that learners are predominantly underperforming, while some
review includes statutes that 21st century learners are performing well, but affected on how
higher education institution cater the needs of the 21st century learners especially in the
Philippines. The review may shed some light on the kinds of research studies that examine these
responsiveness issues and best practices among higher education schools around the world
especially in the Philippines.
Keywords : responsiveness, higher education institution, 21st century learners
1. Introduction
As our world evolves, so does education and that learning has been transformed
tremendously over the last decade as an apparent influence of the technological revolution
(Rosen, 2016). There is no one-size-fits-all solution for learning in classrooms that use teaching
approaches that are attuned to 21st-century skill development. Maintaining the basic academic
structure of the individual and promoting the quality of life in our society are among the primary
goals of higher education today. Some Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are facing the urgent
needs of 21st century learners. Most of them update and revise their curriculum, implement a
learning management system, equip their schools with modern tools and equipment, Greenhill
(2010) also stated that most schools nowadays to cope with the needs of the 21st century learners
is by training their teachers with innovative teaching approaches that integrate interactivity and
engaging appropriate content of the technology align with the new curriculum. HEIs, must
therefore be responsive to the opportunities and challenges presented by the changing needs of
21st century learners, including shaping the higher education sector based on the future
employment needs of their graduates.
Responsiveness is defined as the ability of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to be
internally focused, responding the direction and needs of a constantly changing enterprise (Kerr,
2001) while 21st century, defined as the information age, requires far more than a high school
68
diploma to enter the labor market, and higher education institutions, as well as its curriculum and
accountability systems, must reflect the skills essential to success.
On the other hand, one of the challenges schools face in meeting the educational needs of
each individual student is measured not only by the lack of classrooms and others but also by the
influence of modern technology today, the skills of teachers and the learning style of students,
business requirements and 21st century society to name a few. The United Nations (UN) Agenda
2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2020 Report (https://unstats.un.org/) pointed out
that efforts to ensure inclusive, equitable and quality education and lifelong Promoting learning
for all ( SDG4) have been negatively affected by the months-long closure of school and
universities due to the pandemic and this affects educational outcomes. Although almost all
schools worldwide offer online learning thru learning management systems and virtual
classrooms, internet access is limited for many students as well as other schools specially those
who belongs to remote areas and underdeveloped countries with limited internet access
compared to countries with high-speed internet connection. In addition, the responsiveness of the
schools also depends on the technical skills of the teachers and their teaching also depends on
their computer skills and parents who serve as their teachers and tutors at home.
The skills given to the 21st century students prepare them to their professional life or
future employment with the ability to think critically and creatively, to collaborate with others, to
take the initiative when a job is assigned of them, and to use technology to its full extent. Studies
exploring responsiveness focused on students’ experiences and teachers’ experience have
evidently increased (e.g. Woods, 2020, Liesa-Orús,et al.,2020, Crawford et al., 2020, Cacheiro-
Gonzalez, et al., 2019, Brown et al, 2022 Yang et al,2022). Research studies examining the
responsiveness of schools to the needs of their students and teachers were also reasonably
available, but these were fragmented and little research has been done to compile the results of
these studies, particularly those focusing on responsiveness for 21st century learners. Thus, this
study will ascertain the responsiveness of higher education in the Philippines for 21st century
learners thru a review of several literature and studies, this includes several articles and journals
on schools’ responsiveness, several best practices of higher education institution and the
challenges and opportunities on schools’ responsiveness to 21st century learners. This literature
review will guide the researcher in understanding the nature of the proposed study. The focus is
on best practices of schools related to the skills of teachers in the 21st century and the
employability of their graduates if possible, the student achievement and the limitations that both
learners and teachers encountered. This serves as a basis for the researcher to formulate a
development action plan to address the current status and define future prospects for what needs
to be improved to address the issues and adopt best practices to improve the responsiveness of
the 21st century learners in the country.
2. Responsiveness of Higher Education Institution for 21st Century Learners

2.1 Responsiveness of the Higher Education Institution System
Articles examining the responsiveness of higher education institutions include the
Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S) project, launched in 2009 by
multinationals Cisco, Intel and Microsoft to improve 21st century skills define and develop ways
of evaluating them. After examining related research projects and existing national curricula
around the world, ATC21S produced an overview of ten skills divided into four main categories:
69
Mindsets, Ways of Working, Tools to Work and Living in the World. Binkley et. al. (2012)
explains that there have been some difficulties in defining characteristics that should be included
in the knowledge, skills or attitudes, values and ethics of each skill. In this study, items from the
different categories are used depending on their relevance to the study.
Another article was presented by Gonzalez-Peres (2021), which analyzes which
components of Education 4.0 have been considered in 21st century competency frameworks and
identifies the teaching and learning methods and the main stakeholders involved. A systematic
literature review (SLR) was conducted with research questions to highlight studies addressing
the 21st century framework worldwide, identifying which teaching and learning strategies
contain 4.0 components, their learning dimensions and target groups be addressed. The results
revealed the lack of these frameworks for teachers and schools, most of which are student-
focused. This work presents studies incorporating innovative educational practices and the core
components of Education 4.0, and concludes with a reflection on the creation of educational
models to develop complex reasoning skills and auto-systems thinking.
Rapid technological advances in the 21st century are forcing teachers to change their
behavior and way of thinking. To integrate technology and education, the blended learning
model is the right approach. This model combines online instruction and the classroom to
enhance student interaction anytime, anywhere. Technology has brought about profound changes
in the education system and improved the digital skills of students and teachers. Educators need
to understand and use technology in learning activities to create a dynamic learning environment
(Dakhi, 2020). van Schalkwyks (2010) proposes a typology of responsiveness to reduce
interpretive ambiguity and provide a framework for assessing the extent to which responsiveness
is likely to be institutionalized in higher education. The results suggest that the typology can be
used to gain insights into the way responsiveness is manifested in universities. However, the
process is incomplete as the academic cores of higher education systems remain slow to embrace
the demands of more responsive universities.
On the other hand, the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic gripped turbulent events
worldwide, transforming not only the economy and healthcare, but also education at all levels, in
all countries and for all people. The impact on primary, secondary and tertiary education was
rapid, leaving colleges to fend for themselves. In the United States, learning in the traditional
classroom has shifted overnight to online-only learning. Quezada et al. (2020) detailed how a
California liberal arts college and its graduate teacher training program prepared its faculty for
this significant transition to a different educational environment and teaching methods in
response to COVID-19. The faculty has shown resilience to the forthcoming changes in
distance/online teaching models. The data identified five themes: technology-based instructional
strategies; technology-based support office advice; Alternative technology-based course
assessments; feedback to improve learning and teaching; and social-emotional engagement in the
coursework, as well as supporting the clinical placements that have proven essential in the
transition to distance/online learning.
2.3 Best Practices on Schools’ Responsiveness for 21st Century Learners
Pérez-Sanagustn (2022) conducted a study to analyze the transformation of teaching and
learning practices during the pandemic lockdown. The PROF-XXI framework proposed a set of
competencies that institutions can take as a reference to develop their actions and strategies. The
results showed that most institutions had training plans for teachers before the pandemic, but
other initiatives were created to reinforce them.
70
Best practices, includes assessment of performances, Rosella Moya-Torrecampo's (2020)

case study of a two-month holistic academic, psychosocial and logistics intervention in a
Philippine Tertiary Classroom found that grammar performance showed some significance,
Natural language collocation and initial final methods of error analysis indicated reduction in
usage errors, and Critical Narrative Analysis revealed students' emergent drive towards values,
actions and goals associated with leadership. The intervention could result in success in
mainstream English and communication courses.
Zuniga-Tonio (2021) pointed out that the COVID-19 pandemic has prompted the higher
education system of the Philippines to adopt flexible learning as a delivery model. This study
examines the potential and acceptance of Google Classrooms as a tool to support flexible
language learning and teaching. A survey questionnaire was given to 44 university students who
had completed the Purpose Communication course. The results showed that Google Classroom
can provide accessibility, usefulness and satisfaction for students. Qualitative-inductive analysis
found that Google Classroom supports flexible language learning through easy monitoring of
assignments, assignments, projects, and announcements, excellent storage of study materials,
motivates students to manage their time, and motivates students to perform well. As such,
Google Classroom has the potential to help deliver flexible language teaching and learning
effectively, provided there is teacher guidance.
2.3 Challenges and Opportunities on Schools’ Responsiveness
Hamzah (2020)'s study The Response of Higher Education Institutions to Global,
Regional, and National Challenges states that higher education is challenged by the dynamics of
the global and local socio-economic influencing our lives, economy, environment, and lifestyle.
This paper showcases the University of Bahrain's Transformation Plan 2016–2021, which is
inspired by the Bahrain Economic Vision 2030, aligned to the National Higher Education
Strategy 2014–2024, and the National Research Strategy 2014–2024, and in alignment with the
national endeavors to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030.
In this mixed-methods case study, Canez (2018) explored the benefits of 21st-century
learning practices that addressed the four Cs and students' perceptions of their motivation. The
data collection took place in two phases on the basis of data collection instruments. The two
research questions underlying the study were: What is the impact of learning in the 21st century
on the development of the four Cs? and What factors do 21st-century learning environments
influence student motivation to engage in learning activities? Results showed a positive impact
on students through the implementation of the four Cs skills through the use of technology, a
project-based learning activity, and performance-based assessments. Additionally, the results
showed that students were more engaged when using 21st century learning practices, motivated
by group and pair work, classroom choices, personalized learning, and new challenges.
Focusing on the characteristics of those teachers who are currently adopting the
Framework for 21st Century Skills as studied by Vial (2010), the author attempts to understand
that by developing standards for teachers and students in the 21st century, many schools have
started the reform process to introduce changes to address these new skills. Some teachers have
succeeded in bringing about change in their teaching, but others have not. The study was
conducted in one Southeast North Carolina elementary school and identified six reoccurring
themes as obstacles in implementation. Results showed that many, if not all, participants believe
in the reform change, but only some are putting these standards into practice in their classroom.
Obstacles evaluated included lack of understanding and basic skills, lack of resources and time,
71
pressure with high-stakes testing, and lack of parent, student, and teacher buy-in and support.The
research sought to identify the knowledge, importance, and ability of school-based agriculture
education teachers to teach 21st century skills in the classroom. Results showed that agriculture
teachers nationwide find 21st century skills to be important, but they are less knowledgeable and
able to teach them. Professional development is needed to increase teacher’s knowledge of and
ability to teach 21st century skills, and with the application of 21st century skills in the school-
based agricultural education classroom, students will become better prepared to enter the
workforce or higher education upon graduating high school.
3. Conclusion
The ultimate goal of this review is to discuss the responsiveness of higher institutions to
the needs of 21st century learners. Through this review, the researcher was able to determine the
responsiveness of the higher education system. The Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century
Skills (ATC21S) project was launched in 2009 to improve 21st century skills. An overview of
ten skills has been created, divided into four main categories: ways of thinking, ways of working,
tools for working and living in the world. Gonzalez-Peres (2021) conducted a systematic
literature review to identify teaching and learning strategies that include 4.0 components. To
integrate technology and education, the blended learning model is the right approach.
Technology has brought about profound changes in the education system and improved digital
competences, while Van Schalkwyks (2010) proposes a typology of responsiveness to reduce
interpretative ambiguity and provide a framework for assessing the extent to which
responsiveness is institutionalized in higher education is. In response to the COVID-19
pandemic, learning in the traditional classroom has shifted to online-only learning overnight.
Quezada et al. (2020) identified five themes: technology-based instructional strategies,
technology-based guidance from support offices, alternative technology-based course
assessments, feedback to improve learning and teaching, and socio-emotional engagement.
Some of the best practices of most higher education institutions in responding to the
needs of 21st century learners. Prez-Sanagustn (2022) conducted a study to analyze the change in
teaching and learning practices during the pandemic lockdown. The case study by Rosella Moya-
Torrecampos (2020) found that grammar achievement showed some importance, natural
language collocation and initial definitive methods of error analysis indicated a reduction in
application errors, and critical narrative analysis indicated an emerging urge for values and
action in students and goals related to leadership. Zuniga-Tonio (2021) pointed out that the
COVID-19 pandemic has prompted the higher education system of the Philippines to adopt
flexible learning as a delivery model. Google Classrooms has the potential to enable flexible
language teaching and learning effectively, provided there is teacher guidance.
Several challenges and opportunities related to schools' response to 21st century learners
have been identified. These include the benefits of 21st-century learning practices that address
the four Cs and students' perceptions of their motivation, as explored by Hamzah (2020) and
Canez (2018). The study showed that the use of technology, a project-based Learning activity
and performance-based assessments had a positive impact on students. Additionally, students
were more engaged when using 21st-century learning practices, motivated by group and pair
work, lesson choice, personalized learning, and new challenges. Vial (2020) examined the
characteristics of teachers adopting the 21st-century competency framework, which contributes
to the barriers to implementation, such as parent, student, and teacher approval and support.
72
Professional development is required to improve teachers' knowledge and ability to teach 21st
century skills.
Based on the provided literature and studies, the identified gap is the lack of
comprehensive research and studies focusing on the education system and the responsiveness of
higher education institutions to the needs of 21st-century learners. While there have been some
studies exploring aspects of responsiveness, such as teaching and learning strategies, the use of
technology, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education, there is a need for more
extensive research that brings together the findings from different studies and provides a holistic
understanding of how higher education institutions can effectively respond to the needs of 21st-
century learners. Additionally, there is a lack of research on the specific challenges and
opportunities faced by schools in terms of responsiveness, including factors such as teacher
skills, technological infrastructure, and the availability of resources. However, one of the
downside of this paper is that it relies on information from research from previous studies and
articles, only few studies have focused on the education system and responsiveness of higher
education institutions in underdeveloped and third world countries, not a sufficient study to
discuss how higher education institutions intend to respond to 21st century learners, which may
differ from actual information, this can be achieved by conducting surveys and interviews with
participating students, teachers and administration.
Therefore, the researcher's goal is to assess the responsiveness of aviation schools in the
Philippines, specifically in Region 1 and in the NCR Region, using a mixed-method research
design that employs the exploratory sequential method, and in particular to identify the factors
influencing these aviation schools' responsiveness in the chosen locale with an emphasis on the
teaching staff's skills, responsiveness to technology, and responsiveness to resources, as well as
to identify the challenges and opportunities. Further research in these areas would contribute to
the development of best practices and strategies for higher education institutions to enhance their
responsiveness and better prepare students for the demands of the 21st century.
Future research studies should examine the actual input from students, teachers,
administration and stakeholders. In addition, specific short- and long-term goals and plans should
be included to put future research studies into context. Because of the temporal impact on the
actual situation of the education system in responding to 21st century learners, it is worth
examining factors affecting implementation.
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teaching: A teacher education program‘s response to COVID-19. Journal of Education
for Teaching, 46(4), 472-483.
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Author(s)
Roger A. Martinez, Jr. holds a Doctor in Business Administration and a License Professional
Teacher and the Vice-President for Academic Affairs. He is currently working on the
research study on the responsiveness of the higher education institution to 21st century
learners in their locality.
75
Student Pilots’ Flight Performance: Learner Self-Assessment, Debriefing, and

Approaching the Debriefing Session
Julian Gabriel D. Tinapay*, Allen Carlo M. Pilotin Jeric B. Abari
College of Aviation, WCC Aeronautical & Technological College Inc.
Binalonan, Pangasinan, Philippines
*
Abstract
The ultimate goal of this review is to discuss the learner self-assessment and its
applicability to the debriefing session done in flight training. This review assesses concepts
surrounding self-assessment, debriefing, and the approaches of debriefing, specifically whether
the Learner-Centered Grading Debriefing Approach will demonstrate better performance in task
management and single-pilot resource management-related skills than those debriefed using the
traditional strategy. This review hopes to shed some light on studies that were performed that
examine the impact of learner self-assessment in the field of aviation and others.
Keywords : Learner self-assessment, Debriefing, Flight Training
1. Introduction
An integral part of training, or any teaching and learning experience, for that matter, is
assessment (FAA, 2020; Oyinloye & Imenda, 2019). An assessment is defined as a process for
documenting, in measurable terms, the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs of the learner
(Capraro, Roe, Caskey, Strahan, Bishop, Weiss, & Swanson, 2011) It provides the instructor
with feedback with the quality of instruction and with the evaluation made by the instructors,
they will then be able to provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive
reinforcement. (FAA, 2020) According to Kershner (1974), flight training has three parts:
preflight briefing, inflight instruction, and postflight review. Assessments of the flight
performance are done in the post-flight review (which may also be coined as briefing, debriefing,
or assessment). Such assessments are vital for flight training, as according to the FAA (2020),
they provide “critical information to both the instructor and the learner,” (p. 6-1) and “a well-
designed and effective assessment provides an opportunity for self-evaluation that enhances the
learner's aeronautical decision-making and judgment skills.” (p. 6-1) The Aviation Instructor’s
Manual (2020) states that a collaborative postflight assessment includes two parts the learner
self-assessment and a detailed assessment by the flight instructor. The purpose of the former is to
“stimulate growth in the learner’s thought process and, in turn, behaviors,” (p. 9-12) while an in-
depth and collaborative discussion is made by comparing the flight instructor’s assessment with
the learner’s self-assessment. Through the collaborative discussion made between the instructor
and the learner, they jointly determine the progress of the learner. The improvement could then
be recorded on a rubric as part of the training program. A rubric is a multi-purpose scoring guide
for assessing student products and performances (Wolf & Stevens, 2007). It is composed of
dimensions for judging the performance of the learner, a scale for rating performances on each
dimension, and the standards of excellence for specified performance levels (FAA, 2020).
Despite published literature from the Federal Aviation Administration [FAA] in the
United States encouraging the practice of learner self-assessment in debriefing sessions for flight
training, such practices are not being done in most Approved Training Organizations in the
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Philippines, commonly opting for the Traditional or Instructor-led method. There are multiple
studies that have tackled self-monitoring during debriefing (Blickensderfer et al, 1997; Nietfeld
& Schraw, 2002, Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Smith-Jentsch et al., 1998). However, such studies
are not very common and there only tends to be a handful of them. Thus, this review paper is
aimed to discuss further the learner self-assessment and its applicability to the debriefing session
done in flight training. This topic is worth examining as practices of self-assessment could help
student pilots learn, even long after the presence of their flight instructor.
2. Student Pilots’ Flight Performance: Applying Learner Self-Assessments during the

Debriefing Session
2.1 Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment is defined by McMillan and Hearn (2008) as a process by which pupils
1) keep an eye on and assess the caliber of their thinking and 2) Identify tactics to increase their
learning behavior and knowledge and abilities. In other words, self-assessment happens when
students evaluate their own work in an effort to improve performance by noticing gaps between
their current and intended performance. They believe that self-assessment is a critical skill that
enhances student motivation and achievement. Similarly, Gehringer (2017) also stated that self-
assessment is an effective tool for improving learning. It motivates students to consider whether
their own work satisfies the objectives set for learning concepts and abilities.
However, Gehringer (2017) added that self-assessment may not be reliable when students
do not understand the material. Also, Blickensderfer (2007) expressed that novices in a domain
tend to overestimate their performance largely and experts slightly underestimate their
knowledge. A study by Maki et al (2005) supports this in which the study's findings
demonstrated that low-ability students tended to exaggerate their confidence, particularly when
predicting how well they would perform on the examinations. High-ability students lacked
confidence, particularly in their assessments of their post-test confidence. To put it differently,
precision did not foresee performance. Another study by Tejeiro et al. (2012) stated that students'
and professors' assessments are frequently very similar when self-assessment does not count
toward the final grade; nevertheless, when self-assessment does contribute toward the final
grade, over and underestimations drastically increase. The two leading causes identified are the
pressure to achieve the most excellent grades and the stress of self-assessment.
Despite the inaccuracies that may come along with self-assessment, two meta-analyses by
Graham et al. (2015) and Sanchez et al. (2017) show a positive association between self-
assessment and learning. Their studies suggest that students who engaged in self-grading
performed better on later tests than others who did not. Furthermore, a critical review made by
Andrade (2019) states that self-assessment is most beneficial in terms of both achievement and
self-regulated learning, but only when it is used as a formative assessment and that students must
also be supported through training, which is supported by Schraw (1997) who stated that,
“Metacognitive strategies do not appear to be spontaneously generated, but rather evolve through
developing domain-specific monitoring experience or through training”
2.2 Debriefing
According to Brett-Fleeger et al. (2012), debriefing is a “facilitated conversation after
such things as critical events and simulations in which participants analyze their actions, thought
processes, emotional states, and other information to improve performance in future
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situations”(p.288-289) In addition, Smith-Jentsch et al., (2001) state that debriefing can be used
for self-correction, which includes role clarification, self-evaluation of task strategies, planning,
and goal setting. Johns et al. (2017) stressed that a debrief is much more than just a brief
summary of the essential points and topics from the class. The debrief is a critical element of
experience-based learning. In addition, a well-executed debrief will help students glean valuable
lessons from the experience, even when an experiential learning activity does not go as planned
(Nicholson, 2012).
The facilitator has a considerable role to play in the debriefing process. According to
Fanning and Gaba (2007), facilitators have an ethical responsibility to create a secure, private
environment for facilitation; the facilitator in simulation-based learning has an ethical
responsibility to establish the parameters within which behavior will be analyzed in an effort to
safeguard participants from experiences that could seriously harm their sense of self-worth. In
the same paper, they mentioned that training in facilitation is vital since the skill of the debriefer
is paramount in ensuring the best possible learning experience. Finally, they mentioned that the
facilitator must always be aware of the vulnerability, show respect for it, and create an
atmosphere that encourages freedom of expression and gives room for errors. Blickensderfer
(2006) also added that to improve the effectiveness of the debrief, the facilitator should show that
they are genuinely interested in the observations of the team by pausing and making eye contact
with all team members after asking a question. They should ask specific, open-ended, and
behavioral questions before offering their own critique.
Debriefing has been widely used in multiple industries. They include the military, first
responders, education, healthcare, and aviation (Belote, 2015) According to Kershner (1974) a
flight lesson must include the preflight briefing, inflight instruction, and postflight review, and if
any of these are missing, the lesson is deemed incomplete. The FAA (2020) stated that it's
crucial for the flight instructor to notify the learner of their development as they evaluate their
piloting skills. This can be done as each step or maneuver is finished, or it can be done in
summary during postflight debriefs. To help the flight instructor cover all topics brought up
during the flight or session, postflight critiques should be provided in writing, such as notes.
Flight instructors have historically provided explanations for faults in performance, highlighted
the areas where the shortcomings were thought to have originated, and, if possible,
recommended suitable corrective actions.
2.3 Traditional Assessment/Instructor-led method and Learner-Centered Grading
There are multiple methods to approach a debriefing session. One of them is the
Traditional Assessment/ Instructor-led Method. Traditional Assessment, or Instructor-led, is
where the leader or instructor informs the participants what went right and wrong. Instead of
being student-led, it is conducted in lecture format, where participants passively receive the
information rather than actively contributing to the conversation. It frequently involves several
people and takes the shape of a general conversation (Belote,2015)
Another method for approaching a debriefing session is through Collaborative
Assessment or Learner-Centered Grading. Collaborative assessment includes two parts—learner
self-assessment and a detailed assessment by the flight instructor. The purpose of the self-
assessment is to stimulate growth in the learner’s thought processes and, in turn, behaviors. The
self-assessment is followed by an in-depth discussion between the instructor and the learner
which compares the instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment. (FAA, 2020)
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The aviation industry is constantly evolving. The rapid development of new aviation
technologies and products has introduced new challenges. Pilot training is one such challenge.
The training required for both new and experienced pilots must be developed to result in less
training time and cost (FAA-Industry Training Standards) (FITS) 2003 Program Plan). The
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) developed a training program called FAA/Industry
Training Standards (FITS) in response to the rapid pace of development and its significant
impact on aviation training and passenger and crew safety. The FITS approach employs a
scenario-based training strategy. Flight training takes the form of realistic scenarios. Following
each flight scenario, the FITS method employs the concept of "learner-centered grading" (LCG).
LCG consists of two parts: learner self-assessment and a detailed instructor debrief. The self-
assessment is intended to stimulate growth in the learner's thought processes and, as a result, skill
acquisition. The self-evaluation is followed by an in-depth discussion between the instructor and
the student in which the instructor's ratings are compared to the student's self-assessment. As a
result, the debriefing process shifts from an instructor-led performance critique to a student-led
and instructor-facilitated analysis of the student's performance. An empirical study was then
performed by Blickensderfer and Jennison (2006) whether the Learner-Centered Grading
Debriefing Approach will demonstrate better performance in task management and single-pilot
resource management-related skills than those who were debriefed using the traditional strategy.
The study found that for skills linked to task management and single pilot resource management,
the learner-centered grading method of instructional debriefing proved to be generally more
effective than the traditional style. Although there are additional abilities required for flight in
addition to these, it is likely that the findings will apply to learning other cognitively oriented
flight skills (Blickensderfer & Jennison, 2008).
3. Conclusion
The ultimate goal of this review is to discuss the learner self-assessment and its
applicability to the debriefing session done in flight training. Through this review, the
researchers were able to determine concepts relating to self-assessment. It is clear from the
mentioned related literature and studies that self-assessment is beneficial to a learner. There may
be problems encountered with consistency mentioned by Gehringer (2017), Blickensderfer, Maki
et. al (2005), and Tejeiro et al. (2012). However, the importance of self-assessment lies beyond
its accuracy but instead with the positive impact, it brings to the learner. Debriefing became a
strategy for experienced-based learning, in which a well-facilitated briefing can give learners
valuable lessons from the experience. The facilitator in the debriefing process has a huge role to
play and must be aware of the situation that he/she is handling. There are multiple methods for
approaching a debriefing session. One is traditional/instructor-led in which the instructor informs
the learner of what went right or what went wrong. The learners only receive information and
there will be little to no feedback from the learner. Learner-centered grading approach,
meanwhile, adds a learner self-assessment together with the instructor’s debriefing. An empirical
study done about the LCG approach showed that the said approach was more effective than the
traditional approach with skills relating to task management and single-pilot resource
management.
The main drawback of this paper is the lack of more available studies with regard to
learner self-assessment in aviation, with most sources only taken from studies in the USA,
particularly the “FITS Instructor Education Research: Examining the Learner Centered Grading
Approach”, in which some of its findings can be found in the Aviation Instructor’s Manual.
79
There is also a lack of local studies that could have been helpful in having its integration easier
for the researchers in their setting. Further studies should examine this topic more and try
integrating learner self-assessment during debriefing not only in aviation but also in different
industries.
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Author(s)
Julian Gabriel D. Tinapay is currently a student studying for the course of Bachelor of Science in
Aviation, Majoring in Commercial Flying at WCC Aeronautical and Technological
College. He currently holds a Private Pilot License in the Philippines and is ongoing in
his flight training.
Allen Carlo M. Pilotin is currently a student studying for the course of Bachelor of Science in
Aviation, Majoring in Commercial Flying at WCC Aeronautical and Technological
College. He currently holds a Private Pilot License in the Philippines and is ongoing in
his flight training.
Jeric B. Abari holds a Master’s in Business Administration and is a graduate of the course of
Bachelor of Science in Aviation, Majoring in Commercial Flying at WCC Aeronautical
and Technological College. He currently holds a Commercial Pilot License in the
Philippines and is currently the Program Head of the College of Aviation of his
undergraduate institution.
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Analyzing the Linguistic Features of Peppa Pig and its Role in the Language
Development of Young Viewers
Princess H. Policarpio*1, Cherryl L. Campos1, Cynthia G. Dela Rosa1, Jonathan R. Carreon2
1
Graduate School, Angeles University Foundation, 2009, Angeles City, Philippines
2
Huachiew Chalermprakiet University, Samutprakarn, Thailand
*
Abstract
The controversy surrounding Peppa Pig has sparked discussions and raised concerns
among parents of young viewers of the animated show. Previous studies have indicated that the
show portrays instances of pain, brutality, and violence, which can be alarming for some.
However, there is also a promising perspective where some studies have reported that Peppa Pig
could serve as an effective English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching tool for early language
learners. It is suggested that the show should be incorporated into the teaching process by content
and curriculum creators.
This study aims to analyze a corpus of 166 episode transcripts of the animated series Peppa Pig,
comprehensively extracting and examining the linguistic features present within them. The
findings of this study will make a valuable contribution to our understanding of language
development in this digital age.
Keywords : Peppa Pig, Linguistic Features, Language Development and Digital Age
1. Introduction
One of the different types of audio-visual stimulation that affects children's language
development is watching videos on YouTube. Both adults and children can enjoy the diverse
range of entertaining audio-visual content available on the platform. Children particularly prefer
videos featuring child characters and music, and they have the freedom to watch and re-watch
these videos as many times as they desire (Handayani et al., 2021). The proliferation of
educational animated videos on YouTube has a significant impact on behavior and the language
learning process, and one of the most popular among these animated series is Peppa Pig.
Peppa Pig is a British preschool animated television series directed and produced by
Astley Baker Davis in association with Entertainment 1, which originally aired on 31 May 2004.
To date, six seasons have been completely aired, with a 7th currently airing. The show is aired
in 180 countries (Vaidyanathan, 2010) and has received many awards. This show has five-
minute-long episodes, which are ideal for young children who have short attention spans.
However, it went on a hiatus for just two years before re-premiering on 14 February 2015.
Moreover, the Peppa Pig show was banned from a popular TikTok site in China due to
some words used in the said program were associated with counterculture memes and used the
term “social people,” which was a slang term for “low lives and gangsters” (Hearn, 2020). While
in Australia, Peppa’s one of the episodes was recently taken out from the viewing schedule titled
"Mr. Skinny Legs" because the episode alluded that spiders are not dangerous. Australia is home
to a plethora of lethal arachnids, and Peppa Pig failed to examine the background of a certain
country due to some simple usage of words (Stern, 2018). These are just a few of some
controversial episodes of Peppa Pig in the mainstream.
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On the other hand, the show's heroine is a 5-year-old female pig (Peppa) whom we see
with her family and friends in their everyday lives, dealing with real-life problems. “Peppa’s
world reflects very closely the reality of a small child” (Scheffler, 2015 p. 15), which is why
children can relate to it and can easily associate new words with their everyday experiences. The
rare feature of Peppa Pig is that its lead character is a female but does not adopt the stereotypical
role of women (Prosic-Santovac, 2017). On the contrary, it supports equality between men and
women and presents a different role of women in society (Alexiou & Kokla, 2019b).
Peppa Pig can be an effective EFL teaching tool for early language learning and, in
particular, for formulaic language acquisition, and it should be incorporated into content and
curriculum creators (Kokla, 2021). However, research says there are almost nine incidents of
pain, brutality, distorted views of violence, and zero sympathies from other characters
(Stolworthy, 2020).
The acquisition of ESL to children in this study is anchored in socio-cultural theory that
emerges from two perspectives: cognitive and social development of a learner (Aimin, 2013).
Children's social engagement with Peppa pig as their playmate is fundamental in developing both
cognitive and emotional impressions of reality. Consequently, this opens a new viewpoint on the
process of second language acquisition in which learners are encouraged to think and talk like
Peppa; that is to say, language and thinking should be intimately linked to one another to be
effective.
Following the above statement, language acquisition should comprise at least three
fundamental components: the development of language functions, growth in cognitive abilities,
and a fusion of language and thinking. It has been proven in some studies that children are
naturally lively and inquisitive, and they do not need persuasion to learn since they are
intrinsically driven to explore and learn about everything. Very young learners need a lot of
attention and effort in learning a new language. It is important to do actions and follow specific
instructions in learning more precise vocabulary, and the acquisition of the target language can
be very beneficial for them since they are fundamental to the English language learning process.
Moreover, Peppa pig videos in this situation build on children’s diverse knowledge and
imprint enthusiasm into them trying to imitate Peppa as they are continuously exposed in the
characters’ manner of speaking as well as the use of words in each episode create repetition
patterns in the child’s linguistic development and environment. Children nowadays choose to
spend more time in digital media than outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Hence, the exposure time
watching Peppa is tantamount to playing outside. Peppa’s episodes are assumed to be the
interactive and stimulating cultural environment of the children since they spend more time
listening and watching Peppa on TV or YouTube.
Alexiou and Kokla (2019a) conducted a comprehensive linguistic analysis of Peppa Pig,
demonstrating that the show contains a mix of familiar and unfamiliar words used in young
children's everyday lives. Furthermore, the researchers discovered that this animation has lexical
chunks that are regularly repeated throughout and between episodes.
This study examines the linguistic features and language functions present in the
animated television series “Peppa Pig” specifically it intends to (1) identify the linguistic features
based on absolute frequencies, relative frequencies, and N-grams (2) describe and thematize the
frequently used keywords, and (3) explain its role in the language development process.
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2. Data and Methodology

Data
The subject of the study is the in-demand Peppa Pig children’s animated television show.
Peppa Pig has shown various animated television series directed and produced by Astley Baker
Davis in association with Entertainment 1, which originally aired on 31 May 2004. It went on a
hiatus for just two years before re-premiering on 14 February 2015. To date, six seasons have
been thoroughly aired, with a 7th currently airing. As of March 2019, Peppa Pig has a total of
277 episodes. Each season usually has 52 episodes. The show is aired in 180 countries
(Vaidyanathan, 2010) and has received many awards. This show has five-minute-long episodes,
which are ideal for young children who have short attention spans—this study comprised 166-
episode transcripts from 277 episodes, with the most viewed on YouTube. A total of 73,239-word
tokens were processed by AntConc, with 3171-word types to examine the linguistic features of
the words being used in the said children’s program.
Methodology
This study employed discourse analysis to analyze the transcripts of the animated series
Peppa Pig and comprehensively extract the linguistic features present on it. According to
Johnson & McLean (2020), discourse analysis is an adaptable and iterative method of analyzing
different items in repetitive sequences. Moreover, discourse analysis attempts to create a strong
interpretation about particular issues, domains, or themes in linguistics. To do this research, this
study adapted the framework of Waitt (2005) in conducting discourse analysis. The following
steps are (1) Collecting data and building the corpus, (2) coding and identifying key themes, (3)
investigating between the texts, and (4) recognizing inconsistencies.
The current study collected a corpus of transcripts from the most viewed episodes of
Peppa Pig on YouTube. These transcripts were processed using Antconc to capture the total
number of wordlists, word types, and the most frequently used words uttered by the characters,
which were then grouped into themes. Additionally, this analysis examines how these frequent
words were used in the context of the dialogue, including where and when they were uttered, as
well as how they were formed.
During this analysis, the researchers employed an iterative approach. Four raters were
involved in identifying the keywords and grouping them into themes to ensure the reliability of
the results. Based on the investigation, the researchers derived implications from these utterances.
3. Results
The corpora of Peppa Pig
From the data analysis, it was found that there were seventy-three thousand, two hundred
thirty-nine (73, 239) word tokens in the corpus of 166 most viewed episodes of the Peppa Pig.
Three thousand one hundred seventy-one (3171) word types were used by the main characters in
the said TV program.
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1. Absolute Frequencies
Table 1 Top 10 words with highest absolute frequencies in the corpora
Rank Frequency Word
1 4255 pig
2 2685 Peppa
3 2318 the
4 1672 daddy
5 1557 i
6 1515 you
7 1466 s
8 1465 and
9 1428 a
10 1391 to
The finding on the reflected table shows the top 10 highest frequencies in the corpora of
the animated children’s program Peppa Pig from 166 episodes. The common noun word “pig”
has been frequently used in the findings rather than the proper noun name “Peppa.” Looking at
this data, all episodes mention the words Peppa and pig to reinforce the viewers to remember the
main character of the program by always mentioning and emphasizing these two highest corpora.
While the definite article “the” with a frequency of 2318 was commonly mentioned and mostly
preceded a noun to emphasize that the reader is aware of the word's identity, the indefinite article
“a” is at the second least rank on frequently used words in the said program to emphasize a noun
or an adjective before the noun. The least frequently used word for the highest top 10 words in
Peppa pig is the word “to”; here, the word was used as a preposition together with the indefinite
article “a” such as “to a crater, to a little tree, etc.” It only proves that the top 10 highest
frequency words are mostly metalinguistic features that analyze the use of determiners, nouns,
and “to” as a preposition which can be used to communicate a multitude of different ideas.
2. Relative Frequencies
Table 2 Top 20 keyword list with highest relative frequencies in the corpora
Rank Frequency Keyness Effect Keyword

1 4255 +3659.46 0.1098 pig
2 2685 +2298.83 0.0707 Peppa
3 2318 +1965.05 0.0614 the
4 1672 +1408.56 0.0446 daddy
5 1557 +1309.95 0.0416 i
6 1515 +1273.97 0.0405 you
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Rank Frequency Keyness Effect Keyword

7 1466 +1232.01 0.0392 s
8 1465 +1231.16 0.0392 and
9 1428 +1199.49 0.0382 a
10 1391 +1167.85 0.0373 to
11 1191 +997.04 0.032 is
12 1187 +993.63 0.0319 George
13 1122 +938.21 0.0302 it
14 1091 +911.8 0.0292 mummy
15 832 +704.9 0.0225 narrator
16 706 +584.72 0.0191 we
17 614 +506.85 0.0166 in
18 580 +478.1 0.0157 are
19 542 +445.99 0.0147 can
20 487 +399.55 0.0132 t
Table 2 shows the top 20 words with the highest relative frequencies of the corpora. The
absolute frequency of the corpora was compared against the frequency in the spoken language of
the British National Corpus (BNC) using log-likelihood. The BNC contains 100 million words
from the late twentieth century's spoken and written languages. The BNC spoken section was
used as a reference corpus because it comprises transcriptions, casual discussions, and spoken
languages from various contexts like corporate meetings, media, and radio shows. Comparing
the two corpora will convey common linguistic patterns and produce more accurate results.
Surprisingly, twelve from the top 20 keyword list of the Peppa Pig corpora (The, i, you, s,
and, a, it, is, we, in, to, t) are also present in the top 20 spoken list of BNC. The articles the and
a, and pronouns I, you, we, and it were commonly used in the transcript. The articles were used
to indicate identity, for example: “The Big Bad Wolf is pretending to be Grandma.”; “The police
drive cars.”; and'' ``my sister's having a baby!” On the other hand, pronouns were used to
emphasize various personalities of the characters, such as “I am a beautiful swan”; “I am a
clever parrot”; “I like cookies”; ``you are tiny”; “are you a pussy cat?”, “We all had fun
today”, and “He can fix it!”
Aside from the prepositions in and to which show spatial relationships and locations like
“Are they in a crater?” and “We buried it next to a little tree. One of the highlights is the usage of
apostrophe S. ‘S was used in two forms: It is used to show that something belongs to some
characters in the TV program. For example, Peppa and George are playing in Mummy’s and
Daddy’s bedroom; George, this is the snowman’s body; Duck does not want to give Peppa's
boots back; and the children love mummy pig's book. It is also used to show contraction for the
word is. For example, It’s George’s pop-up dinosaur book; It's going to bang into the bridge!;
Sorry, George. It's only mud.
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Top 10 Frequent 2N-Grams

Table 3 The total number of N-Gram Types is 26075 and Total No. of N-Grams Token
73236
Clusters Frequency Examples
it s 405 It’s a beautiful dress.
im 324 I'm a butterfly
this is 235 This is a silly game.
peppa and 233 Peppa and George are having a lot of fun.
in the 226 Mummy Pig is looking in the flower bed
and george 214 Peppa and George are going shopping.
don t 200 Don’t be silly, Peppa.
Granny Pig and Grandpa Pig are going to
pig and 189 babysit.
that's 182 That’s an owl.
let's 147 let's clean up quickly
Table 3 reveals the top ten 2-grams in Peppa. The cluster “it s” has been frequently used
in the corpora as a contraction word of “it is” rather than using it as a possessive form of the
pronoun. The word “and '' also emerged in 3 clusters; it was used as a function word to indicate a
connection between characters. This clearly shows that the TV program promotes relationships
and bonds. Seven words from the top ten 2N-grams in the corpus are also included in the BNC
Spoken list, these are the, and, I, that it, s, and in. It may be assumed that the frequent utterances
in the corpora also exist in a wide range of language registers.
3. Keywords Categorize by Theme
Table 3 lists the Top 50 keywords in the corpus that were categorized into themes. The
first theme shows words related to family, the second theme reflects words related to friends, the
third theme displays words related to oneself and the last theme reveals words related to
activities.
Table 3 Top 50 Keywords categorize by theme
Keywords Frequency Keyness Effect Example
Words relating to family
Daddy 1672 1408.56 0.0446 if you made daddy a father's day card…
Peppa 2685 2298.83 0.0707 Peppa and her family are on their way to..
Sorry, Mummy. I was just showing George
Mummy 1091 911.8 0.0294 what not..
George 1187 993.63 0.0319 George and daddy pig are getting ready
this 467 382.68 0.0127 this is daddy pig
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Grandpa and Granny are going to be very
Grandpa 418 341.38 0.0113 sad.
Hello 333 269.85 0.0091 Hello, Grandpa Pig. Hello, Granny Pig.
Daddy Pig has made a birthday cake for
for 366 297.6 0.0099 Mummy Pig
my little baby brother and sister really are
little 252 201.88 0.0069 cute!
I’m the mummy and daddy. You can be the
the 2318 1965.05 0.0614 children.
a 1428 1199.49 0.0382 Peppa and George are having a lot of fun.
Words relating to friends
Molly Mole and Rebecca Rabbit are best
rabbit 470 385.21 0.0128 friends!
Peppa and George are playing with Suzy
and 1465 1231.16 0.0392 Sheep and Pedro Pony
of 462 378.46 0.0125 Peppa and George are having a lot of fun.
suzy 267 225.5 0.0073 Peppa and Suzy are best friends.
Her friends join her, they form a circle
all 344 279.1 0.0093 around her and they all hold hands
your 268 215.29 0.0073 He is your best friend.
Hello there, my lovelies! I'm Mrs. Badger
there 254 203.55 0.0069 the Farmer.
re 225 179.27 0.0061 You’re very welcome, Mr Dinosaur.
on 389 316.95 0.0106 okay mandy you're on my team
Words relating to oneself
Pig 4255 3659.46 0.1098 Goodbye, Mummy Pig and Daddy Pig.
i 1557 1309.95 0.0416 I am an expert at French.
s 1466 1232.01 0.0392 Peppa’s boat is a sailboat.
is 1191 997.04 0.032 Peppa is admiring herself in the mirror.
yes 459 375.93 0.0125 Yes, I am the best at it.
my 364 295.92 0.0099 This is my best birthday ever.
mr 347 281.62 0.0094 Mr Dinosaur is safe.
m 325 263.13 0.0088 ’m a tiny little fairy princess.
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be 279 224.51 0.0076 I want to be a butterfly.
not 261 209.42 0.0071 I'm not a flower! I'm Peppa Pig!
This is my sweet little brother George. This
me 243 194.34 0.0066 is Mummy Pig. This is me.
I’m not very well, Suzy. I have to stay in
very 228 181.78 0.0062 bed.
t 487 399.55 0.0132 I don’t know.
that 475 389.43 0.0129 that’s mine.
Words relating to activities
we 706 584.72 0.0191 we all danced as swans
you 1515 1273.97 0.0405 Can you fix it please,
to 1391 1167.85 0.0373 We’d like to buy a tree, please.
it 1122 938.21 0.0302 You could flip it higher, Mummy Pig.
in 614 506.85 0.0166 Peppa jumping in a puddle
Peppa and her family are going for a
are 580 478.1 0.0157 picnic.
can 542 445.99 0.0147 Can I feed her, Mummy Pig?
what 434 354.86 0.0118 What can we do?
have 399 325.37 0.0108 we thought we'd have a picnic in the garden
like 299 241.29 0.0081 George and Richard like playing together.
Let's clean up quickly before Mummy sees
up 249 199.36 0.0068 the mess.
Granny Pig has made the tomatoes, lettuce
has 241 192.66 0.0066 and cucumber into a salad.
Peppa loves playing in the wet grass, but
but 224 178.44 0.0061 she doesn’t want to get her new shoes wet.
oh 476 390.27 0.0129 oh but we wanted to jump in muddy
do 333 269.85 0.0091 And I would do all the work.
The first 50 words in the corpus were categorized into themes. The first theme in Table 3
shows words related to family, the second theme reflects words related to friends, the third theme
displays words related to oneself and the last theme reveals words related to activities.
Peppa Pig is the century's most renowned children's television character who is a four-
year-old female pig who enjoys spending time with her family and friends. The first two themes
involve phrases that make clear connections with family and friends. The first to four ranked
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words are Daddy, Peppa, Mummy, and George who are the main members of the family in the
said children’s program. These four characters show a complete member of the family in a
society in the character of cute pigs that are popular children's television characters.
Moreover, Peppa Pig's episodes are approximately five minutes in length and feature a
very loose, low-stakes plot that typically revolves around Peppa and her family and friends. The
discourse analysis proves that the keywords have clear connections on how to show the standard
culture and social related conditions that children should acquire when exposed to viewing the
program such as the relationship of the siblings to their parents, camaraderie, and the extended
family culture where the keyword grandpa got 341.38 keyness rate. It only shows that the word
grandpa has a great effect on the cognitive and social development of the viewers and shows the
importance of kinship care as a cultural value in extended families is associated with positive
child outcomes, based on the keywords reflected in table no. 3.
Words related to oneself are also manifested in Table 3. The word Pig has the highest
rating that proves the program has reflected B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning is essential for
the proper development of language (Brunkow, 2021). Since Peppa pig is considered as part of
children’s routine, the more often a child hears the word Pig in dialog and content that is being
displayed the further it provides language development for a child’s sociocultural survival.
Nominative pronouns were mostly reflected in the transcripts which shows Peppa’s character is
focused more on her personal feelings or emotions.
On the other hand, the words relate to activities, where Peppa involves different
characters to complete her tasks for the day prove the engaging activities that Peppa enjoys, such
as dancing, jumping in the puddle, playing in wet grass, and having a picnic in the garden with
her family and friends. These data are reflected in the word relating to activities themes.
Vygotsky believed that every aspect of a child's cognitive development is influenced by the
social context (Christy, 2013) like playing and other social endeavors such as what Peppa always
does in her episodes in which they are raised and educated with the activities reflected in the
program. Having an activity for that matter can only be accomplished with the assistance of
another individual. Thus, the program Peppa Pig has crafted dialogs and activities with her
family and friends to provide assistance for the language development of the child. When a child
is immersed in the program, he/she learns a new skill, and the program serves as a mentor that
provides scaffolding to aid in the child's learning just like Peppa Pig who is constantly learning
new things.
Role in the Language Development
1. Development of Language Functions
Some adults were once taken aback by their parents' accounts of growing up without access to
television. Giuffre, L. (2015), stated that nowadays, growing up without television was not only unusual
but cruel. Despite the fact that children’s videos function as a babysitter for friends and family members,
yet the children's television program such as Peppa Pig is still intended to teach and entertain, where a
child can acquire a language and form favorable values from the videos that they watch, at a given time
slot.
Peppa Pig shows assigned semantic roles to signal words and encoded data sets that critically
build the identity of the viewer. The children believe that Peppa pig is a good, jolly, and sometimes
naughty pig to her friends and families so they also have this identity of having these character traits in
real-life situations when they keep watching the kids’ program. Through simply watching videos on their
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television or smartphones, the program promotes the social interaction of Peppa pig with her friends and
family which shows a friendly identity.
Moreover, some children learn more effectively in a social interactive program as discovered by
this study. The opportunity for learning new words and acquiring new values was manifested in the
program based on the data collected. Moreover, the characters in the program also promote respect and
close family ties in the episodes because the top 10 frequently uttered words are mostly Peppa’s family
members.
2. Growth in Cognitive Abilities
Peppa Pig plays an essential role in developing the cognitive aspects of its viewers, especially the
kids. It introduces hundreds, if not thousands, of vocabularies that can be applied in various contexts.
Some episodes focus on family, friends, school, and surroundings. These words were inculcated into the
minds of the young audiences. Loopies (2015) claimed that kids are naturally fond of copying, mocking,
or imitating words that are new to them. This is also supported by the theory of language acquisition
where children aged 6-13 are more receptive to the language being introduced to them. It is the stage
where children learn most in language. While Peppa Pig enhances and offers a variety of content and
function words for the development of their language structure, it also provides children values and
stimulates the mind of its audience to different issues and phenomena. Since characters in the show were
confronted with conflicts, viewers also tend to adapt to how these characters address and solve conflicts
they have.
Peppa Pig also gives its viewers the means to critical respond in different contexts,
particularly the young ones. It allows young viewers to see the different perspectives in life,
especially how to treat and socialize with other people. This skill is vital to be inculcated to them
since one of the misconceptions about kids being exposed to gadgets is that they will form poor
interpersonal skills.
3. Fusion of Language and Thinking
Language is an important tool for thought. It allows people to share their ideas, thoughts,
and feelings with others. In the same way, children learn language from their environment and
are influenced by what is around them. Children’s language develops through rich interactions
with people in their lives.
Peppa Pig episodes encounter everyday experiences-both familiar and unfamiliar-and
provides a role model for positivity and resilience. Young viewers learn self-awareness where
they easily relate to-and learn from-the characters’ entertaining adventures such as knowing how
to handle their emotions, understand the feelings of others, interact in a positive way and make
responsible and age-appropriate decisions.
The television program, Peppa Pig, also promotes self-management among its young
viewers. When conflicts and problems arise among and between the characters, children learn to
seek positive solutions and discover joyful outcomes.
Social awareness such as kindness, respect for others, and an appreciation of diversity is
the core of the television program. These are evident in the many episodes of the show. The
interactions between Peppa, her family members, and friends are true to life and the importance
of listening, teamwork, and cooperation are repeatedly addressed.
Decision-making is another lesson that young viewers can learn from watching the
program. Peppa together with her family and friends is sometimes confronted with conflicts and
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problems. They do not always know what to do or how to deal with their problems but they do
their best in dealing with them and learn lessons as they face each situation.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the animated show Peppa Pig provides a combination of educational and
entertaining content for its young audience. It promotes important skills such as coordination and
communication, encompassing various aspects of social life. The language used in the show
helps in building vocabulary and understanding of different concepts. Peppa Pig episodes
leverage children's diverse knowledge and enthusiasm, encouraging them to imitate the
characters' manner of speaking and the use of words in each episode. This repetition pattern
contributes to the child's linguistic development and creates a language-rich environment. The
format of the program is designed to be interactive and engaging, adding to its entertainment
value. Children learn new things effortlessly as they watch each series. The content is carefully
tailored to be age-appropriate, and every episode presents positive outcomes and addresses
various challenges. Furthermore, Peppa Pig plays a role in promoting the social development of
its young viewers. The importance of spending quality family time is highlighted, as
demonstrated by the numerous activities the characters engage in with their families and friends.
4. References
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https://doi.org/10.30564/jler.v1i1.314
Alexiou, T. & Kokla, N. (2019b). Teaching cultural elements and Pro-social behaviour to
preschoolers through Peppa pig. Proceedings from the 4th International Conference for
the Promotion of Educational Innovation, Larisa: University of Thessaly.
Brunkow, F., & Dittrich, A. (2021). Cultural survival in BF Skinner: Possibilities for conceptual
refinement. Behavior and Social Issues, 1-13.https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-020-00044-w
Clements, R. (2004). An investigation of the status of outdoor play. Contemporary issues in
early childhood, 5(1), 68-80. https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2004.5.1.10
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&linkaccess=abs&issn=03122654&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7Eb2626
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violence-study-toy-story-b1765556.html
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Teaching Practices and Challenges Encountered by SHS Teachers in Oral

Communication in Context Subject
Kathlyn Joy G. Guevarra
Angeles University Foundation, Angeles City, Philippines
Abstract
The K to 12 Curriculum aims to equip Filipino learners with effective communication
skills that they can apply in various contexts. The main purpose of this paper was to present and
describe the teaching practices and challenges encountered by senior high school teachers of
Oral Communication in Context with two particular questions: 1) What are the current teaching
practices of Oral Communication in Context subject teachers concerning teaching materials,
classroom activities, assessment, teaching methods, and classroom management; and (2) What
are the specific challenges do teachers encounter in teaching Oral Communication in Context?
This study employed a descriptive research design through questionnaires and interviews to
address the objectives. The participants were 16 public senior high school teachers in the
Division of Angeles City, Philippines who have been handling the subject for 1-5 years. Using
descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, the findings revealed that teachers demonstrate good
teaching practices in general, but they encounter challenges with students' grammar, mixed
abilities, large class sizes, and inadequate teaching resources. Hence, this study would provide
possible recommendations to the key players of education to offer practical solutions to
continuously create a learning environment where students can communicate meaningfully
considering accuracy and fluency in the use of the English language.
Keywords : K to 12 Curriculum, Oral Communication in Context, senior high school teachers,

teaching challenges, teaching practices
1. Introduction
The K to 12 Curriculum is designed to promote and strengthen quality education in the
Philippines. It aims to produce ideal, productive, and effective students ready to confront life-
long learning in this diverse global village. The English Curriculum is guided by the idea that
language, thinking, and learning are interconnected and people use language to build various
forms of relationships. Its primary goal is to develop “communicatively competent and multi-
literate learners” who can compete locally and internationally (Department of Education, 2016).
Despite the changes in Philippine education, the new curriculum still adheres to the Framework
for 21st Century Skills that are centered on the "Four Cs" – critical thinking, communication,
collaboration, and creativity (Kivunja, 2015). Communication retains its position as one of the
salient elements that students must be good at. Piascik (2015) posited that communication
involves "sharing thoughts, questions, ideas, and solutions. The definition implies that through
well-designed language activities, students can develop skills such as active listening, speaking,
observing, empathizing, adapting communication style to the audience, responsiveness,
understanding non-verbal cues, and others under the direct supervision of the teachers (Ali,
2018).
The advent of globalization, however, has shifted the purpose of learning a language from
that of mastering linguistic structures to being able to use the language for communicative
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purposes that emphasize “authentic communication between people of different languages and
cultural backgrounds” (McIntyre, Burns, & Jessome, 2011). This has posed additional challenges
to the already overstretched schedules and tasks of teachers since these emerging issues urgent
solutions. For instance, for students to experience authentic communication as applied in daily
life, the teacher should design tasks and activities that allow students to mingle and interact with
other people outside the classroom. It is also important to note the medium or language where
communication should take place. While communication using the mother tongue may proceed
smoothly and unhindered, engaging in communications in another language such as English may
be strenuous and impede the exchange of information due to the inability to express oneself
fluently and properly in that target language. The classroom teachers, therefore, should identify
the concerns and challenges, so proper remedies can be introduced.
Furthermore, the results of the two-year study conducted by Hopkins International
Partners, Filipino university graduates scored an average of 630 on English proficiency based on
the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC). The study said that Business
Process Outsourcing (BPO) agents are expected to have a score of 850 in the TOIEC. The BPO
industry is one of the strengths of the Philippines in terms of its economic growth as some
undergraduates and graduates are accommodated for employment. Moreover, the average was
lower than the competency requirement for taxi drivers in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (Enerio,
2018). Hence, Filipino learners must be equipped with the necessary oral communication skills
that would fit them in this industry especially since a student can decide to work after senior high
school. Employment is not the only option for a senior high school graduate, he or she can go for
entrepreneurship or pursue college. Either of these requires a Filipino student to be upskilled in
oral communication using the English language.
Similarly, Filipino graduates also averaged a grade of B1 on the Common European
Framework of Reference of Language (CEFR), which is lower than the CEFR B2 proficiency
target set for high school graduates in Thailand and Vietnam. Included in the written report,
Filipino university graduates' median score was comparable to the proficiency of 5th and 6th-
grade students in native English-speaking countries such as the US and the United Kingdom
(Leonen, 2018). In addition, in reference to the results released by the English Proficiency Index
(EPI), which measures the average level of English language skills, the country still falls under
the “high proficiency” level. However, as reported by Baclig (2020), the fall of the Philippines
from 14th place in 2018 to 20th in the 2019 EPI is an alarming fact that its education sector
should immediately address since English proficiency has been its strength towards economic
advancement. This scenario requires teachers to reflect on how they are teaching the subject
based on the goals of the K to 12 Curriculum, 21st Century Learning Framework, and the advent
of globalization with these two questions: (1) What are the current teaching practices of Oral
Communication in Context subject teachers concerning teaching materials, classroom activities,
assessment, teaching methods, and classroom management; and (2) What are the specific
challenges do teachers encounter in teaching Oral Communication in Context?
2. Related Literature
This related literature is divided into two sections: First part is focusing on the teaching
practices, followed by the challenges.
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Teaching Practices
Teaching practices refer to how teachers understand and implement instruction that
reflects principles about the teaching and learning process (Hunter, 2018). These involve the
preparation of teaching materials, classroom organization, assessment, and teaching methods.
Intending to investigate the teaching practices of English teachers in the Philippines, a survey on
the Department of Education's (DepEd) memoranda, circulars, and orders reveals three
prevailing English Language Teaching (ELT) practices, which are the Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) approach, Task-Based Language Teaching approach (TBLT), and English for
Specific Purposes (ESP). Remarkably, the significance of these ELT approaches, mainly CLT, is
constantly embraced by DepEd since the shift of the K to 12 Curriculum to provide authentic
communicative tasks in the classroom (Karami & Zamanian, 2016).
Brown (2007) posited that CLT is “an approach to language teaching methodology that
emphasizes authenticity, interaction, student-centered learning, task-based activities, and
communication for the real world, meaningful purposes.” Richards (2006) proposed TBLT which
aims to achieve the goal of CLT. This approach composes of meaningful tasks that language
learners need to carry out. Nunan (2004) defined tasks as activities that are needed when using
the target language. While ESP was presented as a "scientific and culture-free approach"
attributed to the mounting global spread of English, the increasing demand for Filipino workers,
and the need for development in science and technology in the country (Martin, 2014). The K to
12 Curriculum also gives importance to the use of differentiated instruction in the teaching and
learning process. Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching that recognizes students'
differing abilities that teachers need to accommodate (Tomlinson, 2003; Schleicher, 2016).
Furthermore, Barrot (2016) investigated the common teaching beliefs and practices of
professional ESL teachers. From the conducted interview, it has been found that teachers’ beliefs
and practices are not always aligned with the current and accepted principles of second language
teaching. Teachers are aware of their teaching practices and agree with their principles. However,
not all the methods are applied in their classroom teaching. Toro et al. (2018) emphasized that
the strategies can only be effective through constant application. Because even if teachers use
modeling, repetition, pair and group work, and others that were mentioned previously, in a
limited time, these cannot still bring desirable outcomes in developing communicative
competence among students. Thus, it is crucial to integrate them more often in the teaching
practices inside the classroom.
Localizing the context, in the Division of Angeles City, two of its best practices are used
by teachers in the classroom. The first one is the integration of Contextualization to elevate the
overall quality of education served to Filipino learners in basic education through the K to 12
Program. This is following DepEd Order N. 32 S. 2015 which defines contextualization as the
"educational process of relating the curriculum to a setting, situation or area of application to
make the competencies relevant, meaningful and useful to all learners." The second one is
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) which is defined by Brinton (2003) as "the teaching of language
through exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners. In 2019, the use of CBI
was promoted by the division not only to provide opportunities for the student's language
learning and acquisition but also to lessen their burden in accomplishing tasks that might overlap
other subjects' requirements. Furthermore, debates, role-plays, and the use of games such as
guessing things and creating different sounds are good activities for improving and teaching oral
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communication (Zhu, 2012). The use of realia (real objects) and technology have also been
reported to help the students understand the lessons presented by the teachers (Harmawan,
Pangesti, & Rokhyati, 2019; Bala, 2015).
Challenges in Teaching Oral Communication
This discussion focuses on the difficulties encountered by teachers in teaching oral
English communication in some parts of Asia to relate to the context of this present study, which
is in the Philippines. Teaching challenges refer to obstacles, concerns, and difficulties that a
teacher encounters with students, parents, administrators, or responsibilities one must accomplish
(Dussault, 2018). Drawing on data from an international research project, Copland et al. (2013)
concentrated on the challenges experienced by English teachers in developing young learners’
ability to communicate using English as it becomes highly needed globally. Using a mixed-
methods approach, 4, 459 teachers worldwide were surveyed and case studies in five different
primary schools in five different countries were conducted. The common problems revealed were
in teaching speaking, writing, and grammar using English, limited use of differentiated
instruction, lack of students’ discipline and motivation to learn the target language, overcrowded
classes, and lack of opportunities for teachers to develop English competence.
In Iran, most of the students demand that their English teachers should use textbooks
prescribed by the Ministry of Education because they know that final exams are based on these.
This becomes a challenge for the teachers as they are pressured to match their teaching practices
to the demands of nationwide exams (Jahangard, 2007). Akbari (2015) also claims that the use of
textbooks is a big problem in language teaching because the tasks found in Iranian students’
textbooks do not give them the chance to practice the use of English. Also, Behroozia and
Amoozegar (2015) found that teachers in Iran are challenged by a lack of instructional time and
teaching resources. They are also frustrated by having low proficiency in English and in using
technology as instructional materials. Likewise, Zan and Goh (2011) gathered data from 331 EFL
teachers from 44 universities in 22 cities in China through open-ended question surveys and
semi-structured interviews. The major challenges among teachers were their lack of English
proficiency and pedagogical knowledge in teaching oral communication. Other problems
included students’ passiveness, linguistic skills, lack of actual language environment and
resources, large class sizes, and inadequate instructional time.
Al Hosni (2014) discussed that the oral skill problems of students, namely, linguistic
difficulties, mother tongue use, and inhibition in Oman are attributed to teachers’ lack of
instructional emphasis on speaking. In the interview, the teachers believed in the importance of
speaking, however, they allot more time to teaching grammar points and vocabulary items
because speaking is only integrated with reading and writing. They also often use L1 in
classroom discussions and allow students to speak in their L1 as well. In another Asian context,
the study of Ulla (2018) investigated the experiences of nine Filipino tertiary English teachers to
identify and describe English language education in Thailand. In an in-depth individual interview,
although the teachers are well-respected by the students, they have revealed that they are
challenged by the lack of students’ interest and exposure to the English language, perplexed
English language curriculum, and the need for teacher professional enhancement.
In the Philippines, Berowa (2016) revealed that Meranao students, who largely settle in
Lanao Lake in Mindanao, describe the use of English as "absurd" when communicating in class
since it is difficult to respond in the language which they all find difficult. Also, 80% of them
used English sometimes because they are not encouraged by their other content subject teachers
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since the focus is not the language. The challenges lie in the different views of teachers in using
English as the language of instruction in non-Filipino subjects in the Philippines. Lastly,
Capacete (2019) conducted a case analysis on the assessment practices of three SHS
Communication teachers in one of the private schools in the Philippines that provided the
findings that the participants all understand the purposes of assessment and they use various
types in the classroom context.
Most of the previous studies analyzed the teachers’ practices and difficulties in oral
communication teaching in the Asian context (Karami & Zamanian, 2018; Ulla, 2018; Barrot,
2016; Behroozia and Amoozegar, 2015; Al Hosni, 2014; Zan and Goh, 2011; Jahangard, 2007).
Capacete (2019) focused her study on determining teaching assessment practices in Oral
Communication in a private SHS but highlights the need to further conduct a similar study.
Copland et al. (2013) conducted an international study on English language difficulties in general.
It was suggested that future studies must aim to examine other challenges that can be revealed
through research. Al Hosni (2014) also recommended that to develop knowledge of oral
communication problems, the researcher first needs to know where these problems originated.
Furthermore, Barrot (2016), who examined the English teaching beliefs and practices in the
Philippines, urges the need for further research on the application of established teaching
approaches and methods.
The framework of the study
Learning oral communicative skills is complex. It requires students to monitor their
learning while teachers provide them with various activities in classrooms. The Monitor
Hypothesis of Krashen (2003), states that acquisition and learning are used in specific contexts.
The conscious knowledge of students allows them to monitor their mistakes in acquiring
knowledge such as correct pronunciation of words in sentences and transforming their ideas
communicatively by observing correct sentences. In this case, teachers should help students to
become optimal monitor users of the language to make them conscious of their mistakes when
communicating and motivated in understanding and using the English language. Motivation
plays an important role in second language learning. It has been defined as the stimulus that
causes a person to expend effort to accomplish results. The main reason why students go to
school is to achieve individual success. In relation to teaching, Dornyei and Kubanyiova (2014)
attributed motivation as the most important factor that educators can target to improve learning.
This is very evident in the actions of the teachers which is why they become the most influential
people in their lives. Motivation remains a significant factor that strengthens language learning
for students. They proposed a new approach to the understanding of L2 motivation that
constitutes of ideal L2 self, ought to L2 self, and L2 learning experience. He even suggested
techniques that are currently being developed to use self-enhancing activities, visualization, and
guided imagery in the language classroom. Students must understand that the primary motivators
of their learning are themselves. There is a need for emphasis on their roles as learners and not as
recipients of knowledge alone.
This current study is framed after the work of Bruner, Sinwongsuwat, and Radic-Bojanic
(2015). Their study has three objectives: to investigate the actual practices in the oral English
communication courses from the standpoints of college instructors and students; to determine
current problems met by the participants who adhere to the CLT and TBLA, learner-centered,
and independent learning principles; and to suggest possible solutions to increase students’ oral
communication proficiency level through classroom instruction. A survey was used to obtain the
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views of college students enrolled in oral English communication courses at two universities in
Thailand and Serbia during the academic year 2011-2012. The questionnaires have two parts.
The first part elicited teachers’ backgrounds and the second one is comprised of statements about
the teaching materials, classroom activities, assessment, teaching methods, and classroom
management. The questions on teaching difficulties were particular on the problematic areas in
oral communication and classroom challenges that were directed toward the teachers and
students. Classroom observations were also conducted to provide substantial evidence. The study
revealed that teachers who continue to observe CLT practices mostly involved students in
collaborative tasks rather than in individual and teacher-focused activities. The students also
create unrealistic and scripted role-plays which hindered them to observe spontaneity in speaking
the English language. Other problems were having mixed abilities of students in a class, class
sizes being too big, and teachers’ overemphasis on group tasks.
The current study specifically adapted the survey questionnaire used by Bruner et al.
(2015) to examine the teaching practices of Oral Communication teachers who claimed to
embrace CLT practices. The point of investigation was taken only from the perspectives of
teachers who have been teaching the subject for 1-5 years or since the beginning of the SHS
curriculum. Hypothetically speaking, there is no in-depth study in the Philippines that
emphasizes this research endeavor. The researcher believes that analyzing this content from a
specific level and subject area would illuminate more authentic findings that can be considered
by the teachers in handling and achieving the objectives of the Oral Communication in Context
subject.
3. Methodology
The participants of this study were 16 Oral Communication Teachers, 4 males, and 12
females. They are public senior high school teachers in the Division of Angeles City, Pampanga,
Philippines. They have been handling the subject for 1-5 years during the conduct of this
investigation. Aside from the core subject Oral Communication in Context, they all handle the
other English subjects in senior high school such as Reading and Writing Skills, English for
Academic and Professional Purposes, and Research subjects.
This study employed a descriptive research design to achieve its main purpose which was
to present and describe the teaching practices and challenges of teachers. Descriptive research is
used mainly in describing a population, situation, or phenomenon using questionnaires,
interviews, surveys, and observation (McCombes, 2019). Represented in this study are two
variables: teaching practices and challenges encountered in teaching Oral Communication in
Context. The data were obtained using two instruments. The first one is the survey questionnaire
that was adapted from Bruner et al. (2015) as emphasized in the framework of the study. Since
the researcher adapted the tool, particular questions on the curriculum guide and awareness of
their teaching method were asked of the 16 teachers. The second instrument was the semi-
structured interview with six questions to supplement the information taken using the survey
questionnaire. The interview questions were validated by three experts coming from different
institutions to obtain the validity and reliability of the interview guide.
Before the interview, the researcher purposively selected five participants who
represented each length of teaching experience with the subject beginning from 1 year to 5 years
to look at the different viewpoints. The purposive sampling technique is used to determine the
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participants based on criteria of what components will implement in a study (Adler & Clark,
2008). The survey questionnaire and interview were both administered through Google Forms.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data from the survey questionnaire to
complement the research design and to present and describe the teaching practices and
challenges of the participants. Descriptive statistics aims to provide a summary of the samples
and the variables in a study together with some graphic analysis to describe the data presented
(Kaur, Stoltzfus, & Yellapu, 2018). The researcher also used thematic analysis to interpret the
data from the five selected teachers in the semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis is a
“method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun &
Clarke, 2006, p. 79). This also permits the researcher to associate the investigation of his or her
meaning with his or her context (Joffe & Yardley, 2004). The analysis of the themes was
validated by three experts to achieve validity of the interpretations and to avoid bias in the results.
4. Results and Discussions

Before discussing the results, demographic information is necessary to present the
qualifications of the participants. The participants were composed of 12 (75.00%) females and 4
(25.00%) males. They are Senior High School (SHS) Oral Communication in Context teachers
from selected public secondary schools in Angeles City. The researcher also took part in
answering the survey because she teaches the subject. Their length of service in teaching the
subject is ranging from 1 to 5 years. Thirteen (81.25%) of the teachers were graduates of
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English, 1 (6.25%) is a Bachelor of Elementary
Education major in English degree holder, another 1 (6.25%) is an AB Communication graduate,
and 1 (6.25%), who had the most teaching experience with the subject, had obtained BS Physical
Therapy degree. Most of them speak Kapampangan and Filipino, but one is proficient in
Cebuano, as their mother tongue. All of them, except for one who can also speak basic Chinese,
speak English as another language aside from their L1. The teachers also handle core and applied
English subjects apart from Oral Communication in Context in the SHS.
Results from the Survey Questionnaire
4.1. Teaching Practices
Teaching practices refer to how teachers understand and implement instruction that
reflects the teaching and learning beliefs and principles (Hunter, 2018). In this section, the
researcher aimed to present and describe the results of the teaching practices that involve the
teaching materials, classroom activities, assessment, teaching methods, and classroom
management of SHS Oral Communication in Context teachers.
4.1.1. Teaching materials
Table 1 shows the teaching materials used by teachers. All of them use textbooks from
other sources because they claimed it as the most useful teaching material. Although textbooks
are research-based and well-evaluated before publication, they have contextual limitations. These
were also found to provide challenges to some teachers (Akbari; 2015; Jahangard, 2007). It is
also evident that most of them use the internet, prescribed curriculum guides, PPTs, and video
material. Aside from these, their classrooms have pre-installed blackboards, while half of them
have built-in televisions, but few have projectors and computers. It can be said that the teachers
access the internet outside the classroom to prepare the other teaching materials like
downloading video materials and references for handouts and PPTs. Although the use of ICT is
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still evident, the use of real objects on the other hand is mostly neglected. The use of realia is a
good strategy to promote authentic communication since these are found in the real world
(Harmawan, Pangesti, & Rokhyati, 2019; Mahdi, 2015; Bala, 2015). While it is understood that a
journal is the least used since this is normally used in reading and writing classes. However,
some studies proved that exposure to reading materials like journals helps students develop word
knowledge that may foster improvement in speaking skills (Mart, 2012). These imply that the
two most seldom used teaching materials, which are journals and realia, should be considered in
Oral Communication in Context class more often to further relate learners in real-world contexts.
However, the less usage of journals in the classroom during oral communication tasks may
reflect students' problems in reading comprehension. When students cannot grasp the
information in a text, they tend to give up reading. This leads to the inability to orally
communicate the information.
Table 1 Teaching materials used in Oral Communication in Context
Item Count Percent
Textbook from other sources 16 100.00%
Internet 15 93.75%
Prescribed Curriculum Guide 14 87.50%
PPT 14 87.50%
Video material 14 87.50%
Textbook from DepEd 12 75.00%
Handouts 12 75.00%
Photos 10 62.50%
Audio material 10 62.50%
Realia (real objects) 4 25.00%
Journals 1 6.25%
4.1.2. Class activities
The class activities are anchored on the principles of CLT including task-based learning
as its methodology. Brown (2007) and Richards (2006) stated the main goal of English language
teaching is to provide authentic communication to the learners. Most of the teachers design and
give priority to tasks related to real-world uses of spoken English, monitoring students' progress
and providing feedback, and finding strategies to make oral English communication manageable
for them rather than accuracy-focused activities and fluency-focused activities, which are mostly
done in groups. The lack of emphasis on accuracy and fluency in speaking English is one of the
biggest challenges for teachers until now. As stated, the goal of the K to 12 English Curriculum
is to develop communicatively competent and multi-literate learners. Communicative
competence is achieved when a person observes knowledge in syntax, morphology, and
phonology in using the language appropriately (Hymes, 1972). This explains that while teachers
embrace the principles of the K to 12 Program and consider the advent of globalization, they
should also strike a balance of accuracy and fluency as they contribute to students' becoming
communicatively competent individuals.
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Table 2. Class Activities in Oral Communication in Context

Item Count Percentage
Tasks related to real-world 15 93.75%
uses of spoken English
Monitoring students' progress 15 93.75%
and providing feedback
Finding strategies to make oral 15 93.75%
communication English
communication manageable
for them
Presenting information new to 13 81.25%
the students
Meaning-focused activities 12 75.00%
Facilitating learners' learning 12 75.00%
to speak appropriate,
intelligible English
Accuracy-focused activities 11 68.75%
Fluency-focused activities 11 68.75%
4.1.3. Assessment
The types of assessments used in teaching the subject are important components of the
teaching practices employed in a classroom (Saefurrohman & Balinas, 2016). Taken from the
survey questionnaire, 15 (93.75%) teachers assess the students using oral presentation grading
and role-playing, which both allow them to work collaboratively and speak the language. These
two are also considered the most important forms of assessment because they believe that the
students can mostly comply with these two requirements; hence, they use these most of the time.
The majority of them also use quizzes and quarterly exams to test the student's understanding.
Since Oral Communication in Context is a core subject, it gives 25% for Written Outputs, 50%
on Performance, and 25% on Quarterly Exams as per the prescribed grading system. Both stage
play and individual recitation are the least used forms of assessment. A stage play is also a form
of oral presentation and is similar to role-playing. But since most of them conduct activities in
the classroom, only one uses stage play to expose students' performance to other audiences. The
teachers apply different practices for their assessment, but one similarity is that the students are
only assessed in the context of their classroom, whereas, the subject requires them to use oral
communication in various situations. This is comparable to the investigation of Capacete (2019)
found in the literature review.
Table 3 Types of assessment used in Oral Communication in Context
Oral presentation grading 15 93.75%
Role-playing 15 93.75%
Quizzes 14 87.50%
Quarterly exam 14 87.50%
Reading comprehension 12 75.00%
Grammar tests 10 62.50%
Vocabulary 8 50.00%
Dictation 8 50.00%
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Translation 4 25.00%
Stage Play 1 6.25%
Individual Recitation 1 6.25%
4.1.4. Teaching methods
Teaching methods are described to be the fundamental elements using various strategies
applied in the classroom based on the instructional objectives (Dorgu, 2015). When teachers
write their Daily Lesson Logs, all are particular with clear statement goals and clear instructions
in the teaching procedure. In the survey, the participants were asked about their level of
awareness in applying the methods in their classroom. The majority of them are strongly aware
of the methods they use in teaching. All of them include students in group work to facilitate their
learning after the whole class discussion. They also acknowledge students’ independent learning
because they allow time to assign individual work, while peer feedback is the least observed
because teachers provide feedback most of the time. The use of peer feedback is a good strategy
to promote independency that allows learners to speak and listen because they are involved in a
situation where everyone holds equal authority (Alrubail, 2015). All teachers said that they
address some concerns such as corrections after the students finished speaking to allow them to
express their thoughts freely and comfortably using English. They have also specifically
enumerated Differentiated Learning, Collaborative Learning, Direct Method, Audio-Lingual
Method, Immersion, Content-Based Instruction, Task-based Language Teaching, and
Communicative Language Teaching as language methods applied in teaching the subject.
Table 4 Teaching methods used in Oral Communication in Context
Group work 16 100.00%
Whole class discussion 15 93.75%
Individual work 15 93.75%
Teacher modeling 14 87.50%
Pair work 14 87.50%
Teacher feedback 13 81.25%
Giving lectures 12 75.00%
Peer feedback 11 68.75%
4.1.5 Classroom management
Classroom management denotes the “actions that teachers do to create an environment
that promotes and contributes to both academic and social-emotional learning” of students
(Evertson & Weinstein, 2006, pp. 4-5). In the Philippines, citing House Bill 473 or An Act
Regulating Class Size in All Public Schools and Appointing Funds, one teacher shall handle a
standard class size of 35-50 students. The participants in this research mostly handle classes with
31 and more students, which makes the classroom crowded. To maximize the classroom size, the
teachers prefer the students to sit on chairs in solid rows rather than in circles. The students are
allowed to move the chairs in circles during group work to communicate face-to-face with their
classmates. More than managing the physical classroom, disciplining and guiding students are
other key roles of teachers in and out of the classroom. Outside the classroom, teachers still
provide support to students' concerns during office hours. Even at home, they still extend
assistance through other means of communication like social accounts and text messages. Most
of the time, aside from answering students' inquiries, teachers get the chance to know the
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personal problems of the students, which helps them understand the difficulties of other students
such as reasons for absenteeism and lack of focus in the classroom. This implies that teachers are
not only after knowledge and skills but inculcating good values in students through simple
guidance is a manifestation that they are passionate about teaching. Lastly, they create a non-
threatening environment for students' mistakes to not feel disrespected or embarrassed when
using the English language.
4.2. Teaching Challenges

This second section discusses the results taken from the survey questionnaire regarding
the teaching challenges that SHS Teachers in Oral Communication in Context encounter.
The teachers were asked if they encounter some challenges in using the prescribed
Curriculum Guide in Oral Communication in Context. In the survey, the majority said that it is
not a problem since they were properly oriented on its use. It is also sufficient in providing
structure and guidance to the attainment of learning objectives in the subject. While in the case of
the other participants, their concern is brought by the few topics that do not contribute to the
overall preparation and presentation of a student's speaking ability.
The subject aims to develop two main skills: speaking and listening. The majority of
teachers find it challenging when students commit grammatical mistakes as they speak the
language (Zan & Goh, 2011; Alyan, 2013; Al Hosni, 2014; Alghail & Mahfoodh, 2019). While
teachers provide speaking tasks, they should also monitor grammar. Teachers are torn between
the students’ capability to communicate accurately and fluently. Also, listening is not found to be
a major challenge and was not even directly identified as an evident problem in the literature
discussed. Whereas, listening also has to be given more focus in the classroom because speaking
and listening are two inseparable skills to be developed in Oral Communication in Context
subject.
Table 5 Problems encountered by students
Grammar 12 75.00%
Speaking 11 68.75%
Vocabulary 11 68.75%
Writing 10 62.50%
Pronunciation 10 62.50%
Listening 8 50.00%
Reading 6 37.50%
Aside from the skills mentioned previously, the major challenge that teachers encounter
in teaching is having a class with students of mixed abilities. Having students of mixed ability
may cause disinterest in higher proficient students and makes it challenging to prepare
communication activities (Likitrattanaporn, 2014). While this is true, teachers have to accept that
diversity in the classroom is common. To address some concerns related to this, the use of
differentiated instruction should be maximized (Tomlinson, 2003; Schleicher, 2016). In
connection with the previous results, although the students are engaged mostly in oral speaking
activities, this does not guarantee that everyone in the class can actively speak since speaking is
still one of the major problems of the teachers. Also, most of the time, they are engaged in group
work rather than individual work (Bruner et al., 2014). This makes the teachers seek support to
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have teaching facilities such as a multimedia/computer/language lab, self-access center, and

reading room to extend opportunities for individual learning.
Table 6 Teaching challenges
My class is of mixed abilities. 10 62.50%
There are too many students in 6 37.50%
my class.
I do not have enough 6 37.50%
resources.
My students are not 4 25.00%
motivated.
The classroom is not adequate. 3 18.75%
The teaching material cannot 3 18.75%
help me attain the course goal.
I have difficulties 1 6.25%
understanding my students.
I do not have adequate 0 0.00%
teaching skills.
I am not confident about my 0 0.00%
English speaking ability.
I have no institutional support. 0 0.00%
Results from the Interview
To supplement the information gathered from the survey questionnaire, the interview was
conducted among five selected teachers with 1-5 years of teaching experience. Using the
thematic analysis, the discussion of the teaching practices and challenges are explained in detail
below.
Teaching Practices. Despite differences in years of teaching experiences, the participants
have similar strategies applied in teaching the subject such as viewing video clips that model
conversation skills and activate active listening, group presentations, and assignments,
responding to questions, designing activities that stimulate critical thinking, and other reflective
learning opportunities, which are mainly done in the classroom context. They also allow the
students to speak without interruption to freely express their ideas. Corrections related to
grammar, pronunciation, and misconceptions are addressed after speaking.
T1: “Direct method, communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching.”
T2: “I make it a point to let them speak and perform without interruption. Afterward, reflection follows,
and if there are some points to improve, I would nicely point them out.”
T3: “Student interaction and collaboration (pairs, groups), Presentation and explanation of accomplished
graphic organizers, Ice breakers (spoken poetry, comedy skits, debates, game shows/pageants.”
T4: "Watching video clips that model conversation skills, group oral presentations, speaking tasks that
allow them to think critically, and listening tasks during dictations."
T5: “Normally, I use oral presentation and role-playing activities.
Some of the recommended practices of DepEd that the teachers apply are aligned with
the principles of learning by doing, wherein the students are given the freedom to construct their
knowledge and make sense of their experiences to achieve a certain learning competency. They
also promote the use of Content-Based Instruction to motivate the students to talk about the
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things they know in their other subjects including social issues and the Division’s Project Ready
to Read (Drop Everything and Read), wherein students choose a book or selection to read for a
few minutes. Afterward, they will talk about the insights they gained from the materials in class.
T1: Implementation of school-based projects approved by the Division Office in classes, such as Project
Ready to Read (Drop Everything and Read), which helps them develop reading comprehension skills and
oral communication skills because of the sharing activities.”
T2: “Learning by doing, definitely. Let the learners perform the tasks especially when it is a performance
course like OCC.”
T4: “I usually integrate tasks and activities that foster critical thinking in teaching Oral Communication in
Context to ensure the attainment of the curriculum standards and learning competencies of the subject.”
T5: “Content-based integration, role-playing, and simulation.”
In line with the ELT practices, the participants have discussed that their teaching
language methods are all anchored on the guidelines of the K to 12 curriculum and principles of
CLT and TBLA because they find these necessary in promoting oral communication skills and
self-confidence. While adapting the practices, Teachers 2, 3, and 4 strictly require the students to
use English while accomplishing different tasks. The task-based approach consists of a series of
meaningful tasks that language learners need to perform. Tasks are defined as activities that are
needed when using the target language (Nunan, 2004). Through the tasks, they tend to acquire
language while performing the learning experiences given to them.
T2: “The most effective one so far is not giving them an option to use any other language. Speak English at
all times, even when you're outside talking to them or online. It has been effective for me because the
students are forced to use the language even in the most common situations like asking about their tasks or
asking for favors. It's always fun!”
T3: “I use/give activities that engage the students, let them participate enthusiastically, and develop their
communication skills and self-confidence. I highly encourage them to speak up and speak out their
thoughts (answers during recitation, suggestions, comments, queries) in English because these are ways
where they can practice usage of the language.”
T4: “Communicative Learning Technique, because for me, students learn best when they do it and practice
English through different learning tasks and activities.”
However, Teachers 1 and 5 allow the use of L1 while adapting ELT practices. This is in
connection with the explanation that some teachers find it challenging to require students to
speak the language properly or just focus on the ideas they want to express. This challenge was
also found by Barrot (2019) when he investigated the issues and concerns of the English
Curriculum Reform in the Philippines. His study revealed that the K to 12 curriculum planners
may need to improve their clarity, specificity, and internal coherence to improve their
implementation.
T1: “Task-based language teaching and communicative language teaching because they acquire oral
communication skills better when they experience it first-hand. For some activities, they speak freely in
their mother tongue/Filipino, but in some tasks, they are encouraged to communicate with one another in
English to help them practice.”
T5: Normally, I use CLT, simulation, role-playing, and language games, which I think are relative and
effective. I allow them to speak Filipino or Kapampangan during brainstorming to express their ideas more
comfortably.”
Teaching challenges. The major challenges that the teachers often encounter are not on
the subject itself or themselves but with the students’ difficulty speaking the language. As they
have mentioned, the students’ apprehension to talk using the English language flawlessly hinders
their active participation in the activities because they are too conscious to commit grammatical
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mistakes. This is supported by the results of the survey which also indicates that students’
inability to pronounce words clearly and confidently is another concern for the teachers.
T1: “Some students feel intimidated to speak in complete English.”
T2: “The biggest challenge when I handle OCC is always the students' apprehension to talk because they
have been conditioned that when speaking English, everything must be flawless.”
T3: “Majority of the students encounter difficulty speaking in English (L2).”
T4: “Some of the specific challenges that I encounter when teaching OCC are the students at times are not
able to speak accurately, communicate ideas fluently, speak with clear pronunciation, and communicate
ideas confidently.”
T5: “Lack of participation.”
When encountering such challenges, some teachers give the option to use translations.
The students will use their L1 in expressing their ideas, and then the teacher will guide them in
translating the words into English. This is to give them the time to practice the use of English
through scaffolding. Other teachers explained that they implement the use of English strictly
even with grammatical errors just to encourage students to speak. It should only be noted that in
doing this, the students will not be humiliated, rather feel motivated through constructive
criticism and incentives, like plus points for being able to share their ideas. The use of more
applicable strategies and methods that fit their abilities through communicative tasks is also
mentioned.
T1: “I still encourage the students to answer. If they are uncomfortable with the language, I let them speak
in the vernacular/Filipino first. I then will translate it for them and they will repeat what I have stated (in
English). Instead of firmly asking them to speak in complete English, I meet them halfway. But after the
particular recitation/presentation, I always remind them to practice so next time they would not need
assistance.”
T2: Like what I have already mentioned, let the learners commit mistakes. Do not shout at them or
humiliate them in front of their classmates just because they have committed a grammatical mistake. Make
them feel that the best place to commit mistakes is the classroom--your English classroom. This is where
these mistakes would be politely corrected by both the teacher and their classmates. Make them feel
welcomed and accepted, whatever level of English they have. The atmosphere should not be threatening at
all.
T3: “1) Use English as a medium of instruction (strictly) so that students will eventually get used and adapt
to the policy; (2) Allow students to freely express their thoughts (even with some grammatical errors) to
develop their confidence and skill in speaking the language; (3) Correct students in their pronunciation and
enunciation of words in a constructive and subtle manner; (4) Correct their grammar.”
T4: “I address these specific challenges by using more applicable strategies and methods that fit their
abilities so they could learn better and easier with appropriate activities.”
T5: “I encourage my student to participate by giving them positive reinforcements,
rewards, and appreciation.”
5. Conclusion
This paper focused on examining the teaching practices and challenges encountered by
SHS Oral Communication in Context teachers. The main findings were that teachers consistently
play their part in developing and strengthening the students’ oral communication skills including
listening skills. They believe that Filipino learners must be equipped with effective
communication skills that they can use to confront the various contexts of life such as being
prepared for college, entrepreneurship, and employment locally and internationally. In doing this,
they are focused on providing tasks that require authentic use of English, monitoring learners'
progress and providing feedback, and exploring strategies to make oral communication attainable
for the learners within the classroom. The activities given are all anchored on the general goal of
108
the 21st Century Learning Framework and DepEd's K to 12 Curriculum while considering the
advent of globalization. In teaching, the teachers are also open and generous in accepting the fact
that since the students cannot perfectly speak the language, they provide opportunities for them
to practice expressing their thoughts in a non-threatening environment. The use of L1 is also
accepted, but not encouraged. They also prioritize meaning-focused activities rather than
accuracy-focused tasks. Moreover, they assess the students using the activities that most of them
can fulfill such as oral presentations and role-playing with the help of one another through group
works and whole-class discussions. They even adopt the best practices of the Division’s Office
like contextualization, Project Drop Everything, and Read wherein the students are asked to talk
about some insights they gained from reading materials and Content-Based Instruction that links
other contents in their classroom.
Based on the presented evidence of this study, the teachers exemplify good teaching
practices in Oral Communication in Context. Although this has been the conclusion, it does not
imply that these are perfectly done because the teachers still encounter certain challenges. First,
they encounter challenges in having students with mixed abilities, large class sizes, and
inadequate learning resources inside the classroom. These were also similar challenges identified
by Bruner et al. (2015). In this case, teachers can broaden the use of differentiation in the
classroom to break down the required skills of students and to find out their specific level in
terms of improving their skills and competencies. It is expected that teachers will address
students' differences by not treating them as problems but as an opportunity to design and
explore other teaching practices that would benefit mostly the learners. , there could also be a
problem in giving collaborative tasks most of the time as it impedes an individual's ability to
work independently. Fourth, being open and generous with students' communication lapses can
give an insinuation that communication is all about expressing thoughts and emotions in
whatever way they want without considering language accuracy and fluency. The teachers must
walk toward one goal by observing balance in teaching the language. Lastly, the word "context"
in the course's title and description demands the teachers to provide other activities that can be
done outside the classroom to make the students explore their abilities in various situations like
interviewing other nationalities in the Philippines, oral demonstrations applying their knowledge
in their specialized tracks, and other activities that require them to communicate using English
and appreciate the value of communication in their lives. These things are all possible; however,
teachers also secure students' safety as they do not have full control over the possible
circumstances that may happen outside the classroom. This becomes even more challenging
because COVID-19 greatly affects the education sector, not only because the mode of teaching is
far different from the face-to-face classroom setting that teachers and students in the public and
most private schools used to do, but most importantly the health of everyone is at stake.
Such problems are indeed challenging not only for the teachers but to everyone who also
perform crucial roles in the education of the students. The word challenge indicates more
opportunities to prove one’s dedication and passion in the teaching profession. This study leaves
a suggestion to other researchers to investigate other teaching practices applied in other
communication or English subjects and to prove other challenges that need to be examined by
key players in education. Moreover, to address students’ difficulties in communication such as
problems in grammar, it is suggested that teachers can conduct enrichment activities that would
focus on the development of this linguistic area, which is not directly tapped into the target
lessons and competencies in Oral Communication in Context subject. Hence, this study calls for
other practical solutions to the other challenges presented to continuously create a learning
109
environment where students can communicate meaningfully and confidently considering

accuracy and fluency in the use of the English language especially that in the Philippines,
students underwent modular classes for two years because of the threats brought by COVID-19
pandemic. Since the results of this investigation are limited to the participants and methods
undertaken, other researchers may also consider triangulating the findings by also checking the
perceptions or beliefs of other stakeholders such as students, the subject coordinator, or the
school head.
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The State of Special Education Based on the Practices/Methods that fall under
the different Placements of the Least Restrictive Environment
Daniel Jr. C. Barlolong*, Carmela S. Dizon
*
Abstract
There has always been a struggle in special education between catering to the specific
needs of learners with special needs and ensuring that they get an education on par with that of
learners that are receiving general education of the same age group (Zigmond et al., 2009). How
are schools to provide for everyone if special education was not the answer (Florian, 2008)? In
response to the contradictory character of special needs education, many have embraced
inclusive education as an alternative (Florian, 2008). “Then, as now, there were no easy answers
to these and other questions that have fueled debates about special versus inclusive education
(Florian, 2008).” The ultimate goal of this academic paper was to explain the status of special
education according to the different practices/methods when educating learners with special
needs. This academic paper was able to identify the positive and/or negative repercussions of
each practice/method, hence, it implies that SPED does not support the notion of "one-size-fits-
all." The overall picture that emerges from this compilation of reviews is that SPED relies
heavily on the concept of "case-by-case basis," as one practice/method may be helpful to certain
learners with disabilities but at the same time ineffective for other learners with disabilities. A
limitation of this academic paper is its dependence on information offered in research findings
from earlier studies, which may differ from real information collected via surveys and interviews
with the perspectives of different individuals involved in the application of the different
practices/methods when educating learners with special needs. There has to be more research
done in the future that takes into account the actual perspectives of different individuals (e.g.,
learners, parents, teachers, school administrators and/or staff) involved in the application of the
different practices/methods when educating learners with special needs.
Keywords : Special Education, Least Restrictive Environment, Placements, Practices, Methods
1.Introduction
Learners with special needs who attend regular schools are often seen as a source of
disruption to the comfort and flow of regular school programs (Efendi et al., 2022). The reason
for this is because, learners with special needs are individuals who struggle in learning the
content of the basic education curriculum; in order for them to realize their full potential and
become successful adults, they require a modified and functional curriculum (Heward, 2003 in
Labrague, 2018). A modified and functional curriculum where the content and methods of
instruction must be tailored to the requirements of each learner (Mbewe et al., 2021).
Special Education (SPED) is a field of education that has been developed to
accommodate their learning. The area of SPED comprises a wide variety of groups requiring
varied services. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), there are thirteen
types of disabilities: “1) Autism Spectrum Disorder; 2) Deaf-Blindness; 3) Deafness; 4) Visual
Impairment including Blindness; 5) Emotional Disturbance; 6) Hearing Impairment; 7)
Intellectual Disability; 8) Multiple Disabilities; 9) Orthopedic Impairment; 10) Other Health
115
Impairment; 11) Specific Learning Disability; 12) Speech or Language Impairment; and 13)
Traumatic Brain Injury” (13 Categories of Disability Under IDEA Law - B.I.G. Solutions, LLC,
2021).
“Special education means specially designed instruction which meets the unique needs
of an exceptional child” (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1978). First editions of educational texts for
pupils with special needs provide a description of the carefully planned instruction “in terms of
ability or process training, behavior modification, developmental and ecological techniques,
psychodynamic or psychoeducational teaching strategies, social learning approaches, and task
analysis” (Kirk & Gallagher, 1979), or “in terms of teaching models - biophysical, psychological,
behavioral, or environmental” (Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1984).
Specialized resources, teaching methodologies, equipment, or even facilities may be
required for special education to be successful in catering to the unique needs of learners with
disabilities and being on par with the level of education obtained by learners in regular classes.
(Zigmond et al., 2009). With this in mind, there has always been a struggle in special education
between catering to the specific needs of learners with special needs and ensuring that they get
an education on par with that of learners that are receiving general education of the same age
group (Zigmond et al., 2009).
How are schools to provide for everyone if special education was not the answer (Florian,
2008)? In response to the contradictory character of special needs education, many have
embraced inclusive education as an alternative; furthermore, if inclusive education was to be a
process of reacting to individual differences within the structures and processes accessible to all
learners, as opposed to something apart from them, what would the function of special education
teachers be, and what should their expertise be (Florian, 2008)? To go into detail the following
practices/methods are being practiced to educate learners with disabilities: 1) Self-contained or
Special Class, 2) Itinerant Teaching, 3) Resource Room, 4) Integration/Mainstreaming, and 5)
Inclusion (DepEd Ensures Inclusive Education for Learners with Special Needs - SUNSTAR,
2017) fall under the various placements of the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), which
adheres to one of the fundamental values built into the current state of special education which
has the notion of providing equity for learners with disabilities (Rueda et al., 2000). According to
Yell (1995), the “LRE is a principle stating that students with disabilities are to be educated in
settings as close to regular classes as appropriate for the child.” “Then, as now, there were no
easy answers to these and other questions that have fueled debates about special versus inclusive
education (Florian, 2008).”
Discussing the state of special education provides an opportunity to learn more about the
many ways in which this field is being put into practice from the many viewpoints of those
involved. This will allow us to observe, from a variety of viewpoints: 1) the advantages and/or
disadvantages of each practice/method that fall under the different placements of the LRE, and 2)
identify the gains made by learners with disabilities who are exposed to at least one of these
practices/methods. Moreover, with this academic discussion, the academic article aims to: 1)
Explain the status of special education according to the different practices/methods, and 2)
Identify the possible positive and/or negative repercussions of the different practices/methods
that fall under the different placements of the LRE.
116
Literature Review and Research Gap(s)
2. Practices/Methods that fall under the different Placements of the Least Restrictive
Environment
2.1 Self-contained or Special Class
According to Lobdell and Van Ness (1963), in a self-contained classroom, learners study in small
groups with a special education teacher and are segregated from the regular classroom
environment for all subjects. Being separate from regular classes, self-contained classrooms are
designed for learners who have disabilities, these classes might be resource rooms located inside
regular schools, or they could be their own schools or districts; the special educator in a self-
contained classroom for learners with special needs works closely with and oversees one or more
paraprofessionals (Cipriano et al., 2016).
As a summary, it is seen that learners attending classes in a self-contained classroom are
totally segregated from the totality of everything that happens in a regular classroom. With that
being said, learners in self-contained classrooms have fewer options for education and social
interaction (O’connor, 2012); therefore, learners in self-contained classrooms make minimal
academic and behavioral improvement because they are not included in most large-scale
effectiveness and response to intervention (RTI) trials (Lane, Wehby, Little, & Cooley, 2005;
Siperstein, Wiley & Forness, 2011 in Cipriano et al., 2016).
2.2 Itinerant Teaching
In itinerant teaching, a special education teacher travels to meet the needs of learners in
their homes or other educational settings (DepEd Ensures Inclusive Education for Learners with
Special Needs - SUNSTAR, 2017). To better prepare learners for success in the regular classroom,
at home, and in the wider community, itinerant teaching provides them one-on-one support
wherever they happen to be (Luckner, 2020).
Itinerant teachers often cite working one-on-one or in small groups of pupils as a perk of
their jobs; similarly, itinerant teachers often get to know their learners and their families over the
course of many years, being able to aid learners and keep an eye on how they grow over a
number of years (Luckner, 2020). On the contrary, itinerant teachers consistently report time
restrictions as their primary challenge (Luckner & Ayantoye, 2013). The need of visiting several
schools as a guest, with no permanent location, adds still another layer of complexity given that
the atmosphere, policies, and organization of each school are unique; as a result, it's important to
be both professional and approachable, with an awareness of cultural norms and the flexibility to
adapt to new situations (Luckner, 2020).
2.3 Resource Room
According to Cartwright, Cartwright, and Ward (1981), to help students with their
reading and arithmetic abilities, resource rooms were created. Several sorts of resource rooms,
include "categorical, non-categorical, and cross-categorical," but they all have one thing in
common: learners are partnered with an educator for a segment of an academic day (Olsen &
Mercer, 1981).
Resource rooms for special education classes that were analyzed provided several options
for special education; nonetheless, the degree to which these possibilities were converted into
distinct educational the educational opportunities or experiences were, at best, negligible
(Thurlow et al., 1983). In reality, specialized instruction in resource rooms observed seemed
117
remarkably comparable to standard classroom instruction in terms of learner duties and learner
behavior (Thurlow et al., 1983). Other research has shown that active learning time becomes
more crucial to learner performance as compared to scheduled time (Denham & Lieberman,
1980; Samuels, 1981); In this manner, learners using the current assortment of resource rooms
fall short of their potential (Thurlow et al., 1983).
2.4 Integration/Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming places a learner with impairments in a typical classroom with
supplementary aid (DepEd Ensures Inclusive Education for Learners with Special Needs -
SUNSTAR, 2017). Integration can be either partially integrated or fully integrated; “In Partial
Integration/Mainstreaming, a child with special needs enrolled in a special class is integrated
with regular children in non-academic activities like work education, physical education, arts,
school programs, etc, then gradually integrated in the academic subjects if qualified. Meanwhile,
in Full Integration/Mainstreaming, a child with special needs sits in the regular class in all
academic and non-academic subjects” (DepEd Ensures Inclusive Education for Learners with
Special Needs - SUNSTAR, 2017).
The findings presented from empirical investigations conducted over the previous decade
show the usefulness of mainstreaming in enhancing the performance, attitudes, and processes of
learners with disabilities (Wang & Baker, 2015). Despite the fact that evidence in support of
mainstreaming has been discovered in a number of recent reviews, mainstreaming remains
controversial (Carlberg & Kavale, 1980; Madden & Slavin, 1982; Leinhardt & Palley, 1982;
Semmel et al., 1979 in Wang & Baker, 2015), their positive results mostly only reflect academic
achievements for learners with disabilities that were mainstreamed; additionally, statistics from
such assessments indicate that mainstreaming is only advantageous for learners with certain
categories of impairment. (Wang & Baker, 2015). Meanwhile, other research have shown that
mainstreaming has a detrimental effect on social outcomes (Heller, 1981; Meyers et al., 1980;
Madden & Slavin, 1982 in Wang & Baker, 2015).
2.5 Inclusion
“Inclusion is when students with disabilities receive their entire academic curriculum in
the general education program” (Idol, 2006). Both a general education teacher and a special
education teacher teach in an inclusive classroom; depending on the requirements of the students,
paraprofessional teachers may also be on hand (Cipriano et al., 2016). The cornerstones of
inclusion are as follows: 1. All learners attend their neighborhood school; 2. They are placed
based on the principle of natural proportions; 3. There is a restructuring of learning and teaching
to accommodate special education in the regular classroom; and 4. Learners are assigned to
classrooms that correspond with their grade level and age group (Savich, 2008).
All learners with disabilities who have participated in an inclusive environment have
benefited from it by learning new ways to communicate, interacting with others, and growing as
individuals (Bennett, DeLuca, & Bruns, 1997 in Savich, 2008). Learners with disabilities who
are allowed to attend classes in the general education environment are more likely to develop
friendships and participate in peer engagement (Fryxell & Kennedy, 1995 in Savich, 2008).
Meanwhile, critics of inclusion argue that placing learners with special needs in regular classes
all day would prevent them from receiving the customized teaching they need (Andrews,
Carnine, Coutinho, Edgar, Forness, Fuchs, et al., 2000; Macmillan, Gresham, & Forness, 1996 in
Savich, 2008). Another argument against inclusion is that “general education teachers do not
118
possess the requisite training or qualifications to teach disabled students effectively” (Schumm &
Vaughn, 1995 in Savich, 2008).
3. Conclusion
The ultimate goal of this academic paper was to explain the status of special education
according to the different practices/methods. In light of this, providing free appropriate public
education (FAPE) to children with disabilities has been a requirement of schools since 1975
when IDEA was passed (Rozalski et al., 2010). Additionally FAPE specified that “to the
maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including children in public or private
institutions or other care facilities, are educated with children who are not disabled, and that
special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular
educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability is such that
education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved
satisfactorily” (IDEA, 20 U.S.C. § 1412). Despite mandates for schools to include students with
impairments, ideally in the general education setting, it is recognized that certain children with
disabilities cannot benefit from full inclusion without supplementary aids (Rozalski et al., 2010).
Hence, this led to the creation of the different practices/methods in SPED that fall under the
various placements of the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), which adheres to one of the
fundamental values built into the current state of special education which has the notion of
providing equity for learners with disabilities (Rueda et al., 2000). “Nonetheless, it is important
to recognize the LRE is not a specific placement nor is there a single definition of what the least
restrictive environment (LRE) is for each student” (Crockett & Kauffman, 2005; McColl, 1992;
Osborne, 1993; Osborne & DiMattia, 1994; Palley, 2006 in Rozalski et al., 2010).
As seen through the existence of the LRE and its placements that led to the creation of
putting the different SPED practices/methods into the context of educating learners with
disabilities, no one pratice/method is perfect enough to be able to effectively cater to the different
needs of the learners with disabilities. This academic paper was able to identify the positive
and/or negative repercussions of each practice/method, hence, it implies that SPED does not
support the notion of "one-size-fits-all." These different SPED practices/methods were put into
practice to establish a connection between an individual’s personal qualities and the
characteristics of certain activity settings rather than as a placement in a physical environment,
therefore defining the LRE and its entirety (Rueda et al., 2000).
Based on the literature review, it shows that: 1) Learners who attend classes in a self-
contained classroom are completely isolated from everything that takes place in a regular
classroom. As a result of this isolation, learners in self-contained classrooms make only a
minimal improvement in their academic and behavioral performance. This is because learners in
self-contained classrooms are not included in the majority of large-scale effectiveness and
response to intervention (RTI) trials; 2) Working with learners individually or in small groups is
commonly cited as a positive aspect of itinerant teaching, as is the opportunity to build
relationships with students and their families over the course of many years. Rather, time
constraints are regularly cited as the greatest difficulty for itinerant educators. Since the climate,
rules, and structure of each school are different, it is essential to be both professional and
friendly, with a knowledge of cultural norms and the ability to adjust to new circumstances, if
you need to visit several schools as a guest but don't have a permanent site; 3) The resource room
for special education courses that was evaluated offered a variety of alternatives for special
119
education; nevertheless, the extent to which these options were turned into different educational
experiences or activities was, at best, insignificant. In actuality, special education in the resource
rooms observed resembled regular education in terms of learner duties (e.g., readers, workbooks,
worksheets, or activities) and learner behavior (e.g., reading, writing, and other academic
activities). Engaged time is more important to academic success than permitted time; in this
regard, the present resource rooms fall short for their learners; 4) The results of empirical studies
undertaken over the last decade demonstrate that mainstreaming may improve the performance,
attitudes, and processes of learners with disabilities. Despite the fact that a number of recent
evaluations have found evidence in favor of mainstreaming, their positive results primarily
reflect the academic achievements of learners with disabilities who were mainstreamed;
furthermore, the data from these evaluations suggest that mainstreaming is only effective for
learners in certain special education categories. Other studies have shown that mainstreaming has
a negative impact on social outcomes; and 5) All learners with disabilities who have taken part in
an inclusive setting have benefitted from it by expanding their linguistic and social skills and
personal development. Learners with disabilities benefit from inclusive education because they
are more likely to make friends and interact with their peers when they are included in the
regular classroom environment. Others argue that learners with special needs would be better
served by attending specialized courses rather than being integrated into general education
classrooms given the claim that general education teachers lack the specialized knowledge and
skills to adequately educate learners with special needs. The overall picture that emerges from
this compilation of reviews is that SPED relies heavily on the concept of "case-by-case basis," as
one practice/method may be helpful to certain learners with disabilities but at the same time
ineffective for other learners with disabilities
A limitation of this academic paper is its dependence on information offered in research
findings from earlier studies, which may differ from real information collected via surveys and
interviews with the perspectives of different individuals involved in the application of the
different practices/methods when educating learners with special needs. In addition, it was
discovered that the majority of past research focused on practices/methods such as: 1) Itinerant
Teaching, 2) Mainstreaming/Integration, and 3) Inclusive Education, whereas practices/methods
such as: 1) Self-contained or Separate Class and 2) Resource Room had very limited research
that could only shed light on their negative repercussions.
There has to be more research done in the future that takes into account the actual
perspectives of different individuals (e.g., learners, parents, teachers, school administrators
and/or staff) involved in the application of the different practices/methods when educating
learners with special needs. Moreover, earlier studies suggested that: 1) To improve future
studies, it would be helpful to compile assessments of standardized settings across different
placements that may be used for comparisons (Lane et al., 2005); and 2) “Future research
involving multiple self-contained schools and even some inclusive classrooms would enhance
the responses pulling from a larger pool and different perspectives” (O’connor, 2012).
120
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123
Context and Transition of Leadership Views in the Use of Technology in

Education
Ednar Rivera Corpuz*, Jesse M. Balinas
*
Abstract
The ultimate goal of this review is to retrospect the collective views and context of
leadership over the past years including how leadership styles evolved with the advent of
technology. From the review, it was noted that qualities, attributes, and views of leadership
change throughout time yet a clear concept of this phenomenon does not converge within a clear
picture and is still fragmented. While pedagogy gears toward the advancement of technology,
new competencies and styles of leadership are manifested in the digital world. This irreversible
transformative change makes leaders continually adapt, and rethink ways to lead in the
organization but this is accompanied by the question of which skills exactly are needed for these
modifications. The review may shed light on the views and context of leadership vis-à-vis the
growing interest in technology in teaching.
Keywords : Leadership styles, Information Communication Technology, E-learning
1.Introduction
The role of leaders in the school’s organization had been an interesting topic in the areas
of research in pedagogy ( Golberg, 2001; Knapp et al., 2006; Marion & Gonzales, 2013;
Shaturaev, & Bekimbetova, 2021). Since the educational system is facing a continuous paradigm
shift throughout centuries, questions about the changes in leadership styles and management had
been an interesting topic. These modifications in pedagogy were termed “transformative change”
(Varadharajan & Buchanan, 2021). These transformative changes, along with public policies and
leadership arising from the past, needed to be understood and reflected upon based on their
contemporary ideas and challenges which may give a different lens for potential action.
Educational leaders make no exemption to these rapid changes. Over the past years,
researchers have argued that leadership is geared toward the interposition of elements
characterized by the presence of Information Communication Technology (ICT) which resulted
in new ideas of leadership ( Avolio & Kahai, 2003; Avolio et al., 2014; Cortellazo et al., 2019;
Dasgupta, 2011). Adjacent to the early views that pedagogy is transitioning to the digital arena,
the definitive definition of technology used in this paper embraces the idea that technology is not
just the presence of technology available rather it is the selection and utilization of technologies
for learning and new knowledge (Davis, 2003; Lakhana, 2014). On the other hand, Hensellek
(2020) even noted that machinery and methodologies should not the only areas that must adapt to
changes, but also the methods of how leaders manage their people and their organization. With
these changes, one interesting learning theory introduced in 2004 is the “Theory of
Connectivism” introduced by George Simens. Simens (2004) noted that for the past twenty
years, technology has shaped and reorganized how we communicate, learn and live. The
researcher further describes connectivism as the theory that integrates previous thinking [Social
Constructivism, Vygotsky, 1968]. Philosophically speaking, the idea of connectivism is
anchored on one of the philosophical foundations in pedagogy- pragmatism. Pragmatism as a
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philosophy believes that human actions are based on his past; that is, the reality is not static and
it continually changes (Goldkuhl, 2012; Morgan, 2014). Similarly, pragmatism holds the belief
that the consequences of human actions from the past could predict similar actions in the future
(Morgan, 2014).
The Fourth Industrial Revolution drive the advancement of knowledge and technology
(World Economic Forum, 2016). Additionally, leading researchers have argued the notion that
the fourth industrial revolution will shape the future through its impacts on government, health,
education, and business (Avis, 2018; Kimani et al., 2020; Morgan, 2019; Penprase, 2018). With
the growing ideas of technology in the working environment due to different factors, the needs
and demands of the leaders to manage an organization also changed dramatically (Voelkle &
Hecht, 2020). Alongside these changes and in the age of pragmatic acceleration, new
competencies and new styles of leadership manifested in the digital world (Petry, 2018). One
pressing concern in the transition of leadership is the use of technology and its notion and
framework have been existing in the areas of business (Petry, 2018; Mihardjo et al., 2019) and
economy (Cahyadi & Magda, 2021) yet very limited literature delve on the area of pedagogy.
The present paper aims to study the transition of leadership views in education more specifically
in the age of technology since leadership must not be viewed as a static idea but must be seen as
a volatile notion that changes through time (Rogers et al., 2014).
Literature Review and Research Gap(s)
2. Transition of Leadership views in the use of Technology in Education
2.1 Context and views of leadership in the early years (1800-the 1900s)
Past research dealt with the concept of leadership including its dynamics, theories, and
styles. In 1841, the “Great Man” theory of Carlyle in 1841 describing that leaders are born and
are not made. Carlyle (1841) further claimed that leaders are predestined to lead and they possess
attributes such as personal charisma, political skills, wisdom, and intelligence superior to others
and consequently allow them to influence and have power over other people. These ideas were
supported by Mann (1959) in his concept known as "Trait Theory" which gives importance to
certain attributes of leaders such as intelligence, personality, and effectiveness. On the other
hand, Benis (1898) argues that someone becomes a leader not of his innate personal attributes
but on how his qualities are being developed. In the early research of Dansereau, Graen, and
Haga (1975) they postulated that effective leaders should develop and maintain a strong
relationship with their followers. Bass (1985) on the other hand viewed leadership as
transformational. That is, leaders must elevate the interest of their followers and generate
awareness and acceptance of the organization’s mission.
In the early account of Ross in 1993, the researcher underscored the two important
characteristics of a leader: it is a multidirectional influence and non-coercive behavior. Ross
(1993) explained that multidirectional influence must flow in all directions of the organizations
and not just on the top down. Being multidirectional means that everyone must possess
leadership influence and must interact with one another. In addition to the growing views of
leadership, Bass (1997) viewed that leaders must possess the charisma to manage the
organization well. Charismatic leadership is the effect of a values-based and emotion-laden style
known to cope with cognitive and emotional challenges that produce positive outcomes in the
organization. In recent years, collective views of leadership traits and behaviors had taken place
and changes through time. Understanding different forms and views of leadership is essential,
especially in crafting and developing training programs. Most importantly, gaining an
125
understanding of these collective views of leadership shapes an organization's capacity in

pursuing leadership excellence.
Context and Views of Leadership Style Qualities of a Leader

• Great Man Theory (1841) • Leaders are born and not made
• Benis’ Theory (1898) • Leaders are being developed.
• Vertical Dyad Linkage • Leaders should develop and maintain a strong
Approach(1957) relationship with their followers.
• Trait Theory (1959) • Leaders are imbued with attributes of leaders such as
intelligence, personality, and effectiveness superior
to others.
• Transformational Leadership (1985) • Leaders must elevate the interest and acceptance of
the organization’s mission.
• Management Conflict Theory (1993) • Leadership must be multidirectional influenced and
must flow in all directions of the organizations and
not just on the top down.
• Charismatic Leadership (1993) • Leaders must possess the charisma to manage the
organization and management is the effect of a
values-based and emotion-laden style known to cope
with cognitive and emotional challenges that produce
positive outcomes in the organization.
2.1 Context and Views of leadership alongside technology
Leadership should be seen as a continuous opportunity for learning, as well as in
developing adaptive capabilities, necessary for successful management (Robertson, 2011).
Leadership in context is the ability to positively influence others in attaining a common goal
reflected in the vision and mission, including the policy of the institution or organization (Adnan
& Valliappan, 2019). Available studies regarding leadership noted a trend in the relationship
between leaders and the organization in the presence of technology (Anderson & Dexter, 2005;
Courtney; 2018; Davies, 2010; Larson & DeChurch, 2020; Thite, 2000). Makina (2006) also
argues in their study that a shift from pre-digital management to a new type of leadership
emerged with the advent of technology. This emerging phenomenon was labeled as E-leadership
and served as the source of several studies to understand the metamorphosis it exhibits (Torre &
Sarti, 2020). E-leadership is more than a nomenclature as it paves the way for understanding
new styles of leadership along with the increasingly disruptive changes associated with the
influence of technological ideas. Hence, forces leaders to rethink ways to lead anywhere
regardless of the situation, time, and place (Haddun & McAllen, 2018).
Technology changed the concept of leadership and organization irreversibly. The
evolution of leadership alongside technology shapes organizations’ processes and work
environments, generating new challenges that leaders need to face (Cortellazzo, Bruni, &
Zampieri, 2019). One notable limitation of the virtual world is the absence of direct and informal
contact including other elements such as facial expression and body language. This also means
that leaders must sync with the changes in tasks and work processes including communication
strategies as it is nearly impossible to lead using the traditional method of leadership (Woie,
2022). In a similar vein, physical factors connecting to distance are interrelated with social and
126
emotional aspects which are challenges currently faced by leaders managing in the virtual world
(Marisson-Smith & Ruiz, 2020).
Another pressing concern of E-leadership is the multiplicity of changes it currently
encountered. These include the aspect of organizational culture, management of time, and use of
ICT (Arnaut, 2021; Dwianto, 2021). This irreversible shift and changes in terms of leadership in
the presence of technology require a thorough review and further investigation. Responding and
mastering new concepts in leadership need necessary adjustments, but this is accompanied by the
question of which skills exactly are needed for these modifications.
2.1 Context and Views of Leadership in the 21st-Century Learning
The realm of education had drastically changed due to the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
One of these highlights is the drive toward E-learning (World Economic Forum, 2016).
Although E-learning encompasses issues based on its definitive definition, it has been a part of
the new dynamic characteristics of the 21st-century teaching and learning process (Mayadas,
Miller & Sener, 2015). Over the years, E-learning gained positive results and improvement of
learning among students (Lestari, 2019; Gumantan, Nugroho, & Yuliandra, 2021; Vitoria,
Mislinawati & Nurmasyitah, 2018). Although positive impacts were seen in the usage of E-
learning (Clark, 2020; Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2013; Raja & Nagasubramani, 2018), factors
such as academic, leadership (Shikokoti, 2021), and technical challenges were among the main
challenges and limitations faced by the leaders in the digital learning (Ja’ashan, 2020).
Another limitation of leadership in the digital age is that its concept has been existing in
other disciplines such as in business (Petry, 2018; Mihardjo et al., 2019) and economy (Cahyadi
& Magda, 2021) but very little literature on the area of pedagogy. Toleikienė et al., (2020) also
noted that research available on the consequences of leadership in the technological era in the
public sector remains scares and limited. It is then fundamental that traditional leaders leading in
21st-century teaching and learning must be given attention since their experience differs from the
past and may express challenges and limitations in managing the organization and their people in
the digital world (Kirchner et al., 2021).
Advancement in technology is seen as a vital component in the current educational
setting. This viewpoint, along with the disruptive changes, challenges leaders to adjust in the
field of pedagogy. With this, school leaders belonging to the pre-digital pedagogy find
themselves adjusting while leading in 21st-century learning. Despite the increasing interest in
leadership in 21st-century learning, the relationship between leadership styles and technology has
accumulated in a fragmented fashion. These fragmented ideas made researchers to struggle in
detecting larger patterns of change that resulted from the digital revolution. Additionally, with the
fast-changing advancement and implementation of digital technology, there is a necessity to
continuously update and reflect on the latest contributions brought about by these disruptive
changes.
3. Conclusion
The ultimate goal of this review is to retrospect the collective views and context of
leadership over the past years including how leadership styles evolved with the advent of
technology. Although the paper examined several research from the past, it is still limited and
fragmented. Therefore, this paper aimed to shed light and see beneficial of understanding how
leadership evolved along with the advancement of technology. First, the qualities, attributes, and
127
views of leadership have changed throughout time. Scholars over the past years tried to
understand this multifaceted phenomenon, but only dispersed ideas were accumulated and did
not converge within a clear picture. Technology is one of the most notable changes and
development in leading an organization, However, advancement in technology can be both
transformative and disruptive (McLeod, 2015). Kirchner et al. (2021) suggested that leaders'
experiences from the past may serve as an avenue to new learning, especially in how they were
able to cope with the changes and adapt their leadership styles as virtual leaders. With the
growing demands for the use of technology in the working environment, the demands, ways, and
needs of the leaders in managing the organization also changed dramatically (Voelkle & Hecht,
2020). With these irreversible changes, it is necessary to reflect and update our knowledge on
these growths and developments made by the leaders throughout the years in conjunction with
technology.
One of the drawbacks of this paper is that it examined the context and views of leadership
in the past years along with the proliferation of technology in pedagogy. The ways leaders adapt
under the context of pressing health concerns in the country along with the use of technology
could be more enlightening findings in the area of research in pedagogy. Covid19 pandemic
shocked many institutions and organizations, this paradigm shift has an impact not only on the
work culture of the organization but also on the style of leadership being carried by the leaders.
In a qualitative study conducted by Contreras Baykal, and Abid (2020) among small and medium
schools in Indonesia, they noted that many organizations are not prepared when caught by the
Covid -19 pandemic.
Future research should examine how leadership styles evolved in one of the extraordinary
health concerns in the country. More specifically, how leaders manage their organization and
people virtually during the Covid-19 pandemic. The different coping mechanisms, strategies, and
limitations may also be explored and looked into as they may give new gems of knowledge in
the area of pedagogy and leadership. Finally, this paper hopes to contribute to the ongoing
discussion of literature regarding the views and context of leadership vis-à-vis the growing
interest in technology in teaching and has laid a foundation for future research directions.
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The Ecopedagogical Competence of Marian Educators: Prospect for

Ecoliteracy, Ecophilia ad Green Campus
Mark C. Balonquita , Haydee D. James, Sherwin A. Marciano
Christopher Allen S. Marquez, Felipe V. Nantes, Jr.*
Saint Mary’s University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines
*
Abstract
Despite the calls for environmental care and protection in the midst of sustainable
development, there still exists an unceasing neglect and indifference resulting to environmental
catastrophes both locally and globally. One of the ways to respond to this urgent concern is a
critical and transformative environmental pedagogy termed in this paper as ecopedagogy. There
is a need to educate the citizens on their critical duty to love, care and protect the environment.
Educational institutions especially educators have a herculean role in intensifying the promotion
of environmental care. This study sought to assess the ecopedagogical competence of educators
in a university. It employed the quantitative and qualitative methods using a survey
questionnaire. Most of the respondents were females aged 31-40 years old and from the tertiary
department. The data revealed that Marian educators have good experience integrating
environmental education topics into their courses or subjects. Grouping the respondents
according to sex, however, yielded that they have a low level of eco-pedagogical competence.
On the other hand, there is a moderately high level of eco-pedagogical competence when
grouped according to school. Marian educators differ in their experiences integrating
environmental topics or ideas into their courses or subjects when grouped according to sex, age,
school, and years of teaching in SMU. Among the demographic variables, only age shows a
significant relationship with eco-pedagogical competence signifying a strong positive correlation
between the two. Most of the Marian educators practice the CHSF minute and integrate
environmental issues in their class discussions. These assessment results shall serve as a basis for
more intensified drive for ecoliteracy, a more focused promotion of ecophilia and a firmer
foundation for a green campus campaign.
Keywords : critical theory, environmental education, ecoliteracy, ecopedagogy, ecophilia,

environmental pedagogy
Introduction
The severity and frequency of the natural calamities are real impacts of climate change
(Bannari, et.al., 2017). As a response, mitigation and adaptation efforts are being done by various
sectors of the society. Different parts of the globe have been conceptualizing and
reconceptualizing means to address the phenomenon. In December 2015, countries signed the
Paris Agreement, the most important pact for international cooperation to tackle climate change
(UNTC, 2015). In the same year, Pope Francis (2015) issued Laudato Si, an encyclical on
climate change and inequality. He urged everyone to care for our common home. The Holy
Father explores social trends and ideologies that caused environmental problems and elaborates
integral ecology as a solution to the socio-environmental issues. Every country shall take part in
this effort. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), efforts to
reduce carbon emissions especially from the biggest-emitting countries like China, India, Russia,
Japan, etc. is doubly needed (Yi, 2022).
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The Philippines, one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change weather events
likewise responds to climate change by creating policies such as the adoption of Climate Change
Act and the creation of the Climate Change Commission with the aim of accelerating reforms for
the management of the accelerating climate change impact in the country (World Bank, 2022).
Environmental education is one of the ways to respond to the global nature of environmental
problems. It is one of the means to shift the pattern of human development into a more healthy,
just and sustainable trajectory.(Clover, 2000).
Re-thinking the meaning and implications of sustainable development is also crucial in
the agenda for the mitigation of the effects of climate change. The UN Sustainable Goal 13 aims
to take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact. One of the steps is to integrate
climate change measures into national policies, awareness raising, and the improvement of
education (UN, 2022).
Despite the intensified collective pledge of global, national and local levels to slow global
warming, the threat of the devastating consequences of climate change is still impending
(Maizland, 2021). Contrarily, the threat is no longer just impending but it is already a reality.
The effects are undeniably being felt worldwide. Hence, there is a need for more intensified
awareness program as a response to this perilous phenomenon. One of the ways to respond to
this urgent concern is through through a critical and transformative environmental pedagogy
termed as ecopedagogy.
According to Misiaszek (2016), the critical tenet of ecopedagogy in viewing socio-
environmental phenomena holistically through multiple perspectives and disciplines enforces the
need for biocentric viewpoints of teaching. Although the framing and objectives of
ecopedagogies are diverse and complicated, the important elements of problem-posing teaching
methods, democratically real conversation, praxis-based teaching, conflict-based teaching, and
teaching spaces as research spaces will all be discussed.
The existing studies on educators’ competence on environmental education serve as
inspiration in assessing the ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators based on the
mandates on environmental education in the country.
Ecopedagogy is a critical environmental pedagogy which focuses
in understanding the connections between social conflict and
environmentally harmful acts carried out by humans. These
connections are often politically hidden in education. Ecopedagogy,
while being pluralistic, is in its essence defined as a critical,
transformative environmental pedagogy centered on increasing
social and environmental justice. Its ultimate aim is to find a
sustainable balance between conflicting goals of diverse notions of
human progress and environmental well-being. (Misiaszek, 2016)
One of the concerns therefore of environmental pedagogies is environmental and human
well-being within the ambit of sustainable development. These pedagogies unpack the
inextricable link between human beings and the environment that houses their existence. This
suggests the inseparability of the social from the environmental aspect of human existence. The
actions carried out by human beings relative to the environment boomerang to them in the form
of natural disasters which have social implications.
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According to Armstrong (2018), climate change education outcomes enables educators to

strategically plan end evaluate program activities. Moreover, climate change literacy makes
students aware how humans affect climate and how climate affects humans and therefore take
action and mitigate climate change. This is supported by Schelly (2018) who said that
environmental education is transformative inasmuch as it explains and encourages patterns of
behavior that are environmentally responsible and thus promote environmental sustainability.
Ecopedagogical teaching practices are crucial in a society’s response to mitigate the
catastrophic effects of climate change as it is both critical and transformative. It is critical
inasmuch as it tends to question, reflect on and evaluate existing practices in relation to socio-
environmental connections. This is a reaction against current educational ideas and practices that
reinforce exploitative ways of thinking and doing thereby making education as accomplice in
human exploitation of the environment (Ruyu, 2017).
Ecopedgagogy is transformative, too, since it aims at changing the world into a better
place to live in, not only in the here and now but more importantly, in the future generations to
come. The significant role of educational institutions, specifically the educators is of great
significance in the realization of the goals of ecopedagogy.
Ecopedagogy is an environmental pedagogy that aims for an environmental education – a
teaching that would lead to action from learners, a teaching that encourages learners to engage in
environmentally good actions (Misiaszek, 2016). This refers to the essence of ecopedagogy as
an education that strives for praxis through the creation of ecopedagogical learning spaces. This
is every educator’s responsibility. But every educator is also an environmental educator. Thus,
every educator must be ecopedagogically competent in order to form socio-environmentally
responsible citizens. Indeed, enhancing our ability to learn, to live sustainably, and to love is the
only way we will be able to address the ecological and social imperatives we face as we seek to
build a fairer, less troubled and sustainable world for our children (Fien, 2003).
This study aims primarily to assess the ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators.
The assessment results shall serve as a basis for more intensified drive for ecoliteracy, a more
focused promotion of ecophilia and a firmer foundation for a greener campus campaign.
Ecoliteracy, a short hand for ecological literacy points to the ability to understand the basic
principles of ecology with the aim of sustaining the web of life (Stone, 2017). There is a need
for a practice of ecoliteracy learning which includes the management of the learning
environment, the use of learning methods and strategies, and the overall learning outcomes that
are sustainable community oriented (Guansyah, et.al., 2020).
Ecophilia, literally understood as ‘love of nature’ refers to the affective and embodied
bond between humans and nature (Ruyu, 2017). This speaks of the close relationship between
humans and the environment. Human beings are conceived as microcosms as they are
reflections of nature. And as reflections of nature, and in fact a part of nature, humans must not
only love humans but the place where humans are. This relationship can be nurtured through
education. Ruyu (2017) posited that ecophilia is educationally inspirational because it enriches
the meaningfulness of human life. Thus, ecophilia can be considered as a guiding idea of
education and such education is ecopedagogical.
A green campus is tied with sustainability. It refers to a place where environment-friendly
practices and education combine to promote sustainable and eco-friendly practices in the campus.
In the study of Stafford (2011), stakeholders such as faculty, alumni and the surrounding
134
community play significant roles in the adoption of sustainable practices. The study
recommends that policymakers can engage stakeholders such as faculty and alumni in help
increase sustainable practices in the campus. Programs that subsidize campus sustainability
efforts might be the most successful at encouraging campuses to adopt green programs. Thus,
results of the current study will be a reinforcement of the CHSF program of the university.
Statement of the Problem
With the main aim of assessing the ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators and
utilizing the assessment results for a more intensified drive for ecoliteracy, for the development
of ecophilia and for a proposal for a green campus, the following serve as specific problems for
inquiry:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of
a. Sex;
b. Age;
c. Number of years in teaching, and
d. Department?
2. What is the level of ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators when grouped
according to their demographic profiles?
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of competence of Marian educators when
grouped according to their demographic profiles?
4. Is there a significant relationship between the level of competence of Marian
educators and their demographic profiles?
5. What are the ecopedagogical practices of Marian educators?
Methodolgy
This paper employed the quantitative and qualitative methods using a survey questionnaire to
assess the level of ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators. The role of Marian
educators in the field of environmental education is crucial inasmuch as their influence to the
behavior of students is great. The assessment of their competence in ecopedagogy serves a basis
for the improvement of the universities programs and activities on environmental education.
Qualitatively, the study looked into common themes in the responses of the research respondents
which will serve as bases for the creation of the development of ecoliteracy, promotion of
ecophilia among Marians and ultimately the grounding a campaign for a greener school.
The study was conducted at Saint Mary’s University, a CICM catholic educational institution
situated in the Municipality of Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. The respondents were the Marian
Educators in all levels. The questionnaire was composed of three main parts. The first part
determined the demographic profiles of the research respondents. The second part assessed the
level of ecopedagogical competence of Marian educators through a four-point Likert-type
questionnaire. The third part determined the ecopedagogical practices, teaching strategies and
activities employed by Marian educators relative to environmental education.
Data gathering began with the approval of the University President through the endorsement
of the University Research Center. The following were used to analyze the quantitative data of
the study:
1. Frequency counts were used to describe the demographic profile of the respondents;
135
2. Means and standard deviations were used to analyze the level of eco-pedagogical
competence of the teachers when grouped according to their demographic profile;
3. The one-sample t-test was used to describe the significance difference in the level of eco-
pedagogical competence when grouped according to their demographic variables;
4. The Pearson correlation also used to describe the significant relationship in the level of
eco-pedagogical competence when grouped according to their demographic variables
This research was submitted to the Saint Mary’s University Research Ethics Borad
(SMUREB) for review and approval. SMUREB has the following address and contact
information:
Email: [email protected]
Mobile Number: 091771053041
Office Address: 2F Rev. John Van Bauwel Hall, SMU main Campus, Ponce St.,
Don Mariano Marcos, 3700 Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya,
Philippines
The study is mainly for educational purposes and does not go beyond it. Privacy of the
respondents and confidentiality of data is important; hence, the researchers did not mention the
names of the respondents in any part of the research. Data collected were used solely for the
research study and will be disposed of after the completion of the study. Data stored in paper
were secured and only the researchers shall have the access to it. The research respondents were
not subjected to harm in any way to answer the research survey questionnaires. Their
participation was voluntary and they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Before
the conduct of the study, the informed consent was explained to the respondents and later on
administered to them. Their participation in the study which contributes to the development of
ecoliteracy, promotion of ecophilia and grounding of the campaign for a green campus involved
no risks.
Results
Section 1. Respondents' Demographic Variables
Table 2. Profile of the Respondents
Profile Frequency Percent

Male 56 38.4
Sex
Female 90 61.6
20-30 years old 22 15.1
31-40 years old 57 39.0
Age
41-50 years old 47 32.2
51-60 years old 20 13.7
32 years and above 33 22.6
22-31 years 39 26.7
Year of Teaching at SMU
12-21 years 45 30.8
2-11 years 29 19.9
Elementary 14 9.6
Junior High School 21 14.4
School
Senior High School 17 11.6
SAB 20 13.7
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Profile Frequency Percent

SEAIT 28 19.2
SHANS 14 9.6
STEH 32 21.9
Total 146 146 100.0
Section 2. Level of Pedagogical Competence when grouped according to their profile

variables
Table 3. Level of eco-pedagogical competence when grouped according to demographic
variables
One-Sample Statistics
N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Sex 146 1.62 .488 .040
Age 146 3.45 .910 .075
School 146 4.35 2.002 .166
Years of Teaching at
146 2.48 1.052 .087
SMU
Overall 146 3.7449 .60417 .05000
Legend: 1.00-1.49 = No Level of Competence; 1.50-2.49 = Low Level of Competence; 2.50-3.49
= Average Level of Competence; 3.50-4.49 = Moderately High Level of Competence; 4.50-5.00
= High Level of Competence
Section 3. Significant difference in the level of competence of Marian educators when
grouped according to their demographic profiles
Table 4. Significant difference in the level of competence of Marian Educations when grouped
according to demographic variables
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
t df Sig. (2- Mean 95% Confidence
tailed) Difference Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Sex 40.030 145 .000 1.616 1.54 1.70
Age 45.748 145 .000 3.445 3.30 3.59
School 26.250 145 .000 4.349 4.02 4.68
Years of Teaching at
28.481 145 .000 2.479 2.31 2.65
SMU
Overall 74.895 145 .000 3.74486 3.6460 3.8437
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Section 4. Significant Relationship in t the level of competence of Marian Educations
Table 5. Significant Relationship in t the level of competence of Marian Educations when

grouped according to demographic variables
Correlations
Sex Age School Years of Overall
Teaching at
SMU
Pearson
1 .216** .025 -.096 .034
Correlation
Sex
Sig. (2-tailed) .009 .763 .249 .682
N 146 146 146 146 146
Pearson
.216** 1 -.059 -.412** .246**
Correlation
Age
Sig. (2-tailed) .009 .476 .000 .003
N 146 146 146 146 146
Pearson
.025 -.059 1 -.018 .061
Correlation
School
Sig. (2-tailed) .763 .476 .831 .464
N 146 146 146 146 146
Pearson **
-.096 -.412 -.018 1 -.055
Years of Teaching at Correlation
SMU Sig. (2-tailed) .249 .000 .831 .512
N 146 146 146 146 146
Pearson
.034 .246** .061 -.055 1
Correlation
Overall
Sig. (2-tailed) .682 .003 .464 .512
N 146 146 146 146 146
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Section 5. The Ecopedagogical Practices of Marian Educators
Ecoppedagogical Practices Frequency

CHSF Minute 20
Tree planting 9
Backyard gardening 2
Integration of environmental 35
issues in discussions
Discussion of green practices 2
Eco-walk
Solid waste management
Using eco-friendly products
Conducting research on
environmental concerns
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Discussions
Respondents' Demographic Variables
Table 2 shows the demographic variables of the Marian educator respondents. There are
more females than males. Nearly three-quarters of the total population comprises the combined
31-40 and 41-50 years old respondents. Consequently, most respondents have been teaching at
SMU for 12-21 years and 22-31 years, with 30.8% and 26.7%, respectively. With regard to
school, there are 52 Marian educators from the Basic Education Department and 94 from the
Tertiary Department. The total number of respondents is 146. At Saint Mary’s University, most
of the educators are males. This is supported by studies which looked into the relationship
between gender and the teaching profession. In the study of Tasner, et. Al (2017), the teaching
career is dominated by women. Wanchana (2020) likewise stated that were largely female
comprising 73.28%. Based on the data provided by Dr. Jose Ramon G Albert (2013), in the
cumulative distribution of teachers by age, age group 40-49 and 50-59 compose the greatest
number of teachers.
Level of Pedagogical Competence when grouped according to their profile variables
Table 3 shows the level of pedagogical competence when grouped according to

demographic variables. There is a moderately high level of eco-pedagogical competence
(M=3.7499) among Marian educators. This indicates they have good experience integrating
environmental education topics into their courses or subjects. The study of Chunteng (2004)
yielded the same findings as it states that the teachers in the experimental schools generally have
a correct attitude towards environmental education. Wanchana (2020) also found out that
teachers show moderate competence in environmental education. On the one hand, grouping the
respondents according to sex will, however, yield that they have a low level of eco-pedagogical
competence (m=1.63). On the other hand, there is a moderately high level of eco-pedagogical
competence (m=4.35) when grouped according to school; however, there is a varied description
of the eco-pedagogical competence of the Marian educator with a standard deviation of 2.002,
indicating a more dispersed response in relation to the mean. Hence, Table 3 suggests that when
they are grouped according to sex and years of teaching at SMU, they have little experience;
when grouped according to age, they have some experience; and when grouped according to
school, they have good experiences in integrating environmental education topics or ideas in
their courses or subjects. The educators demographic profile contributes to their capacity to
integrate environmental education in the classroom thus affecting the level of eco-pedagogical
competence. This is an affirmation of the findings of Francisco (2020) that maturity comes with
experience. Gender-related performance and length of service affect the enrichment and
promotion of competency. However, an earlier study conducted by Supardi, et.al. (2017) stated
that there is no difference in the level of competence when teachers are grouped according to age.
But there is a need to continuously capacitate educators in realizing the need to care for our
environment. It is essential to empower teachers with in-depth knowledge of EE so as to be able
to teach it in an integrated manner (Ramsaroop and Rooyen, 2013).
Significant difference in the level of competence of Marian educators when grouped
according to their demographic profiles
Table 4 shows the significant difference in Marian educators' eco-pedagogical
competence level when grouped according to demographic variables. Table 3 shows the mean
level of the eco-pedagogical competence of Marian educators in terms of sex (m=1.62), age
139
(m=3.45), school (4.35), and years of teaching in SMU (m=2.48). Table 4, however, shows a p-
value of 0.000 which indicates significant differences in the level of eco-pedagogical
competence when grouped according to their demographic variables. Hence, Marian educators
differ in their experiences integrating environmental topics or ideas into their courses or subjects
when grouped according to sex, age, school, and years of teaching in SMU. This could be due to
the various courses or subjects being taught by the teachers. There are subjects like Mathematics
or Physical Education that, though possible, it could be difficult or sometimes inappropriate to
insert topics about the environment. Another probable reason is the lack of ecological foundation
of some citizens including educators (Westover, 2001). Ecoliteracy and the cultivation of
ecophilia is based upon sequential goals which start with an ecological foundation with respect to
environmental issues. Westover (2001) further said that environmental education should be
infused into existing school curriculum via an interdisciplinary approach. Moreover, educational
initiatives related to environmental education lacked coordination and there are still many
structural obstacles for a real integration in curricula and daily classroom work (Corpuz, San
Andres and Lagasca, 2022).
Significant Relationship in the level of competence of Marian Educations when grouped
according to demographic variables
Table 5 shows the Significant Relationship in Marian Educators' competence level when
grouped according to demographic variables. Among the demographic variables, only age shows
a significant relationship with eco-pedagogical competence with a p-value of 0.003, signifying a
strong positive correlation between the two. The other demographic variables show no
significant relationship with the level of eco-pedagogical competence with p-values greater than
0.05. Hence, the experience of integrating environmental lessons or ideas into the courses or
subjects is significantly correlated to the age of the Marian educators but not with their sex,
school, and years of teaching at SMU. This implies that as an educator ages, he/she is more
inclined to integrating environmental concerns in the classroom. The need to strengthen
ecoliteracy in the university. The study of Corpuz, San Andres and Lagasca (2022) concurs with
this. Further, strengthening ecoliteracy among educators will ensure advocacy campaigns
towards attainment of sustainable goals, initiate a genuine love of nature (ecophilia) and foster
ecological network. These in turn shall encourage participation in activities that promote
environmental consciousness like the CHSF Program and the Green Campus campaign. This is
likewise anchored in the CICM Advocay specifically on Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation.
Conclusion
Most of the respondents are female, ranging from 31-50 years old and mostly teaching in
the university for 12 – 31 years already. When they are grouped according to sex and years of
teaching at SMU, they have little experience; when grouped according to age, they have some
experience; and when grouped according to school, they have good experiences in integrating
environmental education topics or ideas in their courses or subjects. Marian educators differ in
their experiences integrating environmental topics or ideas into their courses or subjects when
grouped according to sex, age, school, and years of teaching in SMU. The experience of
integrating environmental lessons or ideas into the courses or subjects is significantly correlated
to the age of the Marian educators but not with their sex, school, and years of teaching at SMU.
Most of the Marian educators practice the CHSF minute and integrate environmental issues in
their class discussions. Generally, based on these findings, the ecodepdagogical competence of
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Marian educators is moderately high which implies that they have a good experience of
ecopedagogy.
In the study, only the perspectives of the educators were considered. Future researches
may look into the perspectives of the students.
Rrcommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following are the recommendations: While Marian
educators show a good experience in ecopedagogy, it is suggested that a more intensified
campaign on awareness of environmental concerns be conducted. There is a need to capacitate
the Marian educators on integrating environmental education in their classes through
environmental fora. Also, a more intensified campaign of the university’s green campus policy
is suggested. This can be done during the launching of the CHSF Program and be sustained
through activities that promote ecoliteracy and advocate ecophilia.
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A Stylistic Analysis of Leni Robredo’s and Bongbong Marcos Jr.’s

Proclamation Rally Kick-Off Speeches
Roberto V. Guzman Jr.*, Lalaine D. Antigo, Judy Ann A. Babor, Jessa Leigh T. Bugarin,
Khyla Rose L. Ramos
*
Abstract
This qualitative-descriptive research examined the political speeches of the Philippine
presidential candidates, Maria Leonor "Leni" Robredo and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. Its
aim was to identify the prevalent stylistic features in the selected speeches and analyze the
inherent stylistic elements projected within them. The research incorporated the stylistic analysis
framework proposed by Omozuwa and Ezejideaku (2009), encompassing two main categories:
propaganda (including exaggeration, rhetorical questions, vague and abusive utterances, and
attacks on party logo/slogan) and rhetoric (including repetition, references to God or biblical
citations, promises, colloquialism, word coinage, pidginized expressions, metaphor, and idiom).
The results are presented through a tabulation of the stylistic features found in each candidate's
speeches, with selected statements further explained. The findings indicate that both Robredo
and Marcos Jr. employed numerous stylistic features to persuade their audience. The study
underscores the significance of being aware of politicians' speeches and their implications for
language teaching. Finally, the research offers recommendations based on the study's findings.
Keywords : stylistic analysis, stylistic features, propaganda, rhetoric, political speech
1. INTRODUCTION
Language is a crucial tool for conveying messages and facilitating audience
understanding. It not only communicates words and sentences but also creates vivid mental
images (Dorcas, 2011). Political speeches, rooted in the works of Greek philosophers like
Sophist, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, aim to address pressing issues and persuade people of the
benefits of their leadership (Charteris-Black, 2005). Public speaking, a vital form of citizen
involvement, has played a significant role in education and civic life throughout history (Lucas,
2007). Aristotle's Rhetoric, dating back to the third century B.C.E., remains influential and
continues to shape contemporary speaking and writing (Anyanwu & Abana, 2020).
The concept of public speaking originated in ancient Greece, referring to the formal
delivery of messages to large groups (Lin, 2019). Public speaking serves three main purposes: to
inform, convince, and entertain, enabling individuals to express themselves and influence
important issues in a democratic society. Language serves as a means of communication, with
messages as its central focus. It is influenced by various factors, such as time, place, subject
matter, linguistic attitude, cultural influences, and personal perspective (Anyanwu & Abana,
2020).
Analyzing the language of politicians provides insights into its impact on audiences and
the strategies they employ to convey their intentions effectively. Politicians use language
elements to inform, persuade, and entertain, employing various stylistic features that make their
speeches persuasive without overtly appearing manipulative (Charteris-Black, 2011 as cited in
Neshkovska, 2019). Stylistic analysis, which encompasses literary and non-literary works,
144
examines language style, techniques, and lexical-semantic processes in political speeches

(Bashar,2017). Researchers have investigated notable literary features, techniques, and the
semantic process of different political speeches, such as opening ceremony speeches, campaign
speeches, and battle novels (Omozuwa & Ezejideaku, 20092010; Akinwotu, 2018; Ofoegbu &
Alonge, 2017; Abuya, 2012).
Stylistics focuses on analyzing speeches to understand the connection between the
speaker's style and its impact on the audience (Quinto, 2014). It examines linguistic structures,
the text's topic, and the reader or listener's interaction with the text to derive meaning (Jaafar &
Hassoon, 2018). Stylistics can be classified into literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics, with
political speeches falling under the latter category. Political speeches utilize language features
and devices to create an expressive style, enhancing the message's meaning and impact (Martin,
2020).
Stylistic features in political discourse can be categorized into propaganda and rhetoric.
Propaganda includes exaggeration, rhetorical questions, vague utterances, abusive utterances,
and attacks on party logos and slogans. Rhetoric encompasses repetition, biblical citations or
references to God, promises, colloquialisms, word coinage, pidginized expressions, and
figurative expressions like metaphors and idioms (Omozuwa & Ezejideaku, 2009).
While stylistic studies have been extensively conducted on literary texts, political
speeches have received less attention in this regard. However, stylistic features play a significant
role in political speeches, influencing the meaning, emotions, and persuasive impact on the
audience (Staugaitė, 2014). Language elements, including vocabulary, sentence construction, and
presentation style, contribute to the effectiveness of speech delivery (Kulo, 2019).
Although stylistic studies have been extensively conducted on literary texts, there is a gap
in understanding the specific stylistic features employed in political speeches and their
persuasive effects. This research sought to address this gap by analyzing the language and
stylistic elements used in political speeches and their contribution to the effectiveness of speech
delivery.
This research aimed to address the limited attention given to the specific language
elements and stylistic features used in political speeches and their impact on the audience.
Understanding these choices is crucial for comprehending the persuasive power of political
speeches and the strategies employed by politicians to inform, persuade, and entertain their
audience. By analyzing the stylistic features of propaganda and rhetoric, insights can be gained
into how these elements contribute to the overall meaning, emotions, and impact of political
speeches. Furthermore, studying the language and stylistic aspects of political speeches provides
a deeper understanding of the historical tradition of public speaking and its influence on
education and civic life. This research will contribute to the existing knowledge in stylistics,
offering valuable insights for speechwriters, politicians, and scholars interested in political
communication and rhetoric.
2. Objectives
In general, the objective of this research was to analyze the proclamation rally kick-off
speeches of Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr. stylistically. Specifically, this study aimed
to:
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1. identify the stylistic features (propaganda and rhetoric) prevalent in the selected
political speeches of Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr.;
2. present a comparison between Leni Robredo’s and Bongbong Marcos Jr.’s use of
stylistic features in their political speeches; and
3. determine the implications of stylistics in political speeches for language teaching.

The researchers used the qualitative-descriptive method to analyze the stylistic features of
Maria Leonor "Leni" Robredo's and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr.'s Proclamation Rally
Kick-off speeches. The goal of qualitative descriptive studies is a comprehensive summarization,
in everyday terms, of specific events experienced by individuals or groups of individuals
(Lambert & Lambert, 2012). The primary objective of this research was to examine how
Robredo and Marcos Jr., as selected Philippine presidential candidates, employed stylistic
features in their public speeches.
Data were collected from credible documents and records, including video recordings and
transcripts of Robredo's and Marcos Jr.'s speeches. The speeches analyzed were Robredo's
speech on February 8, 2022, in Plaza Quezon, Naga City, and Marcos Jr.'s speech on the same
date at the Philippine Arena in Bulacan.
The subjects of the research were Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr., who
participated as Philippine presidential candidates in the 2022 Elections. The selection was based
on campaign surveys and subsequent election results, with Robredo ranking second and Marcos
Jr. ranking first.
For data analysis, the researchers applied stylistic features identified in previous
studies on political speeches, specifically the work of Omozuwa and Ezejideaku in 2007.
Sentences from each speech were categorized based on stylistic features, such as propaganda and
rhetoric, using a table. Tabulation determined the frequency of propaganda and rhetoric in each
speech. Extracted statements from the speeches were translated and explained within their
respective stylistic categories, following Yulia Astuti's data analysis approach in a 2017 study.
To ensure credibility and accuracy, three validators participated in the study. Validators
received a tool with segmented and categorized sentences from the speeches and indicated
agreement or disagreement with the categorization. Adjustments were made based on the
validators' feedback to ensure reliable results The validators held Bachelor's degrees in
Secondary Education, with majors in English, and Master's degrees in Education, with two
specializing in English and one in Communication Arts – English. Two validators also held
Doctorate degrees, with specializations in Educational Leadership and Language Teaching.

The objective of this study was to identify the stylistic features employed in the political
speeches of Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr. These features aligned with the findings of
Omozuwa and Ezejideaku's (2007) study, which identified two key stylistic features used by
politicians: propaganda and rhetoric. Propaganda and rhetoric were further categorized into
specific types, including propaganda through exaggeration, propaganda through rhetorical
questions, vague utterances, abusive utterances, and attacks on party logos and slogans. Rhetoric
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was classified into categories such as repetition, biblical citations or references to God, promises,
colloquialisms, word coinage, pidginized expressions, and figurative expressions.
The analysis focused on two specific political speeches delivered by Leni Robredo and
Bongbong Marcos Jr. during their respective proclamation rallies. These speeches were chosen
as the study's primary source of data, as they were critical to the candidates' campaigns. The
proclamation rallies provided a platform for the candidates to express their intentions to run for
the presidency with enthusiasm and to outline their respective platforms. Both proclamation
rallies took place on February 8, 2022, with Robredo's rally lasting 17 minutes and 2 seconds at
Plaza Quezon, Naga City, and Marcos Jr.'s rally lasting 15 minutes and 55 seconds at the
Philippine Arena.
The speeches by Robredo and Marcos Jr. exhibited various stylistic features identified
by Omozuwa and Ezejideaku (2007). However, certain stylistic features were not utilized by
either politician. To provide a comprehensive overview of the employed and unused stylistic
features, detailed breakdowns are presented in the following tables. The acronyms provided in
the two tables can be defined as follows: E stands for Propaganda through exaggeration, RQ
represents Propaganda through rhetorical questions, VU signifies Vague Utterances, AU denotes
Abusive Utterances, APS represents Attack on party logo and slogan, REP stands for Repetition,
BC/BG refers to Biblical citation/reference to God, PRM stands for Promises, COL represents
Colloquialism, WC signifies Word Coinage, PE represents Pidginized Expression, MET stands
for Metaphor, and ID represents Idioms.
Table 1 Stylistic Features used by Leni Robredo
Robredo’s E RQ VU AU APS REP BC/RG PRM COL WC PE MET ID
Speech
Frequency
of
occurrence 3 3 5 1 0 4 0 6 1 0 0 1 0
of Stylistic
Feature
Total 24
Table 1 shows the stylistic features utilized in the proclamation speech of Leni Robredo.
It shows that out of 13 categories of stylistic features, Robredo maximized 8 of them which
include propaganda through exaggeration, propaganda through rhetorical questions, vague
utterances, abusive utterances, repetition, promises, colloquialism, and metaphor. This means
that attack on party logo and slogan, biblical citation to God/reference to God, word coinage,
pidginized expression, and idioms were stylistic features that are not found in Robredo’s speech
during her proclamation rally. In addition, the table indicates that promise was the most used
stylistic feature by Robredo with 6, while metaphor, colloquialism, and abusive utterances were
the least with only 1 utterance each.
Excerpts of Leni Robredo’s utterances that fall under the categories of stylistic features
are listed below:
a. Propaganda through exaggeration
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“I have trust with the strength, with the excellence of each of us, to the light that is inside
us, with the hope and truth that will bind our nation, the truth that will enhance the life of
everyone, the truth that will transcend to each heart, to all corners of the country.”
The statement shows exaggeration because it is assuming that every Filipino will
comprehend the statement. In addition, it also conveys a statement that is too good to be true. It
is obvious that the words were constructed in order to give a propaganda that will convince the
audiences and that will surely get their favor. Furthermore, no one is certain about the truth that
Robredo is trying to convey and the outcome is yet to come.
b. Propaganda through rhetorical question
“We already forged the plan, the principle has been practiced for so long, and the life
progress brought by this has been proven, we’re ready to face anyone, but how can a platform, a
track record, a vision towards the future be measured if today, we already see the attempt to
divert the discourse away from the topic about our dreams?”
The statement clearly is a question which the answer is already assumed by Robredo.
Moreover, it is also telling the audience that the answer to her question is through voting her in
order to ensure that the dreams that they forged will not go to waste, as indicated in her statement
“From the time that I am still a lawyer, for the poor until in congress, until now that I am the
Vice President, I saw the effect of service rooted from truth and centered on the unfortunate.” is
stating the answer to the audience that her administration transparency will occupy the
government and will solve the problems of the country.
c. Vague Utterances
“We already forged the plan, the principle has been practiced for so long, and the life
progress brought by this has been proven, we’re ready to face anyone, but how can a platform, a
track record, a vision towards the future be measured if today, we already see the attempt to
divert the discourse away from the topic about our dreams?”
The statement is considered to be a vague utterance because it is claiming an uncertain
accusation. In addition, it also shows unclear dreams which are said to be slowly taken from
them because it is not clearly stated.
d. Abusive Utterances
“We know the face of the old and rubbish politics that we want to end.”
In this statement, Robredo is attacking a group of people specifically coming from the
party of her contenders in the election. This statement was uttered in order to discredit or destroy
the character of her opponents. The words found in this utterance state that her administration is
a new face and some of the past governments were not. It is a strategy to strengthen the belief of
the audience that she will provide a government better than what was in history.
e. Repetition
“In an honest government, everyone’s life will rise. That means that if the government is
committed to duty, committed to principle, and honest to the people, the fear of the sick of where
to get money to pay the hospital bills will be gone, because the care, the medicine, and the cure
for the disease will be made affordable by the health system.”
148
At this point, Leni Robredo repeatedly said the words “tapat sa panunungkulan or
committed to leadership” to emphasize what kind of a leader she will be if elected president. It
functioned to convince the people to believe in her leadership as her governance will be honest
and true to their services.
f. Promises
“This position is our fundamental principle of governance, we will establish a
government that is willing to listen to your concerns and use your experiences as the basis of our
actions; a government that will take care of the country’s funds and uses it just for your good.
During her proclamation rally kick-off speech, Leni Robredo made promises to the
Filipinos. The example is shown in this statement. She tried to persuade the audience to vote for
her as she assured them that their voices will be heard in the governance she was planning to
establish. Utilizing rhetorical language was evident in her promises with the selective and
purposive choices of words she used to encourage as many people as she can to vote for her
during the elections.
g. Colloquialism
“This is the kind of politics that will take a selfie with you, will sing and dance for you,
and occasionally hand you an envelope during the campaign.”
The statement above has a so-called “colloquial word” or an informal word used when
talking to someone we know well. This kind of word is used intentionally to show solidarity with
the masses or the audiences. In her speech, Leni Robredo utilized this colloquial word that was
already familiar to her audience to establish a bond with them.
h. Metaphor
“This is the spirit of our fight, the key to fulfilling this cause and the leader should not be
debated, especially the president.”]
In the extract presented above, Leni Robredo expressed metaphor by using the word
“susi” or “key” to directly represent the solution for the purpose of her governance. In her
statement, she believes that honesty is what makes a great government, thus, a way to achieve
her supposed plans for the country.
Leni Robredo's proclamation speech employed a range of stylistic features to captivate
the audience and convey her vision effectively. Through the use of propaganda techniques like
exaggeration and rhetorical questions, she aimed to evoke strong emotions and engage the
listeners actively. Vague utterances were employed strategically to leave room for interpretation
and create a sense of intrigue. The repetition of key phrases and the inclusion of promises
emphasized her commitment and resonated with the audience's aspirations. Additionally, the use
of colloquialism and metaphor added familiarity and depth to her message, strengthening the
connection between Robredo and the listeners.
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Table 2 Stylistic Features used by Bongbong Marcos Jr.
Marcos Jr.’s E RQ VU AU APS REP BC/RG PRM COL WC PE MET ID

Speech
Frequency
of
occurrence 3 0 4 0 0 6 0 1 1 1 0 2 0
of Stylistic
Feature
Total 24
The table shows that Bongbong Marcos used 7 out of 13 stylistic features in his speech.
Therefore, 6 features were not utilized and these are the propaganda through rhetorical questions,
abusive utterances, attack on party logo and slogan, biblical citation or reference to God,
pidginized expressions, and idiom. The table also represents the stylistic feature that Bongbong
Marcos Jr. frequently used which was repetition, totaling 6 utterances, and the least ones were
promises, colloquialism, and word coinage, having only 1 utterance in each category.
The examples or excerpts of Bongbong Marcos’ utterances that fall under the categories
of stylistic features are listed below:
a. Propaganda through Exaggeration
“Since Inday Sara and I announced our plans to run for Presidency and Vice Presidency,
we are traveling around the Philippines, screaming and announcing to our fellow countrymen
the message of unity – the message of unity that was warmly welcomed by our fellow
countrymen.”
The statement obviously expresses an exaggeration because its intention is unattainable.
It is impossible to literally go to every place around the Philippines in just a couple of months. It
may sound convincing to the people that Marcos’ team is visiting every town, but the statement
was just too exaggerated which made it impossible to believe.
b. Vague Utterances
“But before anything else, I want to tell you that I am the luckiest Presidential candidate
in this election, because the one I am partnered with, my Vice President is best, most excellent,
and above all, has a strong stance on the love for the Philippines, Mayor Inday Sara Duterte.”
The descriptions of Marcos to his Vice President are instances of vague utterances. The choice of
words is merely an expression of personal opinion. There is no definite proof that she is the best
and that she loves the country. However, although these are considered vague utterances, Marcos
used them to convince the people that they are supporting a leader with a good character.
c. Repetition
“And the scream of our countrymen, “We are together in unity, we are together in the
improvement, we are together in the enhancing of the lives of every Filipino, we are together in
the enhancement of the Philippines.”
In this statement, Marcos used rhetorical repetition by stating, “we are together”. This expression
appeared four times in this text, indicating its frequency of use. This indicates that Bongbong
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Marcos emphasized firmly that he is committed to unification, prosperity, improved living

conditions for Filipinos, and the enhancement of the Philippines.
d. Promises
“When I first announced that I’ll run as the President of the Republic of the Philippines, I
said that I’ll run because of my goal, my dream for our country is to reunite the Filipino
people.”
During Marcos Jr.’s speech, he used rhetoric promise to convince the electorate’ to vote for him
in a way tackling the unification of the Filipino people. Here, the use of rhetorical language is
evident, as Marcos purposefully chose words or sentences to persuade as many people as
possible to vote for him.
e. Colloquialism
“That is why the advocacy that I have started, we now have what we call “Movement of
Unity”, the movement where we unite all the Filipinos, combining all the knowledge and skill of
all Filipinos for the Filipinos.”
In the excerpt, it consists of what is known as a “colloquial word”, that is, a casual term used
while speaking with someone we know well. Its use as a type of word highlights an intention for
solidarity with the audience or the masses. The words “Movement of Unity” are an approach
used while talking to a crowd of people informally, and it represents a close connection for both
the speaker and his audience. It is assumed that Marcos uses the term above to give the
impression that he is close to the audience and that they have a strong bond.
f. Word Coinage
“Thank you very much for your warm welcome to the whole UNITEAM.”
To leave a unique name to the people’s minds, Marcos’ team created a word to emphasize their
platform, which is to bring back the unity of the Filipino people. They coined the word
“UNITEAM” which is a combined word for “unity” and team”, referring to a team with unity.
This coinage functioned as Marcos’ team’s trademark throughout the campaign period.
g. Metaphor
“This started just like a whisper that almost can’t be heard, but as time passed by, the
voice of the Filipino people became louder and louder, until this became a scream of unity.”
The statement above is metaphorical. The meaning that Bongbong Marcos Jr. wanted to impart
here was that people who believe in him and his capability to govern the country were not heard
before but are now becoming bigger and their voices are now recognized by others.
The analysis of Bongbong Marcos' speech reveals his strategic use of stylistic features to
engage the audience and convey his message effectively. While some categories of stylistic
features were not utilized, such as propaganda through rhetorical questions and abusive
utterances, Marcos relied heavily on repetition to emphasize his key points. The examples
provided demonstrate his use of propaganda through exaggeration, vague utterances, promises,
colloquialism, word coinage, and metaphor. These stylistic choices aimed to create a compelling
narrative, appeal to emotions, and position Marcos as a unifying leader.
Comparison between Leni Robredo’s and Bongbong Marcos Jr.’s use of stylistic features in their
political speeches
151
Both Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr. strategically employed various stylistic
features in their political speeches to engage the audience and convey their messages effectively.
However, there are distinct differences in the specific features they utilized and the overall
objectives of their speeches. In terms of stylistic features, Robredo maximized categories such as
propaganda through exaggeration, rhetorical questions, repetition, promises, and colloquialism.
These choices were aimed at creating a favorable impression, persuading the audience, and
rallying support. She consciously avoided certain features like attacks on party logos and biblical
references. On the other hand, Marcos utilized different stylistic features, including propaganda
through exaggeration, vague utterances, promises, colloquialism, word coinage, and metaphor.
Notably, he heavily relied on repetition to emphasize his key points. His stylistic choices were
intended to create a compelling narrative, appeal to emotions, and position himself as a unifying
leader. With regard to utilization of categories, Robredo utilized 8 out of 13 categories of
stylistic features, emphasizing those that align with persuasive techniques such as propaganda
through exaggeration, rhetorical questions, repetition, and promises. This suggests a strategic
selection of features to connect with the audience and convey her vision effectively, whereas
Marcos used 7 out of 13 stylistic feature categories, with a particular focus on repetition,
propaganda through exaggeration, and vague utterances. While he did not utilize certain
categories such as propaganda through rhetorical questions and abusive utterances, his emphasis
on repetition indicates a deliberate choice to reinforce key messages and make them memorable.
As regards objectives and messaging, Robredo's use of stylistic features aimed to create a sense
of enthusiasm, unity, and trust among her supporters. Her speech emphasized her commitment to
honest governance, the well-being of the people, and a government that listens to their concerns.
The selected features were employed to persuade the audience to vote for her and believe in her
leadership. Marcos, however, utilized stylistic features to project an image of unity, prosperity,
and a commitment to improving the lives of Filipinos. His speech focused on the unification of
the Filipino people and the enhancement of the country. By emphasizing repetition and
employing persuasive techniques, Marcos sought to convince the electorate to support his
candidacy and position himself as a unifying force. In summary, while both Leni Robredo and
Bongbong Marcos Jr. strategically used stylistic features in their political speeches, they
employed different sets of features to convey their messages. Robredo's focus was on creating
enthusiasm, trust, and emphasizing her commitment to the people, while Marcos aimed to project
unity, prosperity, and position himself as a unifying leader.
Implications for Language Teaching
The research results on the strategic use of stylistic features in the political speeches of Leni
Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr. have significant implications for language teaching. Firstly,
language teachers should introduce students to various stylistic features used in public speaking,
such as propaganda through exaggeration, rhetorical questions, repetition, promises,
colloquialism, and metaphor, to enhance their awareness of persuasive techniques and their
impact on the audience. Secondly, language teachers can incorporate activities and exercises that
focus on developing genre-specific language skills required for political speeches, enabling
students to employ stylistic features effectively and engage their audience. Thirdly, students
should be encouraged to critically analyze and interpret speeches, identifying the stylistic
features used, understanding their intended effects, and evaluating their effectiveness in
conveying messages and persuading the audience. Additionally, language teachers can guide
students in tailoring their language to specific objectives, considering the purpose of
communication and its desired impact on the audience when selecting and using stylistic features.
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Lastly, by exploring the communication strategies employed by Robredo and Marcos, language
teachers can help students cultivate their own effective communication strategies, enabling them
to engage and persuade audiences in various contexts beyond political speeches. By integrating
these implications into language teaching, students can develop their language proficiency,
critical thinking skills, and effective communication strategies, enhancing their ability to engage
and persuade audiences effectively.
5. Conclusion
Based on these research results, several conclusions can be drawn regarding the strategic
use of stylistic features in the political speeches of Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr.
Firstly, both Robredo and Marcos recognized the importance of employing stylistic features to
engage the audience and effectively convey their messages. This highlights the significance of
language and rhetoric in political communication. Secondly, the specific features utilized by
Robredo and Marcos differed significantly, indicating their distinct approaches and objectives.
Robredo's focus on propaganda through exaggeration, rhetorical questions, repetition, promises,
and colloquialism aimed to create a favorable impression, persuade the audience, and rally
support, while Marcos relied on propaganda through exaggeration, vague utterances, promises,
colloquialism, word coinage, metaphor, and repetition to create a compelling narrative, appeal to
emotions, and position himself as a unifying leader. These differences in stylistic choices reflect
their unique strategies and messaging techniques. In addition, the utilization of stylistic feature
categories further demonstrates the deliberate selection of features by both candidates. Robredo's
emphasis on persuasive techniques aligning with categories such as propaganda through
exaggeration, rhetorical questions, repetition, and promises highlights her strategic approach to
connect with the audience and effectively convey her vision. Similarly, Marcos's focus on
repetition, propaganda through exaggeration, and vague utterances indicates his deliberate choice
to reinforce key messages and make them memorable. Lastly, the objectives and messaging of
Robredo and Marcos differed significantly. Robredo aimed to create enthusiasm, unity, and trust
among her supporters, emphasizing her commitment to honest governance, the well-being of the
people, and a responsive government. In contrast, Marcos sought to project an image of unity,
prosperity, and commitment to improving the lives of Filipinos, with a focus on the unification
of the Filipino people and the enhancement of the country. These differences in objectives and
messaging reflect their distinct political agenda and aspirations. Overall, these research results
highlight the importance of strategic language use, the impact of stylistic choices, and the
alignment of language with specific objectives in political speeches.
The present study has certain limitations that should be recognized. Firstly, it solely
focused on the Proclamation Rally Kick-off speeches of Leni Robredo and Bongbong Marcos Jr.
Consequently, these speeches may not fully represent the entirety of their political
communication styles. Secondly, the findings of this study are specific to the context of the
proclamation rally kick-off speeches and may not be applicable to other types of speeches or
campaign events. Thirdly, including speeches from different stages of the campaign or different
settings could yield different results. Unfortunately, the study did not account for external factors
that could have influenced the politicians' stylistic choices, such as audience response, media
coverage, and campaign strategies.
Based on the findings and conclusions, several recommendations have been proposed.
Firstly, Filipino voters can utilize the study's findings to assess the suitability of their preferred
153
politicians for serving the country and evaluate the viability of their platforms. Secondly, future
researchers and political analysts engaged in ongoing text analysis on political speeches should
consider exploring other aspects, thus forming a new paradigm as a foundation for analyzing
political speeches. Moreover, future researchers can use this study as a basis to delve deeper into
understanding the impacts of political speeches on their audiences. Additionally, researchers
interested in expanding this study can include more political speeches of the research subject to
establish consistent variables and data. Furthermore, conducting further research with different
samples of research subjects and political speeches is also recommended. It is also suggested to
conduct a more comprehensive analysis by incorporating speeches from various campaign stages,
events, and settings to capture a broader range of stylistic features employed by the politicians.
Lastly, it is important to consider the influence of external factors such as audience
demographics, media coverage, and campaign strategies on the utilization of specific stylistic
features, as this would contribute to a more holistic understanding of the contextual factors that
affect political speech patterns.
6. References
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Anyanwu, E. C. & Abana, I. (2020). A speech act analysis of public speeches of three African
presidents amid Covid-19. https://bit.ly/3NAajb0
Astuti, A. (2017). A stylistic analysis on political speech of the American president candidates: A
study on Donald Trump’s and Hillary Clinton’s speeches.
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Bashar, A. (2017). Role and importance of language in the curriculum. SlideShare a Scribd
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the-curriculum
Charterris-Black, J. (2005). Politicians and rhetoric: The persuasive power of metaphor.
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Jonathan. https://bit.ly/375HAKr
Jaafar, E. A., & Hassoon, F. K. (2018). Pedagogical stylistics as a tool in the classroom: An
investigation of EFL undergraduate students’ ability in analyzing poetic language. Arab
World English Journal, 9(1).
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portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1028973/FULLTEXT01.pdf
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design.Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research, 16(4), https://he02.tci-
thaijo.org/index.php/PRIJNR/article/view/5805
Lin, H. (2019). A stylistic analysis of Donald Trump’s inaugural address. Studies in Literature
and Language, 19(3), 75.
Lucas, S. E. (2007). The art of public speaking. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Martin, J. (2020). Rhetoric, discourse and the hermeneutics of public speech. SAGE Journals.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0263395720933779
Neshkovska, S. (2019). Language in political speeches.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336103928_Language_in_Political_Speches
Ofoegbu, F. O., & Alonge, H. O. (2017). Effective university leadership as predictor of academic
excellence in Southern Nigerian Universities. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(8),
111- 116, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1138938
Omozuwa, V. E., & Ezejideaku. (2010). A stylistic analysis of language of political campaigns in
Nigeria. Evidence from the 2007 general elections. African Journals Online.
10.4314/og.v5i1.52327
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October 30th Speech. 10.17576/3L-2014-2002-01.
Staugaitė, I. (2014). Linguistic realization of rhetorical strategies in Barack Obama and Dalia
Grybauskaitė's political speeches. Master’s diss. Lithuanian University of Educational
Sciences, Vilnius, http://vddb.library.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02-2014-
D_20140723_144546-29919/DS.005.1.01.ETD.
7. Author’s Biodata
Dr. Roberto V. Guzman Jr. is an Associate Professor at AUF's College of Education. He

holds a BSE in English from AUF, a master's degree in teaching reading from the
Philippine Normal University, and a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction major in English
Language Teaching from AUF.
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Information Technology Teachers and Students' Acceptability of Open

Education Resources for the Adoption of a Flipped Classroom
Gertrude G. Danao*, Rogie B. Taborda, Rocel Audrey J. Batara, Mabel D. Mamaoag
Saint Mary’s University, School of Engineering Architecture and Information Technology, 2Saint Mary’s University,
School of Teacher Education and Humanities
*
Abstract
This research aimed to determine the acceptability of IT teachers and students in a Higher
Education Institution on the use of Open Education Resources (OERs) for teaching and learning.
It made use of Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation theory attributes namely: relative advantage,
compatibility, complexity, triability, and observability to determine its acceptability towards
adoption. The researchers used a different questionnaire for the faculty and another for the
students. The two questionnaires used a Likert scale with “4” as a number that represents
strongly agree and “1” for strongly disagree. Responses from the questionnaire were analyzed
using mean, standard deviation, and one-way ANOVA to determine significant differences when
grouped according to years of teaching for the teachers and year level for the students. The
results revealed that there is no significant difference in the responses of the faculty when
grouped according to years of teaching. The results also showed that there is no significant
difference in the students’ responses when grouped according to year level. These results will be
used as bases for the development of the OER-based flipped classroom syllabus which will serve
as the model for the IT and Computer Engineering faculty OER training which is the first step
towards adoption and utilization.
Keywords : 0pen education, innovative teaching approach, free educational resources, teaching
and learning, acceptability
1. INTRODUCTION
The adoption of OER provides an opportunity to use and share quality free educational
resources, but there are challenges, such as awareness and engagement that needs to be addressed.
However, despite various efforts to promote the use of OERs in educational institutions, it is not
adopted which impacts sustainability and realization of its purpose (USAID, 2020). In the study
of Villanueva and Dolom (2018), the adoption of OER relies on attitude and perceived usefulness.
These are measures of acceptability which means that the more users perceive OER’s usefulness
the bigger chance of acceptability. This is the reason, the researchers conducted a study to
determine the acceptability of OER using Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory to
introduce OER in the School of Engineering Architecture and Information Technology’s (SEAIT)
Information Technology (IT) department which at present is a Center of Development mandated
to introduce and pioneer innovations using technology.
Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation uses five attributes namely: relative advantage,
compatibility, complexity, triability, and observability to determine the adoption of an innovation
like OER (Menzli, et al., 2022; Buć and Divjak (2015), Jwaifel and Gasaymeh, (2013). Relative
advantage refers to the acceptability of the users in terms of the benefits that they can get from
the innovation. The more they believe that the innovation is beneficial for them, the higher the
rate of adoption. Compatibility on the other hand is the perception that the innovation can
address the values and needs of the users. Complexity refers to the ease of use of the innovation.
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Triability is the degree to which the innovation can be experimented on and observability refers
to the degree to which the results can be observed by the users.
OERs can contribute to the improvement of flipped-classroom because it is used to
augment the learning of students by providing them with resources from OERs to boost students’
learning and improve comprehension and reading, collaborative work, and critical-thinking and
creativity (Mosquera, et al., 2021; Li, et al., 2015). The same is true with the teachers where
OERs provide free ready-to-use educational resources (Badai, et al., 2017).
With the benefits of using OER in mind, the researchers conducted a study on the
acceptability of IT and Computer Engineering teachers and IT students on OERs in the School of
Engineering, Architecture, and Information Technology, Information Technology Department.
The findings of the study were used as a guide or basis for a project that will realize the adoption
of OER. That is, an OER-based flipped classroom syllabus was developed and training for
teachers and IT students was conducted.
2. Objectives
The team aims to determine the OER acceptability of teachers and students in an
educational institution by using Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory. The five (5)
DOI attributes namely, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, triability, and observability
will be utilized to determine the OER adoption of teachers.
This study specifically aims the following:
1. determine OER acceptability of IT teachers and students in terms of
a. relative advantage
b. compatibility
c. complexity
d. triability
e. observability
2. determine the DOI attribute(s) that affects IT teachers' and students' OER adoption most.
3. determine if there is a significant difference in the OER acceptability of IT teachers when
grouped according to years of teaching experience,
4. determine if there is a significant difference in the OER acceptability of IT students when
grouped according to year level,
5. design an IT teachers’ training on OER, and
6. design an OER-based flipped classroom syllabus for an Information Technology
course.

This study is applied research whereby researchers determined the acceptability of OER
of Information Technology (IT) teachers and students using Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation
Theory. The results of the acceptability survey were used to design and develop an IT course
OER-Based flipped classroom syllabus, IT Teachers’ OER Training, and orientation for IT
students if found that it is needed. A questionnaire with the DOI five (5) attributes namely,
relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, triability, and observability was used to determine
the acceptability of IT teachers and students. The researchers adopted the OER DOI 5-point
Likert scale questionnaire used by Menzli et al. (2022) for teachers. For the students, the
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researchers adopted the DOI questionnaire of Afolabi (2017). The computed reliability
coefficient for both questionnaires is 0.85. The mean and standard deviation were used to
describe the data gathered from the OER DOI questionnaire. One-way ANOVA was used to
determine the difference in the OER acceptability of IT teachers when grouped according to
years of teaching experience. The results of the survey were used to design and develop the IT
teachers’ OER training. ANOVA test was also used to determine the difference in the OER
acceptability of students when grouped according to year level. The results of the study will
serve as a basis for designing the IT course OER-based flipped classroom syllabus, IT and
Engineering teachers OER training, and OER orientation of students.
The study was conducted at Saint Mary’s University (SMU), School of Engineering,
Architecture and Information Technology (SEAIT), IT department of Bayombong, Nueva
Vizcaya. The IT Department was awarded the Center of Development (COD) in IT Education in
2007. As a COD, the IT Department’s mandate is to continuously develop and improve HEIs by
enhancing their teaching, research, and service programs. The use of OER for teaching and
learning is one opportunity that would be a tool to realize its mandate.
The respondents of this study are supposedly all or four (4) IT teachers except for the
proponents of this study and one hundred forty-nine (149) IT students of the SEAIT, IT
department of the current semester of S.Y. 2022-2023. However, three (3) IT teachers did not
answer the questionnaire, hence the researchers invited two (2) Computer Engineering teachers
who answered the questionnaire. The IT students come from different levels, that is, from 1 st
year to 4th year enrolled in the second semester of this school year.
The DOI questionnaire that was used to determine the teachers' OER acceptability was
adopted from the study of Menzli, et al. (2022) and the DOI questionnaire that was used for the
students was adopted from the study of Afolabi (2017). The DOI questionnaire from Menzli, et.
al (2022) has 28 items with a five-point Likert Scale where “5” strongly agree to “1” strongly
disagree. The relative value is composed of seven (7) questions, compatibility six (6), four (4)
for complexity, six (6) for triability, and six (6) for observability. The researchers adopted the
DOI questionnaire of Menzli et.al (2022) for the reason that they investigated the OER adoption
of higher education institutions faculty which is similar to this study. Aside from this, Menzli,
et.al (2022) wrote that OER adoption is not widespread which is again realized in the Philippines
(USAID, 2020).
The DOI questionnaire in the study of Menzli et.al (2022) was adopted by the researchers for
the reason that their research investigated the acceptability of a department in a higher education
institution which is similar to the locale of their study. The questionnaire used in the study by
Afolabi (2017) was also adopted in this study, particularly because the subject of her study are
university undergraduates similar to the researchers’ study. Aside from this, the responses of the
students would also be used to determine the necessary intervention and support needed by
students which will be considered in the adoption of the flipped classroom.
The respondents of the DOI questionnaire may choose to answer in print or through a
Google form link that was distributed to both students and teachers. The questionnaire used for
the students was adopted from the study of Afolabi (2017).
A letter was written to the OIC Dean of the School of Engineering, Architecture, and
Information Technology to allow the researchers to distribute the printed questionnaire or
provide the link to the DOI questionnaire to all IT teachers with teaching loads and students
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enrolled in the current semester. The questionnaire was in print and an electronic or Google form
link. The researchers visited classes of IT students and teachers in their classes and shared links
to the OER questionnaire and consent forms. Although there are only a few cases of COVID-19
in the university, the proponents observed the minimum health protocol, that is, observing
physical distancing and wearing face masks during the distribution of questionnaires, consent
forms, and Google form links for those who opted to answer online. Before the distribution, the
researchers informed respondents that answering the questionnaire is not required, but voluntary
and that it will not affect their academic performance in any way. The respondents were also
informed that if they decide to answer the questionnaire, all their answers will be treated with
confidentiality and that only the researchers will be able to see their answers. Also, the
researchers informed that all accomplished questionnaires were shredded and that online answers
via Google form will be erased once the research is already through and presented in a fora. The
researchers through their consent forms explained the importance of giving honest, truthful, and
biased-free answers for the successful results of the research. The answers in Google form were
extracted in Excel format. Since all respondents opted to answer online the downloaded answers
from the Google form were deleted immediately after the presentation in a research forum. The
extracted answers were imported to Microsoft Excel or Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) for analysis.
The mean and standard deviation was used to determine the OER acceptability of the
respondents in terms of (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) complexity, (4) trialability,
and (5) observability. It was also used to compare the responses of the IT teachers with the
students and determine the attribute or attributes that affect or affect the adoption of OER. The
one-way ANOVA was used to determine if there is a difference in the OER acceptability of the
IT teachers in terms of years of teaching experience. Similarly, ANOVA was also used to
determine if there is a difference in the OER acceptability of IT students based on their year level.
The results will be utilized by serving as a basis for the design of the OER training for IT
teachers and OER-based IT course flipped classrooms. All answers were treated with the utmost
confidentiality. Google form was used for the questionnaires and the name of the respondents
was optional. The email address of the respondents was not recorded to keep confidentiality.
This study was submitted to the Saint Mary’s University Research Ethics Board
(SMUREB) for ethics review. The two (2) collaborators who are also IT teachers were excluded
from answering the DOI questionnaire to prevent bias in the responses. The proponents
recognized the fact that there is a perceived conflict of interest because the researchers are
colleagues to the IT teacher-respondents or that they are from the same department hence there is
a friendly relationship that might influence the responses and affect the results of the survey.
Having known this, the researchers, to address concerns on vulnerability, the proponents
included a clause that will make the respondents promise that their answers are true, honest, and
objective and not influenced by the proponents. The proponents also emphasized that answering
the DOI questionnaire is voluntary. It means not answering the questionnaire is their own choice
and it was respected by the researchers. For the perceived influence of the researchers on the IT
students, the researchers also emphasized to the students that answering the questionnaire is
voluntary and that it will not affect the student’s academic performance in whatever way. The
importance of answering the questionnaire truthfully and getting biased-free answers from the IT
teachers and IT students was emphasized. Respondents were requested to answer the
questionnaire either in print or in Google form voluntarily and were not forced to answer if they
do not want to. Health protocols such as physical distancing and wearing of face masks were
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observed during the face-to-face distribution of questionnaires and training of teachers. No

financial remuneration was released to respondents in exchange for answering the questionnaire.
Even if they have chosen to participate voluntarily, they will have the right to refuse to continue
and any information they have already provided will not be used in the study.
4. Results
Respondents Profile
Out of four (4) identified teacher respondents, only one (1) accomplished the
questionnaire. On the other hand, out of the two (2) Computer Engineering full-time teachers,
both or 100% answered the questionnaire. Out of the three (3) respondents, two (2) or 67% are
Assistant Instructors, and one (1) or 33% is an Associate Professor. Moreover, all the
respondents are female teachers.
Out of one hundred forty-nine (149) BSIT students enrolled in the semester, there were
seventy-five (75), or 50% answered the questionnaire. Twenty-one (21) are first (1st) year
students, eighteen (18) are second (2nd) year, twenty-two (22) are third (3rd) year, and fourteen
(14) are fourth (4th) year students. In terms of sex, fifty-three (53) are male and twenty-two (22)
are female BSIT students.
OER Acceptability of IT and Computer Engineering Teachers and IT Students
Table 1 and 2 displays the results of the acceptability of IT and Computer Engineering
teachers and IT students using DOI, respectively.
Table 1 OER Acceptability of IT and Computer Engineering Teachers
Mean SD Qualitative
Description
Relative Advantage
1. You can save money by using OER 3.33 0.57 Agree
2. You can save effort by using OER 3.33 0.57 Agree
3. You can save time by using OER 3.33 0.57 Agree
4. OER contributes to building students' 3.33 0.57 Agree
capabilities
5. Sharing OER enhances my teacher's reputation 3.33 0.57 Agree
6. Using OER can enhance the reputation of my 3.67 0.57 Agree
university
7. OER help me to be more effective 3.67 0.57 Agree
Overall Mean: 3.42
Compatibility
1. I don’t accept others reviewing my educational 2.33 0.57 Disagree
resources
2. I don’t want to share my resources with others 2.33 0.57 Disagree
because I spent so much time and effort
preparing them
3. I don’t trust other people to mention my name 2.33 0.57 Disagree
when sharing my resources
4. I’m afraid of misuse of my OER 2.33 0.57 Disagree
5. When sharing my resources, I’m afraid of 2.67 0.57 Disagree
160
Mean SD Qualitative
Description
misuse of the Creative Commons license
Overall Mean: 2.4
Complexity
1. It is easy for me to use OER 3.33 0.57 Agree
2. I find that dealing with OER is clear and 3.66 0.57 Agree
understandable
3. Creative Commons licenses are difficult to find 3 0 Agree
in educational resources
4. It is difficult for me to build Creative 2.66 0.57 Disagree
Commons licenses
Overall Mean: 3.16
Triability
1. I want to try to use OER before its effective 3 0 Agree
adoption in teaching
2. I want to try to use OER before its effective 3 0 Agree
adoption in research
3. I want to try to use OER before 3 0 Agree
effective adoption in training
4. My university allows staff to try using OER 3 0 Agree
before effective adoption in teaching
before effective adoption in research
before effective adoption in training
Overall Mean: 3
Observability
1. OER provides opportunities to share research 3.33 0.57 Agree
with others
2. OER provides opportunities for partnership in 3.33 0.57 Agree
teaching
3. OER provides opportunities for sharing the 3.33 0.57 Agree
teaching tasks
4. OER encourages cooperative learning 3.33 0.57 Agree
5. Creative Commons Licenses provide the 3 0 Agree
possibility to benefit from the experiences of
others
6. I don't see any benefit in mixing other people's 2 0 Disagree
work
Overall Mean: 3.05
The table above reveals that generally, the respondents have a positive attitude towards
the adoption of OER, hence, it can be deduced that the respondents accept the adoption of OER
in their department. Acceptance and adoption models, like DOI are used to determine the
success of a product’s implementation. The higher the acceptance, the bigger chance of adoption
and implementation.
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In terms of relative advantage, generally, respondents perceive that OER has advantages
and opportunities when adopted. These advantages are saving money, effort, and time. Using
OER is also perceived to enhance their reputation and the university. Aside from this, they also
perceive that OER will help them be more effective. In terms of compatibility, the respondents
are willing to share the educational resources that they have prepared. This might be due to the
reason that sharing resources builds the reputation of a teacher as an expert in his/her field.
Sharing resources also increases their professional value because sharing will help other teachers
to grow.
Table 2 OER Acceptability of IT Students
Mean SD Qualitative
Description
Relative Advantage
1. The OER is a positive innovation. 3.30 0.54 Agree
2. OER makes it more convenient to 3.30 0.51 Agree
communicate with facilitators and friends.
3. Using OER saves time. 3.32 0.54 Agree
4. OER makes learning more meaningful. 3.24 0.53 Agree
5. OER is a fast and efficient way of getting 3.33 0.59 Agree
information.
Overall Mean: 3.30
Compatibility
1. Using OER would require me to change my study
habit. 2.96 0.74 Disagree
2. I am eager to respond to the discussion group on
OER via LMS. 2.97 0.69 Disagree
3. OER is compatible with the way I study. 3.20 0.61 Agree
4. Using OER increases my interaction with the 3.20 0.58 Agree
subject matter.
Overall Mean: 3.15
Complexity
1. OER is user-friendly. 3.24 0.62 Agree
2. When using OER, I find it easy to navigate from 3.13 0.67 Agree
one screen to another.
3. I am confident in my ability to use OER. 3.08 0.62 Agree
Overall Mean: 3.15
Triability
1. OER do not intimidate me. 3.04 0.70 Agree
2. I am confident in my ability to try OER. 3.05 0.69 Agree
3. I do trial and error in working with OER 3.16 0.56 Agree
4. I can learn at a comfortable pace using OER 3.09 0.57 Agree
Overall Mean: 3.08
Observability
1. I am aware of OER even before I got admitted to 2.58 0.76 Disagree
SMU
2. OER makes teaching real 2.90 0.63 Disagree
3. I have seen other schools using OER 2.69 0.81 Disagree
162
Mean SD Qualitative
Description
Overall Mean: 2.72
The table above shows that IT students perceive that OER has a relative advantage and that it
is a positive innovation for learning. Similar to the teachers, they agree that OER saves time and effort for
it is a tool to get information fast and easy. While the results showed that teachers believe that OER will
help them to teach more effectively, the students on the other hand believe that OER makes learning more
meaningful. In terms of compatibility, the students agree that the use of OER is compatible with the way
they study and that it will increase interaction with the subject matter. This might be attributed to the type
of learning resources and activities that BSIT students are currently using, these are digitalized resources
accessible via Learning Management System (LMS) that can be accessed through technological devices,
such as laptops, mobile phones, and tablets. Similarly, students find OER user-friendly and easy to
navigate. Moreover, they are confident in their ability to use the OER maybe because of the above reason
that respondents are BSIT students who are familiar with digitalized resources and technology. The above
results also showed that since students are confident in their ability to use OER, they too are confident to
try OER. The results from the above table revealed that most of the respondents are not aware of OER
before they got admitted to SMU nor they have seen other schools use OER. Despite the perceived
relative advantages of OER, respondents do not believe that OER makes teaching real. This may be
because OER is perceived only as supplementary resources and teachers still need to play a vital role to
learn and awareness of its benefits still needs to be improved.
DOI attribute(s) that affects IT teachers and students' OER adoption most
The DOI attribute that affects the teachers' and students' OER acceptability most is the
relative advantage. Compared to the results of other DOI attributes, the average mean of the
relative advantage for both teachers and IT students is the highest, these are 3.42 and 3.30,
respectively. These results reveal that both teachers and IT students perceived that the OER was
beneficial for teaching and learning. Since the respondents, both teachers and students perceived
that OER has advantages, the adoption of OER is encouraged.
The difference in the OER acceptability of IT and Computer Engineering teachers when
grouped according to years of teaching experience
The table below shows the results using one-way ANOVA to determine if there is a
significant difference in the OER acceptability of teachers when grouped according to years of
teaching service.
Table 3 Comparison of OER Acceptability Response
One-way ANOVA
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
5 years 5 14.72 2.944 0.23163
22 years 5 15.68 3.136 0.16473
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 0.092 1 0.09216 0.46 0.51 5.32
Within Groups 1.585 8 0.19818
Total 1.677 9
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The table above reveals that there is no statistically significant difference between the
means of the faculty responses when grouped according to years of teaching experience,
therefore we cannot conclude that years of teaching experience affect OER acceptability.
The difference in the OER acceptability of IT students when grouped according to years of
teaching experience
Table 4 Comparison of IT Students' OER Acceptability Response
One-way ANOVA
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
1 5 15.13 3.026 0.01963
2 5 15.11 3.022 0.03937
3 5 16.2 3.24 0.05715
4 5 15.17 3.034 0.05108
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 0.1699 3 0.056 1.35 0.29 3.23
Within Groups 0.6689 16 0.041
Total 0.8388 19
The table above reveals that there is no significant difference in the OER acceptability of IT
students when grouped according to year level. This explains that the results of OER
acceptability cannot be attributed to IT students’ year level.
5. Discussion
The findings of this study show that generally the faculty and IT students have a positive
attitude towards OER. This may be because faculty and IT students use the LMS in their
teaching and learning which is accessed via the internet like OERs. Aside from this, they have
experienced using online resources in their research or assignment which is part of their
classroom activities. This may also be a factor that contributed to their positive response towards
OER. Since they are using the internet for their teaching and learning, they may already be
aware that some educational resources or OERs are open, free, shareable, and reused for better
teaching and learning similar to the findings of Tlili, et al. (2021) and Hyl n (2021). This means
that faculty can use and reuse educational resources developed by other faculty members without
the fear of violating copyright. That is, educational resources can be uploaded on the internet
under Creative Commons licenses which can be optimized through the adoption of an OER-
based flipped classroom.
Corollary to this, the respondents are willing to adopt the OER for their teaching and learning.
In terms of relative advantage, both faculty and students perceive the OER as beneficial in terms
of saving money, effort, and time while building students’ capabilities. This may be because they
are exposed to the internet where there are e-books, presentations, journals, and tutorials that are
free to view, print and download. More importantly, they find OER as a positive innovation that
will make learning more meaningful and is a fast and efficient way of getting information. With
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this finding, the researchers are given hope that the adoption and implementation of OER in the
SEAIT, IT Department would be a success.
In terms of compatibility, the teachers are open to sharing the resources that they have
developed and are all right with other experts who critique it for learning resource improvement.
They are open to the concept of sharing resources and recognize the benefits of sharing as an
opportunity to collaborate and partner with other teachers. Aside from these, they also perceive
that OER will provide them with the opportunity to share teaching tasks in developing resources
and that it results in cooperative learning helping each faculty to grow professionally as teachers.
Sharing of resources is one of OERs is one of the advantages that OERs advocate, and USAID
(2020) emphasized the importance of sharing resources. The students, on the other hand,
perceive that using OERs would not require them to change their study habits. This may be
because the respondents are IT students who are familiar with internet resources and the use of e-
learning tools such as Learning Management Systems which includes downloading and
uploading resources from a tool that is powered by the internet like OER. In the study of Buć &
Divjak, B. (2015), they wrote that OERs can be beneficial especially nowadays that most
instructions are delivered in an e-learning environment.
The faculty respondents and the IT students do not find OER as complex, this may be
because the respondents are all familiar with the use of technology and the internet where OERs
can be found. Both teachers and IT students are confident and are not intimidated by the
adoption and utilization of OERs for teaching and learning. This may be a sure sign that the
utilization and the integration of OERs as an integral part of teaching and learning inside the
classroom whether it be for face-to-face or blended learning will be a success. However, this
study revealed that despite their familiarity with the internet the teachers are not familiar with the
Creative Commons licenses, that is in finding and building licenses. Government agencies like
the Commission on Higher Education and the Department of Education in partnership with
USAID might be aware of this concern, hence they have conducted training on OERs and
Creative Commons licenses (USAID, 2020). Having this finding in the study, the researchers
see the need to focus on the Creative Commons Licenses in training or seminars that will be
conducted in the future, that is, for the teachers to fully appreciate and implement the use of
OERs.
Despite the positive response towards the adoption of OERs in this institution, the
respondents, IT students particularly are not aware of OERs. This study revealed that OERs are
not commonly used in other schools, either. The study of Javillonar, Peregrino & Caballes
(2020), revealed that despite the positive response to the advantages of using OERs and the
teachers’ willingness to adopt OER, awareness remains an issue. They wrote that awareness is
key to the successful adoption and implementation of OER and that they recommend that the
training on OER should be strengthened to make teachers fully aware and ready for its successful
implementation.
Using the one-way ANOVA, the findings of the study showed that there is no difference
in the OER acceptability of teachers when grouped according to years of service. The same with
the IT students that showed no difference in the OER acceptance when grouped according to
year level. This finding might be attributed to the fact that OERs are not widely utilized, and
many are not yet aware if not OERs are not widely utilized in the Philippines, despite the efforts
from CHED and DepEd to integrate OERs in classroom teaching (Peregrino, et al., (2020);
Arinto and Cantada, 2013). Since classes are now using the face-to-face mode of instruction
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delivery, the researchers propose to utilize OER to the fullest by integrating using the flipped
classroom approach. In the study of Mosquera, F., et al. (2021), the flipped classroom was used
to augment the learning of students by providing them with resources from OERs to boost
students’ learning and improve comprehension and reading, collaborative work, critical thinking,
and creativity. With this in mind, the researchers will develop an OER-based flipped classroom
syllabus to serve as a model for teacher training. Aside from this, the researchers realized that
OERs can also be used or combined with other teaching methods, such as blended learning,
student-centred approach, project-based learning and so on. With this in mind, research can also
be conducted on how to integrate OERs into different types of teaching methods or strategies.
The researchers despite their efforts to gather responses from all identified respondents,
cannot because it is emphasized that answering the questionnaire is voluntary. This could be the
reason why the number of respondents, both from teachers and IT students is only limited to
those who wanted and are willing to answer the questionnaire.
6. Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the researchers conclude that an OER capacity-
building project or training is welcomed and accepted by both IT and Computer Engineering
teachers and IT students. The researchers also conclude that both teachers and students perceive
OERs as advantageous for teaching and learning, more so in saving time and the cost of
educational resources. The use of OERs is compatible with the existing way or method that
teachers teach and students learn. Also, OERs’ are not complex for them to use in their teaching
and learning, and they will try and adopt OER as part of their classroom delivery provided that
before adoption and implementation, they may be trained first for its effective integration. Of the
five (5) DOI attributes, the relative advantage is the attribute that contributed most to the reason
that both teachers and students accept the adoption of OER. The researchers also conclude that
years of service of teachers and the student’s year level do not affect the acceptance of OER for
adoption. Despite the positive attitude of respondents towards the adoption of OER in their
teaching and learning, based on the findings, it can be deduced that the teachers and IT students
are not fully aware of OER which resulted in non-utilization of OER. With this, it is therefore
concluded that an OER project which includes increasing awareness, the use of OERs, and its
integration in the classroom setting is needed for a successful OER adoption.
For future research, it is recommended that the study be replicated in other schools in the
university. Also, an evaluation of the OER-based flipped classroom adoption is conducted for its
improvement. Moreover, it is also recommended that a study on OER integration with other
teaching methods or strategies be considered for future research.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the top administration for their support, and most
especially the URC Director who provided us with an opportunity to produce and present this
research in an international conference.
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143-159. Commonwealth of Learning and OER Asia.
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CHED (2020). CMO 4, s. 2020 Guidelines on the Implementation of Flexible Learning. CHED
Central Office. https://chedro3.ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/CMO-No.-4-s.-
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Hyl n, J., (2021). Open educational resources: Opportunities and Challenges.
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Degree of English Teachers’ Adoption of Interactive Whiteboards in the Modern Systems
School in Jordan: A Case Study. Contemporary Educational Technology, 4(2), 138-149.
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Classroom Practice in a Traditional Undergraduate Course: Students’ Experience and
Perceptions. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 10(6),
4-10.
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education using Rogers’ diffusion of innovation theory. Heliyon, 8 (7)
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Flipped Classroom Techniques in AEC Modules during the COVID-19
Lockdown. Educ.Sci. 2021, 11, 211. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050211
Peregrino, L., Caballes, D., and Javillonar, M. (2020). Public Secondary School Teachers’
Awareness of Open Educational Resources (OER). CiiT International Journal of
Programmable Device Circuits and Systems. Vol 12, No 4, April 2020.
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address the challenges of using Open Educational Resources: a vision of the
future. Education Tech Research Dev 69, 515–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-
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9.Authors Biodata
Gertrude Garingan Danao is the current University Registrar and a part-time faculty of the
School of Engineering, Architecture and Information Technology and School of Graduate Studies.
She finished her doctorate in eLearning Methodology at the Assumption University of Thailand,
her master's degree in Information Technology at Dela Salle University, her master's degree in
Business Administration at Saint Mary’s University, and her baccalaureate degree in Commerce
Major in Computer Science at San Sebastian College – Recoletos, Manila.
Rogie B. Taborda is the current department head of the School of Engineering, Architecture, and
Information Technology at Saint Mary’s University. He is a part-time faculty of the School of
Graduate Studies. He finished his master's and bachelor’s degree in Information Technology at
Saint Mary’s University.
Rocel Audrey J. Batara is a faculty of the School of Engineering, Architecture, and Information
Technology. She finished her bachelor's degree in Information Technology at Saint Mary’s
University and is currently thesis writing for her master's degree in Information Technology.
Mabel D. Mamaoag is a graduate of Master of Arts in Teaching. She is a faculty of the School of
Teacher Education and Humanities at Saint Mary’s University of Bayombong.
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Bolstering Hybrid Facilitation of Learner -Centered Teaching vis-à-vis

Re-appropriated Pedagogy and Intervention on Academic Challenges
Liberty A. Rosario
Abstract
The study surfaced the emerging level of readiness on transition challenges from
temporary on-line modality of delivery to face -to-face learning with hybrid facilitation of
learner - centered teaching. Hybrid learning in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) remains a
formidable scheme directed to provide the most efficient and most effective instruction
experience by combining curricular and instructional modalities. The university learning
management system (LMS) should be retained and embedded into a flipped-learning
methodology to motivate and stimulate critical thinking and a deeper understanding of diverse
concepts. Holistic pedagogy and intervention become the response in managing and scaffolding
measures in the educational field. With the sudden shift on on-line learning to face-to-face
modality, barriers encountered were re-evaluated to re-appropriate strategies and methods as
pathway for more efficacy on hybrid learning. Classroom technology provides the arena in
boosting competencies and resources in digitally enhanced teaching and learning. Out from the
442 tertiary students, the level of readiness was rated to a great extent with a mean score of 3.56
and SD of .954 which is less dispersed and more reliable in relation to the mean value. The
adjustments made in diverse ways were the dominant challenges that confronted the teaching -
learning process. The culture of hybrid learning modality and environment significantly served
as the saving portal to incessantly respond to the emerging needs of time. Facilitation of
learner- centered teaching opened-up immense avenues to bolster, improve, and sustain practices
among teachers and students in most challenging circumstances.
Keywords : hybrid learning, facilitation, pedagogy, learner- centered teaching, transition,

readiness
Introduction
Education is ever evolving and changing. It is imperative to bolster practices through
scaffolding and management of the facilitation of hybrid learning. Effective pedagogy and
intervention should be maximized to respond to the emerging needs of learners in a full swing
face-to-face modality. The existing curriculum becomes functional only if it fulfills its task as the
heart and soul of the educational processes. How mentors approach their teaching style and
blend theories in classroom instruction becomes paramount in the teaching-learning repertoire.
Behind the success of any academic endeavor is the innovation integrated in every lesson. In this
study, the objectives included the task to find out the extent of readiness of learners along the
transition pathway to hybrid full swing face- to- face modality; to craft re-appropriated pedagogy
and intervention as learning is indubitably multi-faceted and to determine the efficacy of
facilitation of learner-centered teaching. The study evidently surfaced the emerging readiness,
challenges and practices on face -to-face learning with full swing hybrid facilitation of learner -
centered teaching in the post-pandemic era. While on-line learning became initially the saving
portal to incessantly respond to the emerging needs of time, challenging dimensions are
forwarded to keep pace with the current state to address concerns and issues in the continuity of
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education. Pedagogy that is armed with hybrid learning becomes an entry point in the educative
process. Distance learning has evolved over the years in the multiplicity of circumstances. It is
readily known as Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Generally, it is a form of open learning
where students can pursue a preferred course or subject without any classroom presence.
According to UNESCO (2004), ODL has developed into a significant worldwide system in
resolving issues of access to education. In another hindsight, distance learning is thought of to
be a new term since the conventional way of accessing education is through face -to-face
instruction. Synonymously, it is referred to hybrid learning. The term has been popularly used
and utilized for about 100 years, which started through correspondence courses, one of the early
forms conducted in Europe (Valentine, 2002).
Further, as described in another fashion, such can be attributed to correspondence courses
and programs that are provided by a school institution wherein instructional materials are
provided through electronic transmission or mail to learners. In the Philippines, distance learning
started to be commercialized in the earlier years of 2000 together with the improvement of the
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector both in educational institutions and
government facilities although there were challenges encountered due to the absence of
substantial ICT facilities to sustain the service (Dela Cruz, Garcia, & Galeon, 2019). Most of
the Higher Education Institution has gone back gradually with the face-to face modality and has
transitioned efficaciously to respond to the various challenges of post- pandemic era wherein
hybrid learning remains to be the choice not to be evaded. Hybrid learning is cognizant of the
inclusion of formidable paradigm of shifting interventions in providing the four pillars of
education. With unprecedented events, there is a continuing goal to bolster every learning
possibility in facilitating learner-centered teaching.
The pandemic era for the past two years brought several disruptions in the whole web of
human life around the globe. Academically speaking, this has been resolved with the adaptation
of hybrid facilitation of learner-centered teaching. Further, even the current situation still poses
several challenges. Hence, continuing innovations should be put into place by bolstering its
facilitation. There is an inevitable need to provide the pillars of education that are aligned to
the competencies attached to program and area of discipline chosen. The ever-evolving needs of
students have given space for innovation. Along this, distance learning’s definition and pedagogy
have also changed due to the improvement of technology and other means related to education.
Through the internet, Learning Management System (LMS), and other online learning platforms
present today, distance learning have been taken into new ways, permitting distance learning to
be conducted in real time. At the present time, different Learning Management System or LMS
are being utilized, such as Google Classroom, Edmodo, and Moodle, to conduct online learning
aside from softwares used as a web conferencing tool to manage live video sessions. According
to Ostendorf (1997), instruction through live video session is the most well- known and fastest
medium of instruction in the United States. This is also true in the Philippines wherein both
blended-learning and flexible learning includes the use of online instruction.
With the abrupt incursion of the COVID-19 in the Philippines, all school institution had
to suspend the conduction of face-to-face classes according to the directives of Department of
Education (DepEd) and the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). However, DepEd,
CHED, faculty and staff, students, and administrators are not really ready and still progressing in
dealing with the new normal of learning amidst the pandemic (Villanueva, 2020). The Dep-Ed,
specifically, have thought of a mix of radio and TV, modular, and online or electronic under the
170
so-called “blended-learning.” As for the CHED, they have come up with "flexible learning",
which likewise incorporate e-learning or online learning that numerous schools and colleges in
the Philippines have been doing even before. Although technology have provided a compromise
in order to have continued access to education, there are still major problems encountered in
distance learning such as the quality of instruction, efficiency of online learning schemes,
attitudes of students, instructors, and administrators, and conduciveness of learning environment.
Every single one of these affects the general nature of distance learning as an output. From
multiple points of view, every one of these issues identifies with the others.
According to Afshin, Mohammadi, Raeisy, and Sarvestani (2019), the development and
utilization of e-learning in the educational system have been quite possibly the main
accomplishments of higher or tertiary education that can address problems of the educational
system. One of the problems of the society is how to address the challenges/difficulties of online
learning. The study’s purpose was to explore students’ experience of the challenges of online
learning at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS), a virtual school based at Shiraz, Iran.
Interestingly, the current study provided opportunities that highlighted the immense
contribution of hybrid learning. This implies that while challenges are abound in the face-to-face
learning, it is significantly necessary to embrace pedagogy and strategy that are anchored on
learner-centeredness and other educational psychologies, as they apply to facilitate the delivery
of teaching and learning.( Bulusan, 2019). Moreover. as stated by Altug, Basay, Bolelli, Cetin,
Esen, and Ozcan (2020), European nations were also surprised, just like other countries, not just
in battling the COVID-19 pandemic or the spread of the virus, but also commencing distance
learning as an alternative face-to-face schooling. Aside from the health and economic sectors, the
pandemic has also an effect on the education system all around the world. Europe turned into the
focal point of the sicknesses after the episode of pandemic in China. As a result, it attained more
alarming cases in the U.S. In addition, European nations are implementing distance learning and
digital schooling to ensure the continuation of learning. Despite the fact that Sweden and Iceland
have kept schools open, different areas had locked schools on March 16. The vast majority of the
nations, whose public educational plans are very unique in relation to each other, had to swiftly
adopt to distance learning even though they are uneasy and fully ready about it. The pandemic
that affected a vast number of students in Europe had more impact to public schools.
Chiwanza, Mapuranga, Musingafi, and Zebron (2015) conducted a study concerning the
challenges and experiences of ODL from students of Zimbabwe Open University, a university in
Zimbabwe, Africa. The research’s objective was to discover the challenges tackled by students of
at the ZOU. The methodology employed for the study was qualitative and quantitative
approaches. The primary techniques used for collecting data were structured interviews and
questionnaires, complemented by documentary/narrative review. Tables, rates, and frequencies
were the central descriptive statistics utilized to evaluate and portray the results. The results
indicated that ODL students had a hard time with a variety of hindrances in their course of
learning. According to reports, the primary challenges were the insufficient time to study, limited
access and difficulty in the usage of ICT, inefficient response and short supply of learning
materials. One of the recommendations was to make ZOU improve, and strive for the quality
of education they delivered to attain efficient and balanced education and learning system, which
meets the need of the students to the point that they would want to learn more and even
recommend the university to others. On the online research article written by Shivangi Dhawan
(2020), schools, universities, and colleges in India are still immersed on conventional means of
171
academic learning, which is face-to-face instruction in a classroom setting. Even though

numerous school institutions have begun adopting to blended learning, some countries, such as
India, are still left with the usual means of education. The unexpected outbreak of the deadly
illness termed COVID-19 brought about by a Corona Virus (SARS-CoV-2) surprised the entire
globe, which is why the World Health Organization (WHO) proclaimed it as a pandemic.
The present scenario challenged the system of education around the world and constrained
instructors to adopt to an online method of educating for a limited span of time. Reluctant
institutions had to change from traditional pedagogical approach into online teaching–learning.
The cited work also included the analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, & Challenges
or SWOC of online learning mediums throughout the time of crisis, and the relevance of online
learning. The article also presented the development of EdTech Start-ups throughout the times of
calamities and crisis (pandemic), and recommendations on how school institutions will address
challenges relating to e-learning, such as having a high level of preparedness in order to be faster
in adapting to sudden changes within the society and in utilizing other modes of
delivery/instruction.
As mentioned by Alberto, Baron, Baticulon, Clarion, Mabulay, Reyes, Rizada, Sy, and
Tiu (2020) in their research, medical academic institutions had to suddenly shift from face-to-
face learning to online learning. The research aimed to determine online learning barriers in the
perception of medical learners in the Philippines, a developing country. The method utilized for
collecting data was an electronic survey sent to the subjects of the study, which are solely
Filipino medical students. The research instrument was comprised of Likert scale, multiple
choice, and open-ended questions. Through applying descriptive statistics, the research learned
that among the subjects, there are 93% that owed a smartphone and 83% had a desktop computer
or laptop. A total of 79% used a postpaid internet payment whereas 19% of the subjects
consumed prepaid mobile data to access resources in the online web. According to the research,
there are currently only 45% (1,505 students) who regarded themselves as mentally and
physically ready to engage in on-line learning. The barriers identified by the research were
classified into five (5) classifications, namely, individual, technological, institutional, domestic,
and community barriers. The primary challenges tackled by the subjects of the research were
adjustment in styles of learning, conduciveness of home in doing duties and responsibilities, and
little interaction between instructors and students.
Higher Education Institutions are given immense responsibility to keep pace with the
emerging needs of learners. Bridging the gap with the pandemic time to post – pandemic era
necessitates the use of hybrid learning which is defined as an educational model where some
students attend class in person, while others join the class in person. Academicians mentor
remote and in-person students and simultaneously use tools and LMS for video conferencing.
Along this, the completed study explored the level of readiness among students in the HEIs
which suddenly returned to full swing face-to-face hybrid learning.
Methodology
The research was conducted in Saint Mary’s University, a premier school in Region 2
which tapped hybrid learning and currently in the full swing implementation of face-to- face
scheme. The instrument previously used in on-line evaluation and assessment of on-line
facilitation of learning was adapted and modified to re-appropriate on the focus of the conducted
study. The final survey questionnaire crafted by the research team coming from multi-
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disciplinary areas was checked and validated by the ULRC and UREB prior to the conduct of the
study. An on-line survey form was utilized to collect data from 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year students
from SMU. The research instrument has been appended with the link on google drive which was
sent and provided to the selected 442 respondents from the different schools which included
those enrolled for the current academic year of 2022-2023. The data was retrieved from the
students on google drive wherein both quantitative and qualitative questions were included to
surface the emerging challenges experienced on transitioning to hybrid learning modality. Basic
descriptive design was utilized to explore and to expand the knowledge attributed to hybrid
learning and laid the foundation for conclusive researches in the future. The research utilized
mixed method research or the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches in gathering
data. Data culled from the students’ responses were analyzed to unravel the extent of readiness
and challenges of the students on full swing face-to face modality along hybrid scheme. The
research determined, assessed, and summarized the experiences and challenges of full swing
face-to face learning along hybrid learning modality of students. Challenges on adjustment
surfaced became the bases of the program crafted meant to scaffold and manage hybrid learning.
The raw data was systematically collected and organized. The collected data was analyzed
through the use of descriptive statistics, involving frequency, cumulative frequency, mean and
standard deviation. After which, it was analyzed through descriptive statistics. The statistical
tool used to analyze the data was SPSS version 23, Excel, and Microsoft software application.
These parameters were the descriptive statistics that were applied to the raw data. With the
quantitative and qualitative approach in gathering the data needed to surface the challenges
experienced by the different students during the full swing hybrid learning, analysis and
interpretations of data were aided and validated with focus group discussion conducted with the
different respondents. This became the alternate intervention in assisting the students. Further, it
went through the simple diagnosis of the pervasive challenges encountered by students in the
transition from on-line teaching to face-to face modality vis-à-vis hybrid learning as avenue to
heightened more efficacious pedagogy responsive to the emerging needs of learners. Finally, the
overall mean score on readiness 3.56 and standard deviation (SD)of . 954 were computed and
analyzed to shed more light on the results and alternate interpretation of the study. According to
the range rule of standard deviation, the SD is low and indicates that the dataset is less dispersed
and more reliable in relation to the mean value. In general, this finding implies that the data
gathered are reliable, and thus, the quantitative data from sampling size is representative of the
whole population
Results
The research conducted became an entry point to diagnose and determine the great extent
level of readiness among the learners who were immersed on the full swing face-to-face learning
modality with hybrid digital classroom. Indeed, transitioning to this pathway definitely posed
several challenges among the various respondents from the different schools. Readiness was
evidently rated to a great extent. Further, focus group discussion heightened the validity of the
findings. The over-all mean score of 3.56 on readiness and standard deviation of .954 evidently
reflected the consistent reliability of the study. It is further revealed that out from the 442 tertiary
students, the level of readiness was rated to a great extent. The standard deviation (SD} of .954
which is interpreted as less dispersed and more reliable in relation to the mean value Hence, the
inclusion of intervention directed to the facilitation of learner- centered teaching which combined
hybrid learning has been crafted . Interestingly, the focus group discussion conducted with the
173
respondents also laid down significant findings and results. Most of the students expressed their
eagerness to get back with the full-swing hybrid face to face learning modality. As 4 students
expressed:
” I want to get back to school but on-line modality should be used as well ” and “ The LMS
should continue and hybrid learning culture should be supported by the school”. .
Significantly, it can be interpreted from these comments that creative thinking and innovation
in classroom technology can definitely bolster learner-centered teaching among students and
teachers who previously went through on-line learning. While there are challenges on hand,
pedagogies and digital applications are there to be maximized and be aligned with the expected
learning outcomes in the teaching- learning process. The post- pandemic era has ushered
several uncertainties and changes but with the unceasing challenge to embrace the immense
opportunities provided by hybrid learning. While on-line-learning became the saving grace
during the onslaught of COVID – 19 and finally gradual re-adaptation of the face-to-face
formidably became the option, the need to bolter hybrid facilitation of learner-centered teaching
remains to be a must and should not be totally disregarded. Anticipation of the provision of
intervention should be underway no matter what.
Section 1: Profile of the Learners
Section 1 presents several tables that reflect the number of respondents, year, program,
sex and modality of learning wanted during the initial year of the implementation of face-to-face
learning for the school year 2022-2023. The profile of the learners who have transitioned from
on-line learning to full swing face -to face hybrid learning is further categorized to succinctly
determine the extent of readiness of the learners on hybrid learning.
Table 1: Profile of Learners: Year Level
Standard Valid Cumulative
Year Level Frequency Percent Mean Deviation Percent Percent
1 221 50.0 3.60 0.42 50.0 50.0
2 97 21.9 3.51 0.47 21.9 71.9
3 124 28.1 3.55 0.44 28.1 100.0
Total 442 100.0 3.55 0.44 100.0
Table 1 shows the profile of learners along year level. Significantly, most of the
respondents were freshmen with a total of 221 which includes 50 percent of the 442 students
who participated in the survey checklist. This is followed by the junior students with a total of
124 which 28.1 percent of the over-all number of students. The sophomore got the smallest
percentage of 21.9 which means there were only 97 respondents. Dominantly, most of the mean
score and standard deviation value are low which amplify the result that it is less dispersed and
more reliable in relation to the mean value.
Table 2: Profile of Learners: Program and School
Frequency Percent Mean Deviation Percent Percent
BSAR 22 5.0 3.27 0.39 5.0 5.0
BSCE 115 26.0 3.60 0.43 26.0 31.0
BSCpE 9 2.0 3.82 0.33 2.0 33.0
BSECE 5 1.1 3.98 0.78 1.1 34.2
BSEE 17 3.8 3.62 0.55 3.8 38.0
174

BSIT 7 1.6 3.45 0.31 1.6 39.6
SAB 73 16.5 3.54 0.39 16.5 56.1
SHANS 86 19.5 3.54 0.42 19.5 75.6
STEH 108 24.4 3.55 0.46 24.4 100.0
Total 442 100.0 3.56 0.44 100.0
Table 2 presents the profile of learners along program and school enrolled There were more
freshmen students who responded. Most of the students came from SEAIT, in particular thereose who were
freshmen and who were enrolled with Bachelor of Civil Engineering program. A total of 115 civil
engineering students dominated the number of respondents. The over – all SD was 0.44 which implies that
the data set is less dispersed and more reliable in relation to the mean value. In general, this finding implies
that the data gathered is reliable, and thus, the quantitative data from sampling size is representative of the
whole population.
Significantly, the school of SHANS with students who are enrolled in Bachelor of Science in
Nursing included the least number of respondents. This could be justified as most of them were
immersed in the different hospital and community work. As opined, there are programs which are
categorized with more intricate schedule which is why even answering the survey question was seen
difficult.
Table 3 Profile of Learners: Sex
Valid Female 267 60.4 3.57 0.42 60.4 60.4
Male 175 39.6 3.53 0.47 39.6 100.0
Total 442 100.0 3.55 0.44 100.0
There were 442 students coming from the various schools and different programs.
Dominantly, the study was dominated by female, with 267 respondents in contrast with 175
males. The overall standard deviation (SD) is 0.42 for female and 0.47 for male. The SD is low
and indicates that the dataset is less dispersed and more reliable in relation to the mean value. In
general, it also implies that the data gathered are reliable, and thus, the quantitative data from
sampling size is representative of the whole population of the respondents.
Table 4 Preferred Modality of Learning
. Modality of Standard Extent
Learning Mean Deviation
Face-to-face 4.24 .811 4.24 very great extent
Hybrid Learning 3.85 .867 3.85 great extent
In terms of preferred modality of learning, most of the respondents chose face- to- face,
with the mean score of 4.24, very great extent with .811 SD. Nonetheless, hybrid learning was
also rated with a mean score of 3.85, great extent with .867 SD. Consistently, it also implies that
the data gathered are reliable, and thus, the quantitative data from sampling size is representative
of the whole population. Interestingly, several respondents signified the use of hybrid learning
where both face-to-face and are on-line are maximized. It can be gleaned from the results that
many of the learners selected the inclusion of both face-to-face and on-line modalities. The use
175
of the LMS has been rated with a mean score of 3.47 which means that it is significantly useful
and can never be discounted as a platform in more effective learning modality. This confirms that
hybrid learning has become more effective most specifically that most of the students just
transitioned from a 2 - year on-line modality of learning. Hybrid is defined as learning activities
that involve a systematic combination of face-to-face and technology-based interactions between
students and teachers, and it is an increasingly widespread approach in the education and training
settings (Bliuc et al., 2007 as cited in Okuroglu & Alapar, 2022). More than ever, there are
advantages that surfaced as many students found adjustments along the abrupt face-to-face
learning modality. This means that while they were immersed with such modality, they still
found on-line to be helpful in terms of complementing face-to-face learning.
The statement “I find hybrid learning a practical and logical scheme during this post -
pandemic era was rated with a mean score of 3.64, great extent. This further reveals that many
students prefer a hybrid modality of learning which is not limited to on-line scheme but blended
in nature. While this modality surfaced the experiences of the learners who are on full-swing
face- to- face, there is still a clamor that interspersed activities provided on line should be re-
strengthened depending on the need and urgency.
Section 2: Level of Readiness on Full Swing Face-to-face through Hybrid Learning
Table 5 Level of Readiness on Full Swing Face-to-face through Hybrid Learning
QUESTIONS MEAN STD DEV
1. I find face- to-face learning enjoyable as I personally keep contact with my 4.24 .811
teachers and classmates.
2. I can easily reach out and contact my teachers during hybrid facilitation of 3.85 .867
learner-centered classes.
3. I find the Learning Management System (LMS) operational and effective 3.47 1.135
during this face-to face modality.
4. I can easily connect with the internet any time of the day. 3.10 1.114
5. I experience more challenges in on line class than in face to face. 3.64 1.088
6. I benefit much on on-line learning scheme in terms of information, formation 3.09 1.009
and transformation
7. I experience the support and assistance of the school administration on various 3.83 .888
needs during this face -to face.
8. I take the subjects seriously in face- to- face classes since I am more ready than 4.13 .787
in on-line
9. I can manage my time with other activities while learning. 3.68 .878
10. I enjoy on-line classes more than face to face. 2.67 1.160
11. I experience the help and consideration of my teachers on academic 3.80 .867
requirements during this full swing face-to-face learning with hybrid pedagogy.
12. I find our classroom more conducive for my hybrid learning. 3.73 .853
13. I use my computer, smartphone and other devices in online learning without 3.38 1.113
difficulty.
14. I submit my requirements on time during face-to face than on on-line 4.00 .943
classes.
15. I respond well with the method of examinations given in in face- to -face and 3.96 .803
LMS
16. I can do multi-tasking while in full swing -hybrid class. 3.40 .918
17. I participate on synchronous meeting using Google Meet, Zoom, Webcon 3.40 1.061
which are effective applications for classroom discussion and recitation even this
full swing face-to-face hybrid learning.
18. I find hybrid learning a practical and logical scheme during this post- 3.64 .856
pandemic era.
19. I find hybrid learning a practical and logical scheme during this post- 3.65 .858
176
QUESTIONS MEAN STD DEV

pandemic era.
20. I look forward to our face-to-face hybrid learning with enthusiasm and vigor 3.82 .884
every day
21. I experience clarity and accuracy of my learnings online. 3.02 .980
22. I like online learning better than face- to- face. 2.57 1.184
23. I show readiness with full swing face-to-face with hybrid learning. 3.67 .832
24. I find on-line learning more affordable than in face to face. 3.65 1.123
25. I feel lighter in terms of academic pressures in full swing face- to- face along 3.49 .850
with hybrid learning
OVERALL MEAN and SD 3.56 .954
Table 5 reveals that level of readiness of the various respondents on full- swing face -to-
face was rated 3.56 qualified as great extent with standard deviation of .954 (SD). This means
that the students’ response on hybrid full swing face- to- face is significantly attuned with their
expectations on the initial implementation of such modality after the two- year on-line scheme of
learning. Further, the statement “I like on-line learning better than face- to- face “ was rated
the lowest mean score of 2.57, moderate extent. This confirms that face -to-face hybrid learning
is much appreciated over pure online learning modality. In similar fashion, the statement “ I
take the subjects seriously in face- to- face classes since I am more ready than in on-line” was
rated the second highest with the mean score of 4.13, very great extent which is amplifies the
preference of hybrid face-to face learning over single on-line modality. Interestingly, the
statement “I submit my requirements on time during face-to face than on on-line classes” was
rated with a mean score of 4.00 qualified as great extent. As emphasized by Yang, F., & Yutai,
R. (2022) blended learning is a combination of traditional face-to-face teaching and digital
learning, but this combination is not a mechanical superimposition of learning styles, but a
rational product of the process of informatization in education, a new way of learning that
emerges from reflecting on the application of learning theories and technologies when attempts
to reform or replace traditional classroom teaching with E-learning are not as effective as they
could be. This then presupposes the use of both face-to-face and on-line learning. Further, the
conducted study significantly affirmed the wanting and preference of face-to-face along with
computer aided mode of the delivery of lesson. The statement” I look forward to our face-to-face
hybrid learning with enthusiasm and vigor every day” has been rated 3.82, great extent which
clearly affirms the edge of hybrid face-to-face learning over on-line learning. The statements “ I
feel lighter in terms of academic pressures in full swing face- to- face along with hybrid
learning” rated 3.49 qualified as great extent” and “ I show readiness with full swing face-to-
face with hybrid learning” were rated to a great extent with mean scores of 3.49 and 3.67
respectively.
Significantly, the statement “ I find hybrid learning a practical and logical scheme
during this post- pandemic era” was rated with a mean score of 3.64 which is to a great extent.
This implies the functionality of hybrid learning among the 442 respondents. As affirmed by Liu
et al. (2016 as cited in Okuroglu & Alapar, 2022) hybrid learning appears to be more effective
than non-hybrid instruction for knowledge acquisition in health professions. This applies so
much among others in so far as many of the respondents also came from the School of Health
and Sciences who practically needed the scheme to heighten multi-faceted learning.
177
Section 3: Challenges and Experiences encountered by the respondents on full swing face-
to-face modality blended with hybrid learning
Table 6 Challenges and experiences Encountered
Challenges and experiences Number of students
Adjustments 157
Time 67
No reason mentioned 66
Financial 42
Internet connection 31
Transportation 30
Requirements 22
Attitude 16
Teachers 11
TOTAL OF RESPONDENTS 442
Table 6 reveals the various challenges encountered by the respondents. Significantly, there
were 157 respondents who targeted adjustments as the main reason for the challenges made.
This was followed by 67 students who mentioned time management as one of the difficult
factors they experienced in having the full-swing hybrid face-to-face learning modality. In
contrast, sixty-six students however did not put any reason. There were also 42 students who
revealed that financial concerns were seen tough most especially that there were many who did
not have stable income after the pandemic. Thirty -one students also mentioned the problem on
unstable internet connection which means that even after the pandemic, this is still seen as the
impending danger for hybrid learning among others. In terms of transportation, there were 30
students who found difficulty commuting after the 2- year on-line modality of learning, There
were also 22 students who highlighted the challenge and delay on submission of requirements
they need to produce. Further, sixteen students revealed that their attitude also became a
challenge as there was difficulty making adjustments. This can be affirmed with the students’
revelation that they have developed complacency during the pandemic time and somehow
wanted to stay at home. There were also eleven students who explicitly mentioned some
challenges rooting from their teachers. Over-all, from the 442 respondents, it is evident that
challenges were experienced in diverse ways and gravity.
Section 4: Intervention to be provided by teachers and students to bolster the facilitation of
learner-centered teaching in the post- pandemic era
The study arrived at an intervention to bolters the facilitation of learner-centered teaching
in the post pandemic era that is aligned with the existing needs of the respondents as well as the
other students who sought some challenges on hybrid learning.
Significantly, the scaffolding and managing of the hybrid learning can be achieved to bolster the
learning efficaciously. Indeed, it can be surmised that even face-to-face has been initiated for
academic year 2022-2023, one can never discount the huge contribution of hybrid learning
modality. Duncan (2022) revealed that as trying as these times, thinking creatively and
innovatively, including the development of digital skills across all disciples should come to the
fore. Indeed, hybrid learning is multi-faceted in giving everybody a chance to learn.
178
Section 5: The measure of the effectivity of the intervention among stakeholders

The study revealed the multi-faceted plight of the different stakeholders on the hybrid
full-swing-face-to-face learning scheme. Diverse challenges were experienced. Significantly,
while there were 157 out from 442 respondents who mentioned adjustments as the prime reason
the struggles they encountered, the extent of their readiness with the mean score of 3.56
qualified as great extent. The motivation to learn in any modality fueled their interest to
complete and accomplish their tasks for the hybrid learning modality. Hence, this can be a
remarkable evidence of respondents’ reception of hybrid learning.
Conclusion
In a capsule the study revealed the readiness of the 442 respondents on the full swing
face-to-face hybrid learning with significant struggles along adjustments as surfaced on the
challenges extracted. Out from the 442 tertiary students, the level of readiness was rated to a
great extent with a mean score of 3.64 and SD of .846 which is less dispersed and more reliable
in relation to the mean value. In general, this implies that the data gathered is reliable, and thus,
the quantitative data from sampling size is representative of the whole population Different
learning modalities should be adopted to encourage better performance from students in
accomplishing course requirements. Thinking creatively and innovatively, including making sure
that students have the skill they need to achieve in the university specifically digital skills across
all disciplines are of great consideration. Education is ever evolving hence, the need to bolster
practices through scaffold and management of the facilitation of hybrid learner-centered teaching.
Boosting competencies and resources in digitally enhanced teaching and learning among various
stakeholders should be the direction. In doing so, pedagogy should be maximized to respond to
the emerging needs of learners in a full swing face-to-face modality. Classroom technology and
cameras which integrate with the LMS embedded into flipped learning methodology should be
maximized to ensure that students come to class prepared, given complete pre-class assessment,
engaged in class and capacitated to consolidate their knowledge after class. Video conferencing
sessions in the same way that students are physically attending lectures should play the same to
those students watching the live-streamed lecture by using the learning management system
(LMS} of the university. Lectures should be recorded for students who may wish to re-visit the
lecture to make sure that they fully grasp the discussion. How mentors approach and strategize
their teaching style and relate to the different theories they use, how they give feedback and the
assessment they set are formidable considerations. Creation of hybrid learning environment
becomes significant entry point in the teaching- learning process .The live-streaming and
recording of classes will be an important requirement for all future and learning models.
Maximization of the use of hybrid learning is paramount in the articulation and the
implementation of standards along effective pedagogy and learning. Joint productive activity
language development, contextualization, challenging activities and instructional conversation
are opportunities for bolstering hybrid learning. Establishment of a positive hybrid learning
culture and a strong community in the post -pandemic era can be the underpinning stamp of
success in any academic endeavor. Hybrid learning should be used to enhance educational
experiences. Combination of face-to-face and on-line distance learning can maximize
opportunities in providing the four pillars of education along learning to know, learning to do,
learning to live with others and learning to be. Moreover, independent learning among students
can become a key component for more exploration. Consistency among learners in hybrid
modality of learning should be elicited to maintain continuous communication with students.
179
Indeed, creation of significant difference in students’ academic performance is proximate along

hybrid learning.
The study revealed the multi-faceted plight of the different stakeholders on the hybrid
full-swing face-to-face learning scheme. Inexhaustible challenges were experienced. Some
drawbacks encountered indicated the urgent need of the school to provide stable and tested on-
line activities to learners who are immersed on academic opportunities. Advanced classroom
technology should be substantially provided and upgraded. There should be an equilibrium in
terms of bolstering and maximizing the use of live streaming and recording of classes as a
requirement for all future and learning models. Proactive collaboration among different
stakeholders in the academe should spark inspiration and motivation to foster the development
of the culture of hybrid learning as face-to face learning became more attractive for them due to
the deprivation they had on pure on-line modality. It can be implied that the challenges and
experiences encountered can be resolved with the heightened innovation of the school to support
hybrid learning
Significantly, most of the respondents were female freshmen which included fifty percent
of 442 contrasted to the 124 junior and 97 sophomore students. Readiness among the students
was evident. This reveals that the students’ response on hybrid full swing face- to- face is
positively attuned with their expectations on the initial implementation of such modality after the
two- year on-line scheme of learning. Challenges specifically on adjustments were noted as the
crucial reasons that confronted the students. The study arrived at an intervention to bolters the
facilitation of learner-centered teaching in the post pandemic era that is aligned with the existing
needs of the respondents as well as the other students who sought some challenges on hybrid
learning. The scaffolding and managing of the hybrid learning can be achieved to bolster the
learning efficaciously. Hybrid learning environment introduces opportunities for educational
leaders, teachers and learners in finding alternative approaches to enhance traditional brick and
mortar setting. Indeed, there is no single pedagogy and strategy to respond to the emerging needs
of diverse learners.
Recommendations
There are challenges which are unprecedented in determining the extent of readiness of
the learners transitioning to full swing face-to-face with hybrid learning. Along this, face -to-face
learning modality may be more effective among diverse learners but should be at the same time
carried out with the applications of hybrid learning. Diagnosis and assessment of the extent of
readiness of students should be seriously taken. Inspired pedagogies and methods are made
available to aid and assist students in their needs. Interventions should be planned to respond to
the psychology of providing learner-centered instruction. Continuing training, seminar, webinar
and use of hybrid learning in a holistic fashion should be provided in this post-pandemic era.
Continuing intervention and pedagogy to sustain the culture of hybrid learning paves way for
more flexible educational model. The maximization of the use of hybrid learning in Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) transcends borders in education.
180
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182
Farm Mechanization Among Tenant Farmers in Northern Philippines:

Implications to Cultural Practices, Gender Roles, Household Food Security
and Socioeconomic Status
Samuel B. Damayon*, Pearl Via S. Coballes, Kerwin N. Bayot, Brian M. Baristo, and Rodora P. Tipay
School of Teacher Education and Humanities and School of Accountancy and Business
*
Abstract
Nueva Vizcaya is an agricultural province and could be one of the top rice
producers in Region 2, Northern Philippines. The province introduced mechanized
farming as part of the government’s attempt to improve food security. Most studies on
farm mechanization focused on its effect on productivity; this study explored its effect on
cultural practices, gender roles, household food security, and socio-economic setup
amidst the mechanization of farming materials viz-a-viz tenant farmers’ lives using a
qualitative design. The study found that there is low mechanization of farming in the
province. Tenant farmers engage in small-scale farming that does not guarantee high
profits. Gender roles were affected differently as mechanization was utilized. Traditional
cultural practices such as bayanihan and ammuyo were lessened due to mechanization.
Intensified government programs were recommended by the farmers to promote progress
in farm mechanization.
Keywords : agricultural machinery, landless farming, commercial agriculture,

subsistence farming, gender
Introduction
It is not hidden that the Philippines is an agricultural country. The Philippine national
hero, Dr. Jose Rizal himself, envisioned the educational system to be focusing on agriculture and
trade. Former Senator Pangilinan (2017) expressed that Jose Rizal was aware that science and
technology when combined with working together can improve the lives of farmers. However,
history tells that the Philippine government could hardly improve its agricultural output. Today,
the Philippines is left behind by its ASEAN neighbors in terms of raising agricultural products.
Historians have accounted that one failure on the part of farmers of the agricultural industry in
the Philippines was the control of land as well as trade by a few rich families. According to
Jandoc (2011) speaking about the sugar plantation industry where there is a vast army of
unemployed workers and that there was little incentive to invest in more efficient and labor-
saving technology. This makes the Philippine plantations inferior to other countries. He cited that
Jamaica was already using a sugar processing technology in the 1700s but the Philippines started
using it only in the middle of 1890s. These were some of the seen problems that the Philippines
had in the past. But it is notable that even our national hero had envisioned the need of
technology for our agricultural activities.
A century later, Philippine Agriculture is still in the same situation. In the Philippines,
agriculture is an important part of the economy, with crops like rice, coconut, banana, and sugar
dominating the production of crops and exports. According to Tacio (2022), the World Bank
reported that in the Philippines, the country’s workforce as of 2021 from the agricultural sector
183
comprises about 23% of the total workforce. And agriculture seems not to be moving forward as
expected since Filipino farmers do not make farming competitive by the use of machineries. The
Philippine Department of Agriculture recognized that to catch up with other countries the use of
machineries is inevitable. Irrigation is being developed continuously but production seems not to
be improving based from news that the Philippine government is regularly importing rice not
only to balance the prices but to make sure that there is enough rice for the lean months of rice
production. The Duterte administration has recognized the need for increasing agricultural
production but the traditional way of farming has to be replaced.
Emmanuel Pinol (2019), the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, responding to
problems on rice production expressed that rice farming must be continued and pursued despite
many challenges. He further stressed that with the rate of 1.7% growth rate of Philippine
population with the increased in population also in the neighboring countries, there will be not
enough rice in 5 to 10 years from now. Thus, he concludes that abandoning rice farming is also
abandoning, for the next generation, food security. This is why during the beginning of the
Duterte administration, to achieve food sufficiency and maximum productivity in the country, the
Department of Agriculture had intensified technology updating and sharing, modernization, and
mechanization. One of the major developmental moves by the Department of Agriculture is to
adapt the mechanization of farming in the Philippines to be at par or even more than its ASEAN
neighbors in agricultural production, particularly rice.
According to Tacio (2022) the use of machines is very promising. It eases farming, it
makes farming faster with better results compared with traditional farming. Farm machineries
can offer a combination of processes like harvesting and threshing which make farming less
tedious. It could even provide a business venture of providing farm machineries services.
Furthermore, a complete mechanized farming system can achieve higher production among
farmers which could lead to national food security. And he claimed further that machines can
significantly change the future of farming in the country. This is why the Department of
Agriculture aims to maintain food security with farm mechanization and infrastructure
investments as its core programs (Department of Agriculture, 2016).
However, it is not also hidden that many of our tenant farmers are much connected and
dependent on traditional farming. Their connection and dependence can be seen in songs like
magtanim ay di biro (planting rice is not a joke), their socio-economic activities like ammuyo, a
source of livelihood, a source of household food security, and the manifestation of gender
sensitivity. The introduction of technology, particularly the introduction of farm machinery,
affected the lives of our tenant farmers. This study aimed to look into the lives of people who are
considered the last, the least, and the lowly in the society. Most studies on the mechanization of
farming focused on its impact on production, not so much on its effect on tenant farmers whose
family subsistence depends so much on traditional farming. Verma (2006) defined agricultural
mechanization as the “use of various power sources and improved farm tools and equipment, to
reduce the drudgery of human beings and draught animals, enhance the cropping intensity,
precision and timelines of efficiency of utilization of various crop inputs and reduce the losses at
different stages of crop production. The end objective of farm mechanization is to enhance
overall productivity and production with the lowest cost of production.” From this definition of
farm mechanization, it implies the reduction of manpower and the use of the beast of burden in
farming. It would further imply that those who can afford to have the machineries are the ones
who will benefit from the program. While mechanization of farming may lead to increased
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production, the effect of mechanization may differ from country to country, especially from
advance countries in relation to developing countries.
According to Emami et al. (2018), “mechanization is a multi-dimensional concept and
widely used in agriculture. There is, however, a major difference between the application of
mechanization in developed and developing countries. The developing countries tend to design
their own strategies in food security given the challenges they face in all aspects of their
economy including feeding a growing population, reducing poverty, protecting the environment,
managing the effects of climate change and fighting malnutrition.” The goal of the strategies,
with the help of appropriate technologies, is to lead to sustainable agricultural development and,
ultimately, food security. Thus, for developing countries, unlike more advance countries,
mechanization is pursued for the sake of food security at the expense of some other factors like
human labor, gender roles and even the mechanization’s effect into the socio-cultural life and
household food security of tenant farmers.
Studies have shown that changes in agricultural practice may have an effect on gender
roles and household food security. In the study of Gurung et al. (2016), farm mechanization in
aquaculture increased both farm income and income inequality, brought in new sources of
employment, changed gender roles and relations, altered women’s access to and control of
resources, altered household food consumption patterns, and increased market dependence for
staple food. Commercial aquaculture not only decreased the workload of women but also
weakened their access to and control over agricultural products. Women became more dependent
on the husband’s income and had lesser control over its use. Farm mechanization reduces women
farmer’s drudgery and diversification of rice monoculture toward rice-based high-value crops.”
Mechanization of farming has itself an effect on gender roles and income which may affect
household food security among tenant farmers in this developing country.
There is a scant of references to studies on the effect or impact of farming mechanization
in the Philippines. This could be due to the fact the Philippines has only recently started a full-
blown farm mechanization through the introduction of farm machineres. However, there are
more references from other countries since they are far ahead in applying technology and
machinery in farming.
In South Africa, for example, what is being pushed is the concept of Sustainable
Agricultural Practices (SAP). Just like the Philippines, South Africa may also be considered as a
developing country in terms of its agriculture due to its geographical location where poor farmers
are dependent on “sensitive rainfed agriculture” (Makate et al., 2017). But what is Sustainable
Agricultural Practices? It is defined as “those practices enabling farmers to meet current and
future societal needs for food, fibre, ecosystem services, and healthy lives. Farmers achieve these
goals by maximizing the net benefits to society when all costs and benefits (economic, social and
environmental) of the practices are considered (Tilman et al. 2002). What are the components of
Sustainable Agricultural Practices (SAP)? For farmers, SAPs may include various soil, land, and
water conservation practices, including integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) (Vanlauwe et
al., 2010). These sustainable agricultural practices include crop rotation, conservation tillage,
residue retention, organic inputs, improved crop varieties, complementary use of fertilizers,
rainwater harvesting, irrigation, agroforestry, and soil and stone bunds for soil and water
conservation (Branca et al., 2011).
The above approach to farming is far different from the mechanization of farming using
technological advancement. In the Philippines, David (1995) explained that agriculture covers at
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least 20% of the total workforce where the poor usually belongs. Newly elected president
Ferdinand Marcos Jr in his inaugural message on June 30, 2022 has noted that the country’s
agriculture sector “cries for urgent attention” after years of neglect and misdirection. And in July
25, 2022 during his 1st State of the Nation address he maintained that the agricultural sector
remains to be one of the push factors for growth and development (DA Website, 2022). The
Philippine government is really serious about its mechanization and other modernization
programs of farming. The government expects that with modernization, there will be more jobs
for farmers and food on the table. Among tenant farmers, is the promise of a better life realizable?
Will tenant farmers be secured in terms of their household food security? According to Coleman-
Jensen et al. (2019), “food insecurity means that households were, at times, unable to acquire
adequate food for one or more household members because they had insufficient money and
other resources for food. A majority of food-insecure households—those classified as having low
food security (but not very low food security)—avoided substantial reductions or disruptions in
food intake, in some cases by relying on a few basic foods and reducing variety in their diets.
Very low food security means that households were food insecure to the extent that eating
patterns of one or more household members were disrupted and their food intake reduced, at
least some time during the year, because they could not afford enough food.”
But with the introduction of farm machineries and emergence of different farm
technologies, employment may have been affected especially among tenant farmers who are
being replaced by farm machineries. Such a situation may have a further effect on gender roles,
household food security, and even on the socio-cultural lives of tenant farmers. Farm
mechanization may have increased productivity and has been advantageous to those who have
access to farm machinery but may not be on small scale and more so to tenant farmers. Thus, this
research was undertaken to determine the effect of farm mechanization among tenant farmers in
Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines to 1) describe the socio-demographic profile of the participants; 2)
determine how farm mechanization started in selected towns of Nueva Vizcaya; 3) determine the
effects of farm mechanization on a) Gender roles, b) Household food security, c) Socioeconomic
status, and d) cultural practices of tenant farmers; 4) Determine the participants’ reaction to the
mechanization of farming by the government; and to Recommend possible Interventions if
needed.
Theoretical Framework
Actor Network Theory will be used as the theoretical framework of the study. This theory
was first introduced in the 1980’s by Latour et al. to do away with essentialism or naturalism that
treats the subject or the actor always from the human perspective. Actor Network Theory (ANT)
is a “conceptual frame for exploring collective sociotechnical processes, whose spokespersons
have paid particular attention to science and technologic activity. ANT privileges neither natural
(realism) nor cultural (social constructivism) accounts of scientific production, asserting instead
that science is a process of heterogeneous engineering in which the social, technical, conceptual,
and textual are puzzled together (or juxtaposed) and transformed (or translated) (Crawford,
2004). Actor Network Theory has two variables which are non-human (farm machineries) and
human (Agricultural land workers) which by mechanization may gain a new name. This theory
explains the network or causal relation between science and technological development (non-
human) and human beings. In short, technological advancement may affect human situatedness
due to its network with technology. This theory would further explain that with the interaction or
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network between science and technology and human beings comes something to the fore – the
new production of sociotechnical processes.
Furthermore, Bencherki (2018) explains that the concept from Actor Network Theory that
organizational communication has put to the greatest use is that of the non-human agency. This
has been done through an acknowledgment of the role of technology in organizational settings,
but also through a broader recognition, that agency is not limited to human beings, but is shared
with, among others, documents and numbers. Furthermore, he claims that “more recently
scholars have recognized actor-network theory as a candidate theory to account for technological
change and its contribution to the constitution of organizations, as well as the role in
coordination practices of technology’s and humans’ shared agency. In other words, Actor
Network Theory allows accounting for the way the heterogeneity of information technology
grants its homogeneity to organizations.”
Methodology
Design
This study used a phenomenological qualitative design. Donalek (2004) explained that
phenomenological studies examine lived experiences through the descriptions provided by the
people involved. This type of research is used to study areas in which there is little knowledge. In
phenomenological research, respondents are asked to describe their experiences as they perceive
them. They may write about their experiences, but the information is generally obtained through
interviews. To understand the lived experience from the vantage point of the subject, the
researcher must consider her or his own beliefs and feelings. The researcher must first identify
what she or he expects to discover and then deliberately put aside these ideas; this process is
called bracketing. Only when the researcher puts aside her or his own ideas about the
phenomenon is it possible to see the experience from the eyes of the person who has lived the
experience (Qualitative Research Designs, 2005).
Research Locale
The study was conducted in four agricultural towns of Nueva Vizcaya, particularly
Bagabag, Bayombong, Solano, and Villaverde. These are considered agricultural centers in the
province because of their substantially higher degree of rice production than other towns. The
following specific barangays were selected because of observed farm mechanization processes
in these areas: Barangays Tuao North & Brgy. Tuao South in Bagabag; Barangays Magapuy and
Paitan, Bayombong; Barangays PD Galima and Wacal, Solano, and Poblacion, Villaverde.
Participants
The study’s participants are 129 tenant farmers in the agricultural centers of Nueva
Vizcaya. The sample represents 42.72% of the population of tenant farmers in the sampled towns.
The farmers do not own the land they are cultivating and are either in a tenancy agreement with
the land owner or cultivating the land with permission from the land owner. All of the
participants engage in small-scale farming, cultivating one to two hectares of rice farmland. To
be considered as a participant, the farmer should have declared that their main source of family
income is farming. Participants were identified with the help of the Department of Agrarian
Reform. Table 1 shows the percent distribution by barangay.
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Table 1 Frequent and percent distribution by barangay

Barangay Frequency Percent by Percent based Population of Tenant
Total Sample on Population Farmers*
Tuao North 21 16.28 37.50 56
Tuao South 24 18.60 33.33 72
Villaverde 43 33.33 64.18 67
Wacal 9 6.98 47.37 19
PD Galima 9 6.98 33.33 27
Magapuy 8 6.20 38.10 21
Paitan 15 11.63 14.02 107
Total 129 100 42.72 302
*Source: Department of Agrarian Reform (2023)
Instrument
This study used a researcher-made interview guide that elicited the data needed for the
research. The researcher-made interview guide helped the research team in making
phenomenological observations that may add more to the information gathered through the in-
depth semi-structured interview.
Data Gathering Procedures

The research team communicated to the different Municipal or Barangay LGUS on the
purpose and conduct of the research and then coordinate with the same Municipal LGUs or the
Barangay LGUs for the identification of participants. Once the participants were already
identified, we schedule a visit to their homes and explain to them the purpose of the study. Once
they are informed, the research team would ask if they would like to participate in the study.
Participants who are willing to participate in the study will be provided the informed consent
form for their signature after a thorough explanation of the content of the form. After getting
their consent, the research team will schedule an in-depth semi-structured interview during the
most convenient time for the participants. Once the interview of all participants is completed, the
data will be encoded, decoded, coded, and qualitatively analyzed using thematic analysis.
The interviews were conducted in seven focus groups between January and February
2023.
Treatment of Data
The qualitative data gathered was subjected to thematic analysis. According to Caulfield
(2022), thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It is usually applied to a set
of texts, such as an interview or transcripts. Using this method, the researchers examined
common themes – topics, ideas, and patterns of meaning - that came up repeatedly. There are
various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-
step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming
themes, and writing up.
After encoding the data, the research team generated initial codes then generated themes.
The themes that were formulated from the data were interpreted further using the observations of
the research team.
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Ethical Consideration
The study was submitted for ethics review to Saint Mary’s University Research Ethics
Board (SMUREB) with the following address and contact information: A218, Second Floor, Fr.
Godfrey Lambrecht Building; SMU Main Campus, Ponce Street, Don Mariano Marcos,
Bayombong, 3700 Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines with an email: [email protected] and cellphone
number: 09177053041.
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest and the research team does not intend to gain anything
from the study. It is only intended for research purposes and for the benefit of the tenant farmers
and other public or private agencies or institutions.
Confidentiality and Data Protection

The researchers themselves retrieved the collected data through in-depth semi-structured
interviews in seven focus groups. All the data gathered were held with utmost confidentiality and
privacy. Furthermore, the research team ensured that the respondents’ identities are anonymized
by providing number codes instead of their names. All data gathered remained private, accessible
only to the researchers.
Management of Vulnerability
To manage participants' vulnerability, they were informed that they can withdraw from
the research at any time without consequence. They were further orientated that their
participation is voluntary and they may withdraw anytime through the duration of the study.
Risk/Benefit Ratio
There are no known risks associated with participating in this study. On the chance that
the participants will look for additional information about the study, the research team offered
them the significance of the study. The research team clarified the meaning of the study's
findings, regardless of whether the hypotheses are approved or no. Furthermore, at whatever
point they decide to demand a copy of the finding's summary, the research team can give them a
copy of the synopsis through personal delivery. Additionally, a copy of the results of the study
shall be given to the corresponding local government unit (LGU) and other government agencies
like the Department of Agriculture or the Lingkod Maria Community Development and
Advocacy Center (LMCDAC) for any further courses of action when needed.
Informed Consent
The research team selected participants and started data gathering after getting approval
from the university’s Research Ethics Board The consent form, together with the semi-structured
interview guide, were given personally to the participants as face-to-face encounter are now
allowed under the basic health protocol during the pandemic. The research team explained the
Informed Consent form, and once the respondents agreed to participate, the respondent was
asked to sign the informed consent.
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Terms of Reference
The intellectual property of the study results is owned by the research team, but copies of
the completed research study will be deposited with the University. No insurance was involved
in this study.
Results and Discussions

This section presents the participants’ sociodemographic profiles and the findings based
on focus group discussions that explored the effects of mechanization on gender roles, household
food security, socioeconomic status, and cultural practices.
Section 1: Sociodemographic Profile of Tenant Farmers
Table 2 Participant Profile by Sex and Age
Age Male Female Total
Barangay Range % by % by % by % by
f f f %
sex total sex total
Magapuy 40-60 4 4.9 3.10 4 8.51 3.10 8 6.20
Paitan 25-55 9 11.0 6.98 6 12.77 4.65 15 11.63
PD Galima 31-59 8 9.8 6.20 1 2.13 0.78 9 6.98
Wacal 30-64 7 8.5 5.43 2 4.26 1.55 9 6.98
Tuao North 25-55 14 17.1 10.85 7 14.89 5.43 21 16.28
Tuao South 30-55 15 18.3 11.63 9 19.15 6.98 24 18.60
Villaverde 20-60 25 30.5 19.38 18 38.30 13.95 43 33.33
Total 20-64 82 100 63.57 47 100.00 36.43 129 100
The table above indicates that most of the participants are from Villaverde (33%), Tuao
South (18.6%), and Tuao North (16.28%). There is a greater number of participants who are male
(63.57%) than female. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (2020), there is a greater
number of males employed in the agriculture sector than in other industries, with statistics in
Cagayan Valley being the second highest in the country (512,000), thus supporting the above
findings. The age range of the participants is 20 to 64 years old, with the youngest from Brgy.
Villaverde and the eldest from Brgy. Wacal. The diversity in age groups shows that farming is
passed on from generation to generation, with some confirming that they took over farming tasks
from their parents, a continuation of a family tradition, or were engaged in through marriage.
Several participants were single, and do not have tertiary education. They also mostly
originate from the region where they currently live, and have years of experience in farming.
When asked when mechanization began in their municipalities, some said as early as the 1970s.
The farm holdings based on tenancy are between one to two hectares. This is lower than the
average area of farms, which is 4805 hectares, based on a 2022 PSA survey. Huo et al. (2022)
argued that having lower agricultural land holdings suggest less intense rice production and
lower income.
Section 2: How Farm Mechanization Started in Nueva Vizcaya
Farm mechanization in Nueva Vizcaya began as early as the 1970s, with hand tractors
and plow pulled by carabaos, as the popular machinery. Eventually, reaper, rotovator, grass
cutters, and even planters were introduced but mostly, according to the participants, these were
rented from other places. On average, the length of time that the participants had been using
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machinery for farming was between 23-65 years. This is an extensive amount of time since
mechanization was introduced, but there remains to be a lack of sustained growth in agriculture.
Various factors account for this situation. One factor is the declining performance of the
country’s national irrigation system (NIS), which has been a persistent problem for over 20 years
(Agriculture Monthly, 2015). An assessment of Philippine irrigation by Briones (2021)
highlighted that the government has addressed this concern over three administrations. A
reviving irrigation development program is put in place to do water resource assessment and
explore issues in governance and needed policy changes. Other factors include small farmlands
that lead to lower productivity, and a declining number of farm laborers (Briones, 2021).
Section 3: Effects of Farm Mechanization on Gender Roles, Household Food Security,
Socioeconomic Status, and Cultural Practices
This section explores the changes that occurred among tenant farmers as a result of farm
mechanization. It compares practices before and after mechanization and provides insight into
how mechanization affected gender roles, household food security, socioeconomic status, and
cultural practices.
Mechanization, Household Food Security, and Socioeconomic Status
Tenant farmers in this study were one to say that farming is tiring. With the many
processes involved in rice production, the International Labour Organization (2023) stated that
farming, or any agricultural work, for that matter, is, by nature, physically demanding. With the
introduction of mechanized farming, farmers felt relieved of heavy and exhausting labor. More
tasks were completed in less time and with fewer physical exertions. Finances were also reduced
because they had to pay and feed fewer laborers. Several farmers explained that they were deep
in debt before, but now, they can feel some financial relief with mechanized farming. However, a
major drawback to mechanized farming, according to the participants, is that food crops were no
longer given for free. Apart from rice, many farmers also grow fruits and vegetables for
household consumption, oftentimes sharing their yield with neighbors or community members.
Nowadays, farmers are less generous; some even report those who get their crops without
permission to the local government units.
Many farmers also complained that farm inputs have become expensive such that their
net profit remains low even when their yield was what they expected. This is due to tenant
farmers giving their landowners a share as part of the lease agreement and paying rental fees for
machinery and other expenses. Also, mechanization entails capital investments which most
tenant farmers of small landholdings cannot afford. Galang (as cited in Briones, 2021) stated that
there are about 62% of small farmers who incur debt from formal sources to purchase capital
investments for farming; the rest decide not to borrow money because of the voluminous
requirements in securing a bank loan. Eventually, some resort to self-financing their
mechanization process. Because crop yield depends on the weather, there was still no assurance
of high profit per harvest. These factors led the participants to feel and say that they preferred the
previous form of farming. According to the participants, before mechanization was introduced by
the government to their communities, they had several side jobs related to farming (pa-extra-
extra), allowing them to send their children to school and put food on the table. Nowadays, many
agree that they can barely feel the increase in profit because with mechanization and increased
productivity came increased expenses, prices of basic commodities, and wages for laborers. This
can be partly explained by the observation that rice is more expensive in the Philippines than in
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most developing countries of Asia (Balisacan et al., 2003). This leads to lowered purchasing
power among the poor, including landless farmers whose spending on rice reaches about 22% of
their total household expenditure.
Since most of the farmers were engaged in small-scale farming, there was barely a
change in their socioeconomic status even when they shifted to mechanized farming. This can be
explained by that fact that most of the participants were holding one to two hectares only,
considered as small-scale farming. Another explanation is possibly the middleman’s presence in
rice wholesale. Tenant farmers sometimes cannot be as profitable as they want because there are
layers of marketing agents in the Philippines who buy their rice cheaply and then sell it at a
higher price (Philippine Rice Research Institute, 2016). It appears that farm mechanization led to
increased productivity and crop yields, but it cannot be concluded that it led to an increase in net
profit and socioeconomic status among tenant farmers. Tacio (2022) confirmed this in an article
for the Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization, stating that the
Philippines remains to be at a low-mechanization level. This was due to farmers’ low buying
power, small landholdings, high costs of machinery, and government policies that did not support
the mechanization of agriculture. These suggest that farmers are not getting the most profit from
mechanization.
A common sentiment among the participants is the changing norm in lease agreements
that puts the tenant at a disadvantage. Previously, tertiahan was practiced, enabling the tenant to
receive proportionate profits and consider extraordinary circumstances, such as crop damage by
natural disasters. Nowadays, the agricultural land lease is typically more advantageous to the
landlord, such as having a fixed number of rice cavan for the landlord regardless of the amount
of harvest.
Mechanization and its Effect on Cultural Practices
In Nueva Vizcaya, the practice that is slowly fading due to farm mechanization is
ammuyo. In this practice, non-family members unite to help each other during harvest season.
Typically they are not paid, but when they are, it is in a meager amount or in kind. According to
the participants, ammuyo is slowly disappearing due to mechanization. For instance, one
participant said that in the past, when they were still using traditional farming, neighbors who
discovered that they will be planting or harvesting rice would immediately say that they would
come and help. The job would be completed faster since several people were helping. Nowadays,
with farm mechanization, farmers do not help each other; rather, they conduct their farming
activities independently of each other.
Also, previously, harvesting was done in succession, in which one would harvest this
week, and the farmers would help out. Then next week, another farmer harvests, and the previous
one who harvested would also help. This unique Filipino practice is rooted in utang na loob and
pakikisama. Utang na loob, translated as a debt of goodwill, is a sense of obligation to repay a
favor. It involves a deeply personal and internal element of shared self (Gundran et al., 2022).
The other possible Filipino values lost as a result of mechanized farming are malasakit
(solicitude), pagdadamayan (systematic support), pakikipagkapwa-tao (authentic interpersonal
relationship). It would appear, therefore, that while mechanization led to more productivity, it
gave fewer opportunities for the tenants to be more communal and practice bayanihan (helping
others without expecting rewards).
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Mechanization and Gender Roles

Adopting mechanized farming definitely lowered labor costs for farmers since workers
are replaced by machines. But this was disadvantageous to tenant farmers who work part-time as
laborers. According to the participants, losing jobs due to farm mechanization led female
farmers to become vendors, laundry women, and household helpers. Among women farmers,
mechanization forced them to diversify their workforce participation – that is, to discover jobs
that are non-rice farm-related and are less labor-intensive to help provide food for the family.
Several also began subsistence farming for household consumption. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2023), women play a critical role in many
farming communities, and in some countries, the total farm labor is done by women. However,
women experience significant discrimination regarding land ownership, equal pay, access to
credit and financial services, and participation in decision-making (Food & Agriculture
Organization/FAO in the United Nations, 2023). Given women’s critical role in farming, it is
important to address this discrimination and enable women to participate more capably now that
farming has become mechanized. The FAO (2023) recommends providing women with
entrepreneurial and business planning skills to promote their independence and earning
capabilities.
Conversely, men who lost their side jobs due to mechanization turned to construction,
gardening, and left the province for farming job opportunities. Some found jobs that were still
farm-related (e.g. fishpond) and labor-intensive jobs (i.e. construction). It must be noted that for
both genders, most jobs they find are manual, below minimum wage, and paid on a work-for-pay
basis. Alternative jobs found by landless farmers due to farm mechanization do not substantially
contribute to household food security.
Section 4: Reactions to Farm Mechanization
Tenant farmers’ reactions to farm mechanization were generally positive, highlighting
how it led to ease in farming and faster operations. They are aware of the benefits that
mechanization can provide but are limited in resources (financial and technical) to mechanize
their farm holdings fully to maximize returns. Some farmers said they had to borrow money to
sustain their activities and were left with little net profit after harvesting. Farmers with young
children explained that profit was good enough to provide food for the family, but not enough to
support children’s educational needs. The participants who are members of farmers’ associations
felt that the government can contribute more to improving the current farming mechanization
efforts. Several suggested providing more free fertilizer for farmers and medium- to large-scale
machinery for cooperatives/associations. There appears to be a general sentiment that openness
to long-term mechanized farming is dependent on how well they will be supported by the
government to sustain this form of farming. Sustainable mechanization is indeed critical since it
can reduce poverty, lead to food security, and improve farmers’ livelihoods (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2023).
Section 5: Recommended Interventions
While participants have accepting views towards mechanization, they are aware that there
remains to be a low implementation of mechanized farming in their communities. When asked
how the government can help improve this situation, they quickly shared the following
interventions:
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Improve irrigation system

Infrastructure is vital for the efficient implementation of farm mechanization. Several
farmers mentioned the difficulty in mechanized farming since some farmlands are not yet fully
irrigated or stable in water supply leading to dry soil. Those with irrigation complain of water
leaks from the rice field, or the absence and lack of leeves to contain, control, or divert the water
flow. This signifies that the lands of the farmers of this study currently have a poor irrigation
system.
This observation of poor irrigation systems is not new. An article in Development
Research News (2015) indicated that these problems are persistent, occurring as early as the
1980s, and continuing 20 years later. Clemente et al. (2019) found that the Philippine national
irrigation systems (NIS) are inefficient and cited issues like siltation, flooding, deterioration of
canals, and salinity problems that threaten crop production and yield. Irrigation is critical to any
agricultural system since it raises land productivity and stability despite severe weather
conditions. For farmers to maximize the economic benefits of farm mechanization, it is therefore
important that NIS facilities be created or rehabilitated.
Increase agricultural subsidies
Several participants felt financially constrained by the cost of farm inputs for
mechanization. Some wished for more free fertilizer (abono) to augment their net profits.
Through the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Philippine government provided free seeds and
fertilizer starting the 2020 wet cropping season to boost rice production. However, participants of
this study who availed of these free farm products felt that these were not enough.
Apart from free farm inputs, farmers also wanted subsidized machinery to be given to
their cooperatives/associations. There were some municipalities that were provided with
subsidies, but some farmers had to travel far to avail of this cooperative-based machinery. As of
March 2022, the Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization (PHilMech)
has acquired 19,542 machinery and distributed 16,167 so far as part of the government’s
intensified mechanization program. Gomez (2022) reported that the PhilMech urges farmers to
join farmer cooperatives and associations (FCAs) since these are the program's primary
beneficiaries. By joining FCAs, farmers can utilize machinery with lower rental fees, but many
farmers complain that the fees are the same as privately-owned ones, possibly explaining why
some farmers are not urgently joining FCAs.
The above recommendations culled directly from the participants are critical inputs on
how the government can improve the farming culture in the Philippines. Huo et al. (2022)
support these when they said that government should make policies that encourage or provide
targeted subsidies for agricultural machinery, among others.
Conclusions
Tenant farmers of agricultural towns in Nueva Vizcaya engage in small-scale farming that
does not ensure increased rice productivity, agricultural profit, or a change in socioeconomic
status. While mechanization remained low, it affected gender differently, with women’s
participation leaning toward less labor-intensive tasks, while men continued to engage in farm-
related and labor-intensive activities. A major effect of mechanization was the decreased and
slowly disappearing tradition of mutual cooperation (bayanihan and ammuyo) during planting
and harvest times. Mechanization has been practiced for more than five decades. Still, existing
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farming conditions, such as poor irrigation, inadequate government subsidy, and small farm
landholdings, hinder the positive impacts on farming culture, productivity, and profit. Tenant
farmers clamor for greater government support to improve mechanized farming and allow
farmers to earn more money on what they produce.
Recommendations
Mechanization remains to be low in the agricultural towns of Nueva Vizcaya. With this, it
is recommended that a needs assessment be conducted to explore farmers’ urgent needs given
their current farming conditions. Part of this exploration might be in relation to understanding
why farmers are hesitant to join farmers’ associations, and what conditions or benefits they
would like to be given to increase their intent to join. Furthermore, since some lost their part-
time farming jobs, it is useful to introduce them to other sources of livelihood. Participants may
be referred to government and non-government organizations offering livelihood training to
promote food security. There is much more to be done to improve the lives of tenant farmers.
Schools can organize livelihood training for farmers and provide them with linkage or
networking opportunities. The government is urged to increase and provide financial subsidies
for machine purchase, operations, and training. Further research is encouraged to explore how to
make small-scale farming more sustainable amidst the current challenges of the tenant farmers.
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An Investigation of Students’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Online

Learning and Their Attitudes towards Online Learning
Rattikan Saelee, Patcharin Emprakhon, Wanisara Meebun, Anchisa Thawornchaiying,
Aphinya Wongwai, Kamolrat Khamya, Khwanchanok Suebsook*
Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University
*
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted education worldwide. It has accelerated the
development of digital platforms for teaching and learning and unleashed a variety of new
technology in education. One of remarkable changes in educational practice is the shift from
face-to-face learning in traditional classrooms to virtual classrooms. Such sudden shift has
brought a challenge to educators, teachers and learners. Online learning is considered a useful
learning tool which offers more flexibility and a number of benefits for learners. However, the
effectiveness of online learning can be affected by various factors and some researchers
expressed concerns over several issues. Thus, this study aimed to investigate students’
perceptions on the effectiveness of online English courses and their attitudes towards online
learning. Student questionnaires with open-ended and close-ended questions are used to collect
quantitative and qualitative data. The participants were forty-two third-year English major
students studying in six online English courses in English Program, Faculty of Liberal Arts. The
findings revealed that the participants perceived online learning as effective for learning. It
facilitates student learning in terms of flexible study location and time, providing online learning
materials for self-revision to students. The participants also had positive attitudes towards online
learning at a high level; however, negative attitude were found. Some concerns over online
learning and suggestions for more effective online learning were discussed. Implications,
limitations and recommendations for further studies are also included.
Keywords : online learning, online platforms, effectiveness, students’ attitudes, English

language learning
1. Introduction
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been a global health crisis in a
century, which has led to impacts and changes in many aspects of people life. In particular, the
outbreak has disrupted education in over 150 countries and substantially affected around 1.6
billion students (The World Bank, 2022). Lockdowns, closures of educational institutions and
social distancing have interrupted traditional educational practices resulting many schools,
colleges and universities to discontinue face-to-face teaching. Learning in traditional classrooms
has shifted to online learning (Inthason, 2020). These changes have caused many effects on
teaching and learning including confusion and stress among learners, teachers and educators. In
the meantime, the COVID-19 outbreak has accelerated the development of new forms of
teaching and learning and unleashed a variety of new technology in education.
In response to the COVID-19 infection prevention policy, many universities in Thailand
and in other countries have implemented online learning approach. After the COVID-19
outbreak, online classes have become more prevalent, and in many educational institutions,
online courses have taken over traditional classroom-based courses. Online learning come in
various forms such as synchronous or asynchronous virtual courses, hybrid learning, blended
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learning and hyflex learning. A number of online platforms are used for teaching and learning
are, for example, Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Google Classroom,
E-learning, Edmodo and Webex. A number of advantages of online learning have often been
addressed, for example, allowing students to access their learning with flexible schedules,
stimulating and motivating students to learn, including promoting self-directed learning.
However, online learning has posed a challenge for teachers and students. Several
researchers have voiced concerns about online learning and factors that can impede students’
learning and lead to unsuccessful online learning (Mohd Basar, Mansor, Jamaludin, & Alias,
2021; Muhammad and Kainat, 2020; Das, 2022; Yang, & Cornelious, 2004).
The first concern is about the quality of online learning platforms and learning tools /
features (Mohd Basar et al., 2021). It has been found that some currently used online platforms
have limited or unsupportive features / tools and not convenient as they require high-speed
Internet connection to access (Das, 2022). Technical problems about using learning platforms
and learning tools (Mohd Basar et al., 2021) are also mentioned by students.
The second concern is the limited classroom interaction. In some teaching contexts, a
lack of proper interaction and contact with students and instructors was found affecting group
collaboration and student learning (Muhammad, & Kainat, 2020). Britt (2006) found that real-
time sharing of ideas, knowledge and information is partially missing from the digital learning
world. This lack of social interaction has made it difficult for students to do group work via
online learning platforms (Adnan, & Anwar 2020).
Students’ negative attitudes have also affected online learning. Hazwani et al. (2021)
contend that optimistic students who are enthusiastic to learning will not find online learning an
obstacle to their academic success. On the other hand, those who have opposing views feel
online learning completely different from face-to-face learning (Adnan, & Anwar, 2020).
Students may feel unfamiliar to online learning environment. In some online learning contexts
where students are highly demanded to perform tasks or activities they need to be responsible to
direct their own learning. Such demanding tasks may discourage some students and affect
motivation to learn.
In addition to the abovementioned concerns, there are many factors that can intervene
students’ process of learning. The existing literature discuss a number of intervening variables
such as lack or inadequate electronic devices resulted from economic or financial problems of
learner families (Sathientharado, Paicharoen, Buranawanna, Teeranon, & Jakkaew, 2021),
instability or slow connection of Internet WIFI (Sathientharado et al., 2021; Funchian, 2021),
unfamiliarity or problems of using online learning platforms (Baltà-Salvador et al., 2021;
Mahyoob, 2021; Thandevaraj et al., 2021; Thonghattha, 2021), unreadiness or lack of
preparation for online class (Sakdapat, 2021), student learning styles, their class attendance and
motivation (Jeenapak, 2021), and lack of teachers’ feedback or assistance in real time
(Sathientharado et al., 2021). These variables can impede students’ learning and bring about
negative impacts on their achievement and skill development.
In the context of Huachiew Chalermprakiet University, the third-year English major
students have encountered a change to online classes since 2019. The students have learned
through online platforms such as MS Teams, Zoom, E-learning, Google Classroom, Edmodo and
Webex. However, it has been observed that some students have faced undesirable online learning
experiences and difficulties in learning through online platforms. Sources of difficulties and
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undesirable experiences were varied such as inadequate Internet access, students’ unfamiliarity
and problems of using online platforms, distractions caused by unsupportive learning
environment, and poor study habits. As online learning has become a key mode of instruction
that students take to achieve learning outcomes of the Program, it is crucially important to seek
for ways to improve the quality of online learning and to help students overcome their difficulties
in learning. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate students’ perceptions on the effectiveness
of online English learning and to provide some insights and implications for successful online
teaching in the Thai EFL context.
1.2 Review of Literature
Online learning
Online learning refers to “an instruction that is delivered electronically through various
multimedia and Internet platforms and applications” (Maddison, Doi, Lucky, Kumaran, 2017,
p.13). ‘Online learning’ is used interchangeably with other terms such as web-based learning, e-
learning, computer-assisted instruction, and Internet-based learning (Maddison et al., 2017).
Currently, there are a wide range of online platforms used for online learning such as Microsoft
Teams (MS Teams), Zoom, E-learning, Edmodo, Google classroom, Webex and Google Meet.
Learning effectiveness
According to Blicker (2009), learning effectiveness is defined as “the degree to which
learning objectives or outcomes have been achieved or that learning is effective” (p. 973). The
achieved learning outcomes are reflected in the “evidence of learning occurred, the performance
which has changed in knowledge, attitudes, behavior, skill levels or a condition, status or
situation” (p. 973).
The notion of measuring the online learning effectiveness in higher education has
originated since the advent of Web-based distance education for over the past decade. As the
traditional quality measures involve accreditation, these measures did not match with quality
evaluation in the context of Internet-based teaching and learning (Parker, 2004). The quality
models have been developed to measure the quality of online courses. Those models are, for
example, “ Standard for Quality Online Courses” developed by Michigan Virtual University, and
“Sloan-C’s Quality Framework Learning Effectiveness” developed by Sloan Consortium in 2003
(Blicker, 2009). One of the known quality models among online practitioners, Chickering and
Gamson’s (1987) Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education” proposed a
taxonomy for the effectiveness of the educational process consisting of seven principles: 1)
encouragement of instructor-student communication, 2) development of student–student
cooperation, 3) use of active learning techniques, 4) offering timely feedback, 5) emphasis on
student time on task, 6) communication of high expectations, and 7) respect for student
differences.
The recent models have been developed based on the quality framework that embrace
pedagogical practices and creating student-centered constructivist learning environment (Blicker,
2009). Based on the constructivist learning theory, learning involves knowledge-building
processes where knowledge is constructed by students. With the facilitation of course structure
and supportive learning environment which provide opportunities for “teacher-student and
student-student interactions, students construct knowledge and formulate newly learned
concepts” (Tsang et al., 2021). The criteria for quality evaluation of learning include issues of
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accessibility, learning styles, student engagement and collaboration, course design, layout,
appearance, and technologies used.
According to the Criteria and standards used in evaluating web-based instruction and
Delivery Guidelines, the Electronic Learning Institute developed six broad criteria that consists
96 quality process standards used in evaluating online instruction and delivery (Electronic
Learning Institute, n.d. as cited in Blicker, 2009, p. 966). The six criteria includes:
1. Flexibility of learner interaction and communication with faculty, peers, and course
materials,
2) Attention to detail in the course and its materials,
3) Attention to detail in the Web design,
4) Detailed faculty communication to learners,
5) Clear timelines and due dates and
6) Creating a sense of collaborative teamwork and “groupness”
In this study, the researcher adopted Blicker’s (2009) definition of online learning
effectiveness and applied the criteria for assessing the quality of online instructions in terms of
six dimensions: 1) accessibility of online learning platforms, 2) flexibility of learner interaction
and communication with teacher, peers, and course materials, 3) detailed course and materials, 4)
teacher communication to learners, and 5) creating a sense of collaborative teamwork.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is currently used as a model for understanding
people’s acceptance of information technology (Gefen, & Staub, 2000; Wang et al., 2003). It is
theoretical framework developed by Davies (1989) for investigating “how perceived usefulness,
and perceived ease of use of a new technology or service affect its acceptance” (Tsang et al.,
2021, p. 404). According to Davies (1989), the TAM lies on the two components ‘perceived ease
of use’and ‘perceived usefulness’ which are used to explain online users’ intention to use the
information technology. Perceived ease of use is the degree to which a user feels that the system
is easy to understand and use. It is a variable that influence the acceptance and adoption of a
particular information technology. The perceived usefulness (PU) refers to the degree to which a
person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her work performance
(Davies, 1989). Within the TAM, perceived ease of use (PEU) is a variable that precede
perceived usefulness (Davies, 1989) as the easier a user feels it is to use a new technology or
service. TAM has a relationship with satisfactions and directly affect factors for the use of
information technology. In this research context, the researchers adopted Davies (1989) two
concepts of Perceived ease of use and Perceived usefulness and applied the TAM model adapted
by Tsang et al. (2021) was used as a framework for investigating students’ attitudes of online
learning. The model of TAM is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Perceived
usefulness
Satisfaction Acceptance
intention
/attitudes
Perceived
ease of
use use
Figure 1 The model of TAM are Perceived Usefulness (PU) and

Perceived Ease of Use (PEU)
Tsang et al.’s (2021, p. 406) model of TAM adapted from Davies (1989)
To determine the perceived usefulness of a product, use the guidelines for rating the
usefulness of technology on the following six points:
1. Using this product at work would help me complete tasks faster.
2. Using this product would improve my job performance.
3. Using this product would increase my productivity.
4. Using would increase my effectiveness at work.
5. Using this product would make it easier to do my job.
6. I would find this product useful at work.
To measure the Perceived Ease of Use, use the guidelines for rating the
ease of the technology on the following six points:
7. Learning how to handle the product would be easy for me.
8. I would find it easy to let the product do what I want it to.
9. My interaction with this product would be clear and smooth.
10. I would find this product flexible to work with.
11. It would be easy for me to become agile with the product.
12. I would find it easy to use.
Issues to be concerned and factors affecting the effectiveness of online
instructions
In the recent years, several researchers (Mohd Basar, et al., 2021; Muhammad & Kainat,
2020; Das, 2022) have discussed issues to be concerned in providing online instructions. The
first concern is about the quality of online learning platforms and learning tools / features. To
facilitate student learning, online learning platforms should be easy to access, up-to-date and fit
for the teaching and learning context. In practice, however, teachers may make choices of
different online learning platforms / applications, and some of those may have limited or
unsupportive features / tools and require high-speed Internet connection to access (Das, 2022).
This can cause students taking online classes at home or dormitory to strive for high-speed
Internet WIFI. Also, the know-how of using platforms and technical support for losing
connection and other technical problems bring about challenges in online learning. When
students encounter technical problems during their online classes, those who do not know how to
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get technical support may face difficulties in using the platform and learning tools. With these
limitations of online platforms, online learning may become less effective and students may
have undesirable online learning experiences.
Social interaction in online classrooms is another concern to be addressed. Online classes
where physical interactions between teachers and students and among students are limited can
make some students experience a sense of isolation. Yet, a lack of proper interaction and contact
with students and instructors was found in some teaching contexts (Muhammad, & Kainat,
2020). However, Garrison (2009) highlights social presence as a crucial component of online
learning theory and model. Social presence involves the way the students adjust themselves to be
part of the community, communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop
interpersonal relationships with other members. Therefore, in online classrooms, teachers should
provide interactive online instructions and promote interactions to build a sense of community
among students, help them develop interpersonal relationship with others, motivate their learning
and engagement.
Apart from the abovementioned concerns in online teaching, there are many
factors that can intervene students’ process of learning. The first factor that is inadequate or
limited Internet access. It is often mentioned as one of significant factor affecting the
effectiveness of online learning (Hazwani et al., 2021). Many students experience slow Internet
connection, fail to access Internet WIFI or get disconnected while studying via online learning
platforms. The sources of Internet problems are varied, for example, poor network caused by
Internet providers, bad weather, geographical locations and unaffordability of online learning
devices and internet packages as well as limited finance for Internet services. In the study of
Sathientharado et al.(2021, slow or poor quality of Internet connection causes delay or interrupts
online classes. This also caused some students to miss online classes and fail to catch up the
lessons (Funchian, 2021)
Students’ unfamiliarity and problems of using online learning platforms is another factor
affecting students’ learning. The shift to virtual classrooms requires students and teachers to learn
how to use various learning platforms-MS Teams, HCU E-learning, Webex, Google Classroom,
Facebook Live, Google Meet and Zoom. Students need to adapt to new technology and learn
how to use tools and functions on those online learning platforms. Those who lack familiarity,
the know-how of using online platforms and have inadequate trainings about learning platforms
tend to experience difficulties in online classrooms. Without the know-how for dealing with
technical problems, students may lose their learning opportunities such as being unable to attend
classes or join class activities on time, submitting their works late, and missing the exams. Such
negative learning experiences have potential to impact students’ academic performance and their
psychological states (Baltà-Salvador et al., 2021; Thandevaraj et al., 2021; Thonghattha, 2021).
Therefore, students should prepare for online learning, for example, by getting familiar with the
learning platforms before the class time. As Sakdapat (2021) points out, online learning
preparation behaviors affect the effectiveness of their online learning. When students come in
online class before the class time for preparation, study the learning materials, set their learning
goals, and get their mind ready for learning, they can gain a lot of benefits from online learning.
The third factor is distraction resulting from unsupportive learning environment and part-
time job. Distraction plays a role in affecting the students’ online learning. While paying
attention to class, many students are distracted by several distractors. One source of distractors is
unsupportive learning environment. As online learning offers flexible learning opportunities in
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terms of place, students can make their own choices of location to study. Although this is very
convenient for students, some locations may not be supportive to their learning and bring about
distractors. While studying at their home, dormitory, in a car or other places outside the
classrooms, students can be distracted by nearby people such as family members, roommates and
friends. Loud noise, uncomfortable rooms and seating, inadequate light and bad weather can also
distract student attention from online classes. Such unsupportive learning environments and
distractors can produce negative impacts on student learning and their academic achievement.
Lastly, online learning can bring on poor study habits among students. As students are
allowed to access learning platforms equipped with ready-made learning materials such as
lecture videos, online homework and online supplementary materials, they can study those
materials at any time and at their own pace. The availability of learning resources can be
beneficial to students’ self- practice and revision. On the other hand, this may turn out to be a
drawback causing students to have poor study habits. Students may become less active in class,
shift their attention away from online classes, be more likely to miss classes, and not pay
attention to lectures or join learning activities during the class time, frustration, stress, and
demotivation in language learning. These poor learning habits can subsequently affect student
learning. For example, students may lack clear understanding of the lessons (Inthason, 2020).
Previous studies on the effectiveness of online learning

Previous studies on the effectiveness of online learning were varied in research focus and
scope of the study. Some experimental research which focus on examining the effectiveness of
online instructions compare the means of test scores or performance of students who took face-
to-face learning and online learning. Meanwhile some studies found significant difference in test
scores of students, some found mixed results.
Jeenapak (2021) used the semi-experimental methods to examine the effectiveness of
online learning. Ninety macroeconomics undergraduates were divided into 2 groups: the regular
study group and the online study group. The T-Test results revealed a significant difference
between the scores of the two groups of students. It is concluded that the students studied in the
classroom had performed better than those in the online study group with a slightly lower
average. To gain a comprehensive data of the effectiveness of online learning, Nguyen (2015)
compared the evidence obtained from several studies. Based on the findings of Nguyen, most
studies found that distance and online education were effective, but there was no significant
difference in the effectiveness of distance and online learning. However, some studies found that
traditional face-to-face learning was more effective than the distance and online learning while
some reported inconclusive results,
Sawangsri and Gerdpanyal (2021) investigated the effectiveness of online learning,
learners’ achievement and satisfaction towards online learning management of 37 first-year
Business major students. The findings showed that online learning management was efficient at a
moderate level. The participants were highly satisfied with the online learning management.
However, the academic achievement of students on online learning were lower than the required
criteria.
Recently, Batdi, Doğan, and Talan’s (2021) investigated the impacts of online learning
and its effectiveness to student achievement. Unfortunately, the results are not conclusive as
many researchers and scholars note (e.g., Means et al., 2013; Nguyen, 2015; Sun & Chen, 2016)
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that the effectiveness of online learning is greatly influenced by the emerging digital technologies
and new emergency cases, thus further research syntheses on reexamining its eff ectiveness is
needed.
With a focus on investigating learners’ perspectives and attitudes on the effectiveness of
online learning, Muhammad and Kainat (2020) investigated the effectiveness of online learning
in Pakistan from higher education students' perspectives. Their study also aimed to
highlight the challenges and obstacles of online learning faced by the students. Using online
survey technique, the researchers collected the data to investigate general attitudes of 126
Pakistani higher education students towards online teaching. The findings reveal that the major
challenges of online learning in Pakistan include lack of access to internet facilities, lack of
proper interaction and did not contact with students and instructors and ineffective technology.
Muhammad and Kainat (2020) point out that the sudden shift from traditional classrooms
and face-to-face learning to online learning has resulted in a completely different learning
experience for students. Most students did not have access to high speed or reliable internet
services and were thus struggling with online learning. In addition, owing to the limited
resources of educational institutions, only several institutions were able to introduce effective
online classes during the initial months of COVID-19. The research also reported additional
challenges faced by students like lack of campus socialization, group study issues and instructors
response time. Based on the higher education students’ perspectives, traditional classroom
learning was more effective as compared to online learning or distance education. In this study,
the researchers concluded that online learning cannot produce effective results in underdeveloped
countries like Pakistan, where a vast majority of students are unable to access the internet due to
technical and monetary issues.
Mohd Basar et al (2021) examined the effectiveness of online learning and the challenges
that it presents to pupils’ abilities to learn. This study employed a case study design using a
survey questionnaire, administered to 99 students aged 15-16 from a secondary school in Jasin,
Melaka. Regarding the findings on students’ perceptions about the effectiveness of online
learning, the researcher reported that conventional learning (face-to-face) is highly important the
majority of respondents felt that learning face-to-face is more effective than online learning.
However, the respondents felt motivated by online learning.
Regarding the challenges in online learning faced by the students, the researcher concluded that
students’ learning was affected by limited internet access because of poor infrastructure and the
high costs of internet packages. A lack of interaction in online classrooms between pupils and
teachers and the absence of social relationships and this lack of social interaction has made it
difficult for pupils to do group work via online learning (Adnan, 2020; Hazwani et al., 2021).
To conclude, it is important to note that the studies on the effectiveness were context-
specific. With different research focus and scope, context of study, participants, methods of data
collection and research instruments, the findings from previous studies yield context-specific and
inconclusive results. Therefore, further investigation on the effectiveness of online learning from
students’ perspectives is needed. This study aimed to investigate students’ perceptions of
effectiveness of online English courses and students’ attitudes towards online learning so that the
findings can shed lights on how to help students learn through online platforms effectively and
gain benefits and enjoyable experiences in online learning.
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2. Objective of the Study

The objective of this study was two-fold: 1) to investigate students’ perceptions on the
effectiveness of online learning and 2) to investigate students’ attitudes towards online learning.
Researcher question 1: What are the students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of online
learning?
Researcher question 2: What are the attitudes of students towards online learning?
3. Research methodology
3.1 Research methods & Participants
This research was undertaken using quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection in order to obtain comprehensive data. The research was conducted at Huachiew
Chalermprakiet University in semester 1 /2022. The participants were forty two third-year
English major students studying in the Faculty of Liberal Arts. The participants were randomly
selected and they were homogeneous in experiences of studying English courses. They were
voluntary to participate in this study. The participants have had experiences of taking online
English courses (12 core courses) for the whole academic year of 2021 (semester 1-2/2021). All
of them have had experiences of studying through different online platforms (MS Teams, E-
learning, Google Classroom, Edmodo and Webex).
3.2 Research Instrument
Student Questionnaire on Google Form app was used to obtain quantitative and
qualitative data. The questionnaire was divided into 3 parts.
Part 1 elicited students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of online learning. The
statements on the questionnaire cover six dimensions of online learning effectiveness: 1)
accessibility of online learning platforms, 2) flexibility of learner interaction and communication
with teacher, peers, and course materials, 3) detailed course and materials, 4) teacher
communication to learners, 5) creating a sense of collaborative teamwork and “groupness”. The
participants were asked to respond to 11 statements using a five Likert’s rating scale ranging
from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).
Part 2 investigated students’ attitudes towards learning online, consisting of 13 statements
with a five Likert’s rating scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree 5 = strongly agree). The
statements were developed based on the two components : perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness.
Part 3 investigated students’ learning experience, feelings, problems about online learning
and suggestions for effective online learning. This part included 3 open-ended questions.
3.3 Data Collection & Data Analysis
The researchers administered the questionnaires to the participants. The participants were
given a link and QR code to access the questionnaire. The quantitative data on demographic
information and responses from the five-rating scale on the effectiveness of online English
courses and students’ attitudes were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The percentages, means,
and standard deviations were calculated. The qualitative data from written responses about
students’ online learning experience, problems and suggestions were analyzed using content
analysis and grouped into themes for discussions. The researchers also took ethical concerns and
human rights into account.
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4. Results
To answer research questions, the quantitative and qualitative results obtained from the
questionnaire were presented in the following order: the demographic data of the participants, the
effectiveness of online English courses , and the students’ attitudes towards their online learning.
Regarding the demographic data of the participants, most of the participants are female with 81%
(N=34) and male participants were 19% (N=8). All the participants had previous experience of
online English learning.
Researcher question 1: What are the students’ perceptions on effectiveness of online
learning?
The quantitative results from participants’ responses regarding their perceptions on the
effectiveness of online English learning in terms of teaching and class management were
presented. As shown in Table 1, the overall mean score of the effectiveness of online learning
was high with = 4.08 (SD = 0.76). With the highest mean score ( = 4.55, SD = 0.51), item 2,
most of participants strongly agreed that online learning allows them to take classes anywhere
they want. They also viewed that online learning is convenient at a high level ( = 4.35, SD =
0.59), and that online learning is flexible enabling them to review the lessons and study from the
recorded lecture videos any time ( = 4.3, SD = 0.59). Regarding learning resources, the
participants said that they (lecture videos / handout/ worksheet/ other supplementary) are
available and accessible on online learning platforms ( = 4.2, SD = 0.62) while online
platforms (MS Teams / Google Classroom / Edmodo / E-learning) used for online learning are
convenient and appropriate ( = 4.1, SD = 0.8). In addition, with the same mean score of 4.00,
the participants agreed at a high level that online learning allows them to study anytime on their
own desire (SD = 0.9), online platforms have sufficient features /tools to facilitate online classes
and their learning. (e.g., Meeting, video recording, room for small group discussion, where to
submit assignment) (SD =0.9), and online tools are easy to use and up to date (SD = 0.7). In
terms of class management, the participants agreed at a high level that teachers open their
cameras to make interactive online classes and while studying, teachers allow me to interact with
them and my classmates with the mean of 3.9 each (SD = 0.7, SD = 0.9) respectively.
Table 1 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of the effectiveness of online learning
Students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of online learning x SD Meaning
Very
1. Online learning is convenient. 4.35 0.59
high
Very
2. Online learning allows me to take classes anywhere I want. 4.55 0.51
high
3. Online learning allows me to study English anytime on my own
4 0.9 High
desire.
4. Online learning is flexible enabling me to review English Very
4.3 0.8
lessons and study from the recorded lecture videos any time. high
5. Online platforms (MS Teams / Google Classroom / Edmodo / E-
4.1 0.8 High
learning) used for online learning are convenient and appropriate.
6. Online platforms have sufficient features /tools to facilitate
online classes and my English learning. (e.g., Meeting, video
4 0.9 High
recording, room for small group discussion, where to submit
assignment)
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Students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of online learning x SD Meaning

7. Online tools are easy to use and up to date. 4 0.7 High
8. Teachers open their cameras to make interactive online classes. 3.9 0.7 High
9. While studying online, I can interact with teachers and my
3.9 0.9 High
classmates.
10. While studying online, I can ask questions and ask for help 3.7 0.86 High
from teachers.
11. Learning resources (lecture videos / handout/ worksheet/ other
supplementary) are available and accessible on online learning 4.2 0.62 High
platforms.
Overall 4.08 0.76 High
Researcher question 2: What are the attitudes of students towards online learning?
To answer the research question 2, the quantitative results were from close-ended
questions and the qualitative results from the participants’ written responses. As seen in Table 3,
the overall mean score of students’ attitudes toward online learning were high with x = 3.66 (SD
= 0.93). The item with the highest mean score was ‘There are possibility of being distracted by
family members / unsupportive environment’ (x= 4.48, SD = 0.86), followed by ‘Taking online
classes can help me concentrate to learning and perform better’ that the participants agreed with
x= 4.10 (SD = 0.89), and the participants agreed that they have sufficient IT equipment
(smartphone / computer /iPad) to participate in online classes (x= 4, SD = 0.92). The participants
said that their home environment is supportive for participating in online classes (x= 3.95, SD =
1.1). Moreover, the participants said that they are comfortable using IT equipment to study
online at a high level (x= 3.9, SD = 0.91), and they are enjoyable with studying in online classes
(x=3.85, SD = 1.19). Regarding studying online classes, they feel more comfortable studying
online classes (x= 3.8, SD 0.9). With the same mean score of 3.7, the participants agree at a high
level that they can access to Internet for online classes (SD = 1.03), they can complete group
assignment using online learning (SD = 0.98), and they can ask questions and ask for help from
teachers via online platforms (SD = 0.86). In addition, the participants said that they can achieve
their learning goals of the courses at a high level (x= 3.65, SD = 0.81). Also, the participants said
that they can do part-time job while taking online class at a high level (x= 3.45, SD = 1.39).
There is the same mean score of 3.35 at moderate level, the participants agreed that they
understand the lessons using online learning (SD = 0.91), and they are motivated to learn when
studying in online classes (SD = 0.93). ‘I am confident to participate (respond to question &
share ideas) when learning online’ that is the participants agreed at moderate level (x= 3.25, SD
= 0.91) respectively.
Table 2 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of the students’ attitudes towards their online
learning
Students’ attitudes towards their online learning x SD Meaning
1. I have sufficient IT equipment (smartphone / computer 4 0.92 High
/iPad) to participate in online classes.
2. I am comfortable using IT equipment to study online. 3.9 0.91 High
3. I find it easy to access to Internet for online classes. 3.7 1.03 High
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Students’ attitudes towards their online learning x SD Meaning

4. I am confident to participate (respond to question & 3.25 0.91 Moderate
share ideas) when learning online.
5. I understand the lessons using online learning. 3.35 0.67 Moderate
6. I feel more comfortable studying online classes. 3.8 0.9 High
7. I am motivated to learn when studying in online classes. 3.35 0.93 Moderate
8. I am comfortable in doing group assignment online. 3.7 0.98 High
9. I am enjoyable with studying in online classes. 3.85 1.19 High
10. My home environment is supportive for participating 3.95 1.1 High
in online classes.
11. I am distracted by family members /people around me 4.48 0.86 Very high
when studying online.
12. I have more concentration on learning and perform 4.10 0.89 High
better when taking online classes.
13. I can achieve my learning goals of the courses. 3.65 0.81 High
Overall 3.66 0.93 High
Based on the participants’ written responses on the questionnaires, they expressed

positive and negative attitudes towards online learning. It is obvious that the participants
perceived ease of use of online learning in terms of convenience and flexibility of online learning.
However, the participants addressed some problematic issues of online learning. Those are
uncomfortable feelings when opening a camera during taking classes, stress and pressure due to
too many assignments and demanding tasks, lose of concentration due to looking at a screen for
a long time, Internet WIFI problems, lack of familiarity and how to deal with technical problems
about online learning platforms, unsupportive learning environment, distractors, mismatch of
learning styles and learners’ needs and inconvenience for collaborative tasks /group work.
The majority of participants held positive attitudes towards online learning. Those agreed
with the convenience and flexibility of online learning. The students viewed that it’s flexible to
take online class and learn everywhere. They did not need to spend time for traveling to take
classes at university. Following are their excerpts:
“It is very convenient for me. I don’t get tired of spending long hours on the road to go to the
university.” (Participant 13)
“Online learning is convenient because I can study everywhere.”

(Participant 10 & Participant 17)
“Online learning is convenient. I can study at anywhere and sometimes I can do a

part-time job.” (Participant 4)
“From my online learning experience, it is more convenient. I can study at anywhere, but
interaction with peers is less than face-to-face interaction in classroom.”
(Participant 7)
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However, some participants had negative attitudes towards online learning. They
expressed their uncomfortable feelings and undesirable online learning experiences when
opening a camera during class time.
“I have quite bad experience about online learning. I feel uncomfortable to turn on the
camera every time.” (Participants 29)
Some participants voiced about their stress and pressure from overloading assignments
and being given more responsibility of their learning. As they wrote:
“We get stressed and do not get enough sleep because teachers often give many assignments
and the deadlines are very close- the same date or week.”
(Participants 34)
“I would like teachers to consider that online learning is not easy. It is difficult, just like
studying onsite and I want the teachers to give less assignments because we are so tired.”
(Participant 11)
“I got pressure in taking responsibility of my own learning.” (Participant 9)
One participant expressed about his/her lose of concentration when looking at a

screen for a long time. It might be explained that the students may not have the ability to
concentrate on something for a long period of time and it might be personal factor. As the
participant wrote.
“I cannot concentrate to online learning so I don’t participate much in class activities.”

(Participant 15)
Regarding students’ problems in online learning, the majority of participants reported

about Internet WIFI problems as a factor that impede their process of learning. The participants
complained bout inadequate Internet access, slow /poor Internet WIFI because of bad weather or
some geographical locations. Following are their excerpts.
“My Internet access in the apartment makes me crazy. It has errors

every time I want to use it.” (Participant 6)
“The Internet at my place is so poor that I cannot use it.” (Participant 8)
“I feel normally with online learning. However, this month my internet in the apartment so
bad, that makes me headaches about online learning.”
(Participant 16)
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“In some areas, the Internet WIFI is poor. This makes me unable to learn effectively.”
(Participant 22)
“If the Internet connection is jammed, online learning is interrupted and we missed the
lessons at that time.” (Participant 2)
“ I come in online classes late because the rain caused unstable Internet
connection.” (Participant 3)
Some students had technical problems of using online tools and features on learning
platforms. Below is a list of excerpts from the participants:
“Online learning is convenient, but I have problems with Internet, online

tools, applications and people in my house.” (Participant 35)
The unsupportive learning environment, particularly loud noise and disturbance caused
by people in family were mentioned by the participants. It distracted their attention from online
classes. Following are the excerpts:
“I was disturbed by the noise from construction around my place.”
(Participant 12)
“Sometimes my family members make loud noise and that makes me lose attention.”
(Participant 11)
“There is loud noise in my living environment.” (Participant 32)
“Loud noise is from the nearby environment such as construction.”

(Participant 4 & Participant 5)
In some participants’ perspectives, online learning was not a suitable mode of learning
and doing collaborative tasks. Online learning might not match their learning styles and their
needs. As the participants wrote:
“Online learning is convenient, but I don’t understand whenever I study online.”

(Participant 19)
“I don’t understand the content taught in online classes.”
(Participant 16)
“I feel that some lessons can be easily understood, but some lessons should be taught onsite
in the classroom.” (Participant 12)
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Online learning caused difficulty in doing group work and interact with peers. As the
participants wrote:
“Online learning makes it more difficult to work in groups. Online group meeting became
more complicated than face-to-face meeting.” (Participant 7)
In addition, the participants gave suggestions for more effective online learning. The
participants suggested giving less online homework and assignments, promoting more
interaction between teachers and students, making video recording of lectures for students’
revision, solving teachers’ Internet problems. Following are the excerpts:
“I would like teachers to consider that online learning is not easy. It is difficult, just like
studying onsite and I want the teachers to give less assignments because we are so tired.”
(Participant 11)
“I think online classes will be smoother if the professor records and drops the file of the
class before the class schedule. it will help facilitate my learning.” (Participant 6)
“Teachers should make video recordings while teaching online so that we can watch the
videos afterwards for our revision.” (Participant 37)
“The files of learning materials used for class activities should be uploaded or posted for
students before and after the class.” (Participant 8)
“I think that teachers should have students submit the assignments through a single
application.” (Participant 12)
“The teacher should try to improve your Internet connection.” (Participant 18)
“I would like teachers to promote classroom interaction between
teachers and students.” (Participant 29)
5. Discussion
5.1 Students’ perceptions on effectiveness of online learning
The findings on the effectiveness of online learning reveal that in students’ perceptions,
online learning is effective at a high level and supports their language learning. It eases them to
learn everywhere they want and is convenient, especially when they cannot attend onsite classes
at the campus. Moreover, online learning offers opportunities for students to make video
recordings of the lectures while studying on online platforms. This enables them to study or
review the lessons at any time. Furthermore, online platforms have sufficient features or tools to
facilitate online classes and learning. The students found online tools easy to use and up to date.
Learning resources (lecture videos, handout, worksheet and other supplementary) are also
available and on online learning platforms. These findings are in accordance with the findings of
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previous research (Means et al., 2013; Jeenapak, 2021; Mahyoob, 2021), which revealed that
online learning is an effective learning approach and the effectiveness of online learning has
influence on students’ learning and their academic performance (Mahyoob, 2021). However, the
participants were undecided about the way teachers allow participants to interact with them and
classmates. It is found that some participants did not want to open their cameras and interact with
teachers in online classes because they felt uncomfortable and lost their concentration on the
lessons. This might be owing to their introverted personality.
5.2 Student attitudes towards online learning
Overall, the majority of participants held positive attitudes towards online learning. Most
participants reported that online learning is advantageous to them in many aspects. In terms of
benefits to their process of learning, firstly, taking online classes can help students concentrate on
learning and perform better. Besides, they can complete group assignment, ask questions, ask for
help from teachers via online platforms. Most students also agreed that they understood lessons
taught through online classes and can achieve their learning goals. With respect to psychological
aspects, the students felt more comfortable and were satisfied with online classes. They were
confident to respond to questions and share ideas including being motivated to learn in online
classrooms. Regarding the views towards learning environment and IT readiness for online
learning, most students agreed that their home environment was supportive for online classes
though some students were facing distractors. When asking about IT readiness, it is found that
the students had sufficient IT equipment such as smartphone, computer, or iPad and were
comfortable with using IT equipment to study online. Based on these findings, it can relate to the
TAM principle of Davies (1989) and conclude that the students had perceived ease of use and
usefulness of online learning. They felt that online learning is easy to understand and use and
they believe that online learning would enhance their learning.
However, some participants held negative attitudes towards online learning. They
reported their uncomfortable feelings, stress, pressure and unsatisfactory online learning
experiences. Dealing with overloading assignments, taking more responsibility of their learning,
opening cameras while studying, and their individual factors are the sources of undesirable
online learning experiences. Meanwhile, some students viewed that online learning is not
unsuitable for English language learning and collaborative learning. This learning approach
might not match their learning styles and their needs.
Regarding the problems in online learning, the quantitative and qualitative results showed
that the students faced unsupportive environments and distractions of family members while
taking online classes. Loud noise of construction and nearby living environment including
disturbance caused by people in family cause students to lose concentration from their learning.
The accessibility and quality of Internet was another major problem they concerned. Poor
Internet WIFI resulting from bad weather and other factors interrupted their learning leaving
them annoyance and frustration. As for the participants’ suggestions for improving online
learning to be more effective, they suggested giving less online homework and assignments,
promoting more interaction between teachers and students, making video recording of lectures
for students’ revision, solving teachers’ Internet problems.
6. Implications, Limitations, Recommendations for further studies and Conclusion

6.1 Implications of the study
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The research findings can contribute to useful pedagogical implication. Firstly, the
findings on the effectiveness of online learning show that online learning is an effective way of
learning English for the students studying in English Program. The findings shed lights on
pedagogy in English language teaching. To contribute to the effectiveness of online learning,
teachers should take into account of technological readiness and learning contexts and ensure
that the students can access technological devices and Internet service for online learning.
Teachers may consider using appropriate online platforms which offer useful features or tools so
that it can help facilitate student learning. Students can gain benefits from learning online as it
allows them to learn at anywhere and use online learning resources for lesson review.
Additionally, the findings on student attitudes towards online learning will be useful basis
information for course instructors in improving online courses. The students’ attitudes towards
learning environment, resources, technological access, student assignment and class management
can be used to make online learning more effective and enhance student learning.
6.2 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further studies
Due to the time constraint, the number of participants participated in this research is
limited and has resulted in the generalizability of research findings. Thus, a large sample size is
recommended for further research. In further studies, broader scope of participants’ fields of
study should be considered rather than focusing only on English major students. With broader
scope of participants, the research results may bring additional implications. Other instruments
should be included so that it allows the researchers to gain more in-depth information and
triangulate the data.
6.3 Conclusion
The study was conducted to investigate students’ perceptions on effectiveness of online English
learning and to investigate students’ attitudes towards online learning. Forty two third-year
English major students at Huachiew Chalemprakiet University participated in the study. Student
Questionnaire with closed-ended and open-ended questions were used to collect the quantitative
and qualitative data. The findings revealed that the participants perceived online learning as
effective in various aspects. This indicated that the students had perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness of online learning. It can be explained in relation to Davies’s (1989) TAM
model that the students recognized the usefulness of online learning. They believe that online
learning would enhance their work performance and that the students are likely to accept and
adapt themselves to online learning.
The participants had positive attitudes towards online learning. However, problematic
issues which have effects on students’ online learning were mentioned. These include being
interfered by accessibility and quality of Internet connection, unsupportive learning environment,
distractions and others. The findings on the effectiveness of online English courses and students’
attitudes towards their online learning can be useful basis information for language teachers in
improving online courses. With more effective online pedagogy, students can gain benefits on
their learning and academic achievement and have desirable online learning experiences.
215
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8. Authors’ Biodata
Rattikan Saelee, Patcharin Emprakhon, Wanisara Meebun, Anchisa Thawornchaiying,
Aphinya Wongwai and Kamolrat Khamya are English major undergraduate students studying
in English Program, Department of Language Studies, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew
Chalermprakiet University.
Dr. Khwanchanok Suebsook is currently the Head of Department of Language Studies, Faculty
of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University. Her research interest include English
language teaching, language testing and assessment, teacher development and World Englishes.
218
Investigating Factors Causing Anxiety in Speaking English of Thai University

Students: The Case of Students in English Program at HCU
Nattapon Kaewchoom, Siripreeya Thamthangsat, Tunteera Langu, Niramol Rungsang,
Chanita Meejit, Pongpatchara Kawinkoonset*, Khwanchanok Suebsook
*
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the factors contributing to students’ anxiety in speaking
English and the types of communicative situations that the students experienced anxiety. Thirty
third-year undergraduate students studying in English Program, Huachiew Chalemprakiet
University participated in the study. Student Questionnaire with closed-ended questions were
used to collect the quantitative data. The findings revealed that the participants perceived limited
vocabulary knowledge of students as the main factor of their anxiety in speaking English. Other
important sources of anxiety were speaking English with peers and other interlocutors, losing
confidence when making mistake and worry about bad English accents. The findings also reveal
that the participants experienced varied degree of anxiety when getting involved in different
communicative situations. The most anxious situation was when they are expected to respond
and could not escape from communication. Making English presentations in classrooms and
speaking English with no preparation were also the situations they felt anxious at a high level. In
students’ perceptions, when speaking with native speakers of English and losing confidence
because of making mistakes in speaking were the situations the students were anxious at a
moderate level. Pedagogical implications and conclusion are discussed in this paper.
Keywords : students’ anxiety, anxiety in speaking English, factors, student perceptions,

undergraduate students,
1. Introduction
English has been the world's most widely used language and remained a crucial
component in global communication, business, and education. It is not surprising that students
around the world study English as a second or foreign language to enhance their employment
opportunities and academic and professional achievements. In Thai educational context, many
required and optional English courses and programs are offered to Thai students at all
educational levels ranging from kindergarten to higher education. English language teachers
whether native English speakers or ESL / EFL teachers have been recruited. In English
classroom, many teachers have attempted to encourage students to communicate in English.
However, despite many years of English study, many students have struggled with speaking
English. They perceived anxiety as one major issue that plays a significant role in English
language learning and students’ English speaking skills. In the study of Kitano (2001), it was
found that many Thai students have fear and anxiety when using English in their daily lives, and
this further inhibits their ability to communicate effectively. In the context of Huachiew
Chalermprakiet University, the third-year students studying in English Program have faced
anxiety in speaking in English. Arising from various factors such as lack of vocabulary
knowledge, lack of confidence, fear of making mistakes, unrealistic expectations, negative
219
experiences, students’ anxiety has become an obstacle which impedes the process of learning and
students’ development of speaking skills.
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) well-known scholars in second language anxiety,
define foreign language anxiety (FLA) as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs,
feelings, and behaviors arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (p. 31).
They proposed that FLA is a situational specific anxiety arisen from the uniqueness of formal
learning of a foreign language learning. According to Horwitz et al. (1986), FLA consists of three
components, namely communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation.
Communication apprehension refers to “a type of shyness characterized by fear of
communicating with people” (p. 127), manifested in difficulty in speaking in groups, stage fright
or difficulty in understanding spoken texts. Another component is test anxiety, which is “a type
of performance anxiety arising from a fear of failure” (p. 127-128). Learners’ unrealistic
demands or expectations on themselves and oral tests are potential sources of test anxiety. Fear
of negative evaluation is defined as a person’s apprehension about being negatively evaluated by
others, avoidance of negative evaluative situations (Horwitz et al, 1986). In their study, Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was used to measure students’ reactions to FLA
variables. Based on the findings, Horwitz et al (1986) suggest that many students faced foreign
language anxiety in several aspects of foreign language learning and that foreign language
anxiety is a common phenomenon for students to experience in foreign language classrooms.
The existing literature on second and foreign language teaching and learning has affirmed
the significant roles of anxiety it plays in impeding foreign language learning and achievement
and causing students’ lack of verbal responses in classrooms. Horwitz, & Young (1991) explain
that foreign language anxiety occur when students have to perform tasks in a language that is not
their own. “Because complex and nonspontaneous mental operations are required in order to
communicate at all, any performance in the second or foreign language is likely to challenge an
individual’s self-concept as a competent communicator and lead to reticence, self-consciousness,
fear or even panic” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 31). Many researchers report that English speaking
anxiety is often problematic among English language learners. Anxiety in speaking English can
impede the process of student learning, affect academic achievement and decrease student
motivation in speaking English. For instance, Zhang (2019) found that Chinese university
students often face anxiety and lack confidence in speaking English. These can negatively affect
their academic and professional success. Similarly, Hu, & Hsu (2020) discovered that Taiwanese
high school students frequently experience anxiety and embarrassment when speaking English in
front of their peers. This can lead to lack of class participation and communication apprehension.
In the past two decades, a number of studies investigated factors affecting speaking skills
of students at different educational levels in Thailand and other EFL countries (i.e. Akkakoson,
2016; Kammungkun, Jhanasanti, Varasay, & Wowong, 2020; Kammungkun, & Wowong, 2019;
Lerttawisub, 2014; Sultana, & Jamin, 2021). These previous studies are varied in their research
focus, context of study, groups of participants, methods of data collection and research
instruments. Lerttawisub (2014) investigated the causes of English-speaking anxiety of high
school students in the EFL classrooms and the degrees of anxiety. The researcher used the
Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and the Test Anxiety Scale adapted from those used
in Horwitz et al’s (1986) study to measure the causes and the degree of anxiety. The participants
were 86 Thai junior high school students in Kanchanaburi province. The finding showed that the
degree of anxiety was at a moderate level. The sources of anxiety were the participants’
220
perceptions. Therefore, the students’ English-speaking anxiety needs to be solved, and one
possible way is by creating a positive classroom atmosphere.
Akkakoson (2016) investigated the levels of speaking-in-class anxiety among students in
the English Conversation courses. This study also investigated the student’s attitudes towards
speaking in English Conversation classrooms and the sources of in-class anxiety. Using the
quantitative and qualitative methods, the researcher collected the data through questionnaires and
semi-structured interviews. The questionnaire respondents were 282 undergraduate students.
Based on the findings, overall, the students experienced English-speaking anxiety at a moderate
level. It was concluded that Thai university students in the study are moderately anxious about
oral communication in English. Fear of negative evaluation and test-anxiety were the main
factors causing English-speaking anxiety among the participants (Akkakoson, 2016).
With a different focus and scope of the study, Sultana and Jamin (2021) conducted
research to determine the situations that cause fear to act as a barrier while speaking in English
and to investigate the reasons for students’ fear. Using the quantitative research method, the
researchers used questionnaires to collect the data from 40 undergraduates studying in English
Department at a university in Bangladesh. The findings showed that fear plays a role as a barrier
to improve English speaking. Owing to their fear the participants did not have enough
opportunity to practice English speaking. Most of them, therefore, are afraid of giving speech
or making presentations in front of the audience. They become nervous while speaking as
they were afraid of receiving negative criticisms. In this study, it is concluded that fear of being
laughed at or mocked by others are the most significant barrier to improvement of student
speaking skills.
Recently, Kammungkun et al. (2020) studied English speaking anxiety among the first-
year students at Mahamakut Buddhist University. The participants were 92 the first year students
studying in English major program, Faculty of Humanity and Faculty of Education, Mahamakut
Buddhist University. The questionnaires were used to collect the quantitative data. The findings
of this study were presented in the following: The students had anxiety in speaking English at a
moderate level. The three main factors triggering the anxiety among students were speaking
English with no preparation, fear of not passing the English Speaking courses and unfamiliar
classroom activities.
Based on the findings of previous studies, anxiety in speaking English among students
has been caused by several factors. It is important to note that the studies reported different main
factors indicating that the sources of anxiety were context-specific. With different research focus
and scope, context of study, participants, methods of data collection and research instruments,
the findings from previous studies yield context-specific and inconclusive results. Yet, as
students’ anxiety in speaking English is non-static psychological state depending on intervening
factors which can vary from context to context (Horwitz et al., 1986 as cited in Akkakoson,
2016), further investigation on the factors contributing to the anxiety of English major
undergraduates in the HCU context is needed.
2. Objectives of the study

This study aimed to investigate the factors causing anxiety in speaking English among
EFL students. It also aimed to investigate types of communicative situations that the students
experience anxiety and the degree of anxiety.
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Research questions of the study

1. What are the factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking English?
2. What types of communicative situations do the students face anxiety in
speaking English? And what is the degree of anxiety in each situation?
3. Research Methodology
This study investigated the factors causing anxiety in speaking English and the types of
communicative situations the students experience anxiety. With a quantitative research method,
the researchers used Student Questionnaire for collecting the data. The Student Questionnaire
was designed to survey students’ perceptions of the factors causing anxiety in speaking English
and the types of communicative situations they encountered anxiety. The questionnaire was
online questionnaire on Google Form consisting of 3 parts. Part 1 contains 5 items eliciting
demographic information of the participants: gender, age, year of study, frequency of speaking
English In Part 2, 5 closed-ended statements with the 5 Likert rating scale (strongly agree =1 to
strongly disagree =5) were used to investigate students’ perceptions of the factors of anxiety. In
Part 3, 10 closed-ended questions with the 5 Likert rating scale (strongly agree =1 to strongly
disagree =5) were used to survey the types of communicative situations the students experience
anxiety and the degree of anxiety in each situation.
The participants of the survey were thirty third-year undergraduate students studying in
English major, English Program, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University.
The participants were randomly selected and they were homogeneous in experiences of studying
English courses. They were voluntary to participate in this study. The researchers collected the
data in the the first semester of the academic year 2022. The researchers distributed the Student
Questionnaire to the participants by sending the QR code and the link of the questionnaire to the
target group. After the questionnaire administration, the researchers analyzed the quantitative
data from the participants’ rating responses using descriptive statistics. The percentages, means
and standard deviations were calculated in order to answer the research questions.
4. Results
The quantitative results obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed for the
percentages, means and standard deviations. To answer the research questions, the results were
presented in the following order: the demographic information of the participants, the factors
caused students’ in speaking English, the communicative situations the students experienced
anxiety in speaking English and the students’ motivational factors of speaking English.
The demographic information of the participants obtained from the questionnaire were presented
in Table 1.
Table 1 Demographic information of the participants
Gender N & Frequency of Speaking English N
Percent &Percent
Male 8 (26.6%) Never 3 (10%)
Female 22 Rarely 5
(73.3%) (16.66%)
Age N & Sometimes 14 (46.6%)
222
Gender N & Frequency of Speaking English N

Percent &Percent
Percent
18-20 years old 8 Often 5 (16.6%)
(26.6%)
21-23 years old 22 Always 3 (10%)
(73.3%)
Over 25 0 (0%)
4.1 The factors caused anxiety in speaking English among the students
As shown in Table 2, the factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking English were
varied in degrees. The participants perceived that limited vocabulary knowledge was the main
factor of their anxiety in speaking English. With the highest mean score of 3.73 (SD = 1.1), the
statement “I have limited vocabulary” was rated as the highly significant factor. In their
perceptions, speaking English with their peers and other interlocutors and losing confidence
when making mistakes were also two important factors of their anxiety.
The statements “It’s difficult for me to speak English with friends or another person” and “I lose
my confidence when I make a mistake in speaking English” were rated as moderately significant
factors with the same mean scores of 3.46 (SD= 0.95, SD=1.21) respectively. Meanwhile, worry
about speaking with bad English accents and worry about speaking English in daily life were
perceived as moderately significant factors, with the mean score of 3.35 (SD= 1.06) and of 3.31
(SD= 1.12) respectively.
Table 2 Percentages, means, standard deviations of factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking
English
Percentage (%)
Statement about sources /
Mean S.D
factors of anxiety 5 4 3 2 1
1. I worry to speak English in 11.55 38.46 26.92 15.38 7.69 3.31 1.12
daily life.
15.38 57.69 19.24 0 7.69 3.73 1.1
2. I have limited vocabulary.
3. My English accent is quite 15.38 26.92 38.46 15.38 3.86 3.35 1.06
bad.
4. It’s difficult for me to speak 11.54 38.46 38.46 7.69 3.85 3.46 0.95
English with friends or another
person.
5. I lose my confidence when I 15.38 50 7.69 19.24 7.69 3.46 1.21
make a mistake in speaking
English.
Overall 3.46 1.07
4.2 The communicative situations the students experience anxiety in speaking English
and the degree of anxiety
As shown in Table 3, overall, the participants experienced anxiety at different degrees
ranging from moderate to high levels in these communicative situations. With the highest mean
223
of 3.73 (SD= 1.0), the most anxious situation was when “they were expected to respond and
could not escape from conversation”. Making presentations in classrooms and speaking English
in unprepared situations were rated as the second and the third highly anxious situations. The
statements “I feel anxious to speak English in making presentation and answering questions in
the classroom” and “I feel anxious to do impromptu speaking with no preparation.” had the high
means of 3.58 and 3.5 (SD=1.1, SD =1.17) respectively. Speaking with native speakers of
English and losing confidence when making mistakes were perceived as anxious communicative
situations at a moderate level, with the same mean score of 3.46 (SD=1.03, SD=1.17)
respectively.
Table 3 Percentages, means, standard deviations of communicative situations the students
experienced anxiety in speaking English
Percentage (%) Mean S.D
Communicative situations
5 4 3 2 1
1. I feel anxious to speak 19.23 42.31 19.23 15.38 3.85 3.58 1.1
English in making
presentations and answering
questions in the classroom.
2. I feel anxious to speak 11.53 42.31 34.62 3.85 7.69 3.46 1.03
English with native
speakers.
3. I feel anxious and lose 15.39 46.16 15.38 15.38 7.69 3.46 1.17
my confidence to speak
English when I make a
mistake in speaking
English.
4. I feel anxious to speak 19.23 50 19.23 7.69 3.85 3.73 1.002
English in the situation I am
expected to respond and
could not escape from
communication.
5. I feel anxious to do 15.38 46.15 23.08 3.85 11.54 3.5 1.17
impromptu speaking with
no preparation.
Overall 3.55 1.09
5. Discussions
5.1 What are the factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking English?
The findings on the factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking English reveal that
limited vocabulary knowledge of students was the main factor of their anxiety in speaking
English. Other important factors of their anxiety were speaking English with their peers and
other interlocutors, losing confidence when making mistake, worry about speaking with bad
English accents and worry about speaking English in daily life. These findings are in line with
the findings of Kamungkun et al. (2019) which found that the students were anxious to speak due
to their problems of vocabulary, accents and lack of confidence. Besides, the students became
224
most anxious when students have to speak in unpredictable and forceful situations such as when
speaking English in their daily lives. Similarly, Khongsamruai et al. (2018) reported that fear of
making grammatical mistake and fear of being laughed by classmates when saying something
wrong are important factors that lead to English speaking anxiety.
5.2 What types of communicative situations do the students face anxiety in
speaking English? And what is the degree of anxiety in each situation?
The quantitative results showed that the students coped with varied degree of anxiety
when getting involved in different communicative situations. The participants felt anxious at the
highest level in the situation that they were expected to respond and could not escape from
conversation. Making presentations in classrooms and speaking English in unprepared situations
were perceived as the second and the third highly anxious situations. In students’ perceptions,
speaking with native speakers of English and losing confidence when making mistakes in
speaking were the communicative situations the students felt anxious at a moderate level.
From the perspectives of English language teachers, when considering the
communicative situations students faced anxiety, it can be explained that worries and anxiety
were triggered when they need to speak English without any preparation. As the students learn
English as a second or foreign language and their native language is not English, they fear of
saying something wrong, fear of losing face, become nervous when speaking in front of audience
and lack confidence. This is consistent with the findings of Kitano’s (2001) research which found
that students were nervous in speaking a second language. Students had a high level of individual
concerns. They became excited, worried and stressed when speaking English (Kitano K., 2001).
In this study, the findings on the factors causing students’ anxiety in speaking English and
the types of communicative situations the students experienced anxiety can be a basis
information for helping students overcome their anxiety. As the main source of anxiety was from
students’ limited vocabulary knowledge. Language teachers should consider providing explicit or
implicit instructions and learning activities to help students expand their vocabulary. In addition,
teachers should encourage students to speak English and promote classroom interaction between
teachers and students and among students. With more opportunities to interact with peers and
teachers in English, students can develop their speaking fluency and be more confident in
speaking. It is also important to provide relaxing learning atmosphere in the classrooms so that
students would sense a safe learning environment. By promoting classroom interaction and
creating a relaxing atmosphere, it can help establish good student- teacher and student-student
relationships. When speaking English in class with their teachers and peers in relaxing learning
atmosphere, students may become more relaxed and do not feel uncomfortable when making
mistakes.
6. Limitations, Recommendations for further studies and Conclusion

6.1 Limitations and Recommendations for further studies
Due to the time constraint, the number of participants participated in this study is limited
and only questionnaire was used for quantitative data collection. These limitations have resulted
in the generalizability of research findings. Thus, a large sample size and broader scope of
participants’ areas of study is suggested for further study. With broader scope of participants, the
research results may bring more useful implications. Qualitative instruments should be included
so that it allows the researchers to gain more in-depth information and triangulate the data.
225
6.2 Conclusion
This study investigated the factors contributing to students’ anxiety in speaking English
and the types of communicative situations that the students experienced anxiety. Thirty third-year
undergraduate students studying in English Program, Huachiew Chalemprakiet University
participated in the study. Student Questionnaire with closed-ended questions were used to collect
the quantitative data. The findings revealed that the participants perceived that limited
vocabulary knowledge of students was the main factor of their anxiety in speaking English.
Other important sources of anxiety were speaking English with their peers and other
interlocutors, losing confidence when making mistake, worry about speaking with bad English
accents and worry about speaking English in daily life. The findings also reveal that the
participants experienced with varied degree of anxiety when getting involved in different
communicative situations. The most anxious situation for the participants was when they were
expected to respond and could not escape from conversation. When making presentations in
classrooms and speaking English with no preparation were also the situations they felt anxious at
a high level. In students’ perceptions, when speaking with native speakers of English and losing
confidence because of making mistakes in speaking were the situations the students felt anxious
at a moderate level.
7. References
Akkakoson, S. (2016). Speaking anxiety in English conversation classrooms among Thai
students. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 13(1), 63-82. Retrieved August
30, 2021 from https://doi.org/10.32890/mjli2016.13.1.4
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The
Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.2307/327317
Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D. J. (1991). Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to
Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hu, T.C. & Hsu, Y. J. (2020). Effects of a remedial program on beginner-level, low-achieving
EFL learners. Bull Educ. Psychol, 51, 686-711.
Kammungkun, P., Jansanti, P., Varasya, P., Wowong, S. (2020). Anxiety for speaking English
among first year students in Mahamakut Buddhist University lanna campus. Journal of
MCU Nakhondhat, 6(10), 5860-5875. Retrieved August 30, 2021 from https://so03.tci-
thaijo.org/index.php/JMND/article/view/227493
Kammungkun, P., & Wowong, S. (2019) Anxiety for Speaking English among first year students
in Mahamakut Buddhist University Alanna Campus,Vol.65. Retrieved August 30, 2021
from https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JMND/
article/download/227493/162319/805506
Kitano, K. (2001). Anxiety in the college Japanese language classroom. The Modern Language
Journal, 85(4), 549-566. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1193075
Lerttawisub, P. (2014). English speaking anxiety of Thai junior high school students in
Kanchaburi Province. Unpublished master’s thesis, Thammasart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Retrieved August 30, 2021 from
https://digital.library.tu.ac.th/tu_dc/frontend/Info/item/dc:98524
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Sultana, N., & Jamin, B. (2021). Overcoming Fear to Improve English Speaking Skill.
International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 7(5), 17-27.
https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2021.51202
Zhang, X. (2019). Exploring the relationship between college students’ writing anxiety and the
pedagogical use of online resources. International Journal of Educational Technology in
Higher Education, 16(1), 1-18.
8. Authors’ Biodata
Nattapon Kaewchoom, Siripreeya Thamthangsat Tunteera Langu, Niramol Rungsang,and
Chanita Meejit are undergraduate students studying in English Program, Department of
Language Studies, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University.
Dr. Pongpatchara Kawinkoonset is currently the Chair of English Program, Department of
Language Studies, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University. Her research
interests include developing English Language Skills, online language learning, develop English
writing ability and development of e-Reading.
Dr. Khwanchanok Suebsook is currently the Head of Department of Language Studies, Faculty
of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University. Her research interests include English
language teaching, language testing and assessment, teacher development and World Englishes.
227
The Prevalence of Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization among

Undergraduate English Major Students
Napatsorn Sriduang1, Chulatip Yaothaisong1, Wanaree Mangrueng1, Thanyarat Khotsuwan1,
Worada Khuntong1, Suwat Pienpanichskul2, Suphatha Rachayon1*
1
2
College of Chinese Studies, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University
*
Abstract
Cyberbullying has emerged as a significant issue in Thailand, with several studies
reporting high rates of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration among university students.
However, research investigating the prevalence of cyberbullying within specific academic
departments or disciplines is limited. This study aimed to address this gap by examining the
prevalence of cyberbullying among undergraduate English major students, while also identifying
the factors contributing to cyberbullying. Using a mixed-method approach, a survey research
design was adopted, with 51 English major students from a private university randomly selected
as participants. Quantitative data was collected using a close-ended questionnaire, while
qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. Results revealed that the
majority of participants had not engaged in cyberbullying, either as perpetrators or victims.
However, 9.80% of participants admitted to bullying others, while 7.84% reported being bullied
on social media. Understanding and perception of cyberbullying varied among participants, with
some unaware that they had been involved in certain types of cyberbullying. The most common
forms of cyberbullying reported were posting rude comments, spreading false information online,
and making fun of others’ English accents. Gender differences were also found to play a
significant role in cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, with females more likely to be
bullied online and LGBTQ individuals being more susceptible to being targeted. The findings
contribute to the understanding of cyberbullying among English major students and emphasize
the importance of educating students about cyberbullying and its various forms and promoting
healthy online behavior to mitigate the harmful effects of cyberbullying.
Keywords : Cyberbullying, Prevalence, Causal Factors, English major Students
1. Introduction
Cyberbullying is a worldwide problem that has garnered attention from researchers,

policymakers, and the public. According to a global study conducted by UNESCO,
approximately one-third of students aged 13 to 15 have experienced bullying, either in person or
online (UNESCO, 2018). Moreover, research shows that cyberbullying is not limited to a
particular region or culture but is a global phenomenon that affects young people worldwide
(Kowalski et al., 2014). For instance, a study conducted in Nigeria found that approximately
42% of secondary school students had experienced cyberbullying (Olawoyin et al., 2016).
Similarly, in China, research has shown that cyberbullying is prevalent among Chinese
adolescents, with approximately 23% reporting having been victimized (Li et al., 2019). In
another study conducted in Korea, cyberbullying victimization rates were found to be around
20% (Hong and Espelage, 2012). Furthermore, in the United States, research indicates that
approximately 37% of students aged 12 to 18 have experienced cyberbullying (Bauman et al.,
228
2013). Additionally, studies conducted in Europe have found that cyberbullying is a prevalent
problem, with victimization rates ranging from 4.4% to 34.4% depending on the country (Smith
et al., 2008; Erdur-Baker, 2010; Baldry et al., 2015).
Cyberbullying is also a significant problem in Thailand, with studies reporting high rates
of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among Thai youth. According to a study by
Saengcharoensap and Rujiprak (2021), 12.5% of Thai university students had engaged in
cyberbullying, while 23.3% had been victimized. The most common forms of cyberbullying
reported were name-calling, spreading rumors, and exclusion from online groups. Another study
by Samoh et al. (2019) surveying Thai university students also found that 44.4% had experienced
cyberbullying at some point, with the most common types being insults, rumors, and threats. The
study also found that students who had experienced cyberbullying were more likely to report
symptoms of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, Saengcharoensap et al. (2019) found that
cyberbullying victimization was associated with lower academic performance and lower levels
of self-esteem among Thai university students. The study also found that students who had
experienced cyberbullying were more likely to engage in risky behaviors such as substance use.
The prevalence of cyberbullying among university students is concerning because it can have
serious negative consequences for victims, such as depression, anxiety, and social isolation
(Kowalski et al., 2012; Hinduja and Patchin, 2015). Furthermore, cyberbullying can also lead to
academic problems, such as decreased motivation and lower academic performance (Beran and
Li, 2005).
While there are many studies exploring the prevalence of cyberbullying among university
students, most of these studies have been done with university students in general. There is a lack
of studies examining the prevalence of cyberbullying within specific academic departments or
disciplines. Also, few studies have examined whether certain departments or majors may be
more susceptible to cyberbullying or experience different types of cyberbullying. Thus, this
study aims to examine the prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among
undergraduate English major students, as well as to identify the factors that contribute to
cyberbullying among this population. The researchers hope that the results of this study will help
understand the types of cyberbullying experienced by English major students, which then can
inform the development of discipline-specific prevention and intervention strategies. Moreover,
identifying the factors that contribute to cyberbullying in specific academic contexts can inform
the development of policies and practices to prevent and respond to cyberbullying in higher
education institutions.
2. Literature Review
Definition of cyberbullying
According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2020), cyberbullying
is defined as "bullying that takes place on digital devices. It can happen through SMS, text
messages, apps, or online on social media, forums, or gaming where people can view, participate
in, or share content. It includes sending, posting, or sharing negative, harmful, false, or mean
content about someone else. It can include sharing personal or private information about
someone else causing embarrassment or humiliation. Some cyberbullying crosses the line into
unlawful or criminal behavior."
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Schultze-Krumbholz and Scheithauer (2013) define cyberbullying as "repeated aggressive acts

that are intentional and involve the use of modern communication media to intentionally harm
others who are less powerful than the perpetrator."
Patchin and Hinduja (2015) describe cyberbullying as "a new form of unwanted
aggressive behavior that has emerged in recent years through technological devices, primarily
smartphones and the internet. It involves the use of digital communication tools to intentionally
inflict harm or distress on others."
To conclude, while these definitions may differ in their wording and emphasis, they share these
core elements, providing a common understanding of cyberbullying as a form of intentional and
repeated aggression using digital communication tools to harm others who are in a less powerful
position.
Factors contributing to cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is a complex phenomenon that has been examined through different
theoretical frameworks. Two commonly utilized frameworks are the social cognitive theory and
the social-ecological model.
First, the social cognitive theory, proposed by Bandura (1977), focuses on how individuals learn
and develop behaviors through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. In the context of
cyberbullying, this theory suggests that individuals may engage in cyberbullying behavior if they
have witnessed or experienced it before, perceive it as effective, and receive positive
reinforcement for their actions.
The social-ecological model is another framework that can be used to understand
cyberbullying. According to Bronfenbrenner (1979). the model emphasizes the multiple levels of
influence on individuals' behaviors, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional,
community, and societal factors. It suggests that cyberbullying is influenced by a combination of
individual characteristics, relationships with peers and family, school and community
environments, and broader cultural norms and values.
To sum up, these frameworks provide valuable insights into the factors contributing to
cyberbullying, addressing both cognitive and contextual influences.
3. Objectives
This study aims to examine the prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration and
victimization among undergraduate English major students, as well as to identify the factors that
contribute to cyberbullying among this population. The study is guided by two research
questions:
1. What is the prevalence of cyberbullying
perpetration and victimization among undergraduate English major students?
2. What factors contribute to cyberbullying
perpetration and victimization among undergraduate English major students?

This study adopted a survey research design to investigate both the prevalence and causal
factors of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among undergraduate English major
students.
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The population of the study was 170 students who were studying English program, at the
Faculty of Liberal Arts, at a private university in Samutprakarn. 51 students, including first-year
students to fourth-year students, were randomly selected to be the participants in the study.
The data collection and analysis process utilized a mixed methods approach with a
concurrent triangulation design, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Research Design
QUAN QUAL
a close-ended a semi-structured
questionnaire interview
Interpretation based on
QUAN + QUAL results
For the quantitative part, the data were collected through a close-ended questionnaire.
The questionnaire, which was adapted from Saengcharoensap and Rujiprak (2021) and Hinduja
and Patchin (2021), included 4 parts as follows:
Part 1: Personal Information of the Participants
Part 2: Cyberbullying Perpetration, comprising 10 questions
Part 3: Cyberbullying Victimization, comprising 10 questions
Part 4: Factors Contributing to Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization,
comprising 6 questions
Part 5: Additional Comments
For the qualitative part, the semi-structured interview was adopted to collect the data. 15
out of 51 participants were randomly selected. These 15 students were asked for their
experiences and opinions toward cyberbullying.
Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics: frequency, percentage, mean,
and standard deviation (SD), while data obtained from the interviews were transcribed and
analyzed qualitatively.
5. Results
5.1 Demographic information of the participants
The personal information of the participants including their genders and years of studying
in the program is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic information of the participants
Year of Participants Male Female
Study N % N % N %
1st Year 12 23.53 4 7.84 8 15.69
nd
2 Year 12 23.53 5 9.80 7 13.73
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Year of Participants Male Female

Study N % N % N %
rd
3 Year 12 23.53 4 7.84 8 15.69
th
4 Year 15 29.41 7 13.73 8 15.69
TOTAL 51 100.00 20 39.22 31 60.78
Table 1 illustrates that the largest proportion of participants (29.41%) were fourth-year
students, while the percentages of first, second, and third-year students were equal at 23.53%
each. In terms of gender, 60.78% of the participants identified as female, while 39.22% identified
as male.
5.2 The prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among

undergraduate English major students
In order to answer Research Question 1: What is the prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration
and victimization among undergraduate English major students, the data collected from the
closed-ended questionnaire and the semi-structured interview were analyzed. The findings are
presented according to the following topics.
5.2.1 Quantitative findings from the closed-ended questionnaire
5.2.1.1 Prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration among undergraduate
English major students
Table 2 presents the results obtained from the closed-ended questionnaire regarding
cyberbullying perpetration. The data indicate that a vast majority of participants (90.20%)
reported that they had never engaged in cyberbullying on social media. Only five participants
(9.80%) admitted to being involved in cyberbullying. Among these participants, four reported
that they had bullied others online 1-2 times, while one participant admitted to doing so 3-4
times.
Table 2 The number and percentage of cyberbullying perpetration among undergraduate English
major students
Never 1-2 times 3-4 times 5-6 times > 6 times
Cyberbullying
Gender N N N N N N
perpetration
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
17 2 1
Male 20 0 0
Having bullied (33.33) (3.92) (1.96)
others on a 29 2
social media Female 31 0 0 0
(56.86) (3.92)
platform.
46 4 1
TOTAL 51 0 0
(90.20) (7.84) (1.96)
Table 3 displays the mean cyberbullying perpetration scores of the participants,
indicating how often they engaged in cyberbullying behavior as perpetrators. The data shows that,
on average, the participants never engaged in cyberbullying behavior (x = 1.32, SD = 0.50).
Moreover, the table provides information on the various types of cyberbullying perpetration,
with mean scores for each type ranging from 1.09 to 1.62. The highest mean score is for saying
something rude to someone on a social media platform (x = 1.62, SD = 0.73), followed by
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posting fake news about others on a social media platform (x = 1.43, SD = 0.63). The lowest
mean score, on the other hand, is posting someone’s secret things, photos, or videos without
his/her permission on a social media platform (x = 1.14, SD = 0.35).
Furthermore, Table 3 presents a comparison of mean scores between male and female
participants. The table shows that the mean cyberbullying perpetration scores for male and
female participants are equal, at 1.32 (SD = 0.31 and 0.53, respectively). This finding indicates
that both male and female participants had never bullied others online. However, both male and
female participants admitted that they had engaged in the behavior of saying something rude to
someone on a social media platform the most, with mean scores of 1.55 (SD = 0.69) and 1.68
(SD = 0.78), respectively.
The table also shows that male participants were least involved in making fun of someone’s
English accent on a social media platform (x = 1.15, SD = 0.29), while female participants were
least involved in posting someone’s secret things, photos, or videos without his/her permission
on a social media platform (x = 1.09, SD = 0.37).
Table 3 The mean scores of cyberbullying perpetration among undergraduate English major
students
Male Female TOTAL
Cyberbullying perpetration
SD Meaning SD Meaning SD Meaning
1. I made fun of someone’s

English accent on a social 1.15 0.37 Never 1.18 0.39 Never 1.17 0.38 Never
media platform.
2. I posted mean or hurtful
comments about someone’s
1.20 0.41 Never 1.27 0.46 Never 1.24 0.43 Never
poor English skills on a social
media platform.
3. I posted mean or hurtful
comments about someone’s
physical appearance on a social
media platform.
4. I criticized others harshly on
a social media platform.
5. I said something rude to
someone on a social media 1.55 0.69 1-2 times 1.68 0.78 1-2 times 1.62 0.73 1-2 times
platform.
7. I intentionally blocked or
deleted someone from their 1.20 0.41 Never 1.41 0.50 Never 1.31 0.47 Never
social media platform.
8. I posted someone’s secret
things, photos, or videos
without his/her permission on a
9. I posted fake news about
others on a social media 1.45 0.69 Never 1.41 0.59 Never 1.43 0.63 Never
platform.
Overall 1.32 0.31 Never 1.32 0.53 Never 1.32 0.50 Never
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5.2.1.2 Prevalence of cyberbullying victimization among undergraduate

Table 4 displays the results obtained from the closed-ended questionnaire on
cyberbullying victimization. The data indicate that most participants (92.16%) reported that they
had never been bullied online. Only four participants (7.84%) reported being bullied 1-2 times.
Table 4 The number and percentage of cyberbullying victimization among undergraduate
Never 1-2 times 3-4 times 5-6 times > 6 times
Cyberbullying
Gender N N N N N N
perpetration
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
18 2
Male 20 0 0 0
Having been (35.29) (3.92)
bullied on a 29 2
social media Female 31 0 0 0
(56.86) (3.92)
platform.
47 4
TOTAL 51 0 0 0
(92.16) (7.84)
Table 5 The mean scores of cyberbullying victimization among undergraduate English major
students
Male Female TOTAL
1. Someone made fun of my

English accent on a social 1.35 0.49 Never 1.27 0.70 Never 1.31 0.60 Never
media platform.
2. Someone posted mean or
hurtful comments about my
1.50 0.61 1-2 times 1.55 0.74 1-2 times 1.50 0.67 1-2 times
poor English skills on a social
media platform.
3. Someone posted mean or
hurtful comments about my
1.40 0.73 Never 1.55 0.74 1-2 times 1.48 0.74 1-2 times
physical appearance on a social
media platform.
4. Someone criticized me
harshly on a social media 1.40 0.75 Never 1.27 0.70 Never 1.33 0.72 Never
platform.
5. Someone said something
rude to me on a social media 1.80 0.70 1-2 times 1.77 0.87 1-2 times 1.80 0.78 1-2 times
platform.
7. Someone intentionally
blocked or deleted me from a 1.15 0.48 Never 1.55 0.74 1-2 times 1.36 0.66 Never
8. Someone posted my secret
things, photos, or videos
without my permission on a
9. Someone posted fake news
about me on a social media 1.55 0.69 1-2 times 1.59 0.85 1-2 times 1.57 0.77 1-2 times
platform.
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Male Female TOTAL

Overall 1.39 0.11 Never 1.43 0.76 Never 1.32 0.50 Never
Table 5 presents the mean scores of cyberbullying victimization experienced by the

participants, which indicates how often they had been bullied on social media. The data reveals
that, on average, the participants had never been bullied online (x = 1.32, SD = 0.50).
The mean scores for each type range from 1.21 to 1.80. The highest mean score is for being
subjected to rude comments on a social media platform (x = 1.80, SD = 0.78), followed by being
posted fake news about oneself on a social media platform (x = 1.57, SD = 0.77). The lowest
mean score, on the other hand, is for having one's private information, photos, or videos posted
without their consent on a social media platform (x = 1.21, SD = 0.61).
Table 5 also presents a comparison of mean scores between male and female participants. It is
evident that the mean cyberbullying victimization score for female participants is 1.43 (SD =
0.76) while the mean score for male participants is 1.39 (SD = 0.11). This finding suggests that
cyberbullying victimization is more prevalent among females.
It can also be seen that both male and female participants reported being subjected to
rude comments online 1-2 times, with mean scores of 1.80 (SD = 0.70) and 1.77 (SD = 0.87),
respectively. The type of cyberbullying victimization that male and female participants reported
being least involved in is having their private information, photos, or videos shared online
without their consent, with mean scores of 1.20 (SD = 0.51) and 1.23 (SD = 0.69), respectively.
5.2.2 Qualitative findings from the semi-structured interview
The participants were asked about their experiences with cyberbullying. The findings
revealed that some participants had been involved in cyberbullying both as a bully and as a
victim. However, it seems that most participants were not aware that they had engaged in some
kind of cyberbullying.
The details are presented according to the following topics:
5.2.2.1 Perception of cyberbullying among the participants
Most participants believed that cyberbullying involved an intentional act that caused
serious harm or damage to a person's reputation.
“Actually, when talking about cyberbullying I feel that it should be something more
serious, like aggressively fighting with each other on social media… something that
causes harm in real life…I just don’t think that making fun of my friends is also
counted as cyberbullying…” S.4
“I just don’t think that what I did, like posting my friend’s funny photo on Facebook is
cyberbullying… in my opinion, cyberbullying should be something more hurtful…...”
S. 2
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They also considered the relationship between the individuals involved as an essential
factor in determining whether an action was classified as cyberbullying or just harmless joking.
The participants were less likely to perceive close friends as cyber bullies.
“My friend took photos of me sleeping and posted them on Instagram…. They painted
my face with lipstick, but I was not angry at them… I think they were just having
fun...making me laugh…” S. 3
5.2.2.2 Types of cyberbullying experienced by the participants
Some participants said that they had been involved in making fun of others or
insulting someone on social media.
“I used to mock my friend’s funny English accent, but I did not mean to hurt
her, just having fun with her…” S.2
“I used to tell someone off in the LINE group because she did to me first…”
S.3
Besides, some participants reported that they had shared their friends’
embarrassing photos or videos on social media.
“I used to post funny photos of my friend on social media, but I told her
first…” S.2
“I used to take pictures of my friend sleeping in funny ways and post them on social
media…” S. 1
Additionally, some participants said that they used to block or exclude someone from
group chats.
“I used to unfriend or remove someone on Facebook because I could not put

up with their bad behaviors…. I think it is common to do so...” S. 5
Some participants said that they had been bullied in some ways on social media. Some
participants revealed that they were mocked or made fun of for their English accents.
“I used to be made fun of for my accent. I think they don’t like me, so they
made fun of me…… and I also heard someone gossiping about my English accent,
saying that they didn’t understand what I am talking…” S.5
“I had been made fun of for my accent and that made me lose my self-confidence...”
S. 4
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Besides, some participants reported that their friends used to post their funny photos or videos on
social media.
“My friend used to take photos of me sleeping…. They painted my face with lipstick,
but I was not angry at them… I think they were just having fun...it’s so funny…” S. 3
5.3 The factors contributing to cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among
undergraduate English major students
In order to answer Research Question 2: 2. What factors contribute to cyberbullying
perpetration and victimization among undergraduate English major students? The data collected
from the closed-ended questionnaire and the semi-structured interview were analyzed. The
findings are presented according to the following topics.
5.3.1 Quantitative findings from the closed-ended questionnaire
Table 6 presents the factors that contribute to cyberbullying perpetration and
victimization among undergraduate English major students.
Table 6 The mean scores of factors contributing to cyberbullying perpetration and victimization
among undergraduate English major students
Factors contributing to Male Female TOTAL
Cyberbullying SD Meaning SD Meaning SD Meaning
1. Gender differences 3.80 1.16 Agree 4.32 1.11 Agree 4.06 1.14 Agree
2. Family background
2.00 1.43 Disagree 2.32 1.46 Disagree 2.16 1.45 Disagree
differences
3. Social media addiction 3.41 1.33 Neutral 3.35 1.46 Neutral 3.38 1.40 Neutral
4. Anonymity in cyberspace 3.50 1.28 Agree 3.50 1.35 Agree 3.50 1.32 Agree
5. Insufficient cyberbullying
3.80 1.16 Agree 4.32 1.11 Agree 4.06 1.14 Agree
laws
6. Degree of self-esteem 3.95 1.15 Agree 4.09 1.15 Agree 4.02 1.15 Agree
Table 6 illustrates that, on average, participants rated gender differences and inadequate
cyberbullying laws as the primary factors for cyberbullying, with an average score of 4.06 (SD =
1.14). Conversely, family background differences had the lowest impact on cyberbullying, as
indicated by a mean score of 2.16 (SD = 1.45).
Additionally, the data shows that male participants considered self-esteem to be the most crucial
factor for cyberbullying (x = 3.95, SD = 1.15), while family background differences were the
least important (x = 2.00, SD = 1.43). Among female participants, both gender differences and
inadequate cyberbullying laws were equally rated as the primary cyberbullying factors, with an
average score of 4.32 (SD = 1.11). Similar to male participants, females also rated family
background differences as having the lowest impact on cyberbullying (x = 2.32, SD = 1.46).
5.3.2 Qualitative findings from the interview
The participants were asked about their opinions about the factors that contribute to
cyberbullying, both in terms of perpetration and victimization. The results are classified
according to the following topics.
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5.3.2.1 Consequences of offline incidents

The participants indicated that the majority of cyberbullying perpetration and
victimization stems from prior offline incidents. Both bullies and victims often harbor negative
feelings towards each other in real life, and then use cyberspace as a means of retaliation.
“So, when we were working on assignments together, I had some issues with some of
my classmates. And then, she went and told other people in our LINE group about me,
which made them feel negative towards me.…” S. 10
“I used to snap pics of my friend snoozing in funny poses and share them on social
media. I did it to get back at her because she had done the same to me…” S. 1
“…what happened was that I was really angry at someone for something she did to
me, and I ended up posting something rude about her on Facebook. I just wanted to
vent and tell other people about what had happened. I thought that posting it could
help me calm down and feel better…” S. 4
“I used to be made fun of for my accent. I think they don’t like me, so they made fun of
me…” S. 5
5.3.2.2 Gender differences

The participants thought that gender was the key factor causing cyberbullying
perpetration and victimization. Most participants believed that females are more likely than
males to engage in cyberbullying victimization. They also thought that LGBTQ community is
more susceptible to bullying than cisgender males or females.
“I think LGBTQ are the group of people that are made fun of the most……” S. 7
“Well, in my opinion, women are more likely to be targets of cyberbullying compared

to men. This might be because they use social media more often than men do, such as
posting more pictures and stuff like that.” S. 5
5.3.2.3 Anonymity of cyberspace

The participants believed that the anonymity of cyberspace encourages people to engage
in cyberbullying. This anonymity allows individuals to express opinions about specific targets
that they might not be able to do in real life.
“I feel like sometimes we share our thoughts or comments about someone without
really considering the consequences because we think that no one will know that it
was us who said it. But if it were in real life, we might not say those things....” S. 7
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6. Discussion
In this study, the prevalence and causal factors of cyberbullying perpetration among
undergraduate English major students were examined based on the quantitative and qualitative
data collected from the close-ended questionnaire and the semi-structured interview. The
quantitative findings from the questionnaire revealed that the majority of participants had never
engaged in cyberbullying, either as a perpetrator or a victim. However, the qualitative findings
indicated that some participants were unaware of their involvement in cyberbullying, and
perceptions of cyberbullying varied among the participants. Types of cyberbullying reported
included posting rude comments about someone, making fun of others, sharing embarrassing
photos or videos, and exclusion from group chats. Factors contributing to cyberbullying were
analyzed, with gender differences and inadequate cyberbullying laws rated as primary factors.
Offline incidents, gender differences, and the anonymity of cyberspace were identified as
influential factors in cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. The results are discussed as
follows.
First, although the data from the close-ended questionnaire showed that a vast majority of
the participants had never engaged in cyberbullying, either as a perpetrator or a victim, there
were a number of participants involved in bullying on a social media platform. That is, about
10% of the participants admitted that they had bullied others online and about 8% reported that
they had been bullied by others on social media sites. The findings of this study are in line with
those from other previous studies, in which the researchers found a significant number of
undergraduate students or youth were involved in cyberbullying behavior (Finn, 2004: Dilmac
2009; MacDonald and Roberts-Pittman, 2010; Pena, 2011; Zalaquett and Chatters, 2014;
Chinpong, 2018; Vitto, 2018; Saengcharoensap and Rujiprak, 2021).
Second, the qualitative data from the interview revealed that there were a number of
participants who were unaware that they had been involved in certain types of cyberbullying
perpetration or victimization. This is due to the fact that most participants defined cyberbullying
not only as an intentional act that caused serious harm or damage to someone’s reputation but
also as an act that was done by other people, not their close friends. As a result, they did not
consider posting embarrassing photos or making fun of their friends' accents or appearances as
cyberbullying perpetration. Instead, they viewed these actions as usual matters, joking around
with their friends. This is confirmed by the qualitative data from the interview, which showed
that the participants were not angry if they were made fun of by their close friends. Moreover,
the action was viewed positively, as having fun with friends. On the contrary, if the same action
was done by other people, it would be counted as cyberbullying, and that would pose negative
effects on them, like making them feel sad or even lose their self-confidence. This finding aligns
with previous studies examining Thai youth's perceptions of cyberbullying, including the work
of Samoh et al (2019), which found that youth believed that cyberbullying had to cause actual
harm or annoyance and be carried out with malicious intent. Furthermore, close friends were
typically not regarded as cyber bullies.
Regarding the types of cyberbullying, the study found that the most frequent form of
cyberbullying perpetration that the participants had been involved in was posting rude comments
about someone online and spreading false information about them on social media. This finding
aligns with earlier research (Garaigordobil, 2015; Zhu, 2021) indicating that verbal aggression is
the most prevalent form of cyberbullying. One possible explanation for this pattern is that with
the ability to remain anonymous online, the participants viewed posting rude comments as a
239
means of venting their frustration from in-person interactions since they were afraid of doing so
in real life.
In addition to posting rude comments about someone, participants also reported instances
of cyberbullying where others made fun of them. Through interviews, it was discovered that
several participants shared their experiences of being targeted for cyberbullying due to their
English accents. These incidents had a negative impact on their self-esteem and made them feel
disliked by others. The reason why English accents were frequently targeted in cases of
cyberbullying could be attributed to the fact that students learning a second language often aspire
to acquire a native-sounding accent, as supported by various studies (Derwing, 2003;
McCrocklin and Link, 2016). Consequently, accents become the primary aspect they prioritize
when assessing the language proficiency of others. Likewise, studies on speaking anxiety (Price,
1991; Coppinger and Sheridan, 2022) revealed that ESL learners expressed concerns about their
pronunciation and the fear of embarrassing themselves in social settings. It appears that this
anxiety significantly contributes to the vulnerability of ESL learners to cyberbullying in this
context.
Furthermore, it was found in the study that blocking or deleting someone from their
online network was rated as the least prevalent cyberbullying behavior among the participants,
according to the data from the close-ended questionnaire. However, in the interview, some
participants admitted that they did so several times, which is in line with Saengcharoensap and
Rujiprak (2021) who found that the majority of the cyberbullies had blocked or deleted one
friend or more from their social networks. This might be because some participants believed that
blocking or deleting someone from group chats or social media sites was not cyberbullying
perpetration. They thought it was common to do so to protect themselves from any upset and
even a way to prevent bullying.
Lastly, it was found in this study that gender differences played an important role in
cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Although the study found that the prevalence rates
in cyberbullying perpetration between male and female participants were equal, female
participants were more likely to be bullied online than their male counterparts. Similarly, the
qualitative data show that most participants believed that were more vulnerable to cyberspace
victimization compared to males. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have
reported a higher prevalence of cyber-victimization among girls (Kawalski et al, 2012; DeHue et
al, 2008; Hinduja and Patchin, 2015; Ybarra and Mitchell, 2004; Kwan and Skoric, 2013).
Additionally, the study participants also believed that LGBTQ community was more susceptible
to being targeted in cyberbullying, which is in line with the findings of Baumeister et al, 2016;
Greytak et al, 2013; Mustanski et al, 2010; Rivers, 2011; and Sabella, 2013.
7. Conclusion
This study shed light on the prevalence and causal factors of cyberbullying perpetration
among undergraduate English major students using a combination of quantitative and qualitative
data. The findings revealed that while a majority of participants had not engaged in
cyberbullying, a notable percentage admitted to both perpetrating and experiencing
cyberbullying on social media platforms. The qualitative data highlighted a lack of awareness
among some participants regarding their involvement in certain types of cyberbullying,
particularly when it was carried out by close friends. The most common form of cyberbullying
perpetration reported by the participants was posting rude comments about someone online and
240
spreading false information about them on social media. Participants also shared experiences of
cyberbullying related to English accents, indicating the impact of language proficiency and
speaking anxiety. Blocking or deleting individuals from online networks was found to be less
prevalent, with some participants perceiving it as a protective measure rather than cyberbullying
perpetration. Gender differences also played a significant role in cyberbullying perpetration and
victimization, with females being more likely to be bullied online and LGBTQ individuals being
more susceptible to being targeted in cyberbullying. These findings contributed to the
understanding of cyberbullying among English major students, as well as highlighted the
importance of educating students about cyberbullying and its various forms and promoting
healthy online behavior to mitigate the harmful effects of cyberbullying.
8. References
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Empowering ESL Teachers with Generative AI

Peter Snashall
*
Abstract
This research paper investigates the potential of generative AI technology, specifically
large language models (LLMs), in enhancing English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction by
offering teachers an innovative tool to create engaging and dynamic classroom activities. In
addition to emphasizing the rapid development of LLMs and machine learning in language
education, the study also underscores the necessity for teachers to acquire the skill of prompt
engineering to harness the full benefits of AI. The methodology combines qualitative and
quantitative survey data collected from ESL teachers who evaluated the usefulness and relevance
of AI-generated prompts created by advanced LLMs for various ESL exercises, such as role-
plays, vocabulary quizzes, and listening tasks. The research also examines the potential benefits
and challenges associated with integrating generative AI, including LLMs and machine learning,
into language teaching. The survey results reveal a positive response from teachers, indicating
that generative AI and LLMs can enhance the quality and variety of ESL activities and save
teachers valuable preparation time. By using AI to creatively generate exercises and mastering
prompt engineering (writing instructions for AI), teachers can increase student engagement,
promote language acquisition, and accommodate diverse topics, learning styles, and proficiency
levels. However, concerns regarding the accuracy of AI-generated content are also highlighted,
emphasizing the importance of proofreading, critical evaluation and customization of AI-
generated materials by teachers. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of these
findings for ESL instruction and future research in the field of language education, LLMs, and AI
technology. Recommendations are provided for best practices in leveraging generative AI tools,
including LLMs, and developing prompt engineering skills to maximize their potential in ESL
teaching while mitigating potential risks and challenges. This research contributes to the growing
body of literature on the intersection of AI, LLMs, and language education, and its findings hold
promise for enhancing the teaching and learning experience in ESL classrooms.
Keywords : generative AI, AI prompts, teacher development, teacher materials, teacher

efficiency, prompt engineering
1. Introduction
Teachers are overworked and underpaid, and they have to deal with a lot of
administrative paperwork. They also have to prepare for classes with inadequate resources. They
have to grade assignments and exams, learn online skills, and attend meetings. Not only that,
they have to deal with overcrowded classrooms and/or huge classes online. My thesis is that the
new forms of Generative AI emerging now can provide invaluable assistance to teachers. It can
help them to create customized courses for specific subjects and topics. It can help teachers to
create quizzes and tests that are more effective in assessing student understanding. It can help
teachers create interesting teaching materials. All these tasks can be done much more quickly.
Consequently, teachers can manage their own time more effectively. In short, AI can help
teachers be more creative, more efficient and effective in nearly every task they perform.
Teachers who take advantage of AI have the opportunity to become highly valued professionals.
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In fact, it is already being suggested that the ability to talk to AI could be the most important skill
of the century (Warzel, 2023).
Generative AI is the artificial ability to do certain tasks faster and more efficiently than is
possible with human intelligence. The goal of generative AI in education is to provide students
with learning experiences that are tailored to their individual needs and abilities. Generative AI
can be used by teachers to create customized lesson plans, assess student progress, and provide
feedback. The benefits of using Generative AI in education include increased student
engagement and motivation, improved academic performance, and reduced workload for
teachers. Some potential challenges of using generative AI in education include the potential for
bias and discrimination, the need for data privacy and security, and the need for teacher training.
Generative AI can be used to improve teaching in the future by providing more personalized and
effective instruction, reducing the workload for teachers, and improving communication between
teachers and students.
The rapid evolution of artificial intelligence (AI), particularly through generative models
such as GPT-4, introduces novel opportunities for educators . However, the path to such
empowerment is not without its hurdles. Although AI models have markedly improved in recent
years, challenges persist. Lu et al. (2023) underscore the necessity of appreciating not just the
capabilities but also the limitations of these models, emphasizing the importance of
understanding what prompts they can effectively process. AI's prowess, though impressive, is
still marred by various errors, from grammatical and usage inaccuracies, through incoherent
responses and self-contradictions, to factual errors and violations of common sense
understanding (Dou et al., 2022). Therefore, while leveraging the power of AI in the realm of
ESL teaching shows immense promise, critical scrutiny of AI systems and continuous
development to overcome their shortcomings are imperative to ensure their reliability and
applicability.
2. Objectives
1. Investigate the potential of generative AI technology, specifically large language models
(LLMs), in enhancing ESL instruction by providing teachers with a tool to create engaging and
dynamic classroom activities.
2. Explore the necessity for ESL teachers to acquire the skill of prompt engineering in order
to harness the full benefits of AI-generated content for language education.
3. Analyze qualitative and quantitative survey data from ESL teachers who evaluated the
usefulness and relevance of AI-generated prompts created by advanced LLMs for various ESL
exercises.
4. Examine the potential benefits and challenges associated with integrating generative AI,
including LLMs and machine learning, into language teaching, such as improved engagement,
language acquisition, and personalized learning opportunities, as well as accuracy and cultural
appropriateness concerns.
5. Evaluate the implications of these findings for ESL instruction, the field of language
education, and the future research on LLMs and AI technology, discussing how they may
contribute to the enhancement of the teaching and learning experience in ESL classrooms.
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6. Provide recommendations for best practices in leveraging generative AI tools, including

LLMs, and developing prompt engineering skills to maximize their potential in ESL teaching
while mitigating potential risks and challenges.
7. Finally, to answer the research question: How can generative AI technology, specifically
large language models, be utilized to empower ESL teachers, and what are the necessary skills,
potential benefits, challenges, and best practices associated with integrating this technology into
language instruction?

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of generative AI in empowering ESL teachers by
providing them with innovative and useful teaching materials. In order to examine the efficacy of
AI-generated prompts in producing valuable teaching resources, we employed a survey-based
approach utilizing Google Forms. This section provides a detailed overview of the methodology
followed in this research.
1. Participants
The participants in this study were a group of ESL teachers with varying levels of teaching
experience, educational backgrounds, and teaching contexts. A total of 5 ESL teachers were
randomly selected from an online database of educators to ensure a representative sample. The
participants were informed about the purpose of the study and were ensured that their responses
would remain confidential and be used solely for research purposes.
2. Materials
Six AI-generated prompts were created using a generative AI model, specifically designed to
produce educational resources for ESL teachers. These prompts were designed to cover a range
of language skills, including grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and speaking
activities. Each prompt was designed/engineered to create a corresponding AI-generated exercise
or activity.
3. Survey Design
An online survey was created using Google Forms to collect data from the participants. The
survey consisted of three main sections:
a) AI-generated Prompt Evaluation: In this section, participants were asked to evaluate the
effectiveness of each of the six AI-generated prompts in producing useful teaching materials. A
10-point Likert scale was used, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 10 (Strongly Agree).
Participants were also asked to provide qualitative feedback in the form of comments for each
prompt, elaborating on their evaluations.
b) Overall Impressions: The final section of the survey asked participants to provide their general
thoughts on the potential of generative AI to empower ESL teachers and to suggest any
improvements or further research directions.
4. Data Collection
The online survey link was distributed to selected ESL teachers via email, and they were given
one week to complete the survey. A follow-up email was sent to remind the participants a week
before the deadline. After the data collection period, the responses were exported from Google
Forms and analyzed.
5. Data Analysis
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Quantitative data from the Likert scale evaluations were analyzed using descriptive statistics to
determine the overall effectiveness of the AI-generated prompts. Qualitative feedback from the
comments section was analyzed using thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns
in the participants' perceptions of the prompts. This combined approach allowed for a more
comprehensive understanding of the potential of generative AI in empowering ESL teachers.
4. Results
The survey for the usefulness of AI for teachers consisted of six prompts for ChatGPT
(OpenAI). The prompts are an example of prompt engineering. They have been created through
acquired AI skills, trial and error testing, and a deep knowledge and experience of the subject
area, using OpenAI’s ChatGPT-4 (a paid subscription service). Consequently, people who used
Chat GPT-3 for the survey would have had inferior results. ChatGPT-4 is a superior application
and many of the problems encountered in ChatGPT-3 have been eliminated. Previous research
has noted some of the errors that can be found in GPT-3 and sometimes in GPT-4. This can be
most easily understood in the infographic below (Dou et al., 2022).
Figure 1: Common unigrams and bi-grams showing error type.
The prompts below were assessed for their usefulness from 1-10 as can be seen in following the
charts and comments.
Table 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Prompt 1: Create a 10 line conversation

for making a doctor's appointment
✓ ✓ ✓
between a receptionist and a patient as an
English as a second language role play:
Prompt 2: Make a create-your-own
conversation exercise with a word bank
✓✓ ✓
for English as a second language students
studying how to express opinions.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Prompt 3: Create gap fill sentences with

multiple choice answers for each of the
✓ ✓ ✓
items below, A/B/C:
1. good service
2. pay employees well
3. reduce prices
4. good location
5. provide snacks
6. promotions
7. open 24 hours
Prompt 4: Create exercises for English

as a second language students studying
✓ ✓✓
the topic “taste and nutrition” including:
a ranking/prioritizing exercise; an opinion
statement agree/disagree exercise
exercise; and a sentence starter complete-
the-sentence with your own ideas
exercise.
Prompt 5: Create exercises for English
as a second language students studying
✓✓ ✓
the environment including:
a classifying exercise; a
collocation exercise; and a fill-in-the-
blank sentence exercise with a word
bank.
Prompt 6: Create an English as a second
language conversations skills exercise,
✓ ✓ ✓
with 5 short gap fill conversations with a
word bank , between students with
different names for English as a second
language students studying the
topic: making decisions.
Prompt 1: This prompt achieved a median rating of 9 in the survey, showing that all teachers
thought it was impressive. The usefulness of the prompt in Table 1 lies in its focus on a common
and essential task, making a doctor's appointment, which students might need to perform in their
day-to-day lives. Furthermore, as the conversation is limited to 10 lines, it saves time and allows
teachers to efficiently cover multiple topics within a single lesson. This brevity also encourages
students to practice and memorize the dialogue, ultimately leading to better retention and
application of the language. Overall, this prompt supports the development of functional English
skills and promotes language acquisition through contextualized and meaningful practice.
Prompt 2: This prompt achieved a median rating of 8.5 in the survey. It creates an activity that
not only encourages students to practice their vocabulary and grammatical skills, but it also
encourages critical thinking and self-expression. By engaging in this exercise, students learn to
construct sentences and articulate their thoughts effectively, while adapting to different
conversational contexts. Additionally, the word bank serves as a valuable resource that helps
students enrich their vocabulary and gain familiarity with various expressions used to convey
opinions. As ESL teachers aim to develop their students' language proficiency, this exercise
promotes active participation, collaboration, and confidence in speaking English, ultimately
leading to a more comprehensive and meaningful learning experience.
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Prompt 3: Prompt 3 focuses on the creation of multiple choice exercises. This prompt achieved
a median rating of 7.6 in the survey. Some teachers weren’t as impressed with this prompt.
Perhaps, not all teachers like using multiple choice, or perhaps it requires more proofreading and
editing. Or perhaps the teachers lack prompt engineering skills. This prompt can be extremely
useful for English as a second language (ESL) teachers as it streamlines the process of
generating engaging and effective learning materials. By providing an efficient framework for
creating multiple exercises (questions or gap fill format), this prompt allows teachers to save
valuable time and energy that can be redirected towards tailoring lessons to their students' needs,
addressing individual challenges, and cultivating an interactive classroom environment.
Additionally, the multiple-choice aspect of this format promotes a deeper understanding of the
language, as students are required to not only identify the missing word but also choose the most
appropriate option from a set of possibilities. This engages critical thinking and contextual
understanding, further enhancing their language acquisition process. Overall, this prompt serves
as a practical tool for ESL educators, simplifying the task of crafting educational resources and
enabling a more effective learning experience.
Prompt 4: This prompt achieved an impressive median rating of 8.6 in the survey. Prompt 4
serves as an invaluable tool for English as a second language (ESL) teachers, as it provides a
formula for the creation of diverse and engaging exercises centered around any topic. By
incorporating a ranking/prioritizing exercise, an opinion statement agree/disagree exercise, and a
sentence starter complete-the-sentence exercise, this prompt enables instructors to develop a
comprehensive lesson plan that simultaneously targets various language skills. As students work
through these activities, they have the opportunity to practice reading, writing, speaking, and
critical thinking skills, all while expanding their vocabulary and understanding of the topic.
Moreover, the prompt's multifaceted nature allows teachers to efficiently generate multiple
exercises at once, saving valuable preparation time and ensuring that students receive a well-
rounded learning experience.
Prompt 5: This prompt also achieved an impressive median rating of 8.3 in the survey. Prompt
5, which requests the creation of exercises for English as a second language (ESL) students
studying a specific topic ( the environment, in this case), can be particularly useful for ESL
teachers as it adds variety to their lessos. By integrating different types of exercises, such as
classifying, collocation, and fill-in-the-blank activities with a word bank, teachers can cater to
diverse learning styles and keep students engaged. Furthermore, these exercises promote a well-
rounded understanding of the subject matter by focusing on both vocabulary development and
context comprehension. Overall, implementing this prompt in the classroom supports a dynamic,
comprehensive, and relevant learning experience for ESL students.
Prompt 6: This prompt achieved a median rating of 7.6 in the survey. The rating is a little bit
lower, perhaps because of the complexity of the prompt. Most people in the survey were using
GPT3. I think more complex prompts require GPT4. This prompt (6) emphasizes the ability of
AI to create extremely customized teaching materials. Focusing on conversation skills exercises
with gap fill activities, the prompt enables teachers to craft engaging scenarios that reflect
authentic interactions between students with different names. This diversity in names promotes
inclusivity and helps students identify with the characters in the conversations. The prompt's
emphasis on the topic of "making decisions" fosters critical thinking skills and relevant language
acquisition, further enhancing the learning experience. By designing exercises that cater to
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students' individual linguistic levels and interests, ESL teachers can significantly improve their
students' communicative competence and overall language proficiency.
5. Discussion
Artificial intelligence is continuously improving, and the analysis of open-ended
generative models such as GPT-4 sheds light on the limitations and strengths of these AI
systems. Lu et al. (2023) emphasize the importance of understanding the capabilities of these
models by analyzing the prompts they can and cannot handle. By categorizing prompts by their
constraints, researchers can create clear bounds on model capabilities, which ultimately
contributes to model explainability and points to future directions for improvement.
One example of AI improvement is evident in the transition from GPT-3 to GPT-4. GPT-4
exhibits enhanced performance and capabilities, particularly in tasks such as natural language
understanding, text generation, question-answering, summarization, and translation (OpenAI).
This improvement is due in part to a larger model size and more diverse training data, as well as
better handling of constraints in prompts, such as document-type, structural, stylistic, and subject
constraints (Lu et al., 2023).
Despite these improvements, AI models are still prone to errors. Dou et al. (2022) outline
various error types found in AI-generated text, such as grammar and usage errors, off-prompt
responses, redundancy, self-contradiction, and incoherence. Factual errors, such as bad math,
encyclopedic inaccuracies, and violations of commonsense understanding, also persist. These
errors reveal the ongoing need for scrutiny and development in AI systems to ensure they
provide accurate and coherent information.
Nonetheless, artificial intelligence, particularly in the realm of open-ended generative
models like GPT-4, is improving through a more fine-grained understanding of model
capabilities and limitations (Lu et al., 2023). This understanding is crucial in driving
explainability and providing direction for future advancements in AI technology. While progress
has been made, it is important to continue addressing the errors and shortcomings of AI systems
to ensure their reliability and usefulness in real-world applications (Dou et al., 2022).
One way of looking at the improvement in AI and large language models can be seen in
the growing public awareness of its abilities. For example, Steve Johnson wrote in the New York
Times in April 2022:
OpenAI’s GPT-3 and other neural nets can now write original prose with mind-boggling
fluency — a development that could have profound implications for the future.
And in an article in The Atlantic Magazine, writer Charlie Warzel discusses how prompt
engineering, the skill of writing effective instructions for AI models, is becoming an essential
21st-century skill. Teachers are recognizing the potential of prompt engineering in their
classrooms as well. He gives the example of Ethan Mollick, a professor at the University of
Pennsylvania, who has adapted his syllabus since the release of ChatGPT to incorporate this skill.
He asks his students to imagine ChatGPT as a student and teach it by prompting it to write an
essay about a specific class concept. The students must then refine the AI's essay, much like a
professor during office hours, until it demonstrates sufficient mastery of the subject. This
exercise not only helps students learn by explaining, but it also teaches them the valuable skill of
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writing effective prompts. As AI integration in various aspects of life continues to grow, prompt
engineering will likely become a crucial skill for teachers and students alike.
Another article demonstrating the rapid advances of AI recently appeared in the
technology magazine Wired in March 2022. Clive Thompson described the experience of a coder,
Aboukhadijeh, when using the AI engine Copilot:
He discovered that it had other impressive tricks; it could even understand commands he
wrote in basic English. If he simply typed into his code editor “Write a function that
capitalizes every word in a document,” Copilot would assemble that code all by
itself. He’d check to make sure it didn’t have errors; sometimes it did.
It is helpful to read technology journalists, coders and computer scientists, to keep up with how
AI can help teachers more easily create engaging teaching materials (and assist them in many
other tasks). Just as these journalists and coders have been experimenting with using generative
AI capabilities for coding and language tasks, it can be used for creating teaching activities.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the potential for Generative AI to revolutionize ESL teaching and
empower educators is significant, as evidenced by its capabilities in personalization, automation,
interaction, and creativity. It provides a unique opportunity to create tailored educational content,
enhance student engagement, and reduce administrative burdens on teachers.
However, it is paramount for educators to familiarize themselves with prompt
engineering, to harness the potential of AI effectively. This skill will allow them to develop
customized and specialized courses, automate various manual processes, quickly respond to
student queries, and create diverse teaching materials in various formats. Consequently,
educators will be able to cater to the specific needs of specific groups of students, as well as
individual students, and ensure that the materials are tailored to their students' abilities. And as
AI technology continues to expand its capabilities, teachers will be able to easily incorporate
more diverse materials including visual aids, audio and video into their teaching activities. Of
course, teachers must also remain vigilant and maintain an active role in the process,
proofreading AI-generated content to mitigate inaccuracies or misinformation.
Future research on AI should focus on understanding the technology's ability to generate
more diverse and accurate educational content, whilst addressing concerns over data privacy,
security, and potential bias. Prompt engineering, is one aspect of AI that will undoubtedly
become a focus of a lot of research. Future developments in the area should include training
programs to equip teachers with the necessary AI skills, thus creating a future where the power
of AI is harnessed efficiently and ethically for the betterment of ESL education. By bridging the
gap between technology and pedagogy, we can democratize access to quality language education,
enable more inclusive classrooms, and ultimately, create a more globally connected,
linguistically diverse society. The fusion of AI and education holds promise, but it must be
navigated wisely to ensure that the human element of teaching is preserved, and that educational
outcomes are prioritized above all. As we tread this path, the collective goal should be leveraging
AI not to replace educators, but to augment their capabilities and allow them to focus more on
what they do best – inspiring and nurturing the minds of tomorrow.
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9. Appendices
Appendix A: Creating a conversation

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THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING ENGLISH USING A PODACST ON THE

LISTENING ABILITY OF THAI EFL LEARNERS
Armanaya Montawat*, Kanyarat Chaicharoey, Sunitcha Chantarachote, Danukan Yiain,
Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate
*Email : [email protected]
Abstract
Listening is the most important skill in learning language, especially English as foreign
language. At present, Thai EFL learners have faced problems in listening English particularly,
vocabulary, accent, and the rate of speech. The objective of this research was to examine the
effects of learning English using a podcast toward the listening ability of Thai EFL learners. This
research also studied learner’s opinions of learning English using podcast. With the quantitative
and qualitative research method, this research was conducted with twenty people who are third-
year undergraduate students studying in English major, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew
Chalermprakiet University. The participants were selected using clustered random sampling. The
researchers used the achievement test (pre-test and post-test) to examine the effects of learning
English through podcast on the listening ability of Thai learners. Learners Questionnaire was
used to investigate learner’s satisfactions towards learning English through podcasts. Based on
the results, the post-test mean score for listening ability ( =13.45, SD =2.28) was higher than
that of the pre-test mean score ( =11.90, SD =2.85). The paired t-test showed a significant
difference between the pre-test scores (t = 6.945, p< 0.05). The results from the pair t-test which
showed a significant difference in the Pre- and Post-test scores and the high post test scores of
individual students, so it indicated that the use of podcast in English learning has an influence on
learners’ listening ability. The findings revealed that the participants had positive attitudes
towards the use of podcasts in learning English. They agreed with the use of podcasts because
the content of the podcast is interesting, the podcast has a variety of content and so on.
Keywords : Listening Ability, Podcast, Teaching English, EFL Students Learning English
Ju
1. Introduction
English as an international language (EIL) is considered by applied linguists to be a new
paradigm for research, practice and English language teaching (ELT) (Vodopija-Krstanović &
Marinac, 2019, p. 19). At present, English is used as a means of intercultural communication.
Thailand, being a member of the ASEAN, has to communicate with its ASEAN neighbors for
matters involving business and trade, medicine and health, and education and culture. (Hilado-
Deita, 2019, p. 20). Even many learners are taught from elementary level, but some of them are
still feel difficult in learning English listening such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Moreover, there are many new technologies that play an important role in teaching, for example,
a podcast.
Podcast is an audio or visual content that is automatically delivered over a network via
free subscription (Rajic, 2013, p. 90). Podcasts are typically available as a series of prerecorded
talk-radio shows that users can download to their computers or mobile devices. Podcasters often
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publish episodes on a regular schedule. There is no prescribed format, length or style for a
podcast. They may cover a range of subject areas, but an episode often focuses on one topic or
story. Some podcasters read from a script, while others improvise (Lutkevich, 2022).
At the present, many educators see the huge potential of podcast, and it has emerged as a
powerful tool for extensive listening skill to improve EFL learners (Borneo, 2018, p. 190).
Podcasts are a great option for them as these are digital audio episodes which can be downloaded
onto a device and listened to by students at their convenience (Yiemkuntitavorn & Rattanapan,
2021, p. 31). It is a great way to add podcast to your English learning listening ability because
listening has an important role both in daily life and in academic contexts as it is crucial for
people to sustain effective communication (Yildirim, & Yildirim, 2016, p. 2094). it helps
improve vocabulary, pronunciation, and also speaking skill. Podcast is also can make learners
used to with many different accents. Therefore, podcast can motivate learners as its entertaining
learners while using podcast to improve their listening skill.
In the previous study, the investigation of the effectiveness of podcast aims to improve
students’ listening skill. The researcher used one class in the seventh grade of SMP
Muhammadiyah 35 Jakarta as the sample. The results of the analysis show that the mean score of
students is 89.4, statistical calculations show the result to (observation) > t (t-table) obtained are
17.986 while the Tt value is 1.721 with a significant level of 5% (0.05), because To is higher than
Tt. From the result of this analysis this study concludes that using Podcast was an effective media
to improve students’ listening skills. (Nisa, Izzah & Hadi, 2022, p. 45).
Another previous study reviewed 20 articles published around 2020-2010 to find the
effects of using podcast in teaching English to EFL students. The result of this study showed that
podcast can increase language ability, especially the listening skill. Furthermore, podcast can
motivate students in learning language. Teachers are recommended to use podcast as an
interesting technological tool to support language learning for Indonesian students. The students
confirmed that podcast is fascinating when it is used in the learning of listening skill. (Indahsari,
2020, p. 103),
According to the study of (Hasan & Tan, 2012, p. 160), this study examines ESL students’
perceptions and attitudes towards the use of podcasts in terms of developing their listening
competence. Perceptions and attitudes towards podcasts have been investigated through a survey
questionnaire. The vast majority of the respondents stated that they enjoyed using podcast and
that it had stimulated their interest in learning English. They also acknowledged that the use of
podcasts could help improve their language skills particularly listening.
Additionally, several studies have examined only aspects of quantitative or qualitative.
They often used either an achievement test or questionnaire, but they have not examined a lot of
both quantitative and qualitative using an achievement test and questionnaire with learners.
According to many studies, this research was conducted to fulfill the research gap that have both
quantitative and qualitative using an achievement test and questionnaire with learners in order to
make the results clearer.
2. The objective of the study
The objective of this study was two-fold

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1) to examine the effects of learning English using a podcast toward the listening ability of
Thai EFL learners.
2) to studied learner’s opinions of learning English using podcast.
The research questions of this study were:
1) What extent the podcast can contribute learners’ English listening ability?
2) What are the learner’s attitudes towards English learning with podcast?

3.1 Research design & Participants
The research design used in this research was quantitative and qualitative based on
research questions “What extent the podcast can contribute learners’ English listening ability?”
and “What are the learner’s attitudes towards English learning with podcast?” This research was
conducted at Huachiew Chalermprakiet University. In the process of selecting participants, the
researchers used clustered random sampling method. The students who enrolled in the Research
Writing Course, the researchers chose only twenty participants who are third year English major
students studying in the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University in the first
semester of the academic year 2022.
3.2 Research Instruments
This research had three instruments which are achievement test (pre-test and post-test),
podcast and learners’ questionnaire were used to obtain quantitative and qualitative data. The
achievement test had five parts according to the five contents of podcasts. The podcast had five
contents which talked about summer, computers, pets, childhood dream jobs, and exercise. The
questionnaire was divided into three parts. Part 1 personal information of learners. Part 2 closed-
ended question from the effects of learning English using a podcast. The participants were asked
to respond to 10 close-ended statements using a five Likert’s rating scale ranging from 1 =
strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Part 3 learners’ suggestion which learners can give
suggestions towards the teaching by using podcast.
3.3 Data collection & Data analysis
Firstly, the researchers distributed pre-test to all students at the beginning of the course
before administering the podcasts application and had students do pre-test to measure
background knowledge of students before learning listening with podcast. Secondly, the
researchers started to teach English listening by using a podcast and had students use podcasts in
their learning for three weeks. In the classroom, the researchers taught the ways to comprehend
the main points, practiced listening to pronunciation or explained the words that are commonly
found in podcast contents. Also, students can learn listening everywhere whether at their home
since podcast is an online platform. Thirdly, the researchers administered the post-test to all
participants after learning listening using podcast to measure if podcast effective or not. Finally,
the researchers had students to fill out the questionnaire after all the teaching methods are done.
Ten items of questionnaire were used to gather students’ attitudes toward the use of podcast in
learning listening using podcast. The researchers collected the data from the achievement test
(pre-test and post-test). The pre-test and post-test score were analyzed using inferential statistics
(T-test and paired t-test). The quantitative data from the learners’ questionnaire were analyzed
using descriptive statistics. Also, the qualitative data from the learners’ suggestion in the
questionnaire were analyzed using content analysis. The data was grouped in themes.
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4. Results
To answer research questions, the quantitative and qualitative results obtained from the
questionnaire were presented in the following order: The results of the participants pre-test and
post-test, the results of the closed-ended question from the effects of learning English using a
podcast questionnaire, and the results of Learner’s suggestion. Regarding the results of
participants pre-test and post-test, most of the participants got higher score of post-test than pre-
test after learning English listening using podcast. Below is descriptive statistics from the result
of an achievement test which calculated by SPSS.
Table 1 Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pre-test 11.90 20 2.845 0.636
Post-test 13.45 20 2.282 0.510
Table 2 Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pre-test & Post-test 20 0.412 0.065
Research question 1: What extent the podcast can contribute learners’ English listening ability?
To answer research question 1, quantitative results from pre-test and post-test were
presented in the table. It can be seen that students who were taught by using podcast obtain
higher score of post-test =13.45, SD=2.28) than pre-test. This indicated that learning listening
by using podcast gained improvement of students’ listening ability. the mean score of The paired
t-test showed a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores (t = 6.945, p<
0.05). The results from their pair t-test proved that there was a significant difference in the pre-
test and post-test scores of individual students, it indicated that the use of podcast in English
learning has an influence on learners’ listening ability.
Table 3 Paired Samples Test
Paired differences
95% Confidence
interval of the difference
Mean Std. Std. Error Lower Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Deviation Mean
Pre-test – Post-test -1.550 2.800 0.626 -2.860 -0.240 -2.476 19 0.023
From the analysis by SPSS, sig. value 0.023 is lower than < 0.05. therefore, the podcast
was accepted. Obviously, there is a significant impact of the usage of podcast on students’
listening ability. This score also supported that students’ listening ability of third year English
major students were influenced by podcast.
Research question 2: What are the learner’s attitudes towards English learning with
podcast?
To answer research question 2, the quantitative results were from close-ended questions
and the qualitative results were from the learners’ suggestion. As seen in the table 2, the overall
mean score of students’ attitudes toward learning English listening using a podcast were agreed
with =3.96, SD=0.85). The item with the highest mean score was ‘The podcast has a variety of
content’ x=4.30, SD=0.73). Followed by the learners can access to the podcast through online
media such as application, websites and so on that the participants agreed with =4.15,
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SD=0.81). The participants also agreed that the podcast helps to improve their listening skills
=4.10, SD=0.85). The participants said that the podcast is appropriate for the learners (x=4.05,
SD=0.83). Moreover, the participants said that the content of the podcast is interesting (x=4.00,
SD=0.86), and they agreed that the content of podcast is valid (x=4.00, SD=0.73). Regarding
learning English listening, the participants are convenient to listen to podcast valid (x=3.90,
SD=0.85). In addition, the participants agreed that the duration for listening podcast is
appropriate to learners (x=3.80, SD=0.77). They enjoyed listening to podcast (x=3.65, SD=0.93),
and they agreed that the audio of podcast is good quality (x=3.60, SD=1.05) respectively.
Table 2 The results of the closed-ended question from the effects of learning English listening
using a podcast questionnaire
Satisfaction question S.D. Meaning
1. The content of the podcast is interesting. 4 0.86 Agree
2. The learners are convenient to listen to podcast. 3.9 0.85 Agree
3. The learners enjoy listening to podcast. 3.65 0.93 Agree
4. The podcast helps to improve your listening skills. 4.10 0.85 Agree
5. The learners can access to the podcast through online 4.15 0.81 Agree
media
such as application, websites and so on.
6. The audio of podcast is good quality. 3.60 1.05 Agree
7. The podcast is appropriate for the learners. 4.05 0.83 Agree
8. The duration for listening is appropriate to learners. 3.80 0.77 Agree
9. The podcast has a variety of content. 4.30 0.73 Strongly Agree
10. The content of podcast is valid. 4 0.73 Agree
Overall 3.96 0.85 Agree
Based on learners’ suggestion on the questionnaire, the participants gave positive and
negative attitudes towards learning English listening using a podcast and gave various reasons to
support. The excerpts are as follows:
Table 3 The results of Learner’s suggestion
Theme/topic Suggestions
Improvement of English skills Student 10 “After I learned English listening by using a podcast, I gain
(listening skill, vocabulary, accent) more vocabularies and accent”
Student 15 “I think the teachers should create good environment while
teaching English listening. For example, create interesting media and
more attractive.”
Student 14 “I think the teachers should motivate students before learning
English listening in order to make students have passion and interested
in English Listening.
Student 16 “In teaching English listening, the teachers should show the
script of the audio right at that moment because some students do not
Teaching & Learning activities
understand what the audio is talking about, so showing the script to
students would be more effective and understand”
Student 5 “I think the number of items in each listening is too few. It
should be increased from 3 to be 5”
Student 7 “I think some items are too easy, and it should be a little
harder.
Student 1 “I think some questions or some choices are duplicated, and
the teachers should create variety of different questions”
Student 3 “The sound of a podcast should be louder and clearer for
making students understand easier”
Features of podcast Student 13 “The teachers should connect the audio to a speaker instead
of pointing a microphone as a speaker of mobile phone because this way
help the sound will not be cracked”
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5. Discussion
5.1 The e tent of podcast can contribute learners’ English listening ability
The findings on the pre-test and post-test of learning English listening revealed that in
learners’ ability, using podcast is effective and influent at a high level and supports their listening
ability. English listening from podcast eases them to practice anywhere and anytime because it is
online platform, so it is more convenient for learners. Also, they can have more time to practice
English listening for the tests. (Yiemkuntitavorn & Rattanapan, 2021), which found that English
listening from podcast offers opportunities to learners to listen other various contents of podcast
in the application other than the contents that the researchers recommended. This helps them gain
more practicing. Furthermore, online platform of podcast is a useful feature to facilitate learning
English listening. These findings are in accordance with the findings of previous research
(Bangkhadara, 2019) which revealed that learning English listening using a podcast, students
enhanced their listening ability as the results from pre-test and post-test. Also, the results of
questionnaire on students’ attitudes towards learning with the use of podcast indicated that the
students agreed with the use of podcast in learning English listening because it provided
sufficiency of their listening. However, in this research, it is found that a few of participants got
the score of post-test less than pre-test because there was a technical problem while taking the
tests. This might be a mistake in this research.
5.2 The learner’s attitudes towards English learning with podcast
Overall, the findings on the close-ended question revealed that the attitudes of learners
were agreed with learning English listening using podcast. Similarly, Indahsari (2020) found that
most participants reported that learning English listening with podcast was good for them in
many aspects. In terms of the podcast has a variety of content, which they strongly agreed with
this. They can access to the podcast through online media such as application, websites and so on.
Besides, Hasan & Tan (2012) reported that the podcast helps them to improve their listening
skills, the podcast is appropriate for them, the content of the podcast is interesting. Most learners
also agreed that the content of podcast is valid. They were convenient to listen to podcast.
Regarding to the duration of each content from podcast, most learners agreed that the duration
for listening is appropriate to learners because it was only two or three minutes. It was not too
long that learners could get bored or distracted while listening.
According to the study of (Nisa, Izzah & Hadi, 2022), some participants gave suggestions
both positive and negative attitudes towards learning English listening with podcast. In positive
attitudes, some participants reported in terms of the improvement of English skills (listening skill,
vocabulary, accent) that after they learned English listening by using a podcast, they gain more
vocabularies and accent. However, some learners viewed that learning English listening with
podcast was still have flaws for them. They thought that the educators should motivate students
before learning English listening in order to make students have passion and interested in English
Listening or the sound of a podcast should be louder and clearer for making students understand
easier.
Regarding the research of (Abdulrahman, Basalama & Widodo, 2018), the suggestions in
learning English listening with podcast, the quantitative and qualitative results showed that the
learners wanted the educators improve learning teaching method. They wanted the educators
create media to be more interesting and attractive. Also, the educators should motivate learners to
make learners have passion in English learning listening. Importantly, the educators should
connect the audio to a speaker instead of pointing a microphone to a speaker of mobile phone to
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make the sound of podcast louder, clearer and was not cracked. These factors cause learners get
bored and distracted. This led to the reason that learners’ score on post-test less than the pre-test.
6. Conclusion
6.1 Conclusion
This research was conducted to examine the effects of learning English using a podcast
toward the listening ability of Thai EFL learners and also studied learner’s opinions of learning
English using podcast. Twenty people who are third-year English major students at Huachiew
Chalermprakiet University participated in this research. Pre-test and post-test were used to
collect the quantitative and data. Also, the learner questionnaire was used to collect the
quantitative and qualitative data. The findings revealed that the most participants got the higher
score of post-test than pre-test. The most of participants’ attitudes agreed with learning English
listening by using a podcast. However, the problematic issues which learners have suggested on
the questionnaire towards learning English listening were mentioned. These include the
motivation or encouragement of learning English listening, the quality of podcast and others. The
findings on the extent of podcast and the learner’s attitudes towards learning English listening
with podcast can be useful basis information for language teachers in improving their teaching
method.
6.2 Implication of the study and recommendation for further studies
The research findings can contribute to useful pedagogical implication. The findings on
the extent of podcast of learning English listening show that English listening with podcast was
an influent way of learning English listening for the learners who were studying in English
major. The elements of a podcast and steps of development could be applied to other studies.
According to the elements of podcast, they could be a framework for other teachers to develop
their own teaching by using a podcast since a podcast provided the students to access the podcast
website or application and listen to the podcast episode anywhere and anytime. Thus, the results
of the present study by using a podcast, there were some comments that suggested about the
sound quality of podcast. In case other researchers need information in kind of this field, this
research could be useful and supportive as case studies for teachers and course developers to
realize the sound quality of podcast and improve in English listening course in order to enhance
and increase EFL students’ listening skills and produce authentic language.
6.3 Limitations of the study
Due to the time was limited, listening skill actually takes a long time to become fluently,
comprehensible and effective, but the duration in this research was too short, so learners could
not fully practice English listening. More than that, the listening ability of individual student was
different. Some participants already had a good listening baseline, so they did not take long time
to practice listening. On the other hand, some participants did not have much basic listening
experience, so they needed more time to practice English listening.
7. Acknowledgements
This study would never have been completed without the assistance and support of
several people. We heartfelt thanks for kindness and helpfulness.
First, we would like to express our deep appreciation to our advisor, Asst. Prof. Dr.
Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate, for her valuable and kind support, and taking her precious time
260
to give advice and encouragement since the first day until the day we completed our research
paper. Without her kind support and sincere assistance, we could never have completed this study.
Also, we would like to express our thankfulness to all participants and the instructors
from English major of Huachiew Chalermprakiet University where we did the survey research
for their friendly and sympathetic cooperation in responding to the questionnaires.
Finally, we would like to express our deepest gratitude for the unity and determination
within our group who always supported and were beside throughout time in the EG 3063
Research Report Writing.
8. References
Abdulrahman, T. R, Basalama, N, & Widodo, M. R. (2018). The Impact of Podcasts on EFL
Students’ Listening Comprehension (abstract). International Journal of English
Linguistics; Vol. 8, No. 6; 2018ISSN 1923-869X E-ISSN 1923-8703. Retrieved August
21, 2022, from
https://www.academia.edu/76116617/The_Impact_of_Podcasts_on_EFL_Students_Listen
ing_Comprehension
Bangkhadara, W. (2019). The Effects of Mobile Podcast on Listening Comprehension of Thai
EFL University Students. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language Studies Suranaree University of
Technology Retrieved August 30, 2022, from
http://203.158.7.72:8080/sutir/bitstream/123456789/8420/2/Fulltext.pdf
Borneo, R. (2018). The Use of Podcast to Improve Students' Listening and Speaking Skills for
EFL Learners. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research. Retrieved August
30, 2022, from
https://www.academia.edu/38610148/The_Use_of_Podcast_to_Improve_Students_Listen
ing_and_Speaking_Skills_for_EFL_Learners
Hasan, Md. M, &Tan, B. H. (2012). ESL Learners’ Perception and Attitudes Towards the Use of
Podcast in Developing Listening Skills (abstract). Retrieved September 15, 2022, from
https://www.melta.org.my/journals/TET/downloads/tet41_02_05.pdf
Hilado-Deita, C. H. (2019). History of English Language Teaching: A Glimpse of Thailand
Scenario (The status quo). Retrieved September 20, 2022, from
https://www.chonburi.spu.ac.th/journal/booksearch/upload/1426-003_history.pdf
Indahsari, D. (2020). Using podcast for EFL students in language learning. Journal of English
Educators Society. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from
https://jees.umsida.ac.id/index.php/jees/article/view/767
Lutkevich, B. (2022). What is podcasting? Retrieved September 16, 2022, from
https://www.techtarget.com/searchunifiedcommunications/definition/podcasting
Nisa, H. F, Izzah, L, & Hadi, M. S, (2022). The Use of Podcast to Improve Student’ Listening
Comprehension. Journal of English Language Teaching in Indonesia, p-ISSN 2339-1561
e–ISSN 2580-7684. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from
https://www.scribd.com/document/631959948/2739-9045-1-PB
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Rajic, S. (2013). Educational Use of Podcast (abstract). The Fourth International Conference on
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August 21, 2022, from https://elearning.metropolitan.ac.rs/files/pdf/2013/15-stajka-rajic-
educational-use-of-podcast.pdf
Vodopija-Krstanović, I, & Marinac, M. (2019). English as an International Language and English
Language Teaching: The Theory vs. Practice Divide. Iranian Journal of Language
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Yiemkuntitavorn, S, & Rattanapan, J, (2021). Development of Podcasts to Enhance Foundation

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file/291967
9. Appendices
Appendix A
The students’ Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores in the study
Students No. Pre-Test Score Post-Test Score

1 11 14
2 15 15
3 8 12
4 14 14
5 7 5
6 14 14
7 15 15
8 15 15
9 14 14
10 14 14
11 12 15
12 13 14
13 13 13
14 11 14
15 14 14
16 14 11
262
17 6 15
18 9 14
19 9 12
20 10 15
Mean ( ) 11.90 13.45
S.D. 2.85 2.28
Appendix B
Pre-test and Post-test
Pre-test 15 items
Listening 1
Direction: Listen to the short conversations and choose the best answer.
1. What is Emma favorite thing about the summer?
a. Sound of the waves c. Sound of the air conditioner
b. Sound of the rain d. Sound of the bird song
2. What is Emma favorite ice cream’s flavor?
a. Vanilla b. Chocolate c. Strawberry d. Lemon
3. What is Luke favorite ice cream’s flavor?
Listening 2
1. What are they talking about?
a. Electronics b. Mobile phones c. Televisions d. Computers
2. Why Emma does not like to use Mac computers?
a. It is expensive c. It is difficult to use
b. It has a file system problem d. It has a sound problem
3. According to the audio, what does “It drives me nuts” mean?
a. Frustrated b. Interested c. Embarrassed d. Annoyed
Listening 3
1. What is Geoff’s pet look like?
a. Little black cat c. White black dog
b. White fluffy bunny d. Little brown squirrel
2. What is the personality of Geoff’s pet?
a. Clever and cruel c. Naughty and stubborn
b. Drowsy and lazy d. Playful and aggressive
3. How does Geoff’s pet react when it meets visitors?
a. It will attack other people. c. It will hide under the couch.
b. It will bite other people. d. It will beg visitors.
Listening 4
263
1. What does the extract mentioned about?
a. Parents’ career c. Childhood dream jobs
b. Education d. Entertainment
2. What did Emma want to be?
a. Astronaut b. Nutritionist c. Teacher d. Musician
3. What did Luke want to be?
Listening 5
1. How does Rachel exercise?
a. Dancing Zumba b. Doing Yoga
c. Riding a bike d. Dancing aerobic
2. What are the speakers talking about?
a. Everyday routine b. Doing an exercise
c. Cleaning the house d. Drawing a picture
3. How does Luke exercise?
a. Lifting weight b. Thai boxing
c. Rock Climbing d. Playing Badminton
Post-test 15 items
Listening 1
1. What is Emma favorite thing about the summer?
a. Sound of the waves c. Sound of the air conditioner
b. Sound of the rain d. Sound of the bird song
2. What is Emma favorite ice cream’s flavor?
3. What is Luke favorite ice cream’s flavor?
Listening 2
1. What are they talking about?
a. Electronics b. Mobile phones c. Televisions d. Computers
2. Why Emma does not like to use Mac computers?
a. It is expensive c. It is difficult to use
b. It has a file system problem d. It has a sound problem
3. According to the audio, what does “It drives me nuts” mean?
a. Frustrated b. Interested c. Embarrassed d. Annoyed
Listening 3
1. What is Geoff’s pet look like?
264
a. Little black cat c. White black dog

b. White fluffy bunny d. Little brown squirrel
2. What is the personality of Geoff’s pet?
a. Clever and cruel c. Naughty and stubborn
b. Drowsy and lazy d. Playful and aggressive
3. How does Geoff’s pet react when it meets visitors?
a. It will attack other people. c. It will hide under the couch.
b. It will bite other people. d. It will beg visitors.
Listening 4
1. What does the extract mentioned about?
a. Parents’ career c. Childhood dream jobs
b. Education d. Entertainment
2. What did Emma want to be?
3. What did Luke want to be?
Listening 5
1. How does Rachel exercise?
a. Dancing Zumba b. Doing Yoga
c. Riding a bike d. Dancing aerobic
2. What are the speakers talking about?
a. Everyday routine b. Doing an exercise
c. Cleaning the house d. Drawing a picture
3. How does Luke exercise?

a. Lifting weight b. Thai boxing
c. Rock Climbing d. Playing Badminton
Appendix C
The Questionnaire of Students’ Opinions towards Teaching English Using a Podcast on the
Listening Ability of Thai EFL Learners
Questionnaire
The Effects of Teaching English Using a Podcast on the Listening Ability of Thai EFL
Learners
…………………………
Part 1: Personal information

Direction: Please mark / in the appropriate box and fill in the blanks if necessary.
Gender  Male  Female
Age  20 years old  Under 20 years old  Over 20 years old
Part 2: Satisfaction question
265
Direction: Please mark / from the evaluation options that is closest to your opinions and personal
experiences.
Evaluation scale: 1 = Strongly agree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly disagree
1 2 3 4 5
satisfaction question
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. The content of the podcast is interesting.

2. The learners are convenient to listen to
podcast.
3. The learners enjoy listening to podcast.
4. The podcast helps to improve your
listening skills.
5. The learners can access to the podcast
through online media such as application,
websites and so on.
6. The audio of podcast is good quality
7. The podcast is appropriate for the learners.
8. The duration for listening is appropriate to
learners.
9. The podcast has a variety of content.
10. The content of podcast is valid.
Part 3: Learners’ suggestion

Direction: Please write your comments in the provided space.
Learners’ suggestion
…………………………………………………………………………………………………........
............................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
10. Authors Biodata

Armanaya Montawat
Armanaya Montawat born on 19 June 2001. She born in Bangkok, Thailand. Armanaya attended
in school since 2005 at Phraharuthai Donmuang School. In 2007 to 2017, she moved to
Satitbangna School. Armanaya started to attend in a Vocational Education at Krirk Institutution
since 2018 to 2020. While she was studying at Krirk Institution, Armanaya won the Speech
English Contest. She is now a third year student studying at Huachiew Chalermprakiet
University in Faculty of Liberal Arts majoring in English.
Kanyarat Chaicharoey
266
Kanyarat Chaicharoey born on 12 September 2001. She born in Sa Kaeo, Thailand. Kanyarat
attended in school since 2005 at Child Development Center School. In 2007 to 2012, she moved
to Nikomsongkosong school. Kanyarat started to attend in Klongnamsaiwitthayakarn school
since 2013 to 2018. She is now a third year student and studying at Huachiew Chalermprakiet
University in Faculty of Liberal Arts, Major in English.
Sunitcha Chantarachote
Sunitcha Chantarachote born on 4 October 2001. She born in Muang district, Singburi, Thailand.
Sunitcha attended in school since 2005 at Mitudom kindergarten. In 2007 to 2012, she moved to
Lasalle School. Then, Sunitcha changed to studied at Poolcharoenwittayakom school since 2013
to 2015. In 2016 to 2018, she changed to studied in Homeschooling. She is now a third year
student studying at Huachiew Chalermprakiet University Faculty of Liberal Arts, English major.
Danukan Yiain
Danukan Yiain on 27 March 2001. He born in Chaiyaphum, Thailand. Danukan attended in
school since 2005 to 2013 at Suanwittaya School. He moved to secondary school In 2014 to
2017, at Nonkokwittaya school. While he was studying at Nonkokwittaya school, Danukan won
received the runner-up prize in the district level Thai etiquette contest and School Excellence
Award. Next, Danukan moved to upper secondary education at Nongbuadangwittaya school
since 2018 to 2020. While he was studying at Nongbuadang. He is now a third year student
studying at Huachiew Chalermprakiet University in Faculty of Liberal Arts, English major.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate

Asst. Prof. Dr. Pongpatchara Kawinkoonlasate is currently the Course Administrator of
Language Studies, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University. Her research
interest include Develop English Language Skills, Online Language Learning, Develop English
Writing Ability and Development of e-Reading
267
Low-Carbon Destination Attributes in the Viewpoints of Thai Tourists

Tantawan U-napark*, Pisorn Janvanichyanont, Prapakorn Seetha, Andhika Pradana,
Kosin Prasarnklieo, Natha-Orn Voramongkolchai
School of Humanities and Tourism Management, Bangkok University
*
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to study the key attributes of low-carbon tourist
destinations from the viewpoint of Thai tourists. The study was conducted in Koh Chang, Koh
Mak, and Koh Kood in Trat Province, which is well-known for its richness of natural resources
and variety of tourism activities. By doing a quantitative research approach, questionnaires were
distributed onsite by adopting convenience sampling method and collected valid data from 401
Thai tourists who traveled to low-carbon tourist destinations and analyzed by finding average
rate and ranking the highest rated attributes of the low carbon destination. In this study, the
destination attributes that are considered important from the viewpoint of Thai tourists are (1)
accommodation that offers environmentally friendly amenities, (2) bicycle rental service, (3)
service providers that have a good knowledge related to low carbon tourism (4) homegrown food
with local ingredients from the island (5) eco-touring trail construction. The results from this
study could benefit local people and sustainable tourism private sectors.
Keywords : low-carbon tourism, tourist destination attributes, carbon footprint, sustainable

tourism
1. Introduction
The global warming problem has been discussed and studied for a long time and the issue
has been gaining ever more serious attention nowadays. The main factor is the emission of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, causing the world to have a higher temperature (Thailand
Greenhouse Gas Management Organization, 2023). One of the main causes of global warming
comes from various activities in the tourism and hospitality industry such as travel, food and
beverage production, and activities in tourist accommodation (Tourism Authority of Thailand,
2021). The amount of this greenhouse gas is called “carbon footprint”, measured in units of "kilo
carbon equivalent" or kgCo2eq.
Low-carbon tourism's emphasis is to find ways to minimize carbon emissions during
traveling (Lenzen, et al., 2018). This could include several activities to reduce energy
consumption such as changing from using cars in tourist attractions to walking, rowing, and
cycling, choosing a green hotel, using local ingredients for cooking, using a shuttle bus instead of
a personal car (Designated Areas for Sustainable Tourism Administration, 2016).
Thailand has initiated and promoted low-carbon tourism projects in several areas
throughout the country. The organization that plays an important role is Designated Areas for
Sustainable Tourism Administration (DASTA) whose aim is to develop tourism destinations to
grow efficiently and sustainably in terms of economics, society, and environment. After DASTA
promoted activities to reduce global warming in six specific areas, carbon emissions decreased
by 7.65% in 2015. One spot of these special areas is Koh Chang and neighboring islands, Koh
Kood and Koh Mak in Trat Province. Due to the variety of tourism resources and activities, Koh
Chang and its neighboring islands have always been one of the most remarkable tourist
destinations. Before the Covid-19 pandemic, these three islands accommodated 1.6 million
268
tourists, 75% of whom were Thai tourists (Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2019); Therefore,
signifies the importance of Thai tourists as a major contribution to the local economy.
A similar concept, sustainable tourism, has long been studied in Thailand and worldwide
in various aspects. However, the “low-carbon tourism” notion seems to be appeared and been
considered just recently in Thailand’s tourism industry. Most researches are also limited to
government policy; such as the study of Tang et al. (2011) which mentioned the conceptual
framework regarding sustainable development of tourism industry chain in China, focusing on
low-carbon economy. This study, therefore, aims to investigate further by exploring how Thai
tourists value different attributes of designated destinations.
2.Research objective
To study the level of importance of low-carbon tourist destination attributes from the
viewpoints of Thai tourists.
3.Literature review
Low-carbon tourism has been recently discussed in tourism literature going along with
global warming threats. Can and Hongbing (2011) proposed a low–carbon tourism model for
reducing the carbon footprint in tourist destinations in China. The model presents a path to
carbon footprint reduction, comprising four strategies: building low-carbon tourist attractions,
allocating low-carbon tourist facilities, promoting a low-carbon way of tourist consumption, and
nurturing a tourist experience environment of carbon sequestration. The first plan, building low-
carbon tourist attractions, integrates building fascinating attractions such as a solar farm. The
second strategy, allocating low-carbon tourist facilities, involves setting up infrastructure in place
including roads, energy supply, and transportation. The third part of this plan, promoting a low-
carbon way of tourist consumption, associates carbon offset activities such as encouraging
tourists to plant trees. The last part, nurturing a tourist experience environment of carbon
sequestration, encompasses public and private sectors' cooperation in developing a harmonious
low–carbon tourism environment.
Zhang and Zhang (2020) have studied the indicators of low-carbon tourism at the urban
destination, which cover the proportion of low-carbon transport, proportion of green hotels,
proportion of green catering enterprises, proportion of low-carbon tourism attractions, renewable
energy usage, trash management, and carbon literacy of tourism enterprises.
The previous study by Chen et al (2011) suggested that not only governmental sectors that
are concerned about environmental issues, carbon emission in particular, but individual tourists
and communities have also become more conscious and shown more engagement in eco-friendly
behaviors. Moreover, Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) stated that the environmental efforts of
tourism service providers have the power to attract more tourists, and having a green image
could boost the profit of the business. Therefore, it is worth studying the perceived important
attributes from the viewpoint of tourists.
A study done by Lee (2019), provides data that the sensory attribute to low-carbon
tourism has a very high impact to the business. Sensory experience can help the tourists connect
more to the local area by stimulating the physical responses related to their memory, and
encourage the tourists to engage more in the activities, and further promoting these activities to
their peers (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974).
4.Research Methodology
269
This research was conducted by adopting a quantitative approach, using a questionnaire

survey to gather data from domestic tourists who visited Koh Chang, Koh Kood, and Koh Mak
in the Trat province of Thailand. A convenience sampling approach was selected for collecting
the data.
Research instrument
The questionnaire was written in the Thai language and uploaded to the digital platform
comprise of two main sections. The first section was constructed to enquire about the
demographic profile and travel behavior of respondents. There are five questions in this section,
asking gender, age, level of education, and monthly income to form the demographic profile of
tourists. The last question asked how frequently the respondents travel per year.
The second section of the questionnaire consists of twenty-two questions. Each question
asks the respondents to rate the level of importance of low-carbon destination attributes in the
perception of tourists in the form of a six-point scale, ranging from the least important to the
most important. The destination attributes included in the questionnaires cover ones regarding
accommodation, service providers, transportation, and activities. Respondents must choose only
one answer to each question.
Data collection and data analysis

A questionnaire survey via digital platform was distributed at Koh Chang, Koh Kood, and
Koh Mak in Trat province, as they are spot areas of low carbon destinations by DASTA
(Designated Areas for Sustainable Tourism Administration), the public organization of Thailand
promotes potential areas to become sustainable community-based tourist destinations. Koh Mak,
one of the three islands, was studied and confirmed that it has a potential to become low-carbon
tourist destination and sustainable tourism management in terms of natural resources such as
power, water, and waste management can benefit the community and tourists as well
(Boonphetkaew and Poltanee, 2018).
The link to the questionnaire was handed to tourists at the destinations in the form of a
QR code.Convenience Sampling method was adopted due to a few reasons. First, the target
population of Thai tourists who visit low-carbon destinations are available at these three islands.
They are easily accessible. Secondly, convenience sampling is time and cost efficient for
conducting the survey which fits to limited time frame of research project plan. Lastly, this
method allows the researchers to collect larger number of data in order to provide high level of
generalization capability.
430 sets of questionnaire were distributed to Thai tourists at the piers of three islands
during peak season of traveling which is from December 2022 to January 2023.
The population of the research is the tourists to the low-carbon destinations in these three
islands, which the number of Thai tourists was 1,184,382 persons in 2019 according to the
Ministry of Tourism and Sports. The minimum required amount of data is therefore 400 sets,
calculated by adopting the sample sizing method of Taro Yamane at the confidence level of 95%.
The total collected data after ruling out the incomplete questionnaires was 401 sets.
The collected data were analyzed as follows;
1. Descriptive statistic including Frequency and Percentage was used to identify the
characteristics of the demographic profile of Thai tourists who traveled to Koh Mak, Koh
Chang, and Koh Kood.
270
2. The Mean and Standard Deviation of the answers from the second section were
calculated to exhibit the most important destination attributes in the perception of Thai
Tourists.
Table 1 Demographic Profile of Respondent
Demographic Category Frequency Percent

Gender Male 156 38.90
Female 177 44.13
Others 68 16.97
Ages Group 18-20 28 6.98
21-30 141 35.16
31-40 127 31.67
41-50 74 18.45
Over 50 31 7.74
Education High School 11 2.74
Diploma 12 2.99
Bachelor 255 63.59
Master and Above 78 19.45
Non- Degree holder 45 11.23
No. of Visit 1-2 times 215 53.62
3-4 times 136 33.92
5-6 times 45 11.22
More than 6 times 5 1.24
Level of Income Below 15,000 THB/ Month 22 5.49
15,000-30,000 THB/ Month 191 47.63
30,000-45,000 THB/ Month 146 36.41
45,000-60,000 THB/ Month 30 7.48
More than 60,000 THB/ Month 12 2.99
After the data collection process and the incomplete and unusable responses have been
removed, a total of 401 responses were kept. In the usable samples of 401, approximately 38.9%
were Male, 44.1% were female and 16.9% were LGBTQ+. The ages of respondents ranged from
18 to over 50 years. The majority of respondents were between the ages of 21-30 years old,
35.1%, followed by the ages of 31-40 as 31.6%. However, there were also a group of ages
between 41-50 years old and over 50 years old, but these middle aged and a senior adult were a
minority group of the sample.
The majority of the respondent has an education level of Bachelor's degree (63.59%) but
there was also a certain amount of respondent who has hold a non-degree (11.22%). About
53.61% of the respondent said that they visit the destinations about 1-2 times per year, 33.91%
suggested that they visit the destination 3-4 times per year and there is only 1.24% of
respondents who visit the destination more than 6 times per year.
271
The result also reports that 47.63% of respondents have a level of income around 15,000-
30,000 THB/month, 36.40% indicated an income of 30,000-45,000 THB/ month, 7.48%
answered that they have an income of 45,000-60,000 THB/ Month, and only 2.99% of
respondent who earns more than 60,000 THB/ month.
Table 2 Low Carbon Destination Attribute – Accommodation (Hotel, Resort, Guest House)
Attribute Category Mean S. D.

Accommodation Green materials used by accommodation 4.76 0.78
facilities
Eco-friendly accommodation with 4.68 1.07
national/international certification (e.g., Green
Hotel, ASEAN Green Hotel).
Accommodation that efficiently uses 4.8 0.91
renewable energy.
Accommodation that strictly implements clean 4.72 1.17
energy consumption policy.
Accommodation that offers environmentally 5.42 0.93
friendly amenities (e.g., giving cloth shopping
bag instead of plastic shopping bag).
The result of this table showed the attribute with the highest mean score is
accommodations that offer environmentally friendly amenities (Mean = 5.42), followed by
accommodations that efficiently use renewable energy (Mean = 4.8), green materials used by
accommodations facilities (Mean = 4.76), accommodations that strictly implement clean energy
consumption policy (4.72), and eco-friendly accommodations with national/international
certification (e.g., Green Hotel, ASEAN Green Hotel) (4.68).
The finding of this table helps to explain that accommodations such as hotels and resorts
should provide eco-friendly amenities at the low carbon destination. The accommodation sector
should also consider the use of technological innovation in their hotel operating process to save
energy. To reduce carbon footprint, solar-based renewable energy should be implemented
(Navratil et al.,2019). On the other hand, tourists have less concern about accommodations with
national/international certification (e.g., Green Hotel, ASEAN Green Hotel). They show more
appreciation for the accommodation, which uses green materials at their service and operation.
Table 3 Low Carbon Destination Attribute – Service Provider (Restaurant, Local Tour,
Travel Agency)

Service Service providers that provide an arrangement 4.12 1.20
Provider of an alternative travel mode, such as a slow-
travel package around the island
Service providers that publish and provide 5.08 1.29
updates on efforts made toward environmental
protection
Service providers that disseminate knowledge 4.92 1.32
related to low-carbon tourism
272

Service providers that have a good knowledge 5.32 1.28
related to low-carbon tourism
Table 3 shows respondents ranking service providers that have good knowledge related to
low-carbon tourism as their priority (Mean = 5.32), followed by service providers that publish
and provide updates on efforts made toward environmental protection (Mean = 5.08), Service
providers that disseminate knowledge related to low-carbon tourism (Mean = 4.92) and Service
providers that provide an arrangement of an alternative travel mode, such as a slow-travel
package around the island (Mean = 4.12)
These results strongly indicate that service providers should have a good knowledge of
low-carbon tourism and be able to publish, provide and continue promoting the sustainable
consumption of the tourists as a part of their business strategies (Yousaf et al., 2021). Not only
good knowledge, but service providers should also put a strong effort toward environmental
protection throughout their business model, management as well as operation. Interestingly, the
result indicated tourists have less concern about the alternative travel mode such as slow-travel
packages around the island along with disseminating knowledge related to low-carbon tourism.
Table 4 Low Carbon Destination Attribute- Transportation (Bus, Ferry, Speed Boat, Cruise,
Sea Plan)
Transportation Land transport that conforms with local and 4.76 1.13
national environmental policy
Water transport that conforms with local and 5.0 0.96
national environmental policy (e.g., not
bringing private vehicles on the ferry)
Availability of low-energy consumption 5.12 1.17
vehicles (e.g. electric vehicles)
Bicycle rental service 5.36 0.91
Table 4 presents the respondent-highlighted bicycle rental service (Mean = 5.36) over
availability of low-energy consumption vehicles (e.g. electric vehicles) (Mean = 5.12), water
transport that conforms to local and national environmental policy (e.g., not bringing private
vehicles on the ferry) (Mean = 5.0), and land transport that conforms with local and national
environmental policy (Mean = 4.76).
From the respondent's point of view, they agree the destination should provide and operate
transportation that minimized carbon footprint, for example, providing bicycle rental service or
other slow transportation (Su-Hsin et al., 2018). Moreover, they believed the destination should
have a variety of low-energy consumption vehicles such as electric vehicles to reduce carbon in
the long run.
Table 5 Low Carbon Destination Attribute- Activities (Island Activities, Sport activities,
Recreation Activities, Sea Activities)
Activities Low carbon activities that inspires tourists to 5 0.96
appropriately interact natural resources.
Low carbon activities that inspires tourists to 5 1.08
interact with local residents on the island (e.g.,
day & night fishing)
273

Eco-touring trail construction 5.16 1.31
Visiting organic gardens 4.8 1.29
Reforestation activity 4.88 1.42
Home-grown food with local ingredients from 5.2 1.12
the island
Using organic ingredients in the foods 5.08 1.08
Using eco-friendly tableware 5 1.12
Having meals of sufficient size and appropriate 5.12 1.13
weight
Table 5 has shown that home-grown food with local ingredients from the island is the
highest mean score (5.2), followed by Eco-touring trail construction (5.16), Having meals of
sufficient size and appropriate weight (5.12), Using organic ingredients in the foods (5.08), Low
carbon activities that inspire tourists to appropriately interact natural resources (5), Low carbon
activities that inspire tourists to interact with residents on the island (e.g., day & night fishing)
(5), Using eco-friendly tableware (5), Reforestation activity (4.8), and Visiting organic gardens
(4.8).
The results in this table show home-grown food from the local island is the most
important mechanism that supports sustainable agricultural practices and low carbon destination
from the tourist’s point of view. The destination should develop tourist activity in a way that
supports the local community and local agriculture (Nummedal and Hall, 2006). Organic farming,
as an example, could benefit a destination in many aspects such as the prevention of chemical
contamination in food production. Moreover, an organic garden is usually a small scale of food
production and produce within a local village. To unnecessity of the transportation, organic
gardens could reduce the carbon footprint at tourist destinations (Gössling et al., 2011). Other
than that, local food also offers a sense of authenticity which can generate a greater tourist
experience.
Lastly, respondents also agree that the reduction of food waste can help lower carbon
output at the destination. They believe having meals of sufficient size and appropriate weight
could make a significant contribution to a destination to generate a lower carbon footprint.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, this research paper explored the key attributes of low-carbon tourist
destinations from the viewpoint of Thai tourists. The findings of the study revealed several
important insights. Firstly, the promotion of low-carbon tourism in tourist destinations can bring
sustainable benefits to local people, including the local economy, health, and well-being. By
adopting low-carbon practices, destinations can contribute to reducing carbon emissions and
mitigating the impacts of global warming, ultimately benefiting both the environment and the
local community.
Secondly, tourists who engage in low-carbon tourism experiences can enjoy the
authenticity of local culture, including the taste of local food made with local ingredients,
engaging in local activities, and appreciating the beauty of scenic landscapes. Low-carbon
tourism provides an opportunity for tourists to connect with the local community and immerse
themselves in the destination's unique offerings.
274
Finally, the results of this study can be valuable for private and local governmental
sectors involved in marketing and promoting destinations. The findings provide insights into the
attributes that Thai tourists consider important when selecting low-carbon destinations. By
incorporating these attributes into their marketing campaigns and development plans, these
sectors can attract more tourists who are environmentally conscious and enthusiastic about
sustainable tourism practices. The attributes identified in this research, such as accommodation
with environmentally friendly amenities, service providers with good knowledge of low-carbon
tourism, bicycle rental services, and homegrown food with local ingredients, can be emphasized
in marketing campaigns to attract and meet the demands of environmentally conscious tourists.
Overall, the research highlights the significance of low-carbon tourism in fostering
sustainable development, both for the environment and the local community. It emphasizes the
importance of adopting eco-friendly practices in accommodations, promoting knowledge and
awareness among service providers, and providing sustainable transportation options. By
integrating these attributes into destination development and marketing efforts, stakeholders can
create a more appealing and sustainable tourism experience for Thai tourists who prioritize low-
carbon practices.
7. Reference
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leisure economy. Energy Procedia, 5, 1974–1978.
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Reducing tourism’s carbon ‘foodprint.’ Tourism Management, 32(3), 534–543.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.04.006
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Keywords : Virtual Learning Education, Perception, Satisfaction Learning in the New

Review of Related Literature

Defining Perception and Satisfaction

International Online Learning Context

Philippines Online Learning Context

virtual community in relation to COVID-19 while simultaneously having a safe environment.

Thailand Online Learning Context

Thailand Onsite Learning During The Pandemic

Statement of the Problem

Significance of the Study

Research Participants and Sampling

Data Gathering Procedure

Torun, E. D. (2020). Online Distance Learning in Higher Education: E-learning Readiness as

The Triarchic Model of Psychopathy and Humor Styles: Sex Differences

Keywords : Humor Styles, Triarchic Model of Psychopathy, Psychopathy

3. Materials and methods

HSQ Aggressive 24.5 6.87 0.3784 0.1385 0.621

HSQ Self-Defeating 30.2 8.14 -0.0720 -0.3835 0.751

TriPM Boldness 25.7 7.20 0.1111 0.3708 0.734

TriPM Disinhibition 21.7 7.90 0.3311 -0.0400 0.785

TriPM Meanness 14.3 8.40 1.0523 1.3053 0.855

TriPM Total 61.8 16.05 0.8756 1.5553

Table 2. Correlation matrix of the psychopathy and humor styles scales

Sex differences in psychopathy and humor styles

High School Teachers’ Technical Difficulties Amidst COVID-19 Pandemic

Keywords : Philippine education in the pandemic, technical difficulty, Microsoft Office,

Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions:

1. What is the profile of respondents in terms of the following variables:

5. Materials and methods

Table 1 Distribution of the Respondents

Population Sample Percentage

6. Results and Discussion

Lower (Bachelor’s Degree) 62 70.5

Lower (below P28,000) 57 64.8

Microsoft Office Excel program.

Table 4 Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties according to Multi-Media Platforms

Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties in E-learning Resources

Table 5 Teachers’ Level of Technical Difficulties according to e-Learning Resources

A Comparative Analysis on the Level of Technical Difficulties encountered by Public

Table 7 Difference in the Level of Technical Difficulties Encountered by Public School

8. The Intervention Plan

PROPOSED INTERVENTION PLAN

Time Budgetary Persons Success

Oral Communication Performance in Relation to Selected Variables

Keywords : oral communication, oral communication performance, speech anxiety,

Given the circumstances, Philippine academic units adopted English as a language of

3. Materials and methods

Variables Oral Communication Intervention

Mean Score Range Description Interpretation Verbal Interpretation

Variable Grouping Classification Frequency Percentage (%)

Results showed a very satisfactory level of oral communication performance in relation

The results indicated a significant relationship between the oral communication

Table 8 Relationship between Oral Communication performance of Grade 11 students and

CYRELJOY M. EBRADA, a native of Bacolod City in the Philippines, is a professor of