Western Ethical Frameworks and Principles

Introduction

The goal of Western Ethics is generally for individuals to achieve self-direction and
self-understanding which have direct impact on ethical decision making. Our intangible
decision making as to determine what is right or wrong permeates everyday life.
Ethical problems are often complex and novel; they present themselves in unique
contexts in which conflicting principles are at stake. Ethics should concern all levels of
life: acting properly as individuals, creating responsible organizations and
governments, and making our society as a whole more ethical.

The first part presents an overview of the fundamental ethical frameworks and
principles. It introduces frameworks for ethical thinking and decision-making. These
ethical frameworks and principles represent the viewpoints from which students may
seek guidance as they make moral decisions.

The second part discusses virtue ethics which focuses on the development of
the character of the individual who must confront ethical dilemmas. Virtue ethics
recognizes that resolution of difficult problems depends, above all, on the character
(that is, on the virtues) of the people making decisions. It is important to note that,
strictly speaking, virtue ethics is very particular on character rather than on specific
actions.

MODULE CONTENT

Topic 1: Basic Areas of Ethical Study

Nominal Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:
1. identify the three basic areas of ethical study; and 2. explain the
three basic areas of ethical study.

Introduction

A framework is defined as a set of assumptions, concepts, values and practices

that constitutes a way of viewing reality (Framework, n.d.) We may understand basic
theories as frameworks in ethics as a system of rules, ideas, notions, theories, or
principles that assists man in his moral decisions and judgments.
 In Ethics there are three major areas of study: meta-ethics, normative ethics,
and applied ethics. Under these major subject areas are various ethical theories as
frameworks.

1. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics was regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that considered
general ethical questions whose answers had some relatively direct bearing on
practice (Normative Ethical theories, 2020). In a sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus
test of proper behavior (Fieser, n.d.). Normative Ethics is concerned with the standard
and criteria by which we can judge man’s actions to be morally right or morally wrong.
This was the prevalent form of ethics in philosophy until the end of the 19 th Century. It
includes a consideration of the importance of human freedom, and a discussion of the
limits of a human’s responsibility for moral decisions and for the consequences of
actions) (Ethics, 9).

The crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics is that there is only one ultimate
principle or standard of moral conduct, whether it is a solitary law or a set of rules. It
stresses three elements: the person who performs the act (the agent), the act, and the
consequences of the act. Generally, there are three categories of normative ethical
theories: deontology, teleological ethics and virtue ethics.

Deontology

Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties (Deontological Theories 2002). It
emphasizes the correlation between duty and morality of human acts.

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good

because of some characteristic of the action itself, not because
the product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds that
at least some acts are morally obligatory regardless of their
consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are
such expressions as “Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own
reward,” and “Let justice be done though the heavens fall.”
(Deontological ethics, n.d.)

Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested with what man does, not
with the consequences of his actions. It advises people to do the right thing because it
is the right thing to do and keep away from wrong things because they are wrong.
People are counseled to do the right thing, even if that produces more harm than doing
the wrong thing. People have a moral obligation to do the right thing, even if it
produces a bad result.

Teleological Ethics
 This theory of morality derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable
as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). It believes that the rightness or
wrongness of a human act is contingent on its outcome. Hence, a human act is
considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since the moral goodness of a
human act is dependent only on its results, the more good results a human act
produces, the better or more right that human act is. The results of a human act
generally eclipse all other considerations.

Every teleological moral theory locates morality in the outcomes of human

actions. Teleological ethical theorists contend that every human act is teleological in
the sense that man reasons about the means of realizing certain goals. Thus, all moral
conduct is goal-directed.

Virtue ethics

This is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue in
moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring about
good consequences (Athanassoulis, N. n.d.). Therefore, the fundamental component
of moral behavior is the person’s character rather than ethical duties and rules about
the acts themselves or consequences of particular actions. This moral theory is
character or person-based rather than action based because it places special
emphasis on the moral character of the person executing the act.

Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of character that

are essential to human flourishing, not with the enumeration of
duties. It falls somewhat outside the traditional dichotomy
between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It agrees
with consequentialism that the criterion of an action’s being
morally right or wrong lies in its relation to an end that has
intrinsic value, but more closely resembles deontological ethics
in its view that morally right actions are constitutive of the end
itself and not mere instrumental means to the end (Virtue ethics,
n.d.).

Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of individual acts, but it is also
a source of counsel as to the type of attributes and behaviors human beings should
realize. It does not just focus its attention on particular moral acts, rather more
concerned with the whole of a person's life. It believes that a moral being is someone
who lives virtuously, someone who possesses and actually applies the virtues he has
learned.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words, they become actions. Watch
your actions; they become habits.
 Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
- Frank Outlaw

2. Meta-ethics

Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status,

foundations, and scope of moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics, n.d.) It is
an inquiry about the nature of ethical assertions, attitudes, and evaluations. Metaethics
belongs to the three branches of ethics considered as framework, the others being
normative ethics and applied ethics.

Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three kinds of meta-ethical
problems, or three general questions:

1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? (moral semantics)

2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or defended? (moral epistemology)

The first meta-ethical problem or general question investigates the meaning of

the terms: good, bad, right and wrong. Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments. The third problem raises the question on
our ability to know if a human act is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen (1967),
argued that answers to the three basic questions are not unrelated, and sometimes an
answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an answer to another.

3. Applied ethics

Applied ethics, in a broad sense, refers to any use of philosophical methods

critically to examine practical moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices,
and policies in the professions, technology, government, and the like (Applied ethics,
2020). As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of
moral knowledge into practice. In other words, it bridges ethical theory and practical
and feasible solutions. It has produced principle-based attitude toward ethical issues
which in many instances result in solutions to particular problems that are not globally
acceptable.

This discipline studies difficult moral questions and controversial moral issues
that human beings actually face in their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death penalty,
suicide, cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay or lesbian
relations, war tactics, animal rights, capital punishments or nuclear war and
environmental issues.
 Some of the key areas of applied ethics are: bioethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.

Bioethics

This is branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical, social, and legal issues
arising in medicine and the life sciences (Chadwick, n.d.). Bioethics devotes its time
and attention in studying the moral controversies brought about by advances in biology
and medicine. It is concerned with scientific advances that can alter the way we
understand health and illness and, ultimately, the way we live and die. It is
multidisciplinary because it draws contributions from many different academic
disciplines or professional specializations such as philosophy, theology, history,
anthropology, law, medicine, nursing, health policy, social work and the medical
humanities.

Issues that are considered in bioethics include: cloning, surrogate motherhood,

human genetic engineering, genomics, stem cell research, organ donation and
transplantation, transplant trade, medical and genetic data privacy, cyberattacks
against medical devices and systems, biohacking, biological differences based on
inequalities in wealth, bioterrorism, technological sexuality, assisted reproductive
technologies, ethical issues on brain imaging and testing, nanotechnologies (using
small particles to deliver medicine or other medical treatments), and genetically
modified food.

Environmental Ethics

This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings
to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human
contents (Environmental ethics, 2015). It deals with man’s moral obligation to the
preservation and care of the non-human world.

Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms on earth have the
right to live. Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other because they
depend on one another for their existence. Owing to their inseparable relationship, the
guiding principles of man’s life and his ethical values should include it. By destroying
the environment and its non-human contents, man unjustly and immorally denies its
right to live.

The topics for debate in environmental ethics include: global climate change,
the depletion of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems,
water and air pollution, waterways, the use of fertilizers, animal experimentation, and
endangered species preservation.

Business Ethics
 This can be understood as the study of the ethical dimensions of productive
organizations and commercial activities (Business ethics, 2016). It is interested in the
analyses of the ethical problems and principles in the manufacture, supply, advertising,
and selling of products and services.

Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong in the
workplace. Over and above their obligation to the law, business organizations must be
conscious of the moral impact of their activities on customers, employees,
shareholders, communities and the environment in all aspects of their operations.

More than knowledge and experience in managing a business the interests of the
community are of paramount importance. There should be a balance between the
purpose of business, which is to make money and its unwritten social responsibilities to
its employees and society.

Corporate governance, employee rights, unions, insider trading, bribery,

misleading advertising, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, fiduciary
responsibilities, and even slavery are some of the controversial subjects addressed in
business ethics.

Sexual Ethics

This is commonly understood as the study of human sexuality and sexual behavior. It
seeks to investigate thoroughly moral behavior regarding with whom people have sex
and how they do so. It is an attempt to bring about a comprehensive understanding of
the moral conduct of interpersonal relationships and sexual practices from social,
cultural, religious, medical, legal and philosophical perspectives.

Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation, abortion, contraception,

adultery, extramarital sex, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, polyamory, seduction,
flirting, prostitution, homosexuality, pornography, masturbation, incest, rape,
sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually transmitted infections, genital
modification and mutilation, teenage pregnancy, celibacy, and marriage.

Social Ethics

This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values, behaviors and

responsibilities people have toward themselves, each other, and the world as a whole.
The collection of social principles regulate relationships within a society, specifically
with regard to determining what is considered morally right, just and noble. The rules
which society judges acceptable are expected to be followed because they are meant
to guide people in their ethical choices and values.
 Social ethics teaches what each person will and will not tolerate from each other
within society. To maintain social equilibrium, the welfare of society as a whole must
be placed ahead of the interests of any individual. People in a society cannot do as
they please. There are social norms and laws that prescribe boundaries and
encourage social responsibility.
Social ethics validates if people’s decisions and actions cause harm to society
or the environment. Each person is responsible to act in manner that benefits his
society and not solely himself.

Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines problems such as: environmental
pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior, poverty, malnourishment, lack of
access to food and clean water, access to clean and affordable living, unemployment,
homelessness, discrimination and violence, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, political
corruption, prostitution, sexual abuse, rape, early pregnancy, same-sex marriage,
birth control, HIV/AIDS, prostitution, gay marriages, gender issues, child labor, lack of
proper access to education, the shortage of schools, the lack of infrastructure,
alcoholism, food and drug safety, suicide, drug abuse, capital punishment, animal
abuse, human rights, women's rights, children’s rights, world population, organ &
body donation, euthanasia & assisted suicide, death penalty, consumer debt and
bankruptcy, judicial reform, censorship, gun control, terrorism, nuclear weapon
production, immigration, tobacco, nuclear proliferation, cancer, health care reform,
religious conflict & war, political polarization, government accountability, lack of
access to credit, eating disorders, obesity and the lack of physical fitness programs.