MODULE 5

OUTLINES
Welding processes

Cutting processes

Applications

Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed as a fabrication process.

Various fabrication process are

1. Mechanical joints- bolts, screws & rivets 2. Adhesive bonding- synthetic glue 3. Welding, Brazing & Soldering Selection depends on.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Type of assemble-permanent, semi-permanent or temporary Material being joined Economy Service conditions

Advantages and disadvantages of welding compared to other types of assembly operations

Advantages: (1) (2) (3) (4) It provides a permanent joint, Joint strength is as high as the strength of base metals, It is most economical in terms of material usage, and It is versatile in terms of where it can be accomplished. Disadvantages:

1) It is usually performed manually, so labor cost is high and the skilled labor to perform it is sometimes scarce, 2) Welding is inherently dangerous, 3) A welded joint is difficult to disassemble, and 4) Quality defects are sometimes difficult to detect.

Introduction - Welding

Welded Joints are permanent joints.

Welding joints are obtained by localized heating and are based on molecular attraction.
The properties of the welded components are closest to those of a solid member. Members of unlimited size can be fabricated. Strength of welded joins in terms of static and impact loads is equal to the base metal. All Structural steel's including high alloy grades, non ferrous alloys can be efficiently welded.

ARC WELDING
Name AWS Characteristics Carbon electrode, historical Applications Copper, repair (limited) Carbon arc welding CAW

Flux cored arc welding

Gas metal arc welding

FCAW FCAW-S

Continuous consumable electrode filled with Industry, construction flux

Continuous consumable electrode and shielding gas

GMAW

Industry

Gas tungsten arc welding

GTAW

Nonconsumable electrode, slow, high quality Aerospace,Construction( welds piping),Tool and Die
Nonconsumable electrode, constricted arc Tubing, instrumentation

Plasma arc welding PAW

Shielded metal arc SMAW welding

Submerged arc welding SAW

Consumable electrode covered in flux, can Construction, outdoors, weld any metal as long as they have the right maintenance electrode Automatic, arc submerged in granular flux

Oxy fuel gas welding

Name

AWS

Characteristics

Applications

Oxy acetylene OAW welding

Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces high- Maintenance, temperature flame, repair inexpensive equipment

Resistance welding
Name Resistance spot welding Resistance seam welding AWS Characteristics Two pointed electrodes apply pressure RSW and current to two or more thin workpieces Two wheel-shaped electrodes roll along ERW workpieces, applying pressure and current Applications Automobile industry, Aerospace industry Aerospace industry, steel drums, tubing

Projection welding PW
Flash welding Upset welding FW RSEW Butt joint surfaces heated and brought together by force

Solid-state welding
Name Explosion welding Electromagnetic pulse welding Forge welding Friction welding FOW FRW AWS Characteristics Joining of dissimilar materials, e.g. corrosion resistant EXW alloys to structural steels Applications Transition joints for chemical industry and shipbuilding. Bimetal pipelines

Tubes or sheets are accelerated by electromagnetic forces. Automotive industry, pressure Oxides are expelled during impact vessels, dissimilar material joints The oldest welding process in the world. Oxides must be removed by flux or flames. Damascus steel

Thin heat affected zone, oxides disrupted by friction, needs Aerospace industry, railway, land sufficient pressure transport

Friction stir welding

Shipbuilding, aerospace, railway FSW A rotating consumable tool is traversed along the joint line rolling stock, automotive industry Metals are pressed together at elevated temperatures HPW below the melting point in vacuum or an inert gas atmosphere HPW ROW USW A hot inert gas applies the pressure inside a pressure vessel, i.e. an autoclave Bimetallic materials are joined by forcing them between two rotating wheels High-frequency vibratory energy is applied to foils, thin metal sheets or plastics.

Hot pressure welding

Hot isostatic pressure welding Roll welding Ultrasonic welding

Aerospace components

Aerospace components Dissimilar materials Solar industry. Electronics. Rear lights of cars.

Other welding Processes

Name Electron beam welding Electroslag welding AWS EBW Characteristics Deep penetration, fast, high equipment cost Applications

ESW

Welds thick workpieces quickly, vertical position, steel only, continuous consumable electrode.

Heavy plate fabrication, construction Construction, shipbuilding. Automotive industry Automotive, Shipbuilding, Steelwork industries Components of switch gear devices Railway tracks

Induction welding IW Laser beam welding Laser-hybrid welding Percussion welding PEW LBW Deep penetration, fast, high equipment cost Combines LBW with GMAW in the same welding head, able to bridge gaps up to 2mm (between plates), previously not possible with LBW alone. Following an electrical discharge, pressure is applied which forges the materials together Exothermic reaction between alumnium powder and iron oxide powder

Thermite welding TW

Oxy Acetylene welding

OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally control the torch movement and filler rod. Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high pressure.
Acetylene is stored in the form of dissolved acetone under a pressure of 16 to 22 atm gauges.

Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

Regulator Hoses
Hoses are fabricated from rubber Oxygen hoses are green in color and have right hand thread. Acetylene hoses are red in color with left hand thread. Left hand threads can be identified by a grove in the body of the nut and it may have ACET stamped on it

Flame Settings
There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene flames, usually termed: Neutral Carburizing (or excess acetylene) Oxidizing (or excess oxygen ) The type of flame produced depends upon the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture which leaves the torch tip.

 The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly oneto-one. Its termed neutral because it will usually have no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal. The excess acetylene flame, as its name implies, is created when the proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal. The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or burn some of the metal being welded.

Flame profiles

Flame Profiles

Type of flame

Application

1.Neutral flame 2.Carburizing flame

3.Oxidizing flame

Steel, Cast-Iron ,Copper, Aluminum Low carbon steels, alloy steels, non ferrous metals
Brass, Bronze

Filler rod
Used to supply additional metal to the weld zone during welding Available as filler rods or wire and may be bare or coated with flux Purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being welded by generating a gaseous shield around the weld zone

Advantages of Gas welding

1.Temp.of flame cane be controlled easily. 2.The amount of filler metal deposits can be controlled easily. 3.Flame can be used for welding and cutting. 4.All types of metal can be welded. 5.Cost of equipment is less. 6.Portable equipment. 7.Low maintenance cost.

Limitations of Gas welding

1.Not suitable for thick plates. 2.Slow process. 3.Handling and storing of gas cylinders needs more care. 4.Strength of weld is not so good as arc welding. 5.Gas flame takes up a longer time to heat up the metal than arc welding.

Gas cutting
Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is projected onto the surface, which rapidly

oxidizes
Melt are blown away by the force of the jet, to make a cut Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of accuracy Torch is different from welding

Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for
oxygen jet

Flame Cutting

Fig. (a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate, showing drag lines.

Arc welding
Equipments:
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.) Two cables- one for work and one for electrode Electrode holder Electrode Protective shield Gloves Wire brush Chipping hammer Goggles

Arc Welding Equipments

Arc Shielding
At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by these reactions To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in AW processes

Arc shielding is accomplished by:

Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2 Flux

Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides

and other contaminants in welding, or dissolves

them and facilitates removal

Provides protective atmosphere for welding

Stabilizes arc Reduces spattering

Power Source in Arc Welding

DC arc welding is more expensive than AC welding. DC W is generally preferred because of the control of heat input offered by it. 70 % of heat is liberated near the anode ,30% cathode. If more heat is required at w/p ( thicker w/p, high thermal conductivity metals such as Al, Copper ) w/p can be connected to anode Straight polarity or DCEN ( Direct current Electrode negative) It produces welds that are narrow and deep.

 If less heat is required at w/p, (thinner w/p) w/p can be connected to negative. This is referred as reverse polarity, or DCEP(direct current Electrode positive ) The weld zone is shallower and wider
DCEN DCEP

Fig. The effect of polarity on weld beads:

(a) dc current straight polarity; (b) dc current reverse polarity; (c) ac current.

Comparison of AC & DC welding machines

AC machine ( Transformer)
1.Efficency is more (80 to 85 %) 2.Power consumption is less 3.Cost of equipment is less 4. Any terminal can be connected to work or electrode 5.Voltage is higher, not safe

DC machine (Generator)
Efficiency is less (30 to 60 %) Power consumption is more Cost of equipment is more Polarity is significant Voltage is low, safer operation

6.Not suitable for welding nonferrous metals

Very much suitable for both ferrous & nonferrous metals

7.Not preferred for welding thin Preferred for welding thin sections sections

Arc welding
Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals Lowest-cost joining method Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials Joins all commercial metals Provides design flexibility

Limitations
Manually applied, therefore high labor cost. Need high energy causing danger Not convenient for disassembly. Defects are hard to detect at joints.

Heat transfer in arc welding

Heat input is
H VI e l v
H = heat input l = weld length V = voltage applied I = current v = welding speed e = efficiency

Heat input to melt a certain volume of material is

H uVm uAl
u = specific energy required for melting Vm = volume of material melted A = cross section of the weld

Welding speed is
ve VI uA

Consider the situation where a welding operation is being performed with V = 20volts, I = 200A and the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is 30 mm2. Estimate the welding speed if the work piece and electrode are made of (a) aluminium, (b) carbon steel, and (c) titanium. Use an efficiency of 75%.

VI 20 200 Solution ve 0.75 34 .5 mm/s 2.930 uA a)For aluminium,

b)For carbon steel,

v 8.1 mm/s

c)For titanium,

v 7.0 mm/s

Consumable Electrode AW Processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Gas Metal Arc Welding(MIG) Flux-Cored Arc Welding Electrogas Welding Submerged Arc Welding

Non consumable Electrode Processes

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) Plasma Arc Welding Carbon Arc Welding Stud Welding

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) or GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding )

Weld materials: Carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, most aluminum alloys, zinc based copper alloys

MIG or GMAW
Consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel which is fed at constant rate. Weld area is shielded by an external source of gas. Deoxidizers are present in the electrode to prevent oxidation. Process is rapid, versatile and economical. Shielding gas : Argon Nitrogen Helium

TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ( GTAW)

As the tungsten electrode is not consumed, a constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current level GTAW process is used for applications with aluminium, magnesium, titanium and the refractory metals Cost of the inert gas is more expensive but provides high quality welds and surface finish

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Advantages:
High quality welds for suitable applications No spatter because no filler metal through arc Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux

Disadvantages:
Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW processes

Shielded Metal Arc Weld (SMAW):

Most popular welding technique (stick welding). The electrode coating performs the following: A Produce gaseous shield to exclude oxygen. B Introduce dioxider material to improve grain. C Produce a blanket of slag to retard cooling and prevent oxidation. The SMAW process is designated by AWS as E6OXX or E7OXX e.g. (E 6013)

Submerged Arc Weld (SAW):

In this process the automatically fed arc (spool) is protected by a blanket of granular material called flux.

This flux material acts to improve weld quality and to protect it

from the air.

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Welded Joints

Fig. Examples of welded joints and their terminology.

Resistance Welding
RW- heat required is produced by electrical resistance across the two components to be joined H = Heat I = Current Heat generated is H I 2 Rt

R = Resistance t = Time of current flow

By including a factor K, which denotes energy losses through conduction and radiation, we have H I 2 RtK

The desirable properties of a metal that would provide good weld ability for resistance welding are High resistivity, Low electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity and Low melting point.

Resistance Welding
1. 2. 3. 4. Total resistance is the sum of: Resistances of the electrodes Electrodeworkpiece contact resistance Resistances of the individual parts to be welded Contact resistance between the two workpieces to be joined (faying surfaces) Temperature rise at the joint depends on the specific heat and the thermal conductivity of the metals to be joined

Resistance Spot Welding

Tips of 2 opposing solid, cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals, and resistance heating produces a spot weld To obtain a strong bond in the weld nugget, pressure is applied until the current is turned off and the weld has solidified Surface of the spot weld has a slightly discolored indentation Current level depends on the materials thicknesses

Resistance Spot Welding

Heat generated = I2Rt Heat required for melting

uVm

Volume of nugget Vm = (3.14*D2 )/4 *d Where D =dia of nugget d= thickness of nugget

Heat distribution through conduction and radiation is = Heat generated-heat required for melting.

Resistance Spot Welding

Simplest and most commonly used May be performed by means of single or multiple pairs of electrodes Required pressure is supplied through mechanical or pneumatic means Variety of electrode shapes are used to spotweld areas that are difficult to reach

An RSW operation is used to make a series of spot welds between two pieces of aluminum, each 2.0 mm thick. The unit melting energy for aluminum = 2.90 J/mm3. Welding current = 6,000 amps, and time duration = 0.15 sec. Resistance = 75 micro-ohms. The resulting weld nugget measures 5.0 mm in diameter by 2.5 mm thick. How much of the total energy generated is used to form the weld nugget? How much of heat is dissipated into the surroundings? Solution: H = I2Rt = (6000)2(75 x 10-6)(0.15) = 405 W-sec = 405 J Weld nugget volume V = D2d/4 = (5)2(2.5)/4 = 49.1 mm3 Heat required for melting = UmV = (2.9 J/mm3)(49.1 mm3) =142.4 J Proportion of heat for welding =142.4/405 = 0.351 = 35.1%

The remaining heat 405 J-142.4 J= 262.6 J is dissipated into the metal surrounding through conduction and radiation.

Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance Spot Welding

Testing Spot Welds Spot-welded joints may be tested by: 1. Tension-shear 2. Cross-tension 3. Twist 4. Peel

Advantages &Drawbacks of RW
Advantages: No filler metal required High production rates possible Lends itself to mechanization and automation Lower operator skill level than for arc welding Good repeatability and reliability Disadvantages: High initial equipment cost Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

Resistance Seam Welding

Electrodes are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers Using a continuous AC power supply to rollers In roll spot welding, current is applied intermittently and a series of spot welds at specified intervals In mash seam welding, overlapping welds are about one to two times the sheet thickness

Resistance Seam Welding

High-frequency RW
High-frequency current (up to 450 kHz) is used Used for production of butt-welded tubing or pipe For high-frequency induction welding (HFIW), the roll-formed tube is subjected to highfrequency induction heating

Resistance Projection Welding

High electrical resistance is developed by embossing one or more projections on one of the surfaces to be welded Used for resistance projection welding by modifying the electrodes

RW:Flash Welding
Heat is generated from the arc as the ends of the two members begin to make contact and develop an electrical resistance at the joint Quality of the weld is good Suitable for end-to-end or edge-to-edge joining of sheets of similar or dissimilar metals Can be automated Can be used in operating rolling mills and feeding of wire-drawing equipment

RW:Flash Welding