1.

DIFFERENTIATION
THEOREM 1
If y = f (u) is a differentiable function of u and u = g (x) is a differentiable function
of x suchthat the composite function y = f [g (x)] is a differentiable function of
x then
dy dy du
 
dx du dx
Proof: Let x be an increment in x.
 u and y are the corresponding increments in u and y respectively.
As x 0, u 0 y 0
y y u
Now,  
x u x
[x 0 x 0 andu 0 u0]
Taking limit as x 0 on both the sides, we get
y  y u 
lim  lim   
x  0 x x  0
 u x 
y y u
lim  lim  lim
x  0 x x  0 x x  0 x
As x 0 u0
y y u
 lim  lim  lim
x  0 x u  0 u x  0 x

Since y is a differentiable function of u

y dy
 lim  exists and is finite
u 0 u du
Similarly, u is a differentiable function of x.
u du
 lim  exists and is finite
x  0 x dx
Since all the limits on R.H.S. exist and are finite
 Limit on L.H.S. also exists and is finite.
y dy
i.e. lim 
x  0 x dx
dy dy du
Hence,  
dx du dx

THEOREM 2
Suppose y = f(x) is a differentiable function ofx on an internal I and y is one-one, onto
dy 1
 0 on I. Also, if f ( y) is differentiable function on f (I), then
dx
d 1 1 dx 1 dy
[ f ( y )] = or = where  0.
dy f ( x ) dy  dy  dx
 dx 
 
Proof: Let x be an increment in x.
 y is the corresponding increment in y.
 y is a differentiable function of x.
 y is a continuous function of x.
As x 0 y 0
We have,
y x
 =1
x y
x 1 y
  , 0
y  y  x
 x 
 
Taking limit as x 0, on both the sides, we get
x 1
 lim  lim
x  0 y x  0  y 
 x 
 
x 1
 lim 
x  0 y y
lim
x  0 x

As x 0 , y 0,
x 1
 lim 
y  0 y y
lim
x  0 x

Since y is a differentiable function of x

y y
 lim  exists and is finite.
x  0 x x
Since the limit on R.H.S. exists and is finite.
 The limit on L.H.S. exists and is finite.
x dx
i.e. lim  exists and is finite.
y  0 y dy
dx 1 dy
Hence,  , 0
dy  dy  dx
 dx 
 

THEOREM 3
If x = f(t) and y = g(t) are differentiable functions of t so that y is a differentiable of x
dy
dx dy
and if  0, then = dt
dt dx dx
dt
Proof: Let t be an increment in t.
 x and y are the corresponding increments in x and y respectively.
As t 0, x 0 and y 0
Now,
y
y x
= t , 0
x x t
t
Taking limit as t 0 on both the sides, we get
  y 
y  t 
lim = lim  
t  0 x t  0
 x 
 t 
y
y lim
t  0 t
lim =
t  0 x x
lim
t  0 t

As t 0 x 0
y
y lim
t  0 t
 lim =
x  0 x x
lim
t  0 t

Since y is a differentiable function of t

 y dy
 lim  exists and is finite.
t  0  t dt
Similarly, x is a differentiable function
of t.
x dx
 lim = exists and is finite.
t  0 t dt
Since all the limits on R.H.S. exist and are finite.
 Limit on L.H.S. also exists and is finite.
y dy
i.e. lim =
x  0 x dx
dy
dy dx
Hence, = dt , 0
dx dx dt
dt
 3. INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
THEOREM
If x   t  is a differentiable function of t, then  f ( x ) dx =  f   t     t  dt
Proof: Let  f ( x ) dx  g( x ) …(i)
 By definition of primitive, we get
d
[ g( x )]  f ( x ) …(ii)
dx
Given that x   (t ) is a differentiable function of t.
dx
   (t ) …(iii)
dt
Now, by chain rule,
d d dx
[ g( x )]  [ g( x )] 
dt dx dt
dx
= f (x )  …[From (ii) and (iii)]
dt
d
 [ g( x )]  f  t   (t )
dt
Again, by definition of primitive, we get
g ( x )   f  t    (t ) dt

  f ( x ) dx   f  t   (t ) dt …[From (i)]

Corollaries:
 f ( x )]n 1
 [ f ( x )] f ( x ) dx =
n
(a)  c , n  –1
n 1
f ( x )
(b)  f ( x ) dx = log |f(x)| + c
f ( x )
(c)  f (x )
dx = 2 f ( x )  c

(d) If  f ( x ) dx = g(x), then

1
 f (ax  b) dx  a  g(ax  b)  c
Proof :
Let I =  [ f ( x )] f  ( x ) dx
n
(a)
Put f(x) = tf(x) dx = dt
I =  t dt
n

t n 1
= c, n –1
n 1
[ f ( x )]n  1
 I= c
n 1
 f ( x )
(b) Let I =  f ( x ) dx
Put f(x) = tf(x) dx = dt
1
 I =  dt
t
= log |t| + c
 I = log |f(x)| + c
f ( x )
(c) Let I =  dx
f (x )
Put f(x) = tf(x) dx = dt
1
 I=  dt
t
= 2 t c
 I = 2 f (x )  c
(d) Let I =  f (ax  b) dx
1
Put ax + b = tadx = dtdx = dt
a
1 
 I=  f (t )  a dt 
1
a
= f (t ) dt

1
= g(t )  c [ If
a  f ( x ) dx  g( x ) then
 f (t ) dt  g (t ) ]
1
 I= g (ax  b)  c
a

SOME STANDARD FORMULAE

1 x
(1)  dx  sin 1    c
2
a x 2
a
1
Proof: Let I =  a2  x 2
dx

x   sin 1  x 
Put x = a sin  sin   a
2  
 dx  a cos  d
1
 I =  a cos d 
a  a 2 sin 2 
2

a cos 
=  d

a2 1  sin2  
 a cos 
=  a 2 cos2 
d

a cos 
=  a cos  d
=  d
=+c
x
 I = sin 1    c
a
1 x
Hence  a x2
dx  sin 1    c
2
a
1
(2)  x a2 2
dx  log x  x2  a2  c

1
Proof: Let I =  x  a2
2
dx

x
Put x = a sec   sec  
a
 dx = a sectand
1
I=   a sec  tan d 
a sec2   a 2
2

a sec  tan 
=  d

a2 sec2   1 
a sec  tan 
=  a 2 tan 2 
d

a sec  tan 
=  a tan 
d

=  sec d
= log sec   tan   c1

x

a
 From the figure,
x 2  a2
tan =
a
x x 2  a2
 I = log   c1
a a

= log x  x 2  a 2  log a  c1
 I = log x  x 2  a 2  c1 , c  c1  log a

1
Hence,  x a2 2
dx  log x  x 2  a 2  c

1
(3)  x a2 2
dx  log x  x2  a2  c

1
Proof: Let I =  x  a2
2
dx

x
Put x = a tan tan  =
a
 dx = a sec2d
1
I=  2 2 2
 a sec 2
d 
a tan   a
a sec2 
=  d

a 2 tan 2   1 
a sec2 
=  a2 sec2 
d

=  a sec  d
 I = log sec   tan   c1

x
 
 a


From the figure,

x 2  a2
sec  
a
x 2  a2 x
 I = log   c1
a a

= log x 2  a 2  x  log a  c1

 I = log x  x 2  a 2  c, c1  log a

1
Hence,  x a2 2
dx  log x  x 2  a 2  c

1 1  x
(4) x 2
a2
dx  tan1    c
a a
1
Proof: Let I = x 2
 a2
dx
 x x
Put x = a tan  tan    = tan 1  
a a
 dx = a sec2d
1
 I=  2
a tan2   a2
a sec2 d  
a sec2 
=  2 d

a tan2   1 
1 sec2 
a  sec2 
 I= d

1
=  d
a
1
 I =    c
a
1 x
 I = tan 1    c
a a
1 1 x
Hence, x 2
 a2
dx  tan 1    c
a a

1 1 xa
(5) x 2
a2
dx 
2a
log
xa
c

1
Proof: Let I = x 2
 a2
dx

We know that
1 1

2
x a 2
 x  a  x  a 
1  1 1 
= 
2a  x  a x  a 


1  1 1 
I=  2a  x  a  x  a  dx
1  1 1 
=  
2a  x  a
dx   dx 
xa 
1
=log x  a  log x  a   c
2a 
1 x a
I= log c
2a x a

1 1 a x
(6) a 2
x 2
dx 
2a
log
ax
c

Proof: We know that

1 1

a 2  x 2  a  x  a  x 
 1  1 1 
 
2a  a  x a  x 


1  1 1 
I=  2a  a  x  a  x  dx
1  1 1 
=  
2a  a  x
dx   dx
a  x 
1  1 
=  log a  x  log a  x  c
2a  1 
1
= log a  x  log a  x   c
2a 
1 ax
 I= log c
2a ax
1 1 ax
Hence, a 2
x 2
dx 
2a
log
ax
c

1 1 x
(7) x 2
x a 2
dx 
a
sec 1    c
a
1
Proof: Let I = x x  a2
2
dx

x x
Put x = a sec  sec  =  = sec–1  
a a
 dx  a sec  tan d
1
I=  a sec   a sec  tan d 
a sec2   a 2
2

tan 
=  d

a sec2   1
2

tan 
=  a 2 tan 2 
d

tan 
=  a tan  d
1
a
= d

1
=    c
a
1 x
 I = sec 1    c
a a
THEOREM
If u is a differentiable function of x and v is an integrable function of x, then
 du 
 uvdx  u vdx    dx  v dx  dx
Proof :
Let  v dx  w … (i)
∴ By definition of primitive, we get
dw
v … (ii)
dx
We know that
d dw du
dx
 uw   u
dx
w
dx
∴ By definition of primitive, we get
 dw du 
  u dx w
dx 
dx  uw

dw du
∴  u dx dx   w dx dx  uw
dw du
  u dx dx  uw   w. dx dx
Eliminating w using (1) and (ii), we get
 du 
 uvdx  u  vdx    dx  vdx dx

RESULTS
e ax
 e sin bx  c  dx 
ax
(1)
a2  b2
[a sin bx  c  –b cos bx  c  ] + k
e ax
 e cos bx  c  dx 
ax
(2)
a 2  b2
[a cos bx  c  + b sin bx  c  ] + k
Proof :

 e sin bx  c  dx
ax
(1) Let I =

  sin bx  c  e dx
ax
[L I A TE]

d 
= sin bx  c   e dx    sin bx  c    e ax dx  dx
ax

 dx 
1  d  e ax 
 sin bx  c   e ax    cos bx  c  bx  c    dx
a  dx  a 
e ax 1
 sin bx  c    b cos bx  c  e ax dx
a a
 e ax b
 I  sin bx  c    cos bx  c  e ax dx
a a


e ax
a
.sin bx  c  
b
a
 d
cos bx  c   e ax dx   
 dx
cos bx  c    e ax dx  

eax b  eax   eax  
 sin bx  c   cos bx  c    
  b sin  bx  c  
 a  dx 
a a   a    
e ax b b2
 I sin bx  c   2 cos bx  c  e ax  2  sin bx  c  e ax dx
a a a
 a2 I  aeax sin bx  c   beax cos bx  c   b2 I
(a2 + b2)I = eax [a sin(bx + c) – cos(bx + c)]
e ax
 I= [a sin (bx + c) – cos(bx + c) + k
a  b2 2

Similarly, we can prove the result (2)

Result : e
x
 f  x   f '  x   dx  e x f  x   c

Proof :Let I   e x  f  x   f '  x dx

  e x f  x  dx   e x f '  x dx

d x 

  ex f  x  dx  e x  f '  x dx   
 dx
e    f '  x  dx  dx 


  
  e x f  x dx  e x f  x    e x  f  x   dx 
  e x f  x  dx  e x f  x    e x f  x dx
 I = e x f(x) + c
Hence, e
x
 f  x   f '  x   dx  e x f  x   c

Results :
x a2
1.  x 2  a2 dx 
2
x2  a2 
2
log x  x2  a2  c

Proof : Let I =  x 2  a 2 dx

  x 2  a 2 .1dx

d
 x 2  a 2  1dx   
 dx
 x 2  a2   1dx  dx
 1 d 2 
 x 2  a2  x    
2 2 dx
x  a2  x  dx  
2 x  a 

x x a  2 2 x2
dx  x x  a  2 2 x 2

 a2  a2
dx
2
x a 2
x  a2
2
  x 2  a2 a2 
 x x 2  a2     dx
2 2
 x a x 2  a2 
1
 x x 2  a2   x 2  a2 dx  a2  dx
x  a2
2

 I  x x 2  a 2  I  a 2 . log x  x 2  a 2

 2 I  x x 2  a 2  a 2 log x  x 2  a 2

x a2
 I x 2  a2  log x  x 2  a2  c
2 2
Hence,
x 2 a2
 x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x  a2 
2
log x  x 2  a 2  c

x 2 a2
2.  x2  a2 dx 
2
x  a2 
2
log x  x 2  a2  c [HW]

x a2 x
3.  a2  x 2 dx 
2
a2  x 2 
2
sin 1    c
a

Proof : Let I =  a 2  x 2 dx   a 2  x 2 .1dx

d
  a 2  x 2  1dx   
 dx
 a2  x 2   1.dx  dx
 1 d 2 
 a2  x 2  x    
2 2 dx

a  x 2  x  dx 
2 a  x 
x
 x a2  x 2    2x  dx
2 a  x2
2

x 2
 x a2  x 2   dx
a2  x 2

 x a2  x 2  
a 2

 x 2  a2
dx
a2  x 2
 a2  x 2 a2 
 x a2  x 2      dx
2 2
 a x a2  x 2 
1
 x a2  x 2   a2  x 2  a2  dx
a2  x 2
x
 I  x a 2  x 2  I  a 2 .sin 1  
a
x
 2 I  x a 2  x 2  a 2 sin 1  
a
x a2 x
I  a2  x 2  sin 1    c
2 2 a
x a2 x
Hence ,  a 2  x 2 dx 
2
a2  x 2 
2
sin 1    c
a
 4. DEFINITE INTEGRATION
a
Property I:  f  x dx  0
a

Proof : Let  f  x  dx  g  x   c
a

 f  x  dx   g  x   c
a
L.H.S. =
a
a

  g  a   c    g  a   c 
= 0 = R.H.S.

b a
Property II :  f  x  dx   f  x  dx
a b

Proof : Let  f  x dx  g  x   c

b

 f  x dx   g  x   c 
b
L.H.S. =  g b   g  a 
a
a

   g  a   g b  
a
   f  x dx = R.H.S.
b
b b
Property III :  f  x dx   f t dt
a a

Proof : Let  f  x dx  g  x   c

b

 f  x dx   g  x   c  g b   g  a 
b
L.HS = …(i)
a
a
b

RHS   f t dt   g t   c   g b  g  a 

b
…(ii)
a
a

From (i) and (ii),

b b

 f  x dx   f t dt
a a

b c b
Property IV :  f  x dx   f  x dx   f  x dx ,
a a c
where a < c < b

Proof : Let  f  x dx  g  x   c

c b
RHS =  f  x dx   f  x dx
a c

  g  x   c    g  x   c 
c b

a c

= g(c) − g(a) + g(b) – g(c)

= g(b) – g(a)
 b
  f  x dx
a

= LHS
b c b
  f  x dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx , where a < c < b
a a c

b b
Property V :  f  x dx   f  a  b  x dx
a a

Proof : Let  f  x dx  g  x   c

b
RHS =  f  a  b  x dx
a

Put a + b – x = t
 − dx = dt
dx = − dt
When x = a, t = b
When x = b, t = a
a
 RHS =   f t  dt
b
b
 b a

  f t  dt  a  
f x dx   b f  x  dx 
a  
b
b b

  f  x  dx   f t  dt   f  x  dx 
a a a 
= LHS

a a
Property VI :  f  x  dx   f  a  x  dx
0 0

Proof : Let  f  x  dx  g  x   c
a
RHS =  f  a  x dx
0

Put a − x = t
 − dx = dt
dx = − dt
When x = 0, t = a
When x = a, t = 0
0
RHS =   f t  dt
a

a
 b a

  f t  dt  a f  x  dx   b f  x  dx 
0  
 a
 b b

  f  x  dx  a f  x  dx  a f t  dt 
0  
= L.H.S.

Property VII :
2a a a

 f  x dx   f  x dx   f  2a  x dx

0 0 0

Proof : Let  f  x dx  g  x   c

a a
RHS =  f  x dx   f 2a  x  dx
0 0

= I1 + I2 ……..(i)
a
Consider I2 =  f 2a  x  dx
0

Put 2a – x = t
− dx = dt
dx = − dt
When x = 0, t = 2a
When x = a, t = a
a
 I =   f t dt
2a

2a
 b a

  f t  dt  a f  x  dx   b f  x  dx 
a  
2a
 b b

 a f  x  dx
 a f  x  dx  a f t  dt 
 
From equation (i),
a 2a
RHS   f  x  dx   f  x dx
0 a
2a
 b c b

=  f  x  dx ....  a f  x  dx  a f  x  dx  c f  x  dx , where a < c < b 
0  
= LHS

Property VIII :
a a

 f  x  dx  2 f  x  dx if f(x) is even function

a 0

=0 if f(x) is odd function.

Proof :
Note that f(x) is even function if f(− x) = f(x) and
f(x) is odd function if f(− x) = − f(x)
 a 0 a
LHS   f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx
a a 0

= I1 + I2 ……(i)
0
Consider I1 =  f  x dx
a

Put x = − t
dx = − dt
When x = − a, t = a
When x = 0, t = 0
0
I1 =   f  t dt
a
a
 b a

  f  t  dt  a f  x  dx   b f  x  dx 
0  
a
 b b

  f  x  dx  a f  x  dx  a f t  dt 
0  
Equation (i) gives
a a
LHS   f   x  dx   f  x dx
0 0

If f(x) is even function then f(− x) = f(x)

a a a
 LHS   f  x dx   f  x dx  2 f  x dx
0 0 0

If f(x) is odd function then f(− x) = − f(x)

a a
 LHS   f  x  dx   f  x  dx  0
0 0