International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

Irony and Communicative Values in Political Discourse: Intercultural and

Interpersonal Communication

Anna Gornostaeva
Moscow State Linguistic University, Russian Federation

Abstract
In the time of globalization and developing 1. Introduction
intercultural communication it is necessary not only
to master a foreign language but to acquire cultural In the modern globalized world connections
and communicative skills. Recently the item of between nations are becoming stronger and questions
developing intercultural competence has acquired a of intercultural communication require primary
particular importance. It is recognized that attention. It has become obvious that mastering a
successful intercultural communication is impossible foreign language is not sufficient to ensure
without the knowledge of background information, successful dialogue and understanding, but it is also
which includes communicative and cultural values, important to have enough knowledge of cultural and
history and traditions. Being an essential part of a communicative values, which form an integral part
language culture, humour and irony pose vast of the picture of the world, present in people’s mind.
challenges for research. This article concentrates on These values are reflected in the language, its
irony, as a communicative value of certain cultures. vocabulary and phraseology and find manifestation
It is noted that irony is an integral part of the in the way expressive means and stylistic devices are
English communicative culture [1] and used in discourse. This article focuses on political
understanding irony and humour in a foreign discourse for a number of reasons.
language ensures a fruitful dialogue between 1. Recently the attention of researchers has been
cultures [2]. This phenomenon has national and attracted to political communication, as a
cultural peculiarities, which should be taken into bright example of intercultural and
consideration while understanding and interpreting
interpersonal discourse, its mechanisms and
the implied sense. On the contrary, the inability to
language means. These phenomena are
penetrate into the disguised meaning of an ironic
utterance may cause communicative failures, analyzed from different angles and through
misunderstanding and even conflicts. The aim of the various approaches, including political,
study is to determine the links between cultural and cultural and linguistic ones. So, the interest to
communicative values and mechanisms of irony in political discourse is high.
the British and American culture and to find common 2. Contemporary political discourse reflects the
and different trends in irony usage. The hypothesis current situation in society and shows the
is: irony is a reflection of culture and forms the recent changes in people’s taste and desires.
picture of the world of an individual, belonging to a 3. Political and cultural figures demonstrate
certain culture, and of a nation as a whole; irony is examples of speech, which has an appeal not
used to express and strengthen the national identity. only to the interlocutor, but to a third party –
The knowledge of ironic mechanisms is important to the audience, for the sake of who everything
promote understanding between different cultures. In
is said and done. That is why political
discourse (in political discourse, in particular) irony
discourse is usually bright, expressive and
performs different functions – from mockery and
attack to self-defense and discharging tension. The convincing.
appropriate ironic mechanism and the ironic mask, The central figures in political communication are
chosen by the speaker, corresponds to his/her the participants and the strategies of persuasion and
communicative intention and contributes to creating manipulation. The aim of political discourse is
a better effect on the interlocutor and the audience. gaining and holding power, the instrument to achieve
The material, used for the analysis, is represented by this aim is language. One of the expressive means is
the recent speeches of British and American political irony, whose functions range from attack and
and cultural figures. The results of the study can be mockery to self-defense and entertainment and rely
applied in the development of discourse theory as on communicative context, background and the type
well as teaching and learning intercultural of relations between the interlocutors. It should be
communication. noted, that irony, as a category of discourse, is a
product of collaboration between the participants of

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

the conversation: one part is responsible for solidarity and minimize the distance between
producing irony, the other – for understanding it interlocutors, as well as enhance the distance and
correctly. In the process of intercultural and exclude outsiders, serving as a boundary marker.
interpersonal communication it is necessary to In any case, the use of irony and the function it
absorb and understand national irony, be able to performs in discourse reflect national, cultural and
interpret it in the right way and react appropriately. communicative values.
The inability to understand ironic utterances of a
foreign interlocutor can cause communicative 3. Cultural and communicative values
failures, lead to growing tension and eventually
discourage the speakers. On the contrary, In order to understand irony it is important to take
background knowledge about the partner’s national into consideration a number of social factors, such as
humour peculiarities will contribute to better the type of relationship between interlocutors, their
understanding and result in efficient productive
gender, cultural and ethnical identity. It is also
communication.
important to have a background knowledge about the
The hypothesis is the following: the use and
frequency of irony depends on cultural and norms of using humour and irony in this or that
communicative values the speakers have. The culture, to be aware of what is considered to be
material, chosen to illustrate the idea, proves the funny. The situation, in which irony is used, should
point and poses vast challenges for further analysis. be appropriate and correspond to the mood of the
communicants and to the atmosphere. It was already
mentioned, that an ironic speech act is a product of
2. Methodology cooperation, so all the parties should contribute
equally. The understanding of irony can differ not
Political discourse is currently interpreted as a only interculturally, but within one and the same
social phenomenon, while politics is associated with culture. Individual characteristics of a person are also
power and force: “Politics is the realm of the important.
decision, of action in the social world… the So, a great number of factors should be taken into
category of hegemony… politics is an act of power, consideration in order to interpret an ironic utterance.
force and will” [3]. Consequently, the discourse of If the estimation of the situation is incorrect, the
politics has the same characteristics. communicative act is bound to be a failure.
According to critical discourse analysis (CDA) Communicative style that is typical of a certain
[4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11 and others] there is mutual culture is based on cultural and communicative
influence between politics and discourse: the latter values and traditions, as well as on the picture of the
can form and change the former, as well as world, that every individual has in mind. It is
contribute to changes in the situation in the world. reflected in verbal and non-verbal means used in the
Political communication is always ideological, it process of interaction.
involves certain instruments to persuade the audience The issue of communicative values is one of the
and manipulate it. Irony is regarded as one of such crucial ones for understanding people’s mentality.
instruments and a feature of the English Being individualistic cultures (unlike Russian,
communicative style [12], which performs different collectivist culture), the British and the Americans
functions in political discourse. It creates emotional have some common communicative values.
background [13; 14], reflects cultural and Nevertheless, there are a number of differences,
communicative values [15; 16; 17] and helps the which are reflected in the language, in particular, in
speaker to create maximum effect. the peculiarities of irony usage.
In order to compare and find common trends and Among the most important communicative values
differences in the national ironic discourses it is researchers single out individualism (privacy),
possible to single out several scenarios, such as: pragmatism, competition, equality, common sense,
mockery or attack; self-defense; entertaining the positive thinking, tolerance etc. [14; 15; 17; 18]. The
interlocutor and the audience; optimizing priority is held by privacy and equality [18].
interpersonal communication etc. In analyzing the American cultural values include practically the
role and functions of irony in political discourse in same notions, with assertiveness opening the list of
the frame of national mentality, I rely on the priorities (which means “pursue one’s own best
hypothesis that these notions are integral elements in interests without denying a partner’s rights” [16, p.
the English style of communication [1]. The roles, 402]), followed by self-confidence and confidence in
irony performs in discourse, are variable – from future. The list of communicative values also
mocking to soothing, as well as entertaining or includes competition, personal success,
making a statement. The role of self-irony is most independence and aggression [19]. The famous
important, as it serves to discharge tension and save American slogans – “go and get it”, “just do it” –
the face of the speaker. Irony may also express

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

vividly reflect the view on the world and on the role creating new language symbols, such as metaphors
of an individual. The Americans think as positively and other expressive means [21].
as the British do, and value equality as well, but they Irony, used in political discourse, makes the
are less modest and, as opposed to the British, recipient re-consider cultural values, leads to active
unlikely to diminish their personal achievements. thinking while interpreting it. When used skillfully,
While the British tend to use understatement irony is an efficient tool to persuade and manipulate,
speaking about personal success, the Americans it disguises meanings, accentuates certain features
would rather exaggerate it, attracting the attention of and forms public opinion and taste. In ironic
the interlocutor / audience to oneself. discourse it is very important to take into
Even non-verbal communication has got certain consideration the personalities of the author and the
peculiarities in the two cultures: while the British recipient. The type of irony is directly connected
prefer a polite smile, performing the social function with the level of education of the speaker, his/her
of putting other people at their ease, the Americans social status, political views. It holds true about the
are famous for a broad self-confident smile, recipient as well: it is necessary to take into account
demonstrating good teeth (hence: good dentist, well- his/her character and mood, the degree of intimacy
being, stability and prosperity). between the interlocutors. The role of emotional and
Linguistic means chosen in the process of psychological factors is also important [13].
communication serve a definite purpose. For the Ignoring any of the prerequisites may lead to
British it is saving face and preserving privacy, misunderstanding and communicative failure. That is
which is clearly seen in the strategies of negative why irony is a subtle device, demanding skill and
politeness [20]. Irony is one of the means realizing experience especially in political discourse, where
this strategy. American irony is more explicit and misunderstanding might cause major problem.
aggressive, more straight-forward and less disguised, Irony and politics have much in common. Both
which will be illustrated by the examples below. are manipulations (irony is the one in language,
politics is manipulating public opinion). They both
4. Irony as a characteristics of national pursue certain aims (irony strives to convey the
communicative style communicative intention of the author, i.e. to create
the necessary effect, while politics is aimed at
Since irony is not only a linguistic phenomenon, gaining and withholding power). Further, ironic and
but a way of perceiving the world, understanding political discourse have much in common in terms of
national humour and irony is crucial for fruitful functions. The common strategy of dividing into
intercultural communication [2]. The identification “us” and “them” also unifies irony and politics. So,
of irony and its correct interpretation ensure analyzing irony in political discourse poses great
comfortable atmosphere and optimizes interpersonal challenges from linguistic, cultural and social point
relations between interlocutors. Irony creates of view.
emotional background and divides the listeners into
target audience and victims: “irony has an evaluative 6. Examples and commentary
edge and manages to provoke emotional responses in
those who “get” it and those who don’t, as well as in The connection of communicative values and
its targets and in what some people call its “victims” irony, its functions and mechanisms, can be analyzed
[12, p.2]. Despite the fact that irony is inherent for through examples of discourse of modern politicians.
many world languages and cultures, it is a In (1) Boris Johnson, the ex-Mayor of London
characteristic feature for but a few. and Secretary of State for Foreign and
Irony in the British culture is a way of national Commonwealth Affairs, prevents the possible
self-identification, it is a clue to understanding criticism:
cultural and historic aspect. The British rely on irony (1) It’s absolutely wonderful to be here in
and, being devoid of the opportunity to use it (at the Manchester – one of the few great British
funeral, for example) feel helpless [1]. The same cities I have yet to insult [22].
cannot be applied to the American communicative
culture. The politician, who is known for his brutal
remarks, often comes under criticism, which he is
5. The role of irony in political discourse well aware of. Johnson openly admits the fact and
uses irony as a preventive measure. In this utterance
the speaker puts on an ironic mask of a rude person,
The language of politics reflects the existing
a misbehavior, who does not hesitate to offend
reality, changes together with it and contributes to its
others. Here Johnson follows the principle “better
formation. Political discourse highlights the
admit, than deny”, which helps to stop the possible
peculiarities of social and cultural development.
bitter remarks from opponents. He uses self-irony,
Each turn in political life of a country gives rise to
that is so typical of the British culture.

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

In the interview with David Letterman (2), a one thing: I’ve got the stomach for the fight.
well-known showman and journalist, Johnson again [25].
relies on irony while answering the question about D. Cameron uses ironic word play using the
his chances to be Prime Minister. This is an collocation “to have stomach” in two senses: direct
interesting example of intercultural communication, meaning – “being plump” and figurative meaning –
since the interviewer is an American, and the “having power and intention for the fight”. Again,
interviewee comes from Britain. For the British, it is we deal with the famous British self-irony, which
rather embarrassing to speak about ambitious plans, helps to save the face and avoid direct showing off.
possible promotion, career etc. Unlike Americans, On the one hand, the leader points out to his own
the British are not assertive, tend to underestimate good qualities, such as being resolute, strong and
their achievements and find boasting and showing determined, on the other hand he speaks about the
off impermissible. drawbacks of his appearance. This combination of
the two meanings produces a humorous effect and
(2) Letterman. Is there a possibility of being takes the edge off the categorical remarks.
Prime Minister?
Johnson. I think that is vanishing. I have a Irony in the function of attack and mockery is
much better chance of being reincarnated. often used in American political discourse to criticize
[23]. the opponents. The best examples of ironic
exchanges can be found in pre-election discourse,
The situation seems funny, especially now, where, according to the style, the speakers have to be
when Boris Johnson has become Prime Minister and critical and aggressive towards one another.
is rather successful in his job. But the phrase was (5) You know I’ve got to talk about Trump. He
pronounced some years before he took over power, lacks experience to be president but in
and it was still unclear if he will win the elections. fairness he spent years meeting with leaders
For American culture it might sound quite natural to throughout the world: Miss Sweden, Miss
express belief in one’s own success, while the British Argentina, Miss Azerbaijan… [26].
speaker is likely to diminish his chances and use self- In (5) B. Obama accentuates the background
irony. information about D. Trump, namely his organizing
The irony is based on paradox and allows the beauty contests and love affairs with the contestants.
speaker to save face and avoid discussing the It is clear to the public, that the “experience” has
unpleasant and embarrassing subject. nothing to do with politics. So, assessing Trump as a
possible candidate for presidency, Obama points out
The mockery at political opponents is ironically his inability to become the leader of the country due
disguised and demands background knowledge for to low moral standards. The irony is disguised, but
its interpretation. A vivid illustration of this situation quite clear to those who remember the events and
is demonstrated in B. Johnson’s speech (3), when he scandals around Trump and his love affairs.
suddenly refers to his opponent.
In his turn, D. Trump uses bitter irony speaking
(3) Insert joke here, as Jeremy Corbyn would about H. Clinton. He is a skillful speaker, when it
say [24]. comes to mocking at his rivals, and uses a lot of
The ironic sense of this utterance will be clear bitter irony to accentuate the drawbacks of the
only to an addressee, familiar with J. Corbyn’s opponent.
discourse. Bearing in mind the usual official tone of
the Labour party’s leader’s speeches and his inability (6) This is the first time ever, ever, that Hillary is
to joke, the recipient can realize the ironic hint of sitting down, speaking to major corporate
Boris Johnson. The implicit irony points to the leaders and not getting paid for it.
absence of the sense of humour (or the reluctance to
use irony and humour in his speeches), and the (7) You’ll notice Hillary’s not laughing. That’s
opponent becomes a laughing stock. The function of
because she knows the jokes and all the jokes
irony here is mockery and attack.
were given to her before the dinner by Donna
One of the most articulate British rhetors, David Brazile.
Cameron, uses irony rather skillfully, here (4) in the
function of defense. (8) It is great to be here with a thousand wonderful
people or as I call it “a small intimate dinner
(4) If you saw me in these pictures of me on the with some friends” or as Hillary calls it “her
beach this summer in Cornwall you know largest crowd of the season” [27].

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

In (6), (7) and (8) irony is quite explicit: Trump further discussion and opens vast perspectives for
accuses Clinton of corruption and lacking sense of development.
humour. In (8) Clinton is opposed to the speaker
himself, having very few people to support her, 8. Conclusions
while Trump’s supporters, according to his
statement, are numerous. In all the utterances irony The analyzed material proves that there are
is based on ambiguity: there is some additional several common scenarios, which make the use of
meaning hidden behind each statement. The speaker irony highly desirable in both English and American
discourse. It conveys mockery and criticism, defend
uses ironic metaphors (her largest crowd of the
the speaker and protect his/her privacy, enhance
season, a small intimate dinner with some friends),
intimacy between the speaker and the addressee/the
ironic paradox (speaking and not getting paid for it), audience, amuse and entertain.
ambiguous irony (she knows the jokes and all the The functions of irony and the frequency of its
jokes were given to her before).All these various usage depend on the communicative values and the
means create a certain atmosphere – mocking, picture of the world, which form national mentality.
teasing, attacking. Communicative values are reflected in the
language and influence the choice of strategies and
Jeb Bush, another candidate in the American expressive means. Irony is one of the instruments
presidential race – 2016 is assertive and self- which is aimed at reaching the communicative
confident: intention of the author and performs a number of
functions.
(9) I will be a Commander-in-Chief to get back in Irony has certain peculiarities in British and
the business of creating a more peaceful American political discourse. The research showed
world… Please clap! [28]. that in American political discourse in most cases it
conveys criticism, attack, mockery, diminishes the
The call to applaud seems too self-assured, but opponent and portrays the speaker himself in a
the irony corresponds to American communicative favourable way. British politicians use irony mainly
values. On the one hand, the final appeal to the for self-defense, to prevent criticism or close the
public may be considered as the evidence of the unpleasant topic. Irony in the British discourse rather
candidate’s assertiveness and vision to the future, optimizes communication than raises contradictions.
which is certain to be successful for him. On the Understanding irony used by a speaker requires
other hand, the remark can be a way to hide background knowledge not only of national culture
embarrassment and discharge tension, which may and traditions, but also about the speaker as a
have appeared in the end of the speech, when nobody personality, including his education, social status,
reacts. So the ironic mask of a boastful person helps profession etc.
Jeb Bush to save the face and overcome the The effect of irony in political discourse depends
inconvenient pause. In this way, irony serves a on both parties – the author and the audience and is
double purpose: it optimizes the atmosphere of presupposed by a number of factors, such as cultural,
discourse and ensures the creation of a proper image national peculiarities, individual characteristics,
of the speaker – charismatic and self-confident. background information, social level etc. Irony is a
useful device, contributing to the success of
7. Discussion communication, in case it is used appropriately and
skillfully and interpreted correctly.
These are but a few examples of contemporary Analyzing humour and irony as a reflection of
political discourse, which can be viewed as bright national character poses vast challenges for further
examples of British and American political research in the field of intercultural communication.
discourse. The whole material for the research counts The results of these studies can be used in teaching
around 100 speeches of 20 political and cultural foreign languages and cultures, training interpreters
figures from Great Britain and the USA within the and in the theory of discourse.
period 2009-2019. The analysis of the speeches
proves the hypothesis – irony has national and 9. References
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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, December 2019

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