Nmat Notes

PART 1  Measurement Analogies (e.g.
, feet and
meter, pound and kilogram, quart and liter,
1. VERBAL etc.).
 Opposites Analogies (e.g., fire and ice, tired  Time Analogies (e.g., September and fall,
and energetic, crying and laughing, etc.). December and winter, March and spring, etc.).
 Object and Classification Analogies (e.g.,
red and color, knife and kitchenware, truck
and vehicle, etc.). 2. INDUCTIVE REASONING
 Object and Related Object Analogies (e.g.,  Figure Series - identify a pattern in a group of
dog and puppy, kangaroo and joey, plant and figures and predict the next item in the
seed, etc.). sequence based on this pattern. The best
 Object and Group Analogies (e.g., wolf and strategy, therefore, is to identify a pattern in
pack, trees and forest, fish and school, seagull the first two or three figures and validate your
and flock, etc.). theory by checking if the same pattern
 Degree of Characteristics Analogies (e.g., continues in the next figures.
cold and freezing, warm and hot, tired and  Figure Grouping
exhausted, etc.).  Number and Letter Series
 Cause and Effect Analogies (e.g., read and
learn, work and earn, spin and dizzy, fire and
burn, etc.). 3. QUANTITATIVE
 Effort and Result Analogies (e.g., write and A. Arithmetic and Number Sense
letter, sculpt and monument, build and house,  Real Numbers and Imaginary Numbers
paint and painting, etc.).
 Problem and Solution Analogies (e.g., tired
and sleep, unemployment and job application,
Natural or Counting Numbers
Natural numbers are used to count objects. These are the
itch and scratch, etc.).
numbers you use to determine how many pets you have, how
 Verb Tenses Analogies (e.g., sent and send, many apples you have bought from the market, or how many
run and ran, eat and ate, walk and walked, petals a flower has.
etc.).
 Performer and Action Analogies (doctor Natural numbers start with 1, followed by 2, then 3, and so
and heal, scientist and research, soldier and on. Therefore, the smallest natural number is 1. Meanwhile,
there’s no largest natural number.
fight, etc.).
 Object and Part of the Whole
Analogies (e.g., page and book, glass and
window, brick and wall, etc.).
 Object and Function Analogies (e.g.,
paintbrush and paint, keyboard and type,
telephone and call, etc.).
 Object and Location Analogies (e.g., plane
and airport, dog and doghouse, tree and forest,
etc.).
 Things That Go Together Analogies (e.g., 0, negative numbers, fractions, and decimals are not
salt and pepper, peanut butter and jelly, bread natural numbers since we do not use them to count
and butter, ham and cheese, spoon and fork, objects.
etc.).
 Synonym Analogies (e.g., obese and fat, Numbers such as 14, 25, 799, 1212, 100000, and 5612312
slender and thin, sad and depressed, etc.). are all examples of natural numbers.
 Antonym Analogies (e.g., poverty and
wealth, timid and outgoing, frail and strong, Whole Numbers
inflation and deflation, etc.).
Whole numbers are counting numbers including 0. In
 Rhyme Analogies (e.g., whey and away, other words, if you include 0 in the set of natural numbers,
glasses and mosses, deer and steer, etc.). you will obtain the set of whole numbers.
 Geography Analogies (e.g., Boston and
Massachusetts, Tucson and Arizona, Chicago Therefore, natural numbers are part of the set of whole
and Illinois, Denver and Colorado, etc.). numbers.
first integer is divided by the second integer, the result is the
original number.
Suppose the number 18. Can you think of two integers such
that when you divide the first integer by the second integer,
the result is 18?
36 and 2 are integers. Note that 36 ÷ 2 = 18. Since there are

two integers such that when you divide the first integer (36)
by the second integer (2) the result is 18, then 18 is a rational
number.
This means that all natural numbers are also whole

numbers. Also, all whole numbers are also natural
numbers except for 0 since 0 is not a natural number.
Example: Is 510 a whole number or a natural number?
Solution: 510 is a natural number since we use it for

counting. Since all natural numbers are also whole numbers,
then 510 is both a natural number and a whole number.
Integers A rational number is also a number that can be written as

Integers are positive and negative whole numbers a fraction with integers. For example, 75 is a rational
including 0. Examples are 1, 0, -1, 500, -500, 2200, -3800, number since you can express it as 150⁄2, where 150 and 2
and so on. are both integers. Also, ½ is a rational number since it is a
fraction composed of integers 1 and 2.
If you combine the set of all whole numbers and the set
of all negative whole numbers, you now have the set of Shown below is the formal definition of a rational number:
integers. Also, the set of natural numbers and the set of
whole numbers are just subsets or parts of the set of A rational number is any number that you can express in
integers. the form p⁄q such that p and q are both integers and q is
not equal to 0.
Again, don’t worry if the definition sounds confusing because

it simply means that a number is a rational number if and
only if you can write it as a fraction with integers.
To make it easier for you, here is a list of numbers that can

be considered rational numbers:
1. All integers are rational numbers. Example: -1, 0, -

1000, 152321, etc. are all rational numbers
2. All fractions (positive or negative) are rational
numbers. Example: -5⁄3, -½, 2⁄3 , etc. are rational
numbers.
3. All terminating decimals or decimals that have an end
(positive or negative) are rational numbers: If a decimal
Fractions and decimals are not integers. For example, ½,
number has finite or countable number of digits, then that
-⅓, -⅔, and 0.9 are not integers.
decimal number is a rational number. Example: 0.01,
0.99, -0.23234, -0.421, etc. are rational numbers.
Rational Numbers 4. All non-terminating (never-ending) repeating decimals
(positive or negative) are rational numbers: If a decimal
Any number that can be expressed as a ratio of two number has an infinite or uncountable number of digits but
integers is a rational number. In simple words, a number is the digits are being repeated, then the decimal number is
a rational number if there are two integers such that when the a rational number. Example : 0.9999… ,
0.123123123123…, 0.010101…, – 0.11111…, etc. are Therefore, the set of natural numbers, whole numbers,
rational numbers. integers, rational, and irrational numbers are all subsets
of the set of real numbers.
Meanwhile, non-terminating non-repeating decimals such as
0.5411346565134…, 0.28992139813…, etc are not rational
numbers. Non-terminating non-repeating decimals have an
uncountable number of digits that are not repeated in a
The Real Number Line
certain pattern. You cannot express these non-terminating The real number line is a visual representation of the set
non-repeating decimals as a fraction with integers. of real numbers. Every point in the number line corresponds
to a real number. Hence, a point in the real number line can
Note: The “three-dot” symbol that is used on some decimals be either a rational or an irrational number.
is called an ellipsis. A decimal with an ellipsis means that
there are digits that follow after the last digit of the number. In the middle of the number line lies the number zero (0). On
For example, in 0.9292… the number 2 is not the last digit of the left of zero are the negative numbers while all
the decimal number since there are digits that follow 2. positive numbers are on the right of zero.
Irrational Numbers
A number that is not a rational number is an irrational
number An irrational number cannot be expressed as a
fraction with integers.
Examples of irrational numbers are the non-terminating non-

repeating decimals such as 0.321315325453…Using this
example, you cannot provide two integers such that when
you divide the first integer by the second integer, the result
will be 0.321315325453…
There are a lot of important irrational numbers in

mathematics. For instance, the famous pi (π) which is used
to calculate the circumference of a circle and the value of
The farther you go to the left of the number line, the smaller
which is approximately 3.1416… is an irrational number.
the value of the number is. As the number line goes to the
right, the larger the value of the number is.
Real Numbers
If you combine the set of rational numbers and the set of
irrational numbers, the resulting set is the set of real
numbers.
Real numbers are the combination of rational and

irrational numbers. -1, 0, 0.12093020…, and -½ are
examples of real numbers.
For example, – 5 is smaller in value than – 2 since – 5 can be

located farther to the left compared to – 2. Meanwhile, 200 is
larger in value than 100 since 200 is located farther to the
right compared to 100.
We can also plot fractions and decimals in the real number

line. For instance, ½ can be located between 0 and 1, -5⁄2
It is clearly seen that the set of the rational numbers and the can be located between -2 and -3, and 4.5 can be located
set of irrational numbers are subsets of the set of real between 4 and 5.
numbers.
Just like rational numbers, irrational numbers can be located
The set of rational numbers is composed of the set of in the real number line. For instance, π whose value is
integers, fractions, and decimals. On the other hand, the set approximately 3.1416 can be located between 3 and 4.
of positive whole numbers, negative whole numbers, and 0
composed the set of integers.
represent the square root of -1. i is the basic unit of imaginary
numbers or the imaginary unit.
Another interesting fact about imaginary numbers is that they

cannot be located in the real number line.
What if we combine a real number and an imaginary

number? Well, what you have now is a complex
number such as 3 + 5i where 3 is the real number while 5i is
the imaginary number.
Imaginary Numbers  Operations on Integers

The first time I heard of imaginary numbers, it felt like hearing
about unicorns. You may think that these numbers, just like
unicorns, do not exist because they are called “imaginary”.
Absolute Value of a Number
However, it is important to note that imaginary numbers also
“exist” in a mathematical sense and it has practical uses in Before we proceed to our actual topic, we need to discuss
various fields. first the concept of absolute value.
But what exactly is an imaginary number? The absolute value of a number is its distance from
zero. In other words, the absolute value of a number tells
An imaginary number is the square root of a negative you how far a number from zero is. We use the symbol | |
number. Recall that the square root of a number is the
number that when multiplied by itself yields the original to indicate the absolute value of a number.
number. For example, the square root of 16 is 4 since 4 x 4 =
16. Example 1: What is the absolute value of 3?
Solution: Let’s determine how far 3 is from zero.
Using a number line, you can verify that the number 3 is 3
units far from zero.
Therefore, the absolute value of 3 is equal to 3.
In symbols, | 3 | = 3.
However, there’s no real number that gives the square root of

a negative number. Suppose that I want to get the square
root of -15. -15 has no square root in the set of real numbers
since when a real number is multiplied by itself, the result
must always be nonnegative.
Example 2: What is the absolute value of – 4?
To express the square root of a negative number,
mathematicians used imaginary numbers. They used i to
Solution: Using a number line, you can verify that – 4 is 4 Being able to find the absolute value of a number is
units away from zero. important in adding and subtracting integers. Now that
you are familiar with it, let’s proceed to our actual topic.
Hence, the absolute value of -4 is equal to 4.
Operations on Integers
In symbols, | – 4 | = 4
1. Addition of Integers
The first thing you need to consider before adding integers
is to determine whether the given integers have the same
or different signs.
Integers have the same signs if both of them are positive
or both of them are negative. Meanwhile, integers have
different signs if one of them is positive and one of them
is negative.
a. Addition of Integers with the Same Signs
It is important to note that the absolute value of a number To add integers with the same signs (either both are
is always nonnegative (either positive or 0) since we are positive or both are negative):
dealing with the distance of a number from zero which is
always nonnegative. You will never encounter a negative Step 1: Add the absolute values of the given integers
value for distance. There’s no such road that is – 60 km Step 2: Put the common sign to the number you have
long. obtained from Step 1.
Finding the Absolute Value of a Number: An Easy Let’s have some examples:
Trick
Example 1: 15 + 32 = ?
You can easily determine the absolute value of a number
without drawing a number line. You just need to follow Even a preschooler can answer this easy example. Of
these rules: course, the answer is 47. However, let’s try answering this
problem using the steps on adding integers with the same
Rule 1: If the number is positive, the absolute value of the signs since 15 and 32 are both positive (same signs).
number is itself.
Solution:
Rule 2: If the number is negative, just drop the negative
sign. Step 1: Add the absolute values of the given integers.
For example, the absolute value of 9 is simply 9 using rule The absolute value of 15 is 15 while the absolute value of
1. 32 is 32. We add their absolute values: 15 + 32 = 47
On the other hand, the absolute value of – 16 is 16 using Step 2: Put the common sign to the number you have
rule 2. obtained from Step 1.
Now, can you determine the absolute value of 0, – 321, Since both 15 and 32 are positive integers, then their
1500, and -9000? common sign is positive. The number we have obtained
from Step 1 was 47. Therefore, the sign of 47 must be
The answers are: positive.
|0|=0 Indeed, 15 + 32 = 47
| – 321 | = 321
| 1500 | = 1500 Example 2: What is the sum of – 210 and – 172?
| – 9000 | = 9000 Solution:
Let’s use the steps on adding integers with the same signs Note that the absolute value of 25 is larger than the
since – 210 and – 172 are both negative integers (same absolute value of – 19. Also, 25 is a positive number.
signs). Therefore, the result we have obtained from Step 1 (which
is 6) must be a positive integer.
Step 1: Add the absolute values of the given integers.
Hence, – 19 + 25 = 6
The absolute value of – 210 is 210 while the absolute
value of – 172 is 172. We add their absolute values:
210 + 172 = 382 Example 2: Add – 32 and 15.
Step 2: Put the common sign to the number you have The given integers have different signs. Let’s use the steps
obtained from Step 1. on adding integers with different signs.
Since – 210 and – 172 are both negative integers, then Solution:
their common sign is negative. Therefore, we put a
Step 1: Subtract the absolute values of the given numbers.
negative sign to the number we have obtained from step 1
which is 382. The absolute of – 32 is 32 while the absolute value of 15
is 15.
Hence, the sum of – 210 and – 172 is – 382.
Subtracting the absolute values (larger – smaller): 32 – 15
= 17
b. Addition of Integers with Different Signs
Step 2: Put the sign of the integer with a larger absolute
Now, what if the given integers have different signs? value to the result you have obtained from Step 1.
What if one integer is positive while the other is negative
| – 32 | = 32 and | 15 | = 15.
and vice-versa.
Note that the absolute value of – 32 is larger than the
Just follow these steps to add integers with different signs
absolute value of 17. Also, – 32 is negative. Therefore, the
easily:
result we have obtained from Step 1 (which is 17) must be
Step 1: Subtract the absolute values of the given numbers. a negative integer.
Step 2: Put the sign of the integer with a larger absolute Hence, – 32 + 15 = – 17
value to the number you have obtained from Step 1.
Let’s have some examples:
Example 3: Add – 90 and 32.
Example 1: Add -19 and 25.
Solution:
Solution:
-19 is a negative number and 25 is a positive integer. They
The absolute of – 90 is 90 while the absolute value of 32
have different signs. Hence, we will use the steps above
is 32.
on adding integers with different signs.
= 58
The absolute value of – 19 is 19. Meanwhile, the absolute
value of 25 is 25.
value to the result you have obtained from Step 1.
| – 90 | = 90 and | 32 | = 32.
=6
Note that the absolute value of – 90 is larger than the
absolute value of 32. Also, – 90 is negative. Therefore, the
value to the result you have obtained from Step 1.
result we obtained from Step 1 (which is 58) must be a
| – 19 | = 19 and | 25 | = 25. negative integer.
Hence, – 90 + 32 = – 58
Now that you have learned how to add integers, you are Afterward, you need to reverse the sign of the second
now prepared to learn how to subtract them. integer (or the subtrahend). The subtrahend is – 12, so we
reverse the sign of – 12 into 12.
– 32 + 12 =
2. Subtraction of Integers
Step 2: Apply the rules on adding integers.
There are two steps you need to follow when subtracting
integers: To finish the subtraction process, we need to apply the
rules for adding integers.
Step 1: Change the operation into addition and reverse the
sign of the second integer (or the subtrahend). We have obtained – 32 + 12 from Step 1. This means that
we need to add integers with different signs.
Step 2: Apply the rules on adding integers.
Using the rules on adding integers with different signs:
Let’s have some examples.
– 32 + 12 = – 20
Example 1: What is – 19 – 5?
Therefore, – 32 + 12 = – 20
Solution:
sign of the second integer (or the subtrahend). Example 3: What is -18 – (- 45)?
The first thing you have to do is to change the subtraction Solution:
sign (-) into an addition sign (+).
Afterward, reverse the sign of the second integer (or the sign of the second integer (or the subtrahend).
subtrahend). The subtrahend is 5, so we reverse the sign of
The first thing you have to do is to change the subtraction
5 into – 5.
sign (-) into the addition sign (+).
– 19 + (- 5) =
Afterward, you need to reverse the sign of the second
Step 2: Apply the rules on adding integers. integer (or the subtrahend). The subtrahend is – 45, so we
reverse the sign of – 45 into 45.
To finish the subtraction process, we need to apply the
rules for adding integers. – 18 + 45 =
We have obtained – 19 + (- 5) from Step 1. This means Step 2: Apply the rules on adding integers.
that we need to add integers with the same signs. I hope
To finish the subtraction process, we need to apply the
that you still remember the rules for adding integers.
rules for adding integers.
Using the rules on adding integers with the same signs:
We have obtained – 18 + 45 from Step 1. This means that
– 19 + (- 5) = – 24 we need to add integers with different signs
And then we’re done. The answer is – 24. Using the rules on adding integers with different signs:
Therefore, – 19 – 5 = – 24 – 18 + 45 = 27
Therefore, – 18 + 45 = 27
Example 2: Compute for: – 32 – (-12)
Solution: 3. Multiplication of Integers
Step 1: Change the operation into addition and reverse the Multiplying integers is a lot easier than adding or
sign of the second integer (or the subtrahend). subtracting integers. The rules are pretty simple:
The first thing you have to do is to change the subtraction If the integers have the same signs, multiply the integers
sign (-) into an addition sign (+). and put a positive sign in the resulting integer.
If the integers have different signs, multiply the integers You may have wondered why Multiplication of Integers
and put a negative sign in the resulting integer. and Division of Integers almost have the same rules. The
answer is simple: Dividing integers is just multiplying an
You can use this simple reminder when multiplying
integer by the multiplicative inverse or the reciprocal (we
integers: SAME SIGNS = POSITIVE, UNLIKE SIGNS =
will learn the reciprocal of a number in later topics) of the
NEGATIVE
other. That’s why their rules are almost similar.
Let’s have some examples:
Example 1: Multiply: – 3 × – 5
Bonus: Multiplying a Number by Zero (0)
Solution:
Suppose we want to multiply an integer such as – 12 by 0.
– 3 and – 5 are both negative integers. They have the What do you think will be the result?
same signs so their product must be positive.
Simple: The answer is 0.
Therefore, – 3 × – 5 = 15
If you multiply any number (real, rational, irrational,
integers, fraction, or decimal) by zero, the result will
always be 0. This property is called the Zero Property of
Example 2: Multiply: 8 × – 3 Multiplication.
Solution: Example 1: 1 000 000 x 0
8 and – 3 have different signs so their product must be Solution: By the Zero Property of Multiplication, the
negative. answer is 0
Therefore, 8 × – 3 = – 24 Example 2: π x 0
Solution: By the Zero Property of Multiplication, the
4. Division of Integers answer is 0
The rules in dividing integers are actually similar to

multiplying integers:  Order of Operations (PEMDAS)
If the integers have the same signs, divide the integers and
put a positive sign to the resulting integer.
What Is PEMDAS?
If the integers have unlike or different signs, divide the
integers and put a negative sign to the resulting integer. PEMDAS is an acronym
for Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division,
Let’s have some examples: Addition, and Subtraction. This is a standard method
Example 1: Divide -18 by -2 of determining which operations you must prioritize
first, second, third, and so on. In other words,
Solution: PEMDAS tells you what operation must be performed
first given a set of multiple operations.
-18 and -2 have the same signs. So, we just divide the
integers and the answer must be positive. In other math textbooks, PEMDAS is referred to as
MDAS or GEMDAS.
-18 ÷ (-2) = 9
PEMDAS implies that the operation inside the
parenthesis has the highest priority or must be
Example 2: Divide 18 by – 2 performed first. Then, you simplify the number with
an exponent. Afterward, you multiply or divide the
Solution: numbers from left to right. Finally, you add and
18 and – 2 have different signs. So, we just divide the subtract numbers from left to right.
integers and the answer must be negative. A fun way to remember PEMDAS is this sentence
18 ÷ (-2) = – 9 “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”
AS – Perform addition or subtraction from left to
right.
How To Solve PEMDAS Problems: 4 Steps
We perform addition first since it is the first one that
If there is more than one mathematical operation
appeared from the left. 9 + 6 = 15. Lastly, we perform
involved in your calculation, you must follow
subtraction: 15 – 4 = 11
PEMDAS. The steps to perform PEMDAS are:
First, perform the operation inside the parenthesis or
grouping symbol.
Simplify any number with exponents.
Perform multiplication or division from left to right.
Perform addition or subtraction from left to right.
Note: Make sure that you are already capable
of performing mathematical operations on Let’s review what we have done:
integers because they will be applied in our
9 + (3 x 2) – 4
succeeding examples.
9+6–4
15 – 4
Example 1: 9 + (3 x 2) – 4
11
The given problem has more than one operation
involved. There is an addition, a multiplication, and a Hence, using PEMDAS, 9 + (3 x 2) – 4 = 11
subtraction sign. There is also an operation inside the
parenthesis. This means that we need to use I hope you still remember the rules on operations on
PEMDAS. integers because we will use them for the next
example.
Solution:
P – Perform the operation inside the parenthesis or
grouping symbol. Example 2: (-17 – 2) x 3 – 9
The first thing we need to perform is the operation Let us use PEMDAS to answer the above problem.
inside the parenthesis. In particular, we are going to P – Perform the operation inside the parenthesis.
solve 3 x 2 first.
The operation inside the parenthesis is – 17 – 2. By
subtracting the given integers, we will obtain – 17 – 2
= – 19.
The operation inside the parenthesis is 3 x 2 which is

equal to 6.
E – Simplify any number with exponents.
E – Simplify any number with exponents.
There are no exponents involved in the given problem.
Thus, we will skip this step. The given problem doesn’t have any exponent. Thus,
we will skip this step.
MD – Perform multiplication or division from left to
right. MD – Perform multiplication or division from left to
right.
There is no more multiplication or division involved
in 9 + 6 – 4. Therefore, we will skip this step.
means that you need to use the base (which is 2) three
times in a multiplication process.
23 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
Therefore, 23 = 8.
AS – Perform addition or subtraction from left to
right. Now, can you compute for 92?
Our exponent is 2 which means we need to use 9 two
times in a multiplication Process:
92 = 9 x 9 = 81
Therefore, 92 = 81
Keep in mind how to compute exponents since we
will use this method for our third example.
Here’s a quick review of what we have done:
(-17 – 2) x 3 – 9
Example 3: What is the value of 33 – (9 x 2) ÷ 6?
(-19) x 3 – 9
Let us apply PEMDAS to solve the question.
-57 – 9
P – Perform the operation inside the parenthesis or
– 66 grouping symbol.
Hence, using PEMDAS, (- 17 – 2) x 3 – 9 = -66
Before we proceed to our third example, let’s first
discuss how to compute numbers with exponents.
What is an Exponent? E – Simplify any number with exponents.
An exponent is a number written on the upper right of 33 is a number with an exponent. Hence, we need to
another number which is called the base. This means simplify it. Note that 33 = 3 x 3 x 3 = 27
that the base is raised to a certain power.
For example, in 23, the exponent is 3 (the small letter
above or the superscript) while the base is 2.
MD – Perform multiplication or division from left to

right.
There is only division involved and there is no more
multiplication sign left. Hence, we solve 18 ÷ 6
How To Compute Numbers with an Exponent

Although an exponent is written as a tiny number
above the base, its impact is actually powerful! AS – Perform addition or subtraction from left to
right.
The exponent corresponds to the number of times the
base must be multiplied by itself. For example, in 2³,
we have 2 as the base while 3 as the exponent. This
Let’s try to answer something more challenging in our
fifth example.
Example 5: Compute for 200 – 15² + (144 ÷ (-12) ) x

(14 ÷ (-2))
A quick review of what we have done:
Let us begin by performing the operations inside the
33 – (9 x 2) ÷ 6 parenthesis. There are two parentheses. Thus, we will
33 – 18 ÷ 6 perform the operations inside them simultaneously.
27 – 18 ÷ 6
27 – 3
24 We already did the P of PEMDAS so we are now on E
Hence, using PEMDAS, 33 – (9 x 2) ÷ 6 = 24 which is exponents. We simplify the number with an
exponent.
Example 4: Compute for 81 ÷ (42 – 7) x 3

We can determine the answer to the given problem
above using PEMDAS.
We are now on the MD part of PEMDAS. There is
As usual, we start our computation with the operation only multiplication involved and there is no division
inside the parenthesis. However, there are two things sign left. Hence,
involved inside the parenthesis: An exponent and a
subtraction sign. Note that it is easier to perform the
exponent first before performing subtraction.
81 ÷ (42 – 7) x 3 Next is the AS part of PEMDAS. Since subtraction
81 ÷ (16 – 7) x 3 appeared first from the left, it is one that must be
performed first.
Now, we can perform subtraction which is inside the
parenthesis:
81 ÷ (16 – 7) x 3
81 ÷ 9 x 3 Finally, let us add the remaining numbers
We have already performed P of PEMDAS. Since

there are no more exponents involved, we move to the
next operations which are multiplication and division
(MD). Let’s go back to the same problem:
Here is a quick review of what we have done above:
81 ÷ 9 x 3
200 – 152 + (144 ÷ (-12) ) x (14 ÷ (-2) )
Since division appeared first from the left, we will
perform it first. 200 – 152 + (- 12) x (- 7)
81 ÷ 9 x 3 200 – 225 + 84
9x3 -25 + 84
Lastly, we will perform multiplication 59
9 x 3 = 27 Hence, using PEMDAS, 200 – 152 + (144 ÷ (-12) ) x
(14 ÷ (-2) ) = 59
Therefore, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 25, 30, 50, 75, and 150 are some
of the factors of 150.
 Factors and Multiples
Are negative numbers a factor of a number?

What are the factors?
Yes, they are! For example, – 3 × – 2 = 6. Since when you
Factors are the numbers we multiply together to obtain
multiply – 3 by -2 the result is 6, then – 3 and – 2 are
another number (or the product). For example, when 9 and
factors of 6. Hence, a negative number can also be a
5 are multiplied together, the result is 45. Therefore, 9 and
factor.
5 are factors of 45.
Prime and Composite Numbers

We can classify whole numbers based on the number of
factors they have. Whole numbers can either be prime
numbers or composite numbers.
What is a prime number?
A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 that has
two factors only: 1 and itself. For example, 3 is a prime
number since it has only two factors which are 1 and itself
Here’s another interesting fact: A factor of a number can (i.e., 3). You cannot think of other factors of 3 aside from
divide the number without a remainder. For example, we 1 and 3.
already know that 5 is a factor of 45. If we divide 45 by
What is a composite number?
5, as in 45 ÷ 5 = 9, there’s no remainder!
A composite number is a whole number that has more
Let’s have a few more examples:
than two factors. For example, 6 is a composite number
since it has more than two factors which are 1, 2, 3, and 6.
Example 1: What are the factors of 21? Remember that 1 is neither a prime number nor a
composite number.
Solution: Note that:
1 x 21 = 21
Example: Which of the following numbers are prime?
3 x 7 = 21
2, 10, 19, 145
Thus, 1, 3, 7, and 21 are factors of 21.
Solution:
Let us list all factors of each given number and determine
Example 2: What are the factors of 150?
whether they are prime or not:
Solution: Note that:
For 2:
1 x 150 = 150
2x1=2
2 x 75 = 150
Factors of 2: 1, 2
3 x 50 = 150
Since 2 has only two factors which are 1 and itself, then 2
5 x 30 = 150 is a prime number.
6 x 25 = 150 For 10:
And so on… 1 x 10 = 10
2 x 5 = 10
Factors of 10: 1, 2, 5, 10 and so on until we can’t factor anymore. The ends of the
factor tree are all of the prime factors of the original
Since 10 has more than two factors, then 10 is not a prime
number.
number.
When you perform this method, your computation will
For 19:
look like a tree!
1 x 19 = 19
Let’s try to determine the prime factorization of 24 using
Factors of 19: 1, 19 the factor tree.
Since 19 has only two factors which are 1 and itself, then
19 is a prime number.
For 145:
1 x 145 = 145
5 x 29 = 145
Factors: 1, 5, 29, 145
Since 145 has more than two factors, then 145 is not a
prime number.
Thus, out of the given numbers, only 2 and 19 are the
prime numbers.
Prime Factorization
12 and 2 are factors of 24. Notice that 2 has no factors
Prime factorization is the process of expressing a anymore aside from 1 and itself so we stop there. On the
composite number as a product of its prime factors. In other hand, we can still look for the factors of 12.
simple words, you are going to determine which prime
6 and 2 are factors of 12. We can still look for factors of 6
numbers that when multiplied together will give you the
since it is a composite number.
original number.
3 and 2 are factors of 6. Note that both 3 and 2 do not have
For example, the prime factorization of 24 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
factors aside from 1 and themselves (they are prime
= 24, or when written with exponents, 23 × 3.= 24. Notice
numbers) so we can already stop with these numbers.
that the factors used in the prime factorization of 24 are all
prime numbers (which are 2 and 3). We collect all the ends of the tree (numbers that are
colored red) as they are the prime factors of 24. Finally,
Another example: The prime factorization of 105 is 3 × 5
we express 24 as a product of these prime factors.
× 7 = 105. Notice that 105 is expressed as a product of
prime numbers (which are 3, 5, and 7). Hence, the prime factorization of 24 is 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 24
which we can also express with exponents as 3 x 23 = 24
You are now introduced to the concept of prime
factorization of a number. However, how do we find it?
How can we determine the prime factorization of a
Example 1: Determine the prime factorization of 36 using
number?
a factor tree.
One method that you can use is the prime factorization
Start by thinking of any factors of 36. In this case, let us
using the factor tree.
use 18 and 2 since 18 x 2 = 36.
Prime Factorization Using the Factor Tree

A factor tree is a diagram that can be used to find the
factors of any number, then the factors of those numbers,
2 is a prime number so we stop on that part. However, 18
is a composite number. This means that we can still factor
it out. We think again of any factors of 18. This time let us
use 9 and 2 since 9 x 2 = 18.
Therefore, the prime factorization of 36 is 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 =

36, or if written with exponents, 32 x 22 = 36
By now, you have already learned what factors, prime
numbers, composite numbers, and prime factorization are.
In our next section, we will apply these concepts to
determine the Greatest Common Factor of two numbers.
Greatest Common Factor
9 is a composite number so we can still factor it out. We The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) is the largest
think again of any factors of 9. This time, let us use 3 and common factor of given numbers. GCF is an essential tool
3 since 3 x 3 = 9. in arithmetic because we use it to simplify fractions to
their lowest terms (more on this in the succeeding topic).
One of the common methods to determine the GCF of two
numbers is by listing their factors and determining the
largest common factor from the list. Let’s try this method
for our example below.
1. How to find the GCF of given numbers through the

listing method
Example 1: Determine the GCF of 8 and 12.
Solution: Let us list all of the factors of 8 and 12:
Factors of 8: 1, 2, 4, 8
Factors of 12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
By looking at our list above, the common factors are 1, 2,
and 4.
We collect all the ends of our factor tree (red-colored However, GCF must be the largest common factor. We
numbers). These are the prime factors of 36. We express already know that the common factors are 1, 2, and 4.
36 as a product of these prime factors. Which of these common factors is the largest? Obviously,
it’s 4.
Thus, the GCF of 8 and 12 is 4.
Example 2: What is the GCF of 15 and 25?
Solution: Let us list all of the factors of 15 and 25:
Factors of 15: 1, 3, 5, 15
Factors of 25: 1, 5, 25
From the list above, it is clearly seen that the only
common factor is 5. Therefore, it is also the largest
common factor or GCF of 15 and 25.
Thus, the GCF of 15 and 25 is 5.
The listing method seems to be a good method to find the
GCF. However, it is not that convenient to use if the given Express the numbers as a product of their prime factors.
numbers have plenty of factors. Listing a lot of factors From the factor trees we created above, we can express 56
will make our computation more tedious and time- and 108 as products of their prime factors. We rearrange
consuming. the factors so that the same factors are vertically aligned.
There is another method that can be used to determine the
GCF of given numbers. This method uses prime
factorization to find the GCF.
2. How to find the GCF using the prime factorization Match the prime factors vertically.
method
We match the common prime factors vertically using blue
To find the GCF of given numbers using the prime rectangles. We will not put a blue rectangle on a column
factorization method, you can follow these steps: where the prime factors are not the same.
Determine the prime factorization of the given numbers
(i.e., use factor trees).
Express the numbers as product of their prime factors.
Match the prime factors vertically.
Bring down the common prime factors for each column.
Do not bring down those in the columns where the factors Bring down the common prime factors for each column.
are not the same. Do not bring down those in the columns where the factors
are not the same.
Multiply the numbers you brought down. The result is the
GCF.
Let us use this method to determine the GCF of 56 and
108.
Example: Use the prime factorization method to find the
GCF of 54 and 108.
Solution:
Determine the prime factorization of the given numbers
(i.e., use factor trees). Multiply the numbers you brought down. The result is the
We apply the technique we discussed in the previous GCF.
section to perform the prime factorization of 56 and 108.
Example 2: What are the first three positive multiples of
4?
Solution: Since we are now required to find the first three
positive multiples of 4, we need to multiply 4 by the first
three positive integers:
4×1=4
4×2=8
Therefore, using the prime factorization method, the GCF 4 × 3 = 12
of 54 and 108 is 4.
Thus, the first three positive multiples of 4 are 4, 8, and
12.
Part II: Multiples
What are multiples? Example 3: How many multiples of 5 are there between
14 and 21?
A multiple is a result when we multiply a number by
an integer. 12 is a multiple of 6 because when 6 is Solution: Note that the numbers 15 and 20 which are
multiplied by the integer 2, the result is 12. Can you think between 14 and 21 are multiples of 5 since
of other multiples of 6?
5 × 3 = 15 and 5 × 4 = 20. That is, 15 and 20 are the
results when 5 is multiplied by integers 3 and 4,
respectively.
Thus, between 14 and 21, there are two multiples of 5.
Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The Least Common Multiple is the smallest whole number
that is a multiple of two or more numbers. Just like the
GCF, LCM is also used in some operations on
fractions. To help you understand what LCM is, let’s have
a simple example.
Example: Suppose you list the multiples of 2 and 3 from
least to the greatest value.
Example 1: Provide five multiples of 10.
Multiples of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 …
Solution: To find five multiples of 10, we just need to
Multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
multiply 10 by five different integers. For example:
Can you tell from the list which are the common multiples
10 × 1 = 10
of 2 and 3?
10 × 3 = 30
Solution: Clearly, the common multiples of 2 and 3 are 6
10 × – 5 = – 50 and 12.
10 × – 8 = – 80 Now, you might notice that 6 is the smallest common
multiple between 2 and 3. Therefore, 6 is the Least
10 × 140 = 1400 Common Multiple of 2 and 3.
Hence, 10, 30, – 50, – 80, and 1400 are some of the Based on our example above, the Least Common Multiple
multiples of 10. is the smallest common multiple between given numbers.
1. How to find the LCM using the listing method
One of the common ways to find the LCM of two
numbers is by listing the factors of the given numbers.
We already used this method for our example above
through which we were able to find the LCM of 2 and 3.
Now, let’s try to use this method again to find the LCM of
5, 10, and 25.
The ends (red-colored numbers) of the respective factor

trees of 130 and 300 are their prime factors. We will use
these prime factors for our next step.
2. Express the given numbers as the product of their prime
factors.
Determining the LCM using the listing method seems to

be a cakewalk. But, what if I ask you to find the LCM of
130 and 300? The listing method seems to be inconvenient
in this case.
3. Match the prime factors vertically.
When the listing method becomes a tedious way of
finding the LCM, use the prime factorization method
instead.
2. How to find the LCM using prime factorization

To find the LCM of given numbers using prime We match common prime factors vertically using the red
factorization, follow these steps: rectangles. If a prime factor has no “partner” to the other
number, we just leave the space blank.
Determine the prime factors of the given numbers (using
the factor tree). 4. Bring down the prime factors in each column.
Express the given numbers as the product of their prime

factors.
Match the prime factors vertically.
Bring down the prime factors in each column.
Multiply the factors to obtain the LCM.
Let’s use prime factorization to find the LCM of 130 and
Bring down the common prime factors in each column. In
300.
our illustration above, we bring down every common
Example: Determine the LCM of 130 and 300. prime factor on each red rectangle.
Solution: 5. Multiply the factors to obtain the LCM.
1. Determine the prime factors of the given numbers

(using the factor tree).
The last step is to multiply the common prime factors we
have brought down from step 4. The resulting number is
the Least Common Multiple (LCM).
Therefore, the LCM of 130 and 300 is 3900.
Divisibility Rules
 Divisibility Rules
Divisibility rules are the rules that you can use to
determine if one number is divisible by another. The good
thing about these divisibility rules is that you don’t have to
What Does “Divisible” Mean?
perform the actual long division process just to determine
Let’s start by defining the word “divisible”. whether the number is divisible by a certain number or
not.
A number is divisible by a certain number if it is capable
of being divided by the latter and leaves no remainder. All you have to do is to apply these rules.
For example, 8 is divisible by 4 since when you divide 8 Let us explore these rules one by one
by 4, the answer is 2 and there is no remainder.
Divisibility Rule for 1: All integers are divisible by 1

This is just common sense. If you divide any number by 1,
the result is the same number and there’s no remainder.
Therefore, every number is divisible by 1.
Divisibility Rule for 2: An integer is divisible by 2 if and

only if its last digit is even (0, 2, 4, 6, and 8)
On the other hand, 15 is not divisible by 4 since when you Recall that even numbers are those that can be divided by
divide 15 by 4, the answer is 3 but there is a remainder of 2 without a remainder. The even number digits are 0, 2, 4,
3. 6, and 8.
If the last digit of a number is an even number, then that
number is divisible by 2. For example, 30826 is divisible
by 2 since the last digit of 30826 is 6 which is an even
number.
Example 1: Is 45034 divisible by 2?
Yes, 45034 is divisible by 2 since its last digit is an even
number which is 4.
No, the last digit of 10987 is 7 which is not an even
number. Hence, 10987 is not divisible by 2.
only if its last digit is 0 or 5
only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3 This is the easiest among the divisibility rules. Once you
see the last digit of a number is 0 or 5, then that number is
To determine if a number is divisible by 3, add the digits
divisible by 5.
of the number and then divide the sum by 3. If the answer
has no remainder, then the number is divisible by 3. For instance, 45005 is divisible by 5 since the last digit of
45005 is 5.
132000000 is also divisible by 5 since the last digit of
Add the digits of 3438: 3 + 4 + 3 + 8 = 18
132000000 is 0.
When you divide 18 by 3, the answer is 6 and it has no
On the other hand, 15723122 is not divisible by 5 since its
remainder.
last digit is neither 0 nor 5.
Therefore, 3438 is divisible by 3.
Example 1: If A is a nonzero positive whole number, what
Example 2: Is 5422 divisible by 3? must be the value of A so that 3214A is divisible by 5?
Add the digits of 5422: 5 + 4 + 2 + 2 = 13 A number is divisible by 5 if and only if its last digit is
either 0 or 5. Hence, the last digit of 3214A must be 0 or 5
When you divide 13 by 3, the answer is 4 but there’s a so that it will be divisible by 5. Then, A can either be 0 or
remainder of 1. 5. However, the problem stated that A must be nonzero.
Hence, 5422 is not divisible by 3 Therefore, A must be equal to 5.
Divisibility Rule for 4: An integer is divisible by 4 if and Divisibility Rule for 6: An integer is divisible by 6 if and
only if its last two digits are divisible by 4 only if it is even and divisible by 3
If the last two digits of the given number leave no There are two things you need to consider to determine
remainder when divided by 4, then the given number is whether a number is divisible by 6 or not:
divisible by 4. Is the given number an even number (or divisible by 2)?
Example 1: Does 3,400,280 leave the remainder when Is the given number divisible by 3?
divided by 4?
If one of these conditions is not met, then the number is
The last two digits of 3,400,280 are 80. When we divide not divisible by 6.
80 by 4, the result is 20 and there is no remainder.
Therefore, 3,400,280 is divisible by 4. Example 1: Is 1932 divisible by 6?
Example 2: Is 54230 divisible by 4? Using the divisibility rule for 6:
The last two digits of 54230 are 30 which are not divisible Is the given number an even number? Yes, 1932 is an
by 4. Therefore, 54230 is not divisible by 4. even number since it is divisible by 2 (the last digit of
1932 is 2 which is an even number).
Example 3: What are the possible values of A so that
341A is divisible by 4? Is the given number divisible by 3? Yes, because the sum
of the digits of 1932 is 1 + 9 + 3 + 2 = 15 and 15 is
If 341A is divisible by 4, then the last two digits which are divisible by 3.
1A must be divisible by 4. Now, what do you think must
be the value of A so that 1A is divisible by 4. Since both of the conditions are met, then 1932 is divisible
by 6.
Note that 12 and 16 are divisible by 4 (since they
are multiples of 4 also). Therefore, the possible values of Example 2: Is 41024 divisible by 6?
A are 2 and 6.
Using the divisibility rule for 6:
Is the given number an even number? Yes, 41024 is an Example 1: Is 1192 divisible by 8?
even number since it is divisible by 2 (the last digit of
The last three of the given number are 192. Dividing 192
41024 is 4 which is an even number).
by 8 will give you 24 and it has no remainder. Therefore,
Is the given number divisible by 3? No, because the sum the original number which is 1192 is divisible by 8.
of digits of 41024 is 4 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 4 = 11 and 11 is not
divisible by 3.
Since one of the conditions is not met, then 41024 is not
only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9
divisible by 6.
To determine if a number is divisible by 9, just add the
digits of the given number. Afterward, divide the resulting
Divisibility Rule for 7: An integer is divisible by 7 if and number by 9. If the result has no remainder, then the
only if the difference between the number made by the original number is divisible by 9.
other digits of the integer and twice the last digit of the
integer is divisible by 7
Add the digits of the given number: 3 + 2 + 9 + 4 =18
To determine if a number is divisible by 7, follow these
steps: Divide the resulting number by 9: 18 ÷ 9 = 2. There’s no
remainder.
Double the last digit of the integer.
Therefore, 3294 is divisible by 9.
Subtract the number you obtained in Step 1 from the
number made by the other digits.
Determine if the resulting number you obtained in Step 2 BONUS: Division by Zero (0)
is divisible by 7. If the resulting number is divisible by 7,
then the original number is divisible by 7. How about 0?
Example 1: Is 294 divisible by 7? Which numbers are divisible by 0?
Double the last digit of the integer. There’s no such number that is divisible by 0
because division by 0 is undefined. For example, there’s
The last digit of 294 is 4. Now, let’s double 4: 4 × 2 = 8 no number in the set of real numbers that can answer 2
divided by 0.
Subtract the number you obtained in Step 1 from the
number made by other digits. Any number divided by 0 is undefined. Meanwhile, if you
divide 0 by itself or 0 divided by 0, the answer is
The number we obtained from Step 1 was 8. The number
indeterminate.
made by the other digits is 29. We subtract 8 from 29: 29
– 8 = 21
Determine if the resulting number you obtained in Step 2  Fractions and Decimals
is divisible by 7. If the resulting number is divisible by 7,
then the original number is divisible by 7. What is a fraction?
21 is divisible by 7 since 21 divided by 7 is 3 and it has no A fraction is a part or a section of a whole.

remainder. Hence, 294 is divisible by 7. For instance, if you and your friends decide to buy a pizza
for a movie marathon, you will cut the pizza into 8 slices.
You will certainly take one slice from it. That one slice
Divisibility Rule for 8: An integer is divisible by 8 if and you took is ⅛ of the pizza.
only if its last three digits are divisible by 8
⅛ of the pizza is a fraction since it is a part of the whole
To determine if a number is divisible by 8, get the last (i.e., the entire pizza).
three digits of the given number and then divide it by 8. If
the result has no remainder, then the original number is
divisible by 8
The three slices cut from the pie represent the numerator
Parts of a Fraction of the fraction which is 3. Meanwhile, the whole pie was
divided into a total of 8 slices which represents the
denominator of the fraction.
There are other ways to represent fractions aside from
using a pie. Did you know that your exam scores can
illustrate a fraction?
Suppose you have a 50-item exam and you answered 42
items correctly. Your score can be illustrated in the form
of a fraction: 42⁄50 where 42 represents the items of the
1. Numerator exam you got correctly while 50 represents the total
A fraction consists of two parts – the numerator and the number of items of the exam.
denominator.
The numerator is the number you see in the upper part of Types of Fractions
the fraction. It tells you how many sections are
represented in the fraction. For example, in ⅛, 1 is the 1. Proper Fractions
numerator. This means that 1 section of the whole is
A proper fraction is a fraction where the value of the
represented in the fraction.
numerator is less than the value of the denominator. For
2. Denominator example, ⅝ is a proper fraction since its numerator which
is 5 is less than its denominator which is 8.
On the other hand, the denominator is the number you see
in the lower part of the fraction. It tells you how many Other examples of proper fractions are ⅓, ⅖, 7⁄9, 121⁄321,
sections the whole is divided into. For example, in ⅛, 8 is and so on.
the denominator. This means that the whole is divided into
2. Improper Fractions
a total of 8 sections.
An improper fraction is a fraction where the value of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the value of the
Illustrating Fractions denominator. For example, 8⁄5 is an improper fraction
since its numerator 8 is greater than its denominator 5.
Pies are great not only because they are delicious, but also
because they can be used to represent fractions. Let’s try Similarly, 4⁄4 is an improper fraction since its numerator is
to illustrate ⅜ using a pie. equal to the denominator (both are 4). Take note that if the
numerator and the denominator have the same value, then
that fraction is equal to 1. Therefore, 4⁄4= 1.
In other words, when you get a perfect score from a ten-
item exam, you actually have an improper fraction of
10⁄10!
Other examples of improper fractions are 4⁄3, 8⁄5, 120⁄51,
20⁄20, and so on.
Mixed Number
A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and
a proper fraction. For example, 2 3⁄4 is a mixed number
because it is a combination of a whole number (which is
2) and a proper fraction (which is ¾).
There is an interesting fact about improper fractions and
mixed numbers. You can transform an improper fraction
to a mixed number and vice-versa. This method is useful
when performing some mathematical operations with
fractions. Let’s discuss how to convert an improper
fraction to a mixed number below.
1. Converting an Improper Fraction to Mixed Number
Form
Here are the steps you need to follow so you can convert
an improper fraction to a mixed number:
Divide the numerator by the denominator. To do this, put
the numerator inside the division bracket while put the
denominator outside the division bracket, then perform
long division.
If we can transform an improper fraction to its mixed
Designate the quotient as the whole number of the mixed
number form, we can also perform the opposite.
number
2. Converting a Mixed Number to Improper Fraction
Assign the remainder as the numerator of the proper
fraction part of the mixed number. Here are the steps on how to transform a mixed number
into an improper fraction:
Copy the denominator of the improper fraction and use it
as the denominator of the mixed number. Multiply the denominator of the mixed number by the
whole number part then add the product to the numerator.
Reduce the proper fraction part of the mixed number, if
The resulting number is the numerator of the improper
possible
fraction.
Example 1: Convert 4⁄3 to mixed number form.
Copy the denominator of the proper fraction of the mixed
number and use it as the denominator of the improper
fraction.
Reduce the obtained fraction to its lowest terms, if
possible.
Example: Convert 2 3⁄5 to a mixed number.
3⁄5 x 2⁄2 = 6⁄10
3⁄5 x 3⁄3 = 9⁄15
3⁄5 x 4⁄4 = 12⁄20
Therefore, 6⁄10, 9⁄15, and 12⁄20 are equivalent fractions to
⅗.
How To Determine if Two Fractions are Equivalent
Fractions
One method you can use to determine if two fractions are
equivalent is by using the cross-multiplication method.
To perform the cross-multiplication method, follow these
steps:
Multiply the numerator of the first fraction by the
Therefore, 2 3⁄5 = 13⁄5 denominator of the second fraction.
Multiply the denominator of the first fraction by the
Equivalent Fractions numerator of the second fraction.
Equivalent fractions are fractions that have equal value. If the products you have obtained from Steps 1 and 2 are
These fractions represent the same portion of the whole. equal, then the fractions are equivalent. Otherwise, the
For example, 1⁄2 is equal to 2⁄4 since they represent the fractions are not equivalent.
same portion of a whole. Let us try these steps in our next example.
Example: Are ¼ and 3⁄12 equivalent fractions?
Use the cross-multiplication method:
Multiply the numerator of the first fraction by the
denominator of the second fraction.
1 x 12 = 12
Multiply the denominator of the first fraction by the
numerator of the second fraction.
4 x 3 = 12
How To Determine an Equivalent Fraction to a Given If the products you have obtained from Steps 1 and 2 are
Fraction equal, then the fractions are equivalent.
The easiest way to determine an equivalent fraction to a We have obtained 12 both from Step 1 and Step 2. Hence,
given fraction is to multiply the numerator and the ¼ and 3⁄12 are equivalent fractions.
denominator of the given fraction by the same number.
For example, if we want to find an equivalent fraction to
1⁄2, we can multiply its numerator and denominator by the
same number. If we multiply both the numerator and the
denominator of ½ by 2, we obtain an equivalent fraction to
½ which is 2⁄4.
Example: Find three equivalent fractions to ⅗
To find the answers, let’s multiply the numerator and the
denominator of ⅗ with the same numbers thrice.
Fractions in Lowest Terms Example 2: Simplify 45⁄225.
A fraction is in its lowest terms if the numerator and the Determine the GCF of the numerator and the denominator.
denominator of a fraction have no common factor other
Determine the GCF of 45 and 225. Using the prime
than 1. In other words, the numerator and the denominator
factorization method, the GCF of 45 and 225 is 45.
of the fraction are both prime numbers.
Divide the numerator and the denominator by the GCF.
The lowest term of a fraction is also known as its
“simplest form” 45⁄225 ÷ 45⁄45 = 1⁄5
For example, ⅔ is a fraction in the lowest terms because The resulting fraction is ⅕. Hence, ⅕ is the lowest term
its numerator and denominator have no common factor of 45⁄225.
other than 1. Also, both 2 and 3 are prime numbers.
On the other hand, 15⁄20 is not in the lowest term because
its numerator (which is 15) and its denominator (which is Similar and Dissimilar Fractions
20) have a common factor of 5. Similar fractions are fractions with the same
How To Reduce a Fraction to Its Lowest Term denominators. For example, 2⁄3 and 1⁄3 are similar
fractions since their denominators are the same (which is
Reducing or simplifying a fraction to its lowest term is the 3).
process of transforming a fraction to its simplest form.
Dissimilar fractions are fractions with unlike
For example, 15⁄20 is a fraction that is not in its lowest denominators. For example, 2⁄5 and 1⁄3 are dissimilar
term. We can transform 15⁄20 into an equivalent fraction fractions since their denominators are different.
that is in the lowest term. The lowest term of 15⁄20 is 3⁄4.
We will discuss in the next section how to reduce a Dissimilar fractions can be transformed into equivalent
fraction into its lowest terms. similar fractions using the Least Common Multiple, which
we will discuss in the succeeding reviewer.
It is important to note that the original fraction and its
lowest term are equivalent fractions. Therefore, 15⁄20 and
its simplified form 34, are equivalent fractions. Part II: Decimals
Finding the Lowest Terms of a Fraction using the Greatest Just like fractions, decimals are also a practical tool in
Common Factor (GCF) mathematics. We encounter them in money, length,
The most reliable way to transform a fraction into its weight, time, and so on. The most obvious characteristic
lowest term is using the Greatest Common Factor of a decimal number is that it has a decimal point.
(GCF) of the numerator and the denominator. To However, what really is a decimal number?
transform a given fraction to its lowest terms:
Determine the GCF of the numerator and the denominator.
What Are Decimals?
Divide both the numerator and the denominator by the
GCF, the resulting fraction is the fraction reduced into Decimals are numbers that combine a whole number and a
lowest terms. fraction together. The whole number part is separated
from the fractional part through a decimal point (.).
Example 1: What is 8⁄10 in its lowest terms?
The numbers on the left of the decimal point are the whole
Determine the GCF of the numerator and the denominator. number while the numbers on the right of the decimal
Determine the GCF of 8 and 10. Using the prime point are the decimal numbers that represent the fractional
factorization method, the GCF of 8 and 10 is 2. part.
Divide the numerator and the denominator by the GCF.

8⁄10 ÷ 2⁄2 = 4⁄5
The resulting fraction is ⅘. Hence, ⅘ is the lowest term
of 8⁄10.
the hundredths place is ten times larger than the
thousandths place, and so on.
Types of Decimal Numbers

You will encounter a lot of decimal numbers in your study
of different branches of mathematics. However, you can
only classify them into four types:
Suppose you buy a pencil that costs PHP 12.50. 1. Terminating Decimals
12.50 is an example of a decimal number where 12 is the These are the decimal numbers where the digits of the
whole number part while 50 is the fractional part. fractional part are finite or have an end. This means that
the digits after the decimal point are
countable. Terminating decimals are also known as exact
decimals.
Place Value of Decimal Numbers
Some examples of terminating decimals are 0.5, 0.82,
Just like whole numbers, decimal numbers also have
0.3113, -0.4531, and so on. Note that the numbers at the
corresponding place values. However, the world of
right of these decimal numbers are countable or finite.
decimal numbers is different from the world of whole
numbers. 2. Non-terminating Decimals
Let’s use the decimal number 18.945 as an example. These are the opposite of terminating decimals. The
number of digits on the right of the decimal point is
We know that 18 is the whole number part of the decimal
infinite or has no end. This means that the digits after the
number. We also know the corresponding place value of
decimal point are uncountable.
the digits of 18; 8 is in the ones digit while 1 is in the tens
digit. However, once we step to the right of the decimal Some examples of non-terminating decimals are
point, we will encounter a new system for the place values 0.123533124464…, 0.23134823…, 0.5123…, and so on.
of the digits of the decimal number.
Recall that non-terminating decimal numbers are irrational
numbers and we cannot express them as fractions with
integers.
3. Terminating and Repeating (Recurring) Decimal
Numbers
These are terminating decimal numbers where the digits
on the right of the decimal point are repeating but have an
end. As long as the number of digits in the fractional part
The first digit on the right of the decimal point is the digit is countable, the decimal number is a terminating and
in the tenths place. Hence, 9 is in tenth place. Its value is repeating decimal number.
0.9.
Examples are 0.4242, 0.152152152, 0.101101101, and so
The second digit on the right of the decimal point is the on.
digit in the hundredths place. Hence, 4 is in the hundredths
4. Non-terminating and Repeating (Recurring) Decimal
place. Its value is 0.04
Numbers
The third digit on the right of the decimal point is the digit
These are non-terminating decimal numbers where the
in the thousandths place. Hence, 5 is in the thousandths
digits on the right of the decimal point are repeating but
place. Its value is 0.005.
have no end. As long as the number of digits in the
As you move to the left of the decimal number, the place fractional part is uncountable, the decimal number is a
value of the digits becomes 10 times larger. Therefore, the non-terminating and repeating decimal number.
tenths place is 10 times larger than the hundredths place,
Examples are 0.25252525…, 0.727272…, 0.818181…,
0.543254325432…, and so on.
How To Convert Fractions into Decimals

If you have a half (½) of a peso, this also means you have
0.5 pesos. Therefore, ½ is equivalent to 0.5. However,
how am I able to convert ½ into 0.5? How did I convert a
fraction into its decimal form?
The easiest way to convert fractions into their decimal
form is, of course, by using a calculator. However,
knowing how to convert fractions into their decimal form
manually gives you an edge during an examination where Step 2: Put a zero with a decimal point above the division
calculators are not allowed. bracket then add a decimal point and a zero after the
Let us discuss how to convert a proper fraction into its number inside the division bracket.
decimal form manually.
1. Converting a Proper Fraction to its Decimal Form
Here are the steps to convert a proper fraction into its
decimal form:
Divide the numerator by the denominator. Use the
numerator as the dividend while use the denominator as
the divisor.
Put a zero with a decimal point above the division bracket
then add a decimal point and a zero after the number
inside the division bracket. As we add a decimal point and a zero to the number inside
Apply long division. the division bracket, 1 becomes 10. Now, we can divide
10 by 2 and proceed with the normal division process.
Example 1: Convert ½ to its decimal form.
Step 3: Apply long division.
Step 1: Divide the numerator by the denominator. Use the
numerator as the dividend while use the denominator as We may now perform division with whole numbers:
the divisor.
We put 1 inside the division bracket since it is the
numerator of the fraction. Meanwhile, we put 2 outside
the division bracket since it is the denominator of the
fraction.
Therefore, the decimal form of ½ is 0.5

Example 2: Convert ⅓ to its decimal form.
Step 1: Divide the numerator by the denominator. Use the
the divisor.
We put 1 inside the division bracket since it is the
numerator of the fraction. Meanwhile, we put 3 outside
the division bracket since it is the denominator of the
fraction.
Since the division process is never-ending and we will

never arrive at a remainder of 0, then the decimal form of
the fraction is a non-terminating decimal. Furthermore,
since the digits of the decimal are repeating or recurring,
then it means that the decimal number we obtained is
a non-terminating and repeating decimal.
Therefore, the decimal form of ⅓ is 0.333…
How about if the given fraction is an improper fraction
Step 2: Put a zero with a decimal point above the division
where the numerator is greater than the
bracket then add a decimal point and a zero after the
denominator? Let’s discuss the steps below.
number inside the division bracket.
2. Converting an Improper Fraction to its Decimal Form
Here are the steps to convert an improper fraction into its
decimal form:
the divisor.
Divide the whole numbers.
If there’s a remainder, add a decimal point and a zero to
the right of the number inside the division bracket and add
Step 3: Apply long division. a zero also to the right of the remainder.
Apply long division and put a decimal point to the final
answer.
Example: Convert 8⁄5 to its decimal form.
the divisor.
Continue adding 0 to the remainder in case it is smaller

than the divisor so that you can continue the division
process.
3. Converting a Mixed Number to its Decimal Form
There are only two steps you must keep in your mind so
you will be able to convert a mixed number to its decimal
Divide the whole numbers. form:
Use the whole number part of the mixed number as the
whole number part of the decimal form
Convert the proper fraction part of the mixed number into
its decimal form. The obtained result is the fractional part
of the decimal form.
Example: Convert 2 2⁄5 to its decimal form.
Use the whole number part of the mixed number as the
whole number part of the decimal form.
If there’s a remainder, add a decimal point and a zero to The whole number part in 2 2⁄5 is 2. Therefore, this is also
the right of the number inside the division bracket and add the whole number part of its decimal form.
a zero also to the right of the remainder.
Convert the proper fraction part of the mixed number into
its decimal form. The obtained result is the fractional part
of the decimal form.
Using the steps on converting a proper fraction into its
decimal form (you can review the steps in the section
above), ⅖ is equal to 0.4.
Therefore, the decimal form of 2 2⁄5 is 2.4
How To Convert Decimals into Fractions
Apply long division and put a decimal point to the final If we can convert fractions into decimals, of course, we
answer. can also perform the opposite. We can convert a decimal
into a fraction form.
However, take note that not all decimals can be converted
into fractions. Again, non-terminating decimals are
irrational numbers which means they cannot be expressed
as fractions.
Let’s now proceed to the steps on how to convert decimals
into fractions:
Use the numbers on the right of the decimal point as the 2. If there is one digit on the right of the decimal point,
numerator of the fraction. Do not write the zeros that use 10 as the denominator. If there are two digits on the
appear immediately after the decimal point and before the right of the decimal point, use 100 as the denominator. If
nonzero digit. there are three digits on the right of the decimal point, use
1000 as the denominator, and so on.
If there is one digit on the right of the decimal point, use
10 as the denominator. If there are two digits on the right There are three digits on the right of the decimal point
of the decimal point, use 100 as the denominator. If there (i.e., 008). Hence, we will use 1000 as the denominator.
are three digits on the right of the decimal point, use 1000 This means we have 8⁄1000.
as the denominator and so on.
3. Reduce the fraction you have obtained from Step 1 and
Reduce the fraction you have obtained from Step 1 and Step 2 into its lowest terms.
Step 2 into its lowest terms.
The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of 8 and 1000 is 8.
Example 1: Convert 0.2 to its fraction form. Dividing both the numerator and the denominator of
8⁄1000 by 8:
Use the numbers on the right of the decimal point as the
numerator of the fraction. Do not write the zeros that 8⁄1000 ÷ 8⁄8 = 1⁄125
appear immediately after the decimal point and before the
Therefore, 0.008 is equal to 1⁄125
nonzero digit.
The number on the right of the decimal point is 2.
Therefore, the numerator of the fraction form is 2.
If there is one digit on the right of the decimal point, use  Operations on Fractions and Decimals
10 as the denominator. If there are two digits on the right
of the decimal point, use 100 as the denominator. If there Part I: Operations on Fractions
are three digits on the right of the decimal point, use 1000 Addition and Subtraction of Similar Fractions
as the denominator and so on.
As you can recall, similar fractions are fractions that have
Since there’s only one digit on the right of the decimal the same denominator. The rules on adding and
point (which is 2), we will use 10 as the denominator. This subtracting similar fractions are the same. To add or
means that we have 2⁄10. subtract similar fractions, follow these steps:
Reduce the fraction you have obtained from Step 1 and Add or subtract the numerators of the given fractions and
Step 2 into its lowest terms. use the sum or difference as the numerator of the resulting
The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of 2 and 10 is 2. fraction.
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator of 2⁄10 Copy the denominator of the given fractions and use it as
by 2: the denominator of the resulting fraction.
2⁄10 ÷ 2⁄2 = 1⁄5 Reduce the answer to its lowest terms, if possible.
Therefore, the fraction form of 0.2 is ⅕ To summarize: In order to add or subtract similar
Example 2: Convert 0.008 to fraction. fractions, you first need to add or subtract the numerator,
then copy the denominator. Afterward, simplify your
1. Use the numbers on the right of the decimal point as the answer to its lowest terms.
numerator of the fraction. Do not write the zeros that
appear immediately after the decimal point and before the Example 1: 3⁄5 + 1⁄5.
nonzero digit. Solution:
The number on the right of the decimal point is 008. Step 1: Add the numerators of the given fractions and use
However, we will not consider those numbers on the left the sum or difference as the numerator of the resulting
of 8 because they immediately appear after the decimal fraction.
point and before the nonzero digit. This means that the
numerator of our fraction is 8.
being subtracted from) is 10⁄21 while the subtrahend (the
number being subtracted) is 3⁄21.
We just add the numerators of the given fractions which

are 3 and 1 and put the answer as the numerator of the
resulting fraction.
Step 2: Copy the denominator of the given fractions and
use it as the denominator of the resulting fraction.
Example 4: Bea ate 2⁄8 of the pie that her mother

The denominator of the given fractions is 5. Hence, we prepared. Meanwhile, Bea’s brother ate 4⁄8 of the same pie
will use 5 as the denominator of the common fraction. that Bea ate. What is the total fraction of the pie eaten by
Bea and her brother?
Step 3: Reduce the answer to its lowest terms, if possible.
Solution:
4⁄5 is a fraction in the lowest terms. Hence, no need to
simplify it further. Therefore, our final answer is 4⁄5. We can answer this question by adding the fraction of the
pie eaten by Bea and the fraction of the pie eaten by her
Let’s try to answer more examples:
brother. Since 2⁄8 and 4⁄8 are similar fractions, we can use
Example 2: Add 1⁄4 and 2⁄4. the steps we have for adding similar fractions.
Solution: Step 1: Add the numerators of the given fractions and use
the sum as the numerator of the resulting fraction.
Step 2: Copy the denominator of the given fractions and

use it as the denominator of the resulting fraction.
Step 3: Reduce the answer to its lowest terms, if possible.

6⁄8 is not in its lowest terms yet since 6 and 8 have
a Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of 2. Hence, we divide
Example 3: Subtract 3⁄21 from 10⁄21. both 6 and 8 by 2.
Solution:
Note that the problem asked us to subtract 3⁄21
from 10⁄21. This means that the minuend (the number
Therefore, Bea and her brother ate 6⁄8 or ¾ of the pie.
Transforming Dissimilar Fractions to Similar Fractions

Do you still remember what dissimilar fractions are?
These are fractions with different denominators. Before
you can add or subtract dissimilar fractions, you should Step 2: Divide the LCM you have obtained by the
transform them first as similar fractions. But how is that denominator of the first fraction. Multiply the resulting
possible? number by the numerator. The number that you will obtain
is the numerator for the new fraction.
These are the steps on how to transform dissimilar
fractions into similar fractions: Let us apply this step to 3⁄5.
Find the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the
denominators. The number that you will obtain is the
Least Common Denominator (LCD). Use the LCD as the
new denominator of the fractions.
Divide the LCM you have obtained by the denominator of
the first fraction. Multiply the resulting number by the
numerator. The number that you will obtain is the
numerator for the new fraction.
The LCD we have obtained is 15. We divide the LCD by
Apply Step 2 for the second fraction. the denominator of ⅗. Thus, 15 ÷ 5 = 3. Afterward, we
Example: Transform the fractions 3⁄5 and 1⁄3 into similar multiply 3 to the numerator of ⅗. Hence, 3 x 3 = 9.
fractions. Therefore, the new numerator is 9.
Solution: Step 3: Apply Step 2 for the second fraction.
Let us apply all the steps previously discussed. We will do the same thing we performed on ⅗ for the
second fraction which is ⅓. We divide the LCD of 15 by
Step 1: Find the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the the denominator of ⅓ which is 3. Thus, 15 ÷ 3 = 5.
denominators. The number that you will obtain is the Afterward, we multiply 5 by the numerator of ⅓. Hence, 5
Least Common Denominator (LCD). Use the LCD as the x 1 = 5. The new numerator for the second fraction is 5.
new denominator of the fractions.
The Least Common Multiple of 5 and 3 is 15 (we colored
it with purple in the list). 15 will be our Least Common
Denominator (LCD).
When we transform the fractions 3⁄5 and 1⁄3 into similar

fractions, we have 9⁄15 and 5⁄15
Transforming dissimilar fractions into similar fractions is
an important step in adding and subtracting dissimilar
We will use 15 as the denominator of our fractions. We fractions. This means you should master the method
leave the numerators of the fractions blank because we presented above before proceeding to the next section of
need to compute them in the next step. this reviewer.
Addition and Subtraction of Dissimilar Fractions

Here are the steps on how to add or subtract dissimilar
fractions:
Change the given dissimilar fractions into similar fractions
(refer to the section above for the steps on transforming
dissimilar fractions to similar fractions).
Proceed with the steps on addition or subtraction of
similar fractions.
Reduce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms, if
possible.
Let us try the steps above for the examples below.
Example 1: What is the sum of 1⁄9 and 2⁄3?
Solution:
The LCD of 3 and 4 is 12. Thus, we used it as the new

denominator of the fractions. Afterward, we applied the
steps on transforming dissimilar fractions into similar
fractions. Thus, we obtained 4⁄12 and 3⁄12. In Step 2, we
just subtracted the numerators: 4 – 3 = 1 and then copied
the denominator of 12. Thus, we obtained a fraction of
1⁄12.
Since 1⁄12 is already in its lowest terms, there is no need
to simplify it further. Therefore, the final answer is 1⁄12.
Addition and Subtraction of Mixed Numbers

You are now familiar with adding and subtracting similar
or dissimilar fractions. How about mixed numbers or
The LCD of 3 and 9 is 9. Hence, we used it as the new those combinations of a whole number and a proper
denominator of our fractions. Afterward, we performed fraction? Can we also add or subtract them? Of course, we
the steps on changing dissimilar fractions into similar can.
fractions. In Step 2, we just added the numerators: 1 + 6 =
7 and copied the denominator 9. Thus, we obtained a Here are the steps you need to follow if you are adding or
fraction of 7⁄9. subtracting mixed numbers:
7⁄9 is already in its lowest terms so no need to simplify it Add or subtract the whole numbers. The resulting number
further. Hence, the final answer is 7⁄9. is the whole number part of the sum or difference.
Example 2: Compute for 1⁄3 – 1⁄4. Add or subtract the proper fractions. If the given fractions
are similar fractions, just add or subtract the numerators
Solution: then copy the denominator. If the given fractions are
dissimilar fractions, make the fractions similar first.
Combine the whole number you obtained from Step 1 and Multiplying fractions is a lot easier than adding or
the proper fraction you obtained from Step 2 to arrive at a subtracting fractions because you do not have to consider
mixed number. whether the fractions are similar or dissimilar. To multiply
fractions, all you have to do is follow these three steps:
Reduce the proper fraction to its lowest terms, if possible.
Multiply the numerators of the given fractions. The
Example: Add 1 1⁄3 and 4 2⁄5.
resulting number is the numerator of the product (or
Solution: answer).
Step 1: Add the whole numbers. The resulting number is Multiply the denominators of the given fractions. The
the whole number part of the sum. resulting number is the denominator of the product (or
answer).
The whole number parts of 1 1⁄3 and 4 2⁄5 are 1 and 4,
respectively. Adding the whole numbers: Reduce the product (or answer) to its lowest terms, if
possible.
1+4=5
We can summarize these three steps this way: Multiply
Therefore, 5 is the whole number part of our sum. numerator by numerator and then denominator by
Step 2: Add the proper fractions. If the given fractions are denominator. Afterward, reduce the product to its lowest
similar fractions, just add the numerators then copy the terms.
denominator. If the given fractions are dissimilar Example 1: Multiply 3⁄4 by 1⁄5.
fractions, make the fractions similar first.
Solution:
The proper fractions of 1 1⁄3 and 4 2⁄5 are ⅓ and ⅖,
respectively. These proper fractions are dissimilar Step 1: Multiply the numerators of the given fractions.
fractions so we need to transform them first into similar The resulting number is the numerator of the product (or
fractions. answer).
If we transform ⅓ and ⅖ into similar fractions, we will

have (refer to our previous section to review how to
transform dissimilar fractions into similar fractions):
1⁄3 → 5⁄15
2⁄5 → 6⁄15 The numerators of the given fractions are 3 and 1. When
we multiply them, we will obtain 3 x 1 = 3. Hence, 3 is the
Now, we add the similar fractions: numerator of our resulting fraction.
5⁄15 + 6⁄15 = 11⁄15 Step 2: Multiply the denominators of the given fractions.
The resulting number is the denominator of the product
Step 3: Combine the whole number you obtained from
(or answer).
Step 1 and the proper fraction you obtained from Step 2 to
arrive at a mixed number.
The whole number that we have obtained from Step 1 is 5.
Meanwhile, the proper fraction we have obtained from
Step 2 is 11⁄15. Combining them, we have 5 11⁄15.
Step 3: Reduce the product (or answer) to its lowest terms,
Step 4: Reduce the proper fraction to its lowest terms, if
if possible.
possible.
3⁄20 is a fraction that is already in the lowest terms.
Since 11⁄15 is in its lowest terms, then we do not need to
Hence, no need to simplify it further.
simplify it.
Therefore, our final answer is 3⁄20.
Therefore, 1 1⁄3 + 4 2⁄5 = 5 11⁄15.
Let us have more examples:
Example 2: Multiply 5⁄9 by 2⁄4.
Multiplication of Fractions
Solution: This question can be solved using the same method we
used for the previous example. Again, the word “of” is a
signal word for the multiplication of fractions.
Let us start by putting a denominator of 1 for 100:
3⁄4 × 100⁄1
Multiply the numerators as well as the denominators:
3⁄4 × 100⁄1 = 300⁄4
We can simplify 300⁄4 as 75⁄1 which is equal to 75.
Hence, 3⁄4 of 100 is equal to 75.
Multiplying Fractions Through Cancellation Method.
We can actually make the process of multiplying fractions
quicker through the cancellation method. In this method,
we “cancel” numbers that have common factors so we can
arrive at the product which is already in its lowest terms.
Example 1: Multiply 4⁄20 by 5⁄8.
Therefore, the product is 5⁄18. Solution:
Example 3: What is 2⁄5 of 50?

Solution:
The word “of” is actually a signal word for the
multiplication of fractions. Hence, the question above can
be interpreted also as 2⁄5 × 50.
But, how do we multiply a fraction by a whole number or
vice versa?
The answer is simple! Just put a denominator of 1 for the
whole number:
2⁄5 × 50⁄1
Afterward, proceed with the steps on multiplying
fractions.
2⁄5 × 50⁄1 = 100⁄5
Note that we can simplify 100⁄5 as 20⁄1.
If the denominator of a fraction is 1, it means that the
fraction is equal to the whole number indicated in the
numerator.
Therefore, 20⁄1 = 20
Hence, 2⁄5 of 50 is equal to 20.
Using the cancellation method, the answer is 1⁄8.
Solution:
Solution:
Meanwhile, the reciprocal of 25 is 25⁄1.
Let us go back to the definition of the reciprocal. The
reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of a fraction is the
fraction that when multiplied by the original fraction, the
result is 1. This means that when you multiply a fraction
by its reciprocal, the result is 1. For instance, when you
multiply 4⁄5 by 5⁄4, you will obtain 1.
Now that you know what the reciprocal is, you are now
prepared to proceed with the steps on how to divide
fractions.
How To Divide Fractions
Here are the steps you need to follow so you will be able
to divide fractions:
Transform the second fraction (the divisor) into its
reciprocal (turn the fraction upside down).
Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second
Again, the word “of” is a signal word for the
fraction.
multiplication of fractions.
Reduce the obtained fraction to its lowest terms, if
Therefore, 3⁄7 of 49 is equal to 21.
possible.
Example 1: What is 5⁄6 divided by 6⁄4?
Division of Fractions
Solution:
We are now on the fourth mathematical operation on
fractions – division. However, before we proceed to the
actual process of dividing fractions, let me introduce you
first to the concept of the reciprocal or multiplicative
inverse of a number.
Reciprocal or Multiplicative Inverse of a Number
The reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of a fraction is the
fraction that when multiplied by the original fraction, the
result is 1. This definition sounds confusing and too
technical so let me provide you with an easier way to
grasp this concept.
Let’s use fraction 5⁄6 as an example. The reciprocal of this
fraction can be obtained by interchanging the positions of
the numerator and the denominator. Therefore, the
reciprocal of 5⁄6 is simply 6⁄5.
Therefore, 5⁄6 ÷ 6⁄4 = 5⁄9
Easy, right? Now, can you determine the reciprocal of the
following: Example 2: Divide 3⁄7 by 1⁄2.
4⁄5, 5⁄8, and 25. Solution:
Here are the answers: Step 1: Transform the second fraction (the divisor) into its
reciprocal (turn the fraction upside down).
The reciprocal of 4⁄5 is 5⁄4.
The second fraction (the divisor) is 1⁄2. Its reciprocal is
The reciprocal of 5⁄8 is 8⁄5. 2⁄1.
Step 2: Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the Therefore, 1 2⁄3 × 2⁄5 = 2⁄3
second fraction.
Example 2: Divide 8 3⁄5 by 9.
3⁄7 × 2⁄1 = 6⁄7
Solution:
Step 3: Reduce the obtained fraction to its lowest terms, if
Start by transforming the given mixed number into an
possible.
improper fraction.
6⁄7 is already in its lowest terms. Hence, we do not need to
8 3⁄5 = 43⁄5
simplify it.
Now, let’s proceed to divide 43⁄5 by 9. The reciprocal of
Therefore, 3⁄7 ÷ 1⁄2 = 6⁄7
9 is 1⁄9.
Multiplication and Division of Mixed Numbers

You already learned how to perform multiplication and
division on fractions. This time, let us discuss how we can
perform the same operations with mixed numbers. Therefore, 8 3⁄5 ÷ 9 = 43⁄45
When multiplying or dividing mixed numbers, the first
thing you have to do is transform the given mixed
numbers into improper fractions. Afterward, proceed with Part II: Operations on Decimals
the steps on multiplying or dividing fractions.
If we can add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions, we
Therefore, I suggest you review the steps on how to can also perform these operations with decimal numbers.
transform mixed numbers into improper fractions so you In this section, let’s discuss how to perform these
can multiply or divide mixed numbers with ease. mathematical operations with decimals.
Let’s have some examples: Addition and Subtraction of Decimals
Example 1: Multiply 1 2⁄3 by 2⁄5. To add decimal numbers, follow these steps:
Solution: Align the decimal numbers vertically, with the decimal

points lined up.
The first thing you have to do is to transform the given
mixed number into an improper fraction. Add zeros at the end of some decimal numbers so that the
decimals will be of the same length.
1 2⁄3 is a mixed number. If you transform it into an
improper fraction, you have 5⁄3. Add or subtract the digits and put the decimal point in the
final answer.
Afterward, you may now proceed with multiplying 5⁄3 by
2⁄5. Example 1: Delly bought a pencil worth PHP 8.25 and an
eraser worth PHP 4.105. How much is the total amount of
items that Delly bought?
Solution: We can answer this problem by adding the given
amounts which are decimal numbers.
Lastly, we can reduce 10⁄15 into its lowest terms:

Therefore, Letty covered a total distance of 7. 408 km on
To solve this problem, we started by aligning the given Monday and Tuesday.
decimal numbers. Afterward, we added a zero at the end Example 3: Berto has 2.598 liters of alcohol. He used 0.52
of 8.25 so that it will be of the same length as 4.105. liters for disinfecting his furniture. How many liters of
Lastly, we performed column addition from right to left alcohol were left?
(just like with whole numbers) and put the decimal point
by bringing it down. Solution:
Therefore, 8.25 + 4.105 = 12.355 We can solve this problem by subtracting 0.52 from 2.598
Example 2: Letty loves jogging. On Monday, she jogged a

distance of 3.258 km. Meanwhile, on Tuesday, she jogged
a distance of 4.15 km. What is the total distance covered
by Letty on Monday and Tuesday?
Solution:
We can answer this problem by adding the given distances
which are decimal numbers.
Therefore, 2.078 liters of alcohol were left. Thus, the difference between 9.453 and 7.38 is 2.073.
Example 4: What is the difference between 9.453 and

7.38? Multiplication of Decimals
Solution: When multiplying decimal numbers, the first thing you
have to do is to ignore the decimal point and multiply the
digits just like whole numbers. Then, put the decimal
point in the answer. The resulting number must have as
many decimal places as the total number of decimal places
the two original decimals have.
To understand the method mentioned above, let us have
some examples:
Example 1: Multiply 5.45 by 1.2
Solution:
We start our calculation by ignoring the decimal point and
multiplying the numbers just like whole numbers.
Move the decimal point in the dividend (the first decimal)
to the right the same number of places you move the
decimal point in the divisor.
Divide normally just like whole numbers using the new
decimals obtained from Step 1 and 2 and put the decimal
point to the final answer.
Let us apply these steps to our example below:
Example: Divide 32.95 by 0.5
Solution:
Step 1: Move the decimal point of the divisor (the second
We have obtained 6540 from Step 1 but it is not the final
decimal) to the right until it becomes a whole number.
answer yet. We need to put the decimal point somewhere
in its digits.
We can move one decimal place to the right of 0.5 so that

it becomes a whole number (which is 5).
Step 2: Move the decimal point in the dividend (the first
decimal) to the right the same number of places you move
the decimal point in the divisor.
Step 3: Divide normally just like whole numbers using the

new decimals obtained from Steps 1 and 2 and put the
decimal point to the final answer.
5.45 has two digits at the right of its decimal point. Thus,
it has two decimal places. Meanwhile, 1.2 has one digit at
the right of its decimal point. Therefore, it has one decimal
place. The total number of decimal places we now have is
three (two from 5.45 and one from 1.2). Thus, the final
answer must have three decimal places.
To determine where we should put our decimal point in
6540, count three digits from the right then put the
decimal point. Hence, the decimal point should be at 6.540
Thus, the answer is 6.540 or 6.54 Therefore, 32.95 ÷ 0.5 = 65.9
Division of Decimals  Percent
To divide decimal numbers, you may follow these steps:

Move the decimal point of the divisor (the second What Does Percent Mean?
decimal) to the right until it becomes a whole number.
The word “percent” originated from the Latin phrase per previous reviewer, you will obtain 0.25. Hence, 25% is
centum which means “by hundred”. When we say the also equal to 0.25.
word “percent”, we are really referring to “parts per 100”.
There is an easier way to transform percent into decimal.
This means that a percent is a fraction with 100 as the
Just drop the percent sign and move the decimal point two
denominator. The symbol % is used to indicate a percent.
places to the left of the given number.
For example, 3% means 3 parts per 100 or 3⁄100; 45%
means 45⁄100; and 92% means 92⁄100.
Illustrating Percent
Suppose a vendor has 100 biscuits. If 10% of those
biscuits are ube-flavored, this means that 10⁄100 or 10 out
of 100 biscuits are ube-flavored.
For example, 54% is equivalent to 0.54

Example: Transform 3% to decimal form.
Solution:
On the other hand, suppose that there are 100 students in a

school auditorium. If 42% of those students are honor
students, this means that 42⁄100 students or 42 out of 100
students are honor students.
Expressing Percent as Fraction and Decimal

Since percent means a fraction with 100 as the
denominator, this means that we can express a percent as
a fraction or a decimal number.
Percentage
To transform a percent into a fraction, just drop the
percent sign and put 100 as the denominator. For instance, Suppose that your mom prepared 10 pieces of your
25% is simply 25⁄100. favorite cookies. You are really excited to taste those
cookies but you realize that 20% of the cookies that your
Note that when 25⁄100 is reduced to its lowest terms, you mom prepared were eaten by your brother. What exactly is
will obtain 1⁄4. This means that 25% is also equivalent to the number of cookies eaten by your brother?
1⁄4.
To find out the answer to your question above, you need
to determine what is 20% of 10. This case involves the
application of percentages.
The percentage is the result when you multiply a number
by a percent. Going back to your problem about the
number of cookies that your brother ate, 20% of 10 can be
determined if you multiply 10 by 20%. The result after
you multiply the numbers is called the percentage.
Furthermore, note that when you transform 1⁄4 into its
decimal form using the steps we have discussed in the How To Find the Percentage
Follow these steps if you want to find the percentage: Step 2: Multiply the decimal you have obtained from Step
1 to the given number. The result is the percentage.
Step 1: Convert the given percent (the one with the %
sign) into decimal.
Again, to convert percent into its decimal form, we just

drop the percent sign and then move the decimal point two
places to the left. Thus, 20% = 0.20
Step 2: Multiply the decimal you have obtained from Step
1 to the given number. The result is the percentage.
To multiply 0.50 by 120, we just ignored the decimal

point for a while and multiplied the given decimals just
like whole numbers. Through this process, we have
obtained 06000. Since 0.50 has two decimal places while
120 has no decimal place, then the final answer should
have two decimal places. We count two digits from the
right of 06000 and put the decimal point there. Hence, the
answer is 060.00 which is equivalent to 60.
Hence, 50% of 120 is 60.
Simple Tricks in Computing Percentages
To multiply 0.20 by 10, we just ignored the decimal point We always want to make our computations in
for a while and multiplied the given decimals just like mathematics faster and more accurate. For this reason, I
whole numbers. We have obtained 0200. Since 0.20 has will share with you two tricks that you can use when
two decimal places while 10 has no decimal place, then computing percentages.
the final answer should have two decimal places. We Trick #1: You can actually compute some percentages
count two digits from the right of 0200 and put the using only mental computation.
decimal point there. Hence, the answer is 02.00 which is
equivalent to 2. If you want to determine the 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100% of
a number, you can do so without the help of pen and
Hence, 20% of 10 is 2. This means that out of 10 cookies paper.
that your mother prepared, 2 of those were eaten by your
brother. 25% is equivalent to 25⁄100 or 1⁄4. Hence, to find the 25%
of a number, just divide the given number by 4.
Let us have another example.
Example: 25% of 40 is just 40 ÷ 4 = 10
Example: What is 50% of 120?
50% is equivalent to 50⁄100 or 1⁄2. Thus, to find the 50%
Step 1: Convert the given percent (the one with the % of a number, just divide the given number by 2. This
sign) into decimal. means that 50% of a number is just half of the given
We just drop the % sign of 50% and move the decimal number
point two places to the left. Example: 50% of 40 is just 40 ÷ 2 = 20
75% is equivalent to 75⁄100 or 3⁄4. Thus, to find the 75%
of a number, multiply the given number by 3 and then
divide the result by 4.
Thus, 50% = 0.50
Example: 75% of 40 is just 40 x 3 = 120 ÷ 4 = 30 Since, 90 x 20% = 90 x 0.20 = 18, then 90 is the base,
20% is the rate, and 18 is the percentage.
100% is equivalent to 100⁄100 or 1. Thus, 100% of a
number is the number itself. Calculating Percentage, Base, and Rate
Example: 100% of 40 is just 40 itself. Formula to Find the Percentage
Trick #2: X% of a number Y is equal to Y% of number X The formula to find the percentage, as we have stated, is:
This trick means that we can transfer the % sign to the Percentage = Base × Rate
other number and the result will be the same.
We can manipulate the mathematical equation above to
Example: What is 40% of 25? obtain the formulas for computing the base and the rate:
Using trick #2, we can transfer the % sign from 40% to Formula to Find the Base
25. Thus, we have 25%. This means that 40% of 25 is the
Base = Percentage ÷ Rate
same as 25% of 40.
Formula to Find the Rate
Thus, applying our first trick on finding the 25% of a
number, 40 ÷ 4 = 10, Hence, 40% of 25 is 10. Rate = Percentage ÷ Base
Example: What is 92% of 50? Example 1: If 10% of a number is 90, what is the number?
92% of 50 is the same as 50% of 92. Hence, we can just Solution:
simply divide 92 by 2 to obtain the answer, 92 ÷ 2 = 46
We can interpret this question as 10% of ______ = 90.
Therefore, 92% of 50 is 46. Since “of” is a signal word for multiplication, it also
implies 10% x ______ = 90
This means that 10% is the rate while 90 is the
Base and Rate
percentage. The unknown number is the base. Thus, we
The base is the amount you are taking a percent need to compute the base.
of. Meanwhile, the rate is the percent you are calculating.
Using the formula to find the base:
Base = Percentage ÷ Rate
Base = 90 ÷ 10%
Convert the given percent into decimal:
Base = 90 ÷ 0.10
Now that you have already transformed the rate into
For example, if there are 50 students in a classroom and decimal form, you may now divide 90 by 0.10 to obtain
20% of those students are honor students, it follows that the answer.
10 students in that classroom are honor students. 50 is the To perform division with decimal numbers, we need to
base since it is the amount we are taking a percent of. transform the divisor (0.10) into a whole number by
Meanwhile, 20% is the rate since it is the percent we are moving two decimal places to the right. Thus, the new
calculating. Lastly, 10 is the percentage. divisor is 10. We also move two decimal places for the
The product of the base and the rate is the percentage. dividend (90). Thus, the new dividend is 9000.
Percentage = Base × Rate

Example: Determine the percentage, base, and rate if 20%
of 90 is 18.
Solution:
decimal form because 90 ÷ 720 is actually a proper
fraction which is 90⁄720.
Let us divide 90 by 720 using the steps in transforming
fractions into decimal form.
We start by adding some zeros and decimal points so we
can proceed with the division process.
We now perform long division with our new dividend and

divisor:
We can now divide 900 by 720.
To find the base, we compute 90 ÷ 0.10 = 900

Hence, the base is 900.
Example 2: What percent of 720 is 90? Take note that every time the remainder becomes smaller
than the divisor, we just add zeros to 900 and to the
Solution:
remainder so we can continue the division process.
We can translate the question above in this form: _____%
The quotient we obtained is 0.125. Thus, 0.125 is our rate.
of 720 is 90 or _____% x 720 = 90. Therefore, 720 is the
base while 90 is the percentage. The missing number is However, the rate must always be expressed with a
the rate. percent sign. To do this, we just multiply 0.125 by 100 or
move two decimal places to the right of it and put a
We will now use the formula for finding the rate.
percent sign. Thus, 0.125 is equal to 12.5%.
Rate = Percentage Base
Again, based on the given problem, the percentage is 90
while the base is 720
Therefore, the rate is 12.5%
Rate = 90 ÷ 720
Notice that the dividend (the first number) is smaller than
The Percentage, Base, and Rate Triangle
the divisor (the second number). In this case, you may
apply the same steps in transforming fractions into What if you forgot the formula to determine the
percentage, base, or rate in a certain problem? Don’t
worry because there is actually a fun way to derive these We can write a ratio into its equivalent fractional form.
formulas. We just write the first number as the numerator then write
the second number as the denominator.
Shown below is the Percentage, Base, and Rate Triangle.
It is a triangle divided into three portions where P (for
percentage) is written on the upper portion and B (for
base) and R (for rate) are written on the lower portions.
There are also division signs in the outer left and outer
right parts of the triangle as well as a multiplication sign
below it.
For instance, using our example above about Aling Nena’s
chickens and pigs, we can express the ratio of her chickens
to her pigs 4 : 8 as 4⁄8.
Example 1: For every 4 burgers you will buy, you have to
pay PHP 128. What is the ratio of the number of burgers
bought to the price you have to pay? Express the ratio in
fractional form.
Solution: We can express the ratio of the number of
burgers bought to the price you have to pay as 4 : 128. In
fractional form, we can write this as 4⁄128.
Example 2: There are 15 science teachers in a public high
school. In that same high school, there are 10 math
teachers. What is the ratio of science teachers to math
teachers in that public high school? Express the ratio in
fractional form.
Solution: We can express the ratio of science teachers to
How To Use the Percentage, Base, and Rate Triangle math teachers in that public high school as 15 : 10. In
fractional form, we write it as 15⁄10.
Suppose you are looking for the base. What you have to Using Ratio to Compare a Part to a Whole
do is to cover the B in the triangle and look at the We have already defined what ratios are. However, the
remaining letters and the operation between them. Notice ratios that we have tackled in our previous sections pertain
that if you cover B, the remaining letters are P and R with to a comparison of a quantity of an object to the quantity
a division sign between them. This means that to find the of a different object.
base, you need to divide P by R. This time, let us use the ratio to compare a part of a whole
to the whole itself.
Suppose that you and your friends bought a pizza and
 Ratio and Proportion sliced it into 8 equal parts. Suppose that you’re able to
take 2 slices from it. What is the ratio of the slices of pizza
Ratio you have (a portion of the whole pizza) to the total number
A ratio shows how the quantity of an object is related to of slices (the whole pizza)?
the quantity of another object. For example, if there are 15 The given situation above might ring a bell to you. Yes,
male and 23 female students in a classroom, we can we can use fractions to show that comparison. In
compare these quantities using a ratio, in particular, 15 : particular, fraction 2⁄8 can be expressed into a ratio as 2 : 8
23.
To express two quantities being compared as a ratio, we
usually write it in the format below. Note that we use a
colon (:) to express a ratio.
<first number> : <second number>
Example: Aling Bela has 4 chickens and 8 pigs on her
small farm. What is the ratio of her chickens to her pigs? This means that to use the ratio to compare a part of a
Solution: We can express the ratio of chickens to pigs that whole to the whole itself, we can use this format:
Aling Bela owns as 4 : 8 <portion of the whole> : <total number portions of the
Ratio as a Fraction whole>
Example: In a classroom, 15 students are male while 20 For instance, let us use the cross-multiplication method to
students are female. What is the ratio of female students to determine if 1 : 2 = 2 : 4
the total number of students in the classroom?
Solution: There are 20 female students in the classroom.
Meanwhile, the total number of students in the classroom
is the sum of the number of male students and the number
of female students. In total, there are 15 + 20 = 35 students
in that classroom.
Therefore, the ratio of female students to the total number
of students in that classroom can be expressed as 20 : 35
Proportion
A proportion indicates that the two ratios are equal. In
other words, proportions are equivalent ratios. Hence, if
Since the products are equal (both are equal to 4), then the
we say that ratios are proportional, we mean that those
ratios are equal. Hence, the ratios are proportional.
ratios are equal in values.
Moreover, you might also notice that if we multiply the
Suppose 1 : 2 and 2 : 4. We illustrate these ratios as shown
numbers in a ratio, we can obtain another ratio that is
below:
proportional to that ratio.
For example, if we multiply each number in 5 : 2 by the
same number, let’s say 2, we have 10 : 4. Using the cross-
multiplication method, you can verify that 5 : 2 = 10 : 4
Example: Give a ratio that is equivalent or proportional to
2:9
Solution: We can determine a ratio equivalent or
proportional with 2 : 9 by multiplying each number in 2 :
9 by the same number.
Let us try to multiply the numbers in 2 : 9 by 5.
(2 x 5) : (9 x 5) = 10 : 45
Hence, 2 : 9 = 10 : 45.
Note: The number that you can use to find a ratio that is
It’s clearly seen that the ratios represent the same parts. It proportional to 2 : 9 is arbitrary. If we multiply the
implies that these ratios are equivalent. numbers in 2 : 9 by the same number, we will come up
Hence, 1 : 2 = 2 : 4 is a proportion. with a ratio that is proportional to 2 : 9. In this example, I
You might have realized that proportions are kind of just arbitrarily used 5. You may use any number and
similar to the concept of equivalent fractions. Indeed, multiply it to the numbers in 2 : 9 and you will come up
proportions indicate equivalent fractions since we can with a ratio that is proportional to it. For example, I can
write ratios in fractional form. multiply the numbers of 2 : 9 by 7 and obtain 14 : 63. 14 :
63 is also proportional with 2 : 9
Parts of a Proportion: Extremes and Means
Suppose a proportion a : b = c : d where a, b,
c, and d represent real numbers.
The first and last terms (i.e., a and d) of the proportion are
called the extremes. Meanwhile, the second and third
terms (i.e., b and c) are called the means.
How to Know if Two Ratios are Proportional
Two ratios are proportional if they are equal. One way to
determine if two ratios are equal is by converting them
into fractional form and then using the cross-
multiplication method which we discussed in the Fractions
and Decimals reviewer.
Now, by the first property, 16 x N = 16. What must be
multiplied by 16 so that it will be 16? That number should
be 1.
Hence, N = 1.
Therefore, the proportion should be 1 : 8 = 2 : 16.
Example 2: Four kilos of chicken cost PHP 640. How
many kilos of chicken can you buy with PHP 3 200?
Solution: The ratio of the kilos of chicken that can be
bought to the cost is 4 : 640. Now, let’s use N to represent
the number of kilos of chicken that can be bought with
PHP 3200. Thus, we have the ratio N : 3200.
4 : 640 = N : 3200
Let us apply the fact that the product of the means is equal
Example: Determine the extremes and the means of the to the product of extremes so we can determine N.
proportion 5 : 10 = 20 : 40 Multiplying the means of the ratio: 640 x N
Solution: The extremes are the first and last terms of the Multiplying the extremes of the ratio: 4 x 3200 = 12800
proportion which are 5 and 40, respectively. Meanwhile, Since the product of the means is equal to the product of
the means are the second and third terms of the proportion the extremes:
which are 10 and 20, respectively. 640 x N = 12800
Properties of Proportion What must be multiplied to 640 to obtain 12800? We
Using the fact that proportions are equivalent ratios, we determine that number by dividing 12800 by 640.
can mathematically derive its properties. These properties N = 12800 ÷ 640 = 20
are very helpful when solving problems involving ratio Therefore, you can buy 20 kilos of chicken with PHP
and proportion. 3200.
Here are the properties of proportion: 2. The reciprocals of the ratios in a proportion are equal
1. The product of the means is equal to the product of the Recall that the reciprocal of a fraction is its multiplicative
extremes inverse, or simply the same fraction but with the positions
For every proportion a : b = c : d, then a x d = b x c of the numerator and the denominator reversed.
This property tells us that if we multiply the means and For example, the reciprocal of 2⁄5 is 5⁄2.
also multiply the extremes of a proportion, we will obtain Given a proportion, say a : b = c : d, we can express it in
the same number. fractional form as a⁄b = c⁄d
For example, suppose the proportion 4 : 3 = 12 : 9. If we get the reciprocal of both fractions in a⁄b = c⁄d, we
If we multiply the means: 3 x 12 = 36 have:
If we multiply the extremes: 4 x 9 = 36 b⁄a = d⁄c
We can express b⁄a = d⁄c in ratio as b : a = d : c
This property states that if we take the reciprocal of each
ratio in a proportion, the ratios are still proportional. In
symbols:
a:b=c:d→b:a=d:c
Example: If 5 : 4 = 35 : 28, what should be N so that 4 : 5
= 28 : N
Solution: Since the ratios in the proportion are
reciprocated, we can use the second property of
proportions. Using the second property, N = 35.
3. Switching the means or the extremes in a proportion
Note that the products of the means and the extremes are will result in a proportion
both equal to 36. Suppose the proportion 1 : 7 = 3 : 21. If we try to switch
Example 1: What must be N so that N : 8 = 2 : 16 is a the positions of the means of this proportion, we have 1 : 3
proportion? = 7 : 21. You can verify using cross-multiplication that 1 :
Solution: Let us use the fact that the product of the means 3 = 7 : 21 is true (that is, 1 : 3 and 7 : 21 are equivalent
of a proportion is equal to the product of the extremes. ratios or proportional).
Multiplying the means, we have: 8 x 2 = 16
Multiplying the extremes, we have 16 x N
Now, let us try switching the extremes of 1 : 7 = 3 :
21. That is, we obtain 21 : 7 = 3 : 1. Again, you can verify
using cross-multiplication that 21 : 7 = 3 : 1 is true.
Hence, for every proportion a : b = c : d, switching the
means or the extremes will still result in a proportion.
a : b = c : d → a : c = b : d and d : b = c : a
Example: When A is divided by 5, the result will be equal
to the result when you divide B by 2. What is the result if
you divide A by B?
Solution: The problem sounds tricky since we have no
idea what the values of A and B are. However, using the
third property of proportion, we can determine the result What must be multiplied to 50 to obtain 650?
when we divide A by B. N = 650 ÷ 50 = 13
A divided by 5 can be written as A⁄5, which can then be Therefore, PHP 650 is equal to 13 US dollars.
expressed into a ratio as A : 5. Problem 2 : Leonor loves animals. In fact, he has a lot of
Meanwhile, B divided by 2 can be written as B⁄2, which dogs and cats in his house. The ratio of dogs to his cats is
can then be expressed into a ratio as B : 2. 1 : 3. The total number of dogs and cats is 8. How many
Since the problem states that if A is divided by 5, the cats does Leonor own?
result will be equal to the result if B is divided by 2, then Solution: The ratio of dogs to cats is 1 : 3. This doesn’t
A:5=B:2 mean that Leonor has 1 dog and 3 cats. 1 : 3 is just a ratio
We want to know, what will be the result when we divide used to compare the quantity of dogs to cats. To find the
A by B or A⁄B or, as a ratio, A : B actual number of dogs and cats that Leonor has, we need
So, from A : 5 = B : 2, how can we obtain A : B? to find two numbers with a sum of 8 that when expressed
We can apply the property that if we switch the means of a as a ratio, will be proportional to 1 : 3.
proportion, the result is still a proportion. Recall that we can obtain a ratio that is proportional to 1 :
Let us now switch the means of A : 5 = B : 2 3 if we multiply both 1 and 3 by the same number.
Let us multiply the parts of the ratio with a number a.
(1 x a) : (3 x a)
This means that we have two numbers 1 x a and 3 x a. 1x
a represents the total number of dogs that Leonor has
while 3 x a represents the total number of cats that Leonor
has.
Since the total number of dogs and cats that Leonor has is
8:
(1 x a) + (3 x a) = 8
We obtain A : B = 5 : 2. Expressing into a fractional form:
We can simplify the expression above as:
A⁄B = 5⁄2
(4 x a) = 8
Therefore, if A is divided by B, the result is 5⁄2 or 2.5.
What must be multiplied by 4 to obtain 8? Simple, that
number must be 2.
How To Solve Problems Involving Ratio and Proportion
Hence, a = 2.
In this section, let us try to solve some real-life word
Recall that 1 x a represents the number of dogs that
problems that can be solved using the concepts of ratio
Leonor has. Since we have computed that a = 2, then
and proportion.
Leonor has 1 x (2) = 2 dogs.
Problem 1: Suppose that on a certain date, 1 US dollar is
Doing the same thing to find the number of cats that
equal to PHP 50. How many US dollars is equivalent to
Leonor has: 3 x (2) = 6 cats.
PHP 650?
Therefore, Leonor has 6 cats.
Solution: The ratio of US dollars to Philippine Peso can be
expressed as 1 : 50. Let N be the number of dollars we can
B. Basic Algebra
obtain from PHP 650.
 Algebraic Expressions
Hence, we have this proportion: 1 : 50 = N : 650
The product of the means is equal to the product of
extremes. Thus:
Variables and Constants
Let us start with the most fundamental terms in the study Again, a variable can be any symbol as long as it
of algebra – the variables and the constants. represents an unknown quantity or number. It can be a
triangle, banana, square, circle, and so on. However, the
1. Variables
most convenient way to represent an unknown quantity in
Let me present to you a simple puzzle. In this puzzle, your a mathematical expression is with the use of an
goal is to determine what is the number being represented alphabetical letter.
by the triangle. What do you think must be the number
Let us take a look again at our example above but this
represented by the triangle?
time, let us use a letter as a variable instead of a banana.
If you have answered 8, you got it right. The triangle

In this case, the letter x is a variable that represents the
represents the number 8 in the mathematical equation
number 3.
above.
Example 2: Take a look at the expression x + y + z +
The triangle used in our simple “puzzle” or equation
3. What are the variables in the expression?
above is an example of a variable.
Solution: x, y, and z are the variables used in the
A variable is a symbol that we use to represent a certain
expression x + y + z.
number. Again, in our equation above, the triangle is a
variable since it represents the number 8. The variable is x, y, and z represent certain quantities or numbers.
also called unknown since we have to solve the equation
Since a variable represents certain quantities or
first so that we will be able to determine the value
values, this means that the value of a variable is not
represented by the symbol.
fixed. For instance, in x + y + z, the values of x, y, and z
Let us have another example: can be any number.
Example 1: What do you think is the value of the banana In the study of algebra, English letters are the most
in the equation below? commonly used variables. Thus, in this reviewer, we will
use letters to denote a variable that represents a certain
value.
2. Constants
A constant is a quantity with a fixed value. This means
that the value of a constant does not change in the
expression. For example, 3 is a constant since its value is
always equivalent to 3 and it never changes once you
include it in a mathematical expression.
Solution: If your answer is three, then you got our puzzle It is important to note that all numbers are constants.
right. Now, can you determine what is the variable used in
the equation above? For example, in the expression x + 5, 5 is a constant
because its value is always 5 in that expression and it will
Yes, the banana acts as a variable since it represents the never change. However, x is not a constant since its value
number three in the equation. is not fixed and specified and can be any number.
3. Coefficients Algebraic Expression
If you multiply a variable by a certain number, the latter is An algebraic expression is a mathematical expression that
called a numerical coefficient. Meanwhile, the variable involves constants, variables, and arithmetic operations
becomes a literal coefficient. (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division).
Suppose we have a variable x which represents a certain For example, x + 5 is an algebraic expression since it has a
quantity. variable (which is x) that represents a certain quantity, a
constant (which is 5), and an arithmetic operation
Now, our variable x is multiplied by 2. Thus, we have 2 ×
(addition).
x.
In algebra, when we multiply a variable by a certain
number, we refrain from using the arithmetic sign for
multiplication (×). Instead, we just put the variable and the
constant together.
Therefore, when we multiply x by 2, we write it as
2x instead of 2 × x.
Now, take a look at 2x. 2 is a numerical coefficient since it
is the number that is multiplied by a variable.
Meanwhile, x is a literal coefficient since it is a variable
multiplied by a number.
Example 1: Determine the numerical coefficient and
literal coefficient in ¼ y.
Solution: The numerical coefficient is ¼ since it is the
number multiplied by the variable y. Meanwhile, y is the
literal coefficient since it is a variable multiplied by a
number.
If a variable has no number written on its left, it means the
numerical coefficient is 1. For instance, consider the
variable x. Note that there is no number written on its left.
This does not mean that it has no numerical coefficient.
Instead, its numerical coefficient is 1. Thus, x can also be Another example, 3x – 9 is an algebraic expression where
interpreted as 1x or “1 times x”. x is a variable, 9 is a constant, and the mathematical
However, in algebra, if the numerical coefficient is 1, we operations involved are multiplication (because 3x
do not write it because it is already understood that a represents “3 times x”) and subtraction. Also, 3 is a
certain variable has a numerical coefficient of 1. numerical coefficient of x.
Example 2: Determine the numerical coefficient of the Example 1: Determine the variables, constant, coefficient,
following: and operations involved in 9 + 3xy – z.
3y Solution: The variables are x, y, and z. The constant is 9.

Meanwhile, the operations involved are addition,
0.23x multiplication (3xy can be interpreted as 3
times x times y), and subtraction. Furthermore, 3 is a
w
numerical coefficient of xy.
Solution: For item 1, the numerical coefficient is 3. For
Example 2: Determine the variables, constants, and
item 2, the numerical coefficient is 0.23. Lastly, for item
operations involved in the algebraic expression x⁄y – 2.
3, the numerical coefficient is 1.
Solution: Before we answer this, take note that in algebra, And we’re done! We have already translated a verbal
we usually indicate division as the ratio or a fraction expression into an algebraic expression.
between two numbers. Therefore, if we want to write x ÷
Example 1: Translate this verbal expression into an
y, we write it as x/y instead.
algebraic expression: “18 minus a number equals 5”.
Therefore, in x/y – 2, the variables are x and y, the
Solution: The phrase “a number” means that we are not
constant is 2, and the operations involved are division and
sure what that number is. This means that we need to
subtraction.
represent it using a letter or symbol. In other words, we
need to use a variable to represent that unknown number.
Translating Verbal Expressions into Algebraic Let us use the letter g to represent this unknown number.
Expressions Thus, if we translate “18 minus a number is 5” into an
algebraic expression, we will obtain:
You have already learned what algebraic expressions are.
In this section, you are going to learn how to write an 18 – g = 5
algebraic expression from a given English sentence or
Keep in mind that you can use any letter in the English
phrase. This skill is crucial since you are going to solve
alphabet as a variable to represent a certain number.
some word problems in the succeeding chapters.
However, the most commonly used letters are x and y.
Let us start with this: Write “7 plus 4 equals 11” into a Furthermore, small letters are more commonly used than
mathematical expression. capital letters.
I know that you can translate that one with ease. The You now have an idea of how to use variables to translate
sentence “7 plus 4 equals 11” is simply: 7 + 4 = 11. a verbal expression into algebraic expressions. However,
in your study of algebra, you will encounter complicated
This is exactly what we are going to do in this section: We
sentences that are quite challenging to convert into
will translate a sentence or phrase into a mathematical
algebraic expressions. For this reason, you need the help
expression. But this time, we will be using variables and
of keywords.
constants.
Having said that, let us try to translate this sentence into a
mathematical expression: Keywords for Mathematical Operations
“A number plus 4 equals 11” Keywords are certain words in a verbal expression that
tells you what mathematical operations are involved in
The given sentence is actually the same as the previous
that sentence. They serve as your signals so that you can
example above except for one thing. Notice that instead of
put the proper operations in the corresponding algebraic
stating 7, we replace it with the words “a number”. How
expression.
can we translate the given sentence into a mathematical
expression? For instance, in our earlier example, “A number plus 4
equals 11”, the word “plus” is the keyword. It gives you a
Let’s find out the answer.
signal that you must use the addition sign (+) when you
The word “a number” implies that we are not sure what convert the given sentence into an algebraic expression.
exactly that number is. In other words, that number is
We are going to tackle in this section some keywords that
unknown. For this reason, we need to use a variable that
indicate the four fundamental mathematical operations.
will represent this unknown number.
1. Keywords for Addition
Recall that a variable is any symbol or letter that can
represent an unknown number. Let us use the letter x to Some common keywords for addition are sum, plus,
represent that unknown number in the given sentence. increased by, more than, and total. Once you see these
keywords, it means that addition will be involved when
Thus, we can translate the given sentence: “A number plus
you translate the verbal expression into an algebraic
4 equals 11” as:
expression.
x + 4 = 11
The table below shows how these keywords are usually It’s stated that “a number more than 18 is equal to 25”.
used in a sentence and how they can be translated into Since the keyword “more than” is used, it means
algebraic expressions. the operation of addition is involved.
Again, the keyword “more than” implies that the first
number mentioned in the sentence was added to the
second number mentioned. This means that when we
translate the sentence into an algebraic expression, we
need to write the second number which is 18 as the first
addend.
Thus, we can translate the sentence as 18 + k = 25.
The answer is 18 + k = 25.
The keywords sum and total are written before the given
2. Keywords for Subtraction
numbers. When you see these words, it means that the
numbers are added. For example, the sentence Words such as difference, subtracted by, subtracted from,
“The sum of 8 and a number” implies that 8 and a certain deducted by, deducted from, decreased by, and minus are
number was added. Thus, the correct translation must be 8 some of the keywords used for subtraction.
+ x.
The keyword increased by means that a certain number
was added to another number. For instance, the sentence
“A number increased by 7” means that 7 was added to a
certain number. Thus, the correct translation must be x +
7.
Meanwhile, the keyword more than means the first
number stated is added to the second number. For
instance, the sentence “3 more than a number” implies that
3 was added to a certain number. Thus, when we translate
it into an algebraic expression, we write 3 as the second
The keyword difference is the subtraction counterpart of
addend since it is being added to a certain number. The
the keyword sum. It is written before two numbers and
correct translation should be x + 3.
implies that the given numbers were subtracted. Thus, if
Example 1: Translate “the sum of two numbers” into an you have a sentence such as the difference between a
algebraic expression. number and 15, it is just x – 15.
Solution: The given sentence doesn’t explicitly state the The keywords subtracted by and subtracted from are quite
values of two numbers. Thus, we need to use variables to confusing and should not be used interchangeably.
represent them. Let us use the letters x and y to represent
If the keyword subtracted by is used, it means the second
the numbers.
number mentioned is the one being subtracted. For
Since we have the keyword “sum”, it means that the example, the given sentence 9 subtracted by a
numbers must be added. number means the unknown number was taken from 9.
Thus, the correct translation is 9 – x.
Thus, the sentence can be translated as x + y
On the other hand, the word subtracted from means the
The answer is x + y first number mentioned is the one being subtracted. For
Example 2: Translate “a number more than 18 is equal to example, 9 subtracted from a number means that 9 was
25” into an algebraic expression. taken from the unknown number. Thus, the correct
translation is x – 9.
Solution: Let us assign k as the variable that represents the
unknown number in the sentence. You can use this simple pattern if you still find it difficult
to differentiate subtracted by and subtracted from:
anymore. Instead, we just write the letter and the number
together. For instance, if we want to write “8 times x” we
simply write it as 8x instead of 8 x.
The keyword “product” works in the same way as the
keywords “sum” and “difference”. It is written before the
given numbers and indicates that those numbers were
multiplied together. For instance, if you want to
translate “the product of 5 and a number” into an algebraic
expression, the answer is simply 5x.
The keyword “multiplied by” tells you that the first
number was multiplied by the second number. For
Lastly, decreased by implies that the second number was instance, if you want to translate “– 3 multiplied by a
subtracted from the first number. Hence, if the given number”, the answer is simply -3x.
sentence “6 decreased by a number” is translated into an
algebraic expression, we will obtain 6 – x. The keyword “twice” means that the given number was
multiplied by 2. For example, “twice of a number” means
Example 1: Translate “A number subtracted from – 19 is that a certain number was multiplied by 2. Hence, the
equal to 5” into an algebraic expression. answer is 2x.
Solution: Let us use the letter p as the variable that The keyword “thrice” means that the given number was
represents the unknown number. multiplied by 3. For example, “thrice of a number” means
that a certain number was multiplied by 3. Hence, the
Recall that to translate a sentence with the
answer is 3x.
keyword subtracted from into an algebraic expression, we
are going to write it in the form <second number> – <first The keyword “of” is usually used to indicate that a
number>. number was multiplied to a fraction, a decimal, or a
percent. For instance, “½ of a number” means that a
Hence, the correct translation must be: – 19 – p = 5.
number is multiplied by ½. Thus, the correct translation
Example 2: Translate “54 decreased by a number” into an is ½x.
algebraic expression.
The keyword “times” tells you that the first number is
Solution: Let us use the letter q to represent the unknown multiplied by the second number in the sentence. For
number. instance, the translation of “7 times a number: is
simply 7x.
The keyword “decreased by” implies that a number was
subtracted from 54. Example 1: Translate “20% of a number is equal to
50” into an algebraic expression.
Thus, the correct translation should be 54 – q
Solution: The keyword “of” indicates multiplication.
3. Keywords for Multiplication Thus, the correct translation is 20%x = 50. You can also
Some of the keywords that indicate multiplication express the given percent into decimal. This means that
are: product, multiplied by, twice, triple, of, and times. 0.20x = 50 is also a translation for the given sentence.
Example 2: Translate “The product of two numbers is
equal to twice of another number” into an algebraic
expression.
Solution: We have three unknown numbers involved.
Thus, we need to use three letters as variables. Let us use
the letters x, y, and z.
The product of two numbers can be translated as xy.
Meanwhile, since the keyword twice indicates that a
As a reminder, when we are expressing the multiplication number is being doubled or multiplied by 2, then twice of
of a variable and a constant, we are not using the sign
another number can be translated as 2z. Hence, the correct
translation of the given sentence should be xy = 2z.
4. Keywords for Division
Some of the keywords that indicate division are quotient,
divided by, the ratio of, split equally, and average.
Recall that we can express the division of two numbers in Translating Verbal Expressions Into Algebraic
fraction form. For example, we can rewrite 8 ÷ x as 8⁄x. Expressions with Multiple Operations Involved
The fractional form of the division of two numbers is We have translated various sentences or phrases into
usually used since it is more convenient and less tedious to algebraic expressions. However, we have only translated
write when other operations are involved. those with only one mathematical operation involved. In
The keyword quotient is written before the given numbers this section, we are going to translate those that involve
and indicates that the operation of division is involved. multiple operations.
For instance, the translation of “The quotient of 8 and a Make sure that you still have the keywords in your mind
number” is 8 ÷ x or 8⁄x. because they are really helpful in this section.
The keyword divided by implies that the first number Example 1: What is “The sum of twice a number and 9” as
mentioned in the sentence is the dividend while the second an algebraic expression?
number is the divisor. For example, if you want to
translate “A number divided by 4”, the correct answer Solution: Let us start with the first keyword mentioned in
would be x ÷ 4 or x⁄4. the problem which is the sum. Recall that if the
keyword sum is used in a sentence, it implies that there are
The keyword ratio of works the same way as the numbers being added. The question now is: What are the
keyword quotient. It is written before the given numbers numbers that are being added according to the given
and indicates that the operation of division is involved. verbal expression?
For example, the correct translation of “The ratio of a
number and 2” is x ÷ 2 or x⁄2. Let us read again the given verbal expression: The sum of
twice a number and 9. It is clearly stated that there are two
The keyword split equally works the same way as the quantities that will be added–the quantity twice a
keyword divided by. Thus, if we want to translate “A number and 9.
number is split equally into three”, the correct translation
is x ÷ 3 or x⁄3. We can now express our translation in this form for a
while: twice a number + 9
Shown below is a summary of the keywords that are
usually used for the four fundamental operations of
mathematics:
Now, let us translate twice a number into an algebraic

expression. Again, the word twice implies that a certain
number is being doubled or multiplied by 2. Let us
use x to represent the unknown number. Thus, twice
of x is simply, 2x.
Therefore, our final translation for The sum of twice a
number and 9 is 2x + 9.
Example 3: Write “the ratio of two numbers increased by
Example 2: Translate “Twice the difference between two 5” as an algebraic expression.
numbers” into an algebraic expression.
Solution: Let us start with the keyword ratio. The
Solution: Let us start with the keyword twice. This phrase the ratio of two numbers tells us that two numbers
keyword implies that a certain quantity or number will be are involved in a division process. Let x and y be these
multiplied by 2. What is this quantity that will be two numbers. Hence, we can translate the ratio of two
multiplied by 2 according to the given verbal expression? numbers as x ÷ y or x⁄y. For this problem, let us use x⁄y.
Let us read the given problem again: Twice the difference The next keyword increased by in the ratio of two
between two numbers. The statement tells us the numbers increased by 5 tells us that the number 5 will be
difference between the two numbers is what will be added to x⁄y. This means that we need to add 5 to our
multiplied by 2. translation. Thus,
Hence, we can translate it this way: 2(difference between x⁄y+ 5
two numbers). We use parenthesis to indicate
multiplication. Therefore, if the ratio of two numbers increased by 5 will
be written as an algebraic expression, you will have x⁄y+ 5
Other Important Keywords

There are more keywords that are used in translating
verbal expressions into algebraic expressions. Some of
Now, let us translate the difference between two them involve exponents, radicals, equality, or inequality
numbers into an algebraic expression. We have two signs.
unknown numbers so let us use x and y to represent them.
Here are other keywords commonly used that do not
Thus, we can translate the difference between two
indicate any of the four fundamental operations
numbers as x – y.
We replace the expression difference between two
numbers in 2(difference between two numbers) with x – y.
Hence, Twice the difference between two numbers is 2(x
– y).
Hence, the correct translation is x2.+ 3 ≥ 9
Translating Verbal Expressions Into Algebraic

The keywords greater than or equal to is synonymous Expressions in Real-Life Scenarios
with at least. Meanwhile, the keywords less than or equal
to is synonymous with at most. We have now arrived at the most exciting part of this
reviewer. We will apply what we have learned in
Example 1: Write “the sum of the square of a number and translating verbal expressions into algebraic expressions in
3 is at least 9” as an algebraic expression. various real-life scenarios.
Solution: The keyword sum tells us that certain quantities Example 1: Lea has 150 books that she collected during
will be added. These quantities are the square of a number her college years. She decided to give some of her books
and 3. to her friends. After giving some to her friends, 40 books
were left to Lea. Write an algebraic expression that will
illustrate Lea’s scenario.
Solution: It’s stated in the given scenario that Lea has 150
books. She gave some of her books to her friends. 40
books were left to Lea after giving some of them. This can
be interpreted as 150 books minus the number of books
Let us use x to represent the unknown number. Its square given equals 40.
can be represented as x2. Let us use b to represent the number of books Lea gave to
Thus, the quantities that will be added are x2 and 3. her friends.
Thus, we have this algebraic expression: 150 – b = 40
Example 2: A burger costs Php 32 each while a can of
pineapple juice costs Php 25 each. Dario bought some
burgers and cans of pineapple juice. Write an algebraic
expression that shows how much Dario will pay for the
burgers and cans of pineapple juice he bought.
Solution: It’s not specifically stated in the given scenario
how many burgers and cans of pineapple juice Dario
bought. Thus, we can use variables to represent the
The sum of the square of a number and 3 is at least 9. number of burgers and cans of pineapple juice he bought.
This means that x2 + 3 is greater than or equal to 9.
Let b represent the number of burgers that Dario bought.
Meanwhile, let p represent the number of cans of
pineapple juice that Dario bought.
Each burger costs Php 32. Thus, the total amount that
Dario will pay for the burgers can be represented as 32b.
Meanwhile, each can of pineapple juice costs Php 25. The symbol ≤ means less than or equal. We can use the
Thus, the total amount that Dario will pay for the cans of phrase less than or equal for this symbol or the phrase at
pineapple juice can be represented as 25p. most. In this problem, let us use the phrase at most.
Combining the total amount he will pay for the burgers Therefore, one possible translation for y2 ≤ 2 could be the
and cans of pineapple juice: 32b + 25p. square of a number is at most 2.
Thus, the answer is 32b + 25p.
Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
Translating Algebraic Expressions into Verbal We have mentioned that variables in an algebraic
Expressions expression represent a certain number or quantity. What if
the values that these variables represent are specified? Can
You have learned how to translate a given sentence or
we compute the value of the algebraic expression?
phrase into algebraic expressions. This time, let us discuss
how we can translate a given algebraic expression into Evaluating an algebraic expression means determining its
words or verbal expressions. value according to the values assigned to its variables. To
further understand how this works, let us have some
There is no general process to translate an algebraic
examples.
expression into a sentence or phrase. However, using the
proper keywords is really helpful in performing the Example 1: Evaluate x + 2 if x = 2
translation.
Solution: The variable in x + 2 is x. In this example, we
Example 1: Write x + 2 as a verbal expression. have assigned a value to x which is x = 2. This means that
we need to substitute or replace x with 2.
Solution: The algebraic expression involves the operation
of addition. Thus, you can use the keywords for addition
in translating x + 2. Moreover, just use the words “a
number” to translate the variable.
Let’s use the keyword sum. We know that sum is written
before the quantities that are added. Thus, one possible
translation could be “the sum of a number and 2”
Another possible translation is using the keyword
“increased by”. You can translate x + 2 as “A number
increased by 2”.
Afterward, we perform the calculation to find the value of
Example 2: Translate 4z + 5 into a verbal expression.
the algebraic expression when x = 2.
Solution: 4z indicates multiplication. Hence, you can use
any keyword for multiplication. Let us use the keyword
“product”. One possible translation for 4z is “the product
of 4 and a number”.
Now, we just incorporate the plus 5 in 4z + 5 to complete
our translation. Hence, one possible translation is “the
product of 4 and a number plus 5” Another possible
translation could be “four times a number increased by 5”.
Example 3: Translate y2 ≤ 2 into a verbal expression.
Solution: y represents a certain number. Thus, we can Thus, x + 2 = 4 if x = 2.
translate it as “a number”. Meanwhile, y2 means that we Example 2: Evaluate 5x + y if x = 2 and y = 0
squared that number. Hence, y2 can be translated as “the
square of a number”. Solution: We just substitute 2 for x and 0 for y in 5x +
y. Take note that 5x is multiplication between 5 and x.
Thus, once you substitute 2 for x, you will have 5(2) how to perform operations with integers, fractions, or
which implies “5 times 2”. decimals since variables can represent these numbers.
Example 4: Evaluate 8a – 3b if a = ½ and b = – 2
Solution: Let us plug in the values of a and b to the given
algebraic expression.
Hence, the answer is 10. Performing the operations involved:

There are instances that when you are evaluating an
algebraic expression, there is more than one mathematical
operation involved. In this case, to be able to perform the
computation, apply the order of operations or PEMDAS.
Example 3: Evaluate 2x – 3(y + z) if x = 10, y = 1, and z =
3
Solution: Plug in the assigned values for x, y, and z in the
given algebraic expression:
 Laws of Exponents
What is an exponent?
An exponent is a small number that is written on the upper
right of another number (or variable) which is called the
Since, there are multiple operations involved, let use apply base. It tells you that the base is raised to the power of the
PEMDAS: exponent.
For example, in 52, the small number (which is 2) written

above and on the right of 5 is the exponent. Meanwhile,
Therefore, the answer is 8.
the number that is written much larger (which is 5) is the
Also, there are instances where the assigned values to the base. The exponent tells us that the base, which is 5, is
variables are any real numbers and not just whole raised to the power of 2.
numbers. Thus, it is important that you still remember
Computing Whole Numbers with Exponents
The exponent indicates how many times the base will be
multiplied by itself. Thus, in 52, the exponent of 2 tells
you that 5 is multiplied by itself two times.
Hence, to compute -22, you first need to start computing

for 22.
22 = 4
Hence, 52 = 25. Afterward, multiply 4 by – 1:
Example 1: Compute 35 -22 = – 4
Solution: The exponent of 5 tells us that 3 is multiplied by On the other hand, if we put a negative number inside a
itself five times. parenthesis, it means that we are raising the number
together with the negative sign to the exponent.
For example, suppose we want to compute for (- 2)2. This
means that – 2 is being raised to two.
Thus, to compute (- 2)2, we just multiply – 2 to itself two
times:
Therefore, 35 = 243
To generalize, given am where a and m are both real
numbers, it means that a is multiplied to itself m times.
So far, we have tried to calculate numbers with exponents.
However, all of our examples have positive bases. In our
next section, let us discuss how to compute exponents of
negative bases. Thus, (- 2)2 = 4.
From the computations we have performed above, we can
conclude that -22 ≠ (- 2)2
Computing Negative Numbers with Exponents
Thus, a question that requires computing a negative
Let’s say we want to compute -22. This means that only 2 number raised to an exponent may come in two forms.
is being raised to the power of 2 and not -2. We can also Here’s how to solve each of them:
interpret -22 as – 1 x 22
Case 1: To compute –ab where a and b represent certain
Note that by applying the order of operations (PEMDAS), real numbers, we evaluate ab first then multiply the result
you need to perform exponents first before multiplication. by – 1.
Case 2: To compute (- a)b where a and b represent certain
real numbers, we multiply –a to itself b times.
Example 1: What is the value of -94?
Solution: -94 is an example of Case 1. To compute for - Solution: The exponent in k5 tells us that the variable k is
94, we need to calculate 94 first. Afterward, multiply the being multiplied by itself 5 times. Thus, the expanded
result by -1: form of k5 is:
k5 = k ∙ k ∙ k ∙ k ∙ k
Example 2: Express u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u in exponential form.
Solution: Note that the variable u is used six times. Hence,
we must use an exponent of 6. Thus:
u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u ∙ u = u6
Variables with Coefficients

Take a look at this algebraic expression: 5m3
Example 2: What is the value of (- 9)4? Recall that 5 is the numerical coefficient of m3 since it is a
number multiplied by a variable.
Solution: Since – 9 is inside the parentheses, it indicates
that – 9 is what is being raised to the power of 4. Thus, we Now, what does the exponent of 3 tell us in 5m3? What is
need to multiply – 9 to itself four times. the base of that exponent?
If you look closely at 5m3, the variable m is the only one
raised to the power of 3, and 5 is not included. Hence, the
base of the exponent 3 in 5m3 is m only and not 5m.
Thus 5m3 means 5(m ∙ m ∙ m)
Now take a look at this algebraic expression: (5m)3
What does the exponent of 3 tell us in (5m)3? What is the
base of that exponent?
This time, the base is 5m. It means that 5m is being
multiplied by itself three times.
Thus, (5m)3 means 5m ∙ 5m ∙ 5m
As a preview of what we have done above:
Variables Raised to an Exponent
5m3 = 5(m ∙ m ∙ m)
When a variable has an exponent, it means that the
variable is raised to a certain power. The exponent of the In this case, the numerical coefficient is not included in
variable tells you how many times the variable is being the base of the exponent.
multiplied by itself.
(5m)3 = 5m ∙ 5m ∙ 5m
For instance, what does m3 mean?
In this case, the numerical coefficient is included in the
The exponent in m3 tells us that the variable m is raised to base of the exponent.
the power of 3. In other words, it tells us that m is being
multiplied by itself 3 times. When expanding a coefficient and variable raised to an
exponent, check first what is the base of the exponent.
m3 = m ⋅ m ∙ m Determine whether the coefficient is included in the base
of the exponent or not.
Note: The solid dot as shown above is one of the
alternative ways to express multiplication. Example 1: Write -3x5 in expanded form.
Example 1: Write k5 in expanded form.
Solution: The variable x is the only one raised to the Product Rule: When multiplying exponential expressions
power of 5. Thus, only the variable x is the base of that have the same base, copy the common base and add
exponent 5 in the given, and -3 is not included. the exponents.
Thus, -3x5 = -3(x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x)
Example 2: Write (-3x)5 in expanded form.
Solution: The existence of the parentheses indicates that
both the -3 and x in -3x are raised to the power of 5. Thus,
-3x is the base of exponent 5.
In other words, (-3x)5 = -3x ∙ –3x ∙ -3x ∙ –3x ∙ -3x Thus, when multiplying expressions with the same base,
you do not have to expand the given expressions to
determine the answer. Just apply the product rule.
Laws of Exponents
Keep in mind that you cannot apply the product rule if the
There are a lot of computations involving exponents that given bases are not the same. For example, if you are
you will encounter as you study algebra. However, there going to multiply a2 by p3, you cannot apply the product
are laws or certain rules that must be observed so you can rule since the given bases are not the same.
perform these computations correctly. These laws are
referred to as the Laws of Exponents. Example 1: Compute for 24 ∙ 22
Let us discuss these laws in this section one by one. Solution: We have expressions with the same bases (i.e.,
2) being multiplied together. Thus, we can apply the
1. Product Rule product rule.
Suppose we want to multiply x2 by x4. Note Let us copy the common base first:
that x2 and x4 have the same base. How can we multiply
them?
One possible method is to expand x2 and x4:
x2 = x ∙ x
x4 = x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x Then, add the exponents:
Multiplying the expanded values:

x2 ∙ x4
(x ∙ x) ∙ ( x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x)
Note that we can express the product of the expanded
values into exponential form:
(x ∙ x) ∙ ( x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x) = x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x ∙ x = x6
Therefore, x2 ∙ x4 = x6
What have you noticed? Have you noticed a relationship Thus, using the product rule: 24 ∙ 22 = 26
between the exponents in x2 ∙ x4 = x6?
Example 2: Multiply b5 by b3
Yes, the exponent in x6 is just the sum of the exponents
Solution: Since we have the same bases being multiplied
of x2 and x4.
together, we can apply the product rule:
You have now an idea of what the first law of exponent is
Let us copy the common base first:
all about. That is,
Then, add the exponents:
Therefore, (x + 5)6 ∙ (x + 5)3 = (x + 5)9

Example 5: Compute for a(a2)
Therefore, using the product rule: b5 ∙ b3 = b8
Solution: If two variables are written together with the
Example 3: Multiply a3b2 by a2b4 other one enclosed in parentheses, it implies that the
Solution: We have two bases involved here, the variables are being multiplied. Since we have a common
variables a and b. base in the given (which is a), we can apply the product
rule here.
Thus, we need to apply the product rule, each for a and b:
Note that if a number or a variable has no exponent
Let us copy the common bases first: written above it, it implies that the exponent is 1.
Add the exponents for the common bases.
Add the exponents:
Hence, a3b2 ∙ a2b4 = a5b6

Example 4: Multiply (x + 5)6 by (x + 5)3
Therefore, a(a2) = a3
Solution: In this case, the common base is x + 5. Hence,
we can apply the product rule.
2. Quotient Rule
The Quotient Rule is the opposite of the Product Rule.
It states that if you divide exponential expressions with the
same base, you can just simply copy the common base
then subtract the exponents.
Add the exponents:

Example 1: Compute for x7 ÷ x3
Solution: Since we are dividing exponential expressions
with the same base, we can apply the quotient rule. Finally, subtract the exponents:
Subtract the exponents:
Therefore, x9⁄x4= x5
Example 3: Simplify p8q2⁄p6q
Solution: We have two bases involved: the
variables p and q. Thus, we will use the quotient rule for
the variables p and q.
Therefore, x7 ÷ x3 = x4
Copying the common bases:
Example 2: Simplify x9⁄x4
Solution: x9⁄x4 also means x9 ÷ x4. Since we are dividing
exponential expressions with the same base, we can apply
the quotient rule.
Let us start by copying the common base:
Finally, subtract the exponents for each of the common

bases.
Tip: We can express a multiple of 10 into exponential
form quickly by counting the number of zeros it has. For
example, 1 000 000 000 has 9 zeros. Thus, if we express 1
000 000 000 in exponential form, we can determine the
exponent to be used based on the number of zeros it has.
Therefore 1 000 000 000 = 109
3. Power Rule
Imagine a number raised to an exponent, then it’s raised to
Hence, p8q2⁄p6q = p2q another exponent. What do you think will happen?
Example 4: Divide 1 000 000 000 by 1 000 000 Suppose we have b2 and we want to raise it, say to the
Solution: Note that we can express 1 000 000 000 as 109. power of 3. This will give us (b2)3
On the other hand, we can express 1 000 000 as 106. Can we express (b2)3 using a single exponent only? The
Therefore, we can answer the problem by dividing 109 by power rule states that we can!
106.
The power rule states that if a number is raised to an
Since we have a common base (which is 10), we can apply exponent and then all raised to another exponent, you can
the quotient rule: combine the exponents into one by multiplying them.
Example 1: Simplify (k4)2

Solution: Notice that the entire k4 is raised to 2. Applying
the power rule, we can combine the exponents into one by
multiplying them. Thus,
Then, subtract the exponents:
(k4)2 = k4 × 2 = k8
Therefore, (k4)2 = k8
Example 2: What is the value of (32)3?
Solution: Applying the product rule:
(32)3 = 32 ×3 = 36
Now, all we need to do next is expand 36:
3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 = 729
Therefore, (32)3 = 729
Example 3: Simplify (a5)2
Therefore, the answer is 103 or 1000. Solution: Applying the product rule:
(a5)2 = a5 × 2 = a10 To further simplify the expression, we can apply the
product rule to each variable:
Therefore, (a5)2 = a10
(a4)3 (b3)3 = a4 × 3 b3 × 3 = a12b9
Example 4: Simplify (8y5)2
Hence, (a4b3)3 = a12b9
Solution: Note that the base of the exponent 2 is 8y5. This
means that we need to apply the power rule both for 8 and Example 3: Simplify (4a3b2)2
y5:
Solution: Let us apply the power of the product rule to
(8y5)2 = 82y5 × 2 = 82y10 simplify the given expression. Note that we should also
raise 4 to the power of 2:
Since 82 = 8 ∙ 8 = 64, then 82y10 = 64y10
(4a3b2)2 = (4)2 (a3)2 (b2)2
Therefore, (8y5)2 = 64y10
Now, we apply the product rule to each variable:
(4)2(a6)(b4)
4. Power of a Product Rule
Lastly, since 42 = 16:
If an expression has more than one variable multiplied
together and raised to a certain power, we can simplify 16a6b4
that expression using the power of the product rule. This
Therefore, (4a3b2)2 = 16a6b4
rule allows us to raise the variables involved in the
multiplication process to the given exponent.
5. Power of a Quotient Rule

The power of the quotient rule is the opposite of the
previous rule. It tells us that if variables are divided
together and raised to a certain power, we can simplify the
expression using the power of the quotient rule.
Example 1: Simplify (xy)2

Solution: The given expression has two variables
multiplied together (which is xy) and raised to the power
of 2. This means that we can simplify it using the power
of a product rule.
The power of the product rule allows us to “distribute” the Suppose we have the expression m⁄n and we want to raise
exponent to each variable: it to the power of 3: (m⁄n)3
(x y)2 = (x2)(y2) Since we have two variables (m and n) divided together

and raised to a certain power, we can apply the power of
Therefore, (xy)2 = x2 y2 the quotient rule:
Example 2: Simplify (a4b3)3 This rule allows us to raise the variables involved in the
division process to the given exponent.
Solution: Let us apply the power of the product rule to
simplify the given expression. (m⁄n)3 = (m3⁄n3)
We start by “distributing” 3 to each of the variables: Example 1: Apply the power of the quotient rule to (x⁄y)2
(a4b3)3 = (a4)3 (b3)3 Solution: Through the power of the quotient rule, we can
distribute the exponent to the variables involved in the
division process:
The Zero-Exponent Rule states that any nonzero base
raised to 0 is equal to 1.
Therefore, using the power of the quotient rule, (x⁄y)2 =
x2⁄y2 Example 1: Suppose that m ≠ 0, what is the value of m0?
Example 2: Simplify (a4⁄b2)2 Solution: By the zero-exponent rule, m0 = 1.
Solution: Since we have two variables (a4 and b2) divided Example 2: What is the value of 1090?
together and raised to a certain power, we can apply the Solution: By the zero-exponent rule, 1090 = 1
power of the quotient rule:
Example 3: Simplify 15x0
Solution: We know that by the zero-exponent rule, x0 = 1.
Take note that x0 is multiplied by 15 in 15x0. Since x0 =
1:
Notice that we can simplify the expression further using

the product rule:
Hence, 15x0 = 15
Example 4: Simplify a0b2c
Solution: By the zero-exponent rule, a0 = 1. Since a0 is
multiplied to b2c in the given expression a0b2c:
Therefore, (a4⁄b2)2 = a8⁄b4
6. Zero-Exponent Rule
What happens if you raise a number or a variable to the
power of zero?
The zero-exponent rule tells us that the result will be 1.
Hence, a0b2c = b2c Solution: Using the negative exponent rule, we can
express y-1 as 1⁄y which has no negative exponent
involved.
7. Negative Exponent Rule
Thus, the answer is 1⁄y.
The negative exponent rule states that if a base is raised to
Example 3: Express a2b-3c without a negative exponent.
a negative number, the base should be put to the
denominator and the given negative exponent changed Solution: We can apply the negative exponent rule to
into a positive exponent. express a2b-3c without a negative exponent. However,
since b– 3 is the only base raised to a negative exponent,
then we can only apply the negative exponent rule to b-
3 and it is the only base that we are going to put in the
denominator.
Let’s apply the negative exponent rule to 2-2. Using the

rule, we can put the base (which is 2) to the denominator.
Note that the denominator of 2-2 is 1. Once we put the
base into the denominator, we can change the negative Therefore, a2b-3c can be written without a negative
exponent into a positive exponent. exponent as a2c⁄b3
Laws of Exponents Summary

We are now done discussing the mathematical rules that
govern the exponential expressions. As a recap, here’s a
table that summarizes the laws of exponents.
Therefore, 2-2 = ¼
Let us take a look at the given examples below to further
understand this rule:
Example 1: What is the value of 5-3?
Solution: Using the negative exponent rule, we can Simplifying Exponential Expressions Using the Laws of
express 5-3 as 1⁄53. Note that we can expand 53 as 5 x 5 x Exponents
5 and obtain 125. Therefore, 5-3 = 1⁄125 An exponential expression is simplified if there are fewer
Example 2: Express y-1 as an expression without a terms and exponents involved. Furthermore, a simplified
negative exponent. exponential expression has positive exponents.
As we simplify various exponential expressions, we have
to apply different laws of exponents that we have
discussed above.
Example 1: Simplify 5p0q-2
We can simplify the expression further using the product
Solution: We can simplify the given expression by making
rule since we are multiplying the same bases:
all of its exponents positive.
Let us start by applying the zero-exponent rule:
5p0q-2
5(1)q-2 (since p0 = 1)
5q-2
We can then remove the negative exponent using the
negative exponent Rule:
5q-2
5⁄q2
 Polynomials
Thus, the answer is 5⁄q2
Example 2: Simplify (a4⁄a2)2
What are polynomials?
Solution 1: Note that we can distribute the exponent 2
which is outside the parentheses to the bases that are A polynomial is an algebraic expression where the
inside the parentheses using the power of the quotient exponents of its variables are whole numbers.
rule:
(a4⁄a2)2 = a4 × 2⁄a2 × 2 = a8⁄a4
Since we are dividing the same bases, we can apply the
quotient rule:
a8⁄a4 = a8 – 4 = a4
As you may recall, whole numbers are positive counting
Therefore, (a4⁄a2)2 = a4
numbers including 0. Thus, the exponents in the variables
You can also simplify the given expression using the of a polynomial are all positive counting numbers or 0. If
alternative solution below. a variable has an exponent of 0, this means that the
variable is a constant.
Solution 2: This time, let us start applying the quotient
rule since we are dividing the same bases: 3x4 + 2x3 – x2y + 3 is an example of a polynomial since
all of the exponents of the variables are whole numbers.
(a4⁄a2)2 = (a4 – 2)2 = (a2)2
Notice that we can apply now the power rule since (a2)2 is
an expression raised to an exponent then raised to another What expressions are NOT polynomials?
exponent.
Now that you know what polynomials are, it is also
(a2)2 = a2 × 2 = a4 important to know what makes an expression non-
polynomial. Here’s a list of algebraic expressions that are
Example 3: Simplify [(x + y)2(x + y)3]-1 not considered polynomials:
Solution: We can start by making the negative exponent 1. Expressions with fractional or decimal exponents in the
positive. To do this, put the base into the denominator variable are not polynomials
(negative exponent rule). The base in the given expression
is the entire (x + y)2(x + y)3
For example, 4x1/2 + 2y3 is not a polynomial since one of As an example, let’s consider the expression √x – y. Since
its variables, which is x, has a fractional exponent of ½. it has a variable (which is x) that is under the radical sign,
then √x – y is not a polynomial.
2. Expressions with negative exponents in the variable are
not polynomials How about √2 + x? Is this a polynomial?
For example, 2a-3b – 5a2b3 + ab is not a polynomial since Look at the radical sign. Note that 2 is inside the radical
one of its variables, which is a, has a negative exponent sign. 2 is a constant and not a variable. Thus, we can
which is – 3. consider √2 + x as a polynomial.
3. Expressions with variables in the denominator are not
polynomials
Terms of a Polynomial
For example, 3x – 2⁄y is not a polynomial since it has a
A term in a polynomial consists of a number multiplied by
variable (which is y) in the denominator.
a variable with a whole number exponent. The constant
How about x + y⁄2? Is this a polynomial? part is also a term of the polynomial.
Although 2 is the denominator, 2 is not a variable. This
means that x + y⁄2 can be considered a polynomial since it
has no variable in the denominator.
Why does a variable in the denominator disqualify an
algebraic expression as a polynomial?
As per the negative exponent rule, if a variable is raised to
a negative exponent, we should put that variable in the
denominator so that the variable will now have a positive
exponent.
The name polynomial comes from “poly” (Greek) which
means many and “nomen” (Latin) which means name (in
this case “term”). This means that a polynomial consists of
different terms.
The terms in a polynomial are separated by addition or
subtraction signs.
Take for example the polynomial 9x2 + 36xy + 4y2 +
3. The terms in this polynomial are 9x2, 36xy, 4y2, and 3.
Notice that these terms are separated by addition signs.
If a variable is in the denominator, then it implies that Example: Determine the terms in 3x2 + 5y – 2xz
before the negative exponent rule was applied, the
Solution: The terms in the given polynomials are 3x2, 5y,
variable had a negative exponent in the numerator.
and 2xz.
We know that a negative exponent in the variable makes
Like Terms
an expression a non-polynomial. This is the reason why
variables in the denominator make an expression non- Two or more terms are like terms if their variables and
polynomial. exponents (of the variables) are the same. The numerical
coefficient of like terms can be different.
4. Expressions with variables under the radical sign are
not polynomials For example, 5y2 and 3y2 are like terms because these
terms have the same variable (y) and their exponents are
Square root (√) and cube root (∛) are some of the
the same (which is 2).
examples of radical signs.
On the other hand, 7x2 and 5a2 are not like terms because
these terms have different variables.
Also, 5x2 and 5x3 are not like terms because even if the We can classify polynomials according to the number of
variables of these terms are the same, the exponents are terms they have or according to their degree.
different.
1. Types of polynomials according to the number of terms
Example 1: Are 2xz and 5xz like terms?
Solution: Yes, because these terms have the same
variables (which are x and z).
Example 2: Which of the following does not belong to the
group of like terms: 5a2b, -4a2b, 3a2b2, and 9a2b.
Solution: 3a2b2 does not belong to the group because it
has a different exponent for its variable b.
Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a polynomial is the highest exponent of the
variable of a polynomial.
Example: What is the degree of the polynomial 3k7 –

5k2 + k – 9? If we are going to base the classification of a polynomial
based on its degree, the polynomial could be a constant,
Solution: The highest exponent of the variable in the linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, or quintic.
polynomial is 7. Thus, the degree of the polynomial is 7.
Constant – a polynomial with a degree of 0. For example,
If a polynomial has more than one variable, we add the the classification of 9 according to its degree is constant
exponents on each term and the highest resulting sum is since the highest exponent it has is 0. Note that we can
the degree of the polynomial. express 9 as 9x0 .
Linear – a polynomial with a degree of 1. For example, x
+ y is linear since the highest exponent of its variables is
1. Also, 3x + 9 is linear since its largest exponent of the
variable is 1.
Quadratic – a polynomial with a degree of 2. For example,
x2 + 2x + 1 is quadratic since the highest exponent of its
variable is 2.
Cubic – a polynomial with a degree of 3. For example,
x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is cubic since the highest exponent of
its variable is 3.
Types of Polynomials
Quartic – a polynomial with a degree of 4. For example, Arrange the given polynomials in standard form
x4 + 4x2 + 8x + 2 is quartic since the highest exponent of
Place the like terms of the given polynomials in columns
its variable is 4.
Add the like terms
Quintic – a polynomial with a degree of 5. For example,
x5 + 5x3 + 8x2 + 2x – 3 is quantic since the highest Example 1: Add 5x2 + 3x + 2 and 2x2 + x – 1
exponent of its variable is 5.
Solution:
Step 1: Arrange the given polynomials in standard form.
Standard Form of a Polynomial Note that the given polynomials are already written in
standard form since the exponents of their variables are in
A polynomial is written in its standard form if the terms of
decreasing order. Hence, we can skip this step.
the polynomial are arranged in a manner where the
exponents of the variable are decreasing. In other words, Step 2: Place like terms of the given polynomials in
the terms are written in a decreasing power of the columns. Recall that the terms of given polynomials are
variables. like terms if the variables and the exponents of these
variables are the same. Recall also that the numerical
coefficients of like terms can be different.
If we express a polynomial in its standard form, the first

term of that polynomial is called the leading term. Thus,
Step 3: Add the like terms. To add like terms, we just add
the leading term is the term of the polynomial with the
the numerical coefficients and then copy the common
highest exponent.
variable and the exponent of it.
Example 1: Write 8y2 + y3 – 4y + y5 in standard form.
Solution: We just write the terms of the polynomial in a
manner such that the exponents of the variables are in
decreasing order. Thus, the standard form of the given
polynomial is y5 + y3 + 8y2 – 4y.
Example 2: What is the leading term of 5z8 + 2z + z7 – 2?
Solution: To determine the leading term of this Thus, the answer is 7x2 + 4x + 1.
polynomial, we should write it first in standard form. If we
express the polynomial in standard form, we have 5z8 + Example 2: What is the sum if you add y2 – 2z + x3 , 5z –
z7 + 2z – 2. The first term of this polynomial in standard 3y + x2 , and 2x3 + 5y2?
form is 5z8. Therefore, 5z8 is the leading term. Solution:
Step 1: Arrange the given polynomials in standard form. If
Operations on Polynomials we arrange the given polynomials into standard form, we
will have the following:
In this section, we are going to discuss how to perform the
four fundamental operations on polynomials. x3 + y2 – 2z
1. Addition of Polynomials x2 – 3y + 5z
To learn how to add polynomials, follow the steps below: 2x3 + 5y2
Step 2: Place the like terms of the given polynomials in
columns.
The answer is -7x2y + 72xy – y + 8.

Step 3: Add the like terms.
2. Subtraction of Polynomials
To know how to subtract polynomials, follow these steps:
Write the given polynomials in standard form
Change the sign into addition and reverse the sign of each
term of the subtrahend (or the second polynomial)
Add the polynomials
Therefore, the sum is 3x3 + x2 + 6y2 – 3y + 2z Example 1: Subtract 8x2 – 2x + 1 by 2x2 – 5x – 7
Example 3: Add 62xy – 5x2y + 3 by -2x2y + 10xy – y + 5 Solution:
Solution: Step 1: Write the given polynomials in standard form. The

given polynomials are already in standard form since their
Step 1: Arrange the given polynomials in standard form. If terms are already arranged based on the decreasing
we arrange the given polynomials into standard form, we exponent of the variables.
will have the following:
Step 2: Change the sign into addition and reverse the sign
-5x2y + 62xy + 3 of each term of the subtrahend (or the second polynomial).
-2x2y + 10xy – y + 5 The subtrahend in the given problem is 2x2 – 5x – 7. If we
reverse the sign of each term of this polynomial, we have -
Step 2: Place the like terms of the given polynomials in 2x2 + 5x + 7.
columns.
Step 3: Add the like terms. Do not forget the rules

on operations on integers when dealing with signed Step 3: Add the polynomials. We are now going to add
numbers. 8x2 – 2x + 1 to the polynomial we have obtained from
step 2:
3. Multiplication of Polynomials
When we multiply polynomials, we apply the distributive
property of multiplication over addition (or simply
distributive property). Before we start discussing how to
multiply polynomials, let’s take a look first at what the
distributive property is.
The distributive property tells us that multiplying the sum
of two or more addends by a certain number is equal to the
result when we multiply each addend by the same number.
Hence, the answer is 6x2 + 3x + 8. In symbols,
Example 2: What is the difference between 7x5 – 5y + a(b + c) = ab + ac
z2 and 5x3 + 2x5 – 6x – 2z2?
It looks like we distribute a to the addends b and c.
Solution:
Example: Compute for 4(5 + 9).
Step 1: Write the given polynomials into standard form. If
we arrange the given polynomials into standard form, we Solution: If we use PEMDAS, we will obtain the
will obtain the following: following:
7x5 + z2 – 5y 4(5 + 9)
2x5 + 5x3 – 2z2 – 6x 4 (14)
Step 2: Change the sign into addition and reverse the sign 56
of each term of the subtrahend (or the second polynomial). Thus, 4(5 + 9) = 56.
If we reverse the signs of each term of the second
polynomial, we will obtain: -2x5 – 5x3 + 2z2 + 6x Now, let’s try to apply the distributive property:
4(5 + 9) = 4(5) + 4(9) = 20 + 36 = 56
Thus, by applying the distributive property, we obtain the
following: 4(5 + 9) = 56.
Keep in mind the concept of distributive property because
we will apply this a lot when multiplying polynomials.
a. Multiplying a Polynomial by a Monomial
Let us start with the simplest one: How should we
Step 3: Add the polynomials. We are now going to add multiply a polynomial by a monomial?
7x5 + z2 – 5y to the polynomial we have obtained from
Suppose we have the polynomial 5x2 + 3x – 1 and we
step 2:
want to multiply it by a monomial like 2x.
Let us express our problem above as a mathematical
sentence:
(5x2 + 3x – 1)(2x)
Since multiplication is commutative (changing the
position of numbers in a multiplication process will not
change the result), we can express it as:
Hence, the answer is 5x5 – 5x3 + 3z2 + 6x – 5y (2x)(5x2 + 3x – 1)

Take a look at our mathematical sentence above. Notice
that we are multiplying a certain quantity (2x) to a sum of
addends (5x2 + 3x – 1). This means that we can apply the 3p2 + 2p – 1 and we can also distribute the second term of
distributive property. the binomial which is 1 to the same polynomial (i.e.,
3p2 + 2p – 1).
Applying the distributive property:
After we have distributed the terms of the binomial to the

After we “distribute” 2x to the addends, we will perform addends of the polynomial, we can apply again the
multiplication. Take note that we apply the laws of distributive property:
exponents (the product rule, in particular) when we
multiply the same variables.
Perform multiplication to each term and apply the product

rule.
Therefore, (2x)(5x2 + 3x – 1) = 10x3 + 6x2 – 2x
Example: Multiply 8ab + 2a – 3c by 4ab
Solution: We have (4ab)(8ab + 2a – 3c). Applying the
distributive property:
(4ab)(8ab) +(4ab)(2a) – (4ab)(3c)
Performing multiplication to each terms:
32a2b2 + 8a2b – 12abc Note that we can combine some of the like terms of the
Therefore, the answer is 32a2b2 + 8a2b – 12abc resulting polynomial:
b. Multiplying a Polynomial by a Binomial

Suppose we have the polynomial 3p2 + 2p – 1 and we
want it to be multiplied by a binomial such as 2p + 1. How
can we multiply these expressions?
If we can express our given problem as a mathematical
sentence, we have:
(2p + 1)(3p2 + 2p – 1)
In this case, we can apply the distributive property. We
Therefore, the answer is 6p3 + 7p2 – 1
can distribute the first term of the binomial which is 2p to
Example: Multiply 5a2 – 3ab + 2 by a – 2b
Solution: We have: (a – 2b)(5a2 – 3ab + 2). Distributing
each terms of the binomial to the polynomial:
a(5a2 – 3ab + 2) – 2b(5a2 – 3ab + 2)
[a(5a2) – a(3ab) + a(2)] – [2b(5a2) – 2b(3ab) + 2b(2)]
Multiplying each terms:
[5a3 – 3a2b + 2a] – [10a2b – 6ab2 + 4b] Putting together the terms and combining like terms:
We can rewrite the expression above as:

[5a3 – 3a2b + 2a] + [-10a2b + 6ab2 – 4b]
Combining like terms:
5a3 – 13a2b + 6ab2 + 2a – 4b
Therefore, the answer is 5a3 – 13a2b – 6ab2 + 2a – 4b
c. Multiplying a Polynomial by Another Polynomial
You have learned how to multiply a polynomial by a Therefore, the answer is 3a5 + 2a4 – 13a3 – 5a2 + 6a – 1.
monomial or a binomial in the previous sections of this
reviewer. Recall that we just applied the distributive Example 2: Multiply 5x2y + y + 2 by y2 + 3x – 1
property to multiply these expressions. Using the same Solution: Expressing the mathematical problem above as a
technique, you can also multiply a polynomial by another mathematical sentence, we have:
polynomial.
(5x2y + y + 2)(y2 + 3x – 1)
To multiply a polynomial by another polynomial, simply
multiply each term of one polynomial by each term of the We multiply each term of 5x2y + y + 2 to y2 + 3x – 1:
other polynomial and then combine like terms of the
5x2y(y2 + 3x – 1) + y(y2 + 3x – 1) + 2(y2 + 3x – 1)
resulting polynomial.
Example 1: Multiply 3a2 + 2a – 1 by a3 – 4a + 1.
5x2y(y2 + 3x – 1) + y(y2 + 3x – 1) + 2(y2 + 3x – 1)
Solution: Expressing the mathematical problem above as a
mathematical sentence, we have: (5x2y3 + 15x3y – 5x2y) + (y3 + 3xy – y) + (2y2 + 6x
– 2)
(3a2 + 2a – 1)(a3 – 4a + 1)
Combining like terms and writing the resulting
We then multiply each term of 3a2 + 2a – 1 to a3 – 4a + 1
polynomial in standard form:
(5x2y3 + 15x3y – 5x2y) + (y3 + 3xy – y) + (2y2 + 6x – 2)
5x2y3 + 15x3y – 5x2y + y3 + 2y2 + 3xy + 6x – y – 2
Therefore the answer is 5x2y3 + 15x3y – 5x2y + y3 +
2y2 + 3xy + 6x – y – 2
In the next chapter, we are going to discuss different
techniques to multiply polynomials under different
conditions. We call these techniques “special products”.
This includes multiplying a binomial by another binomial,
Applying the principle of distributive property: squaring a binomial, cubing a binomial, and so on.
4. Division of Polynomials
To divide polynomials, we use the long division method.
This method allows us to use the division brackets which
we also use when we divide whole numbers.
Suppose we want to divide 25x2 + 10x – 15 by 5x + 5
25x2 + 10x – 15 ÷ (5x + 5)
We bring down – 15 to create a new polynomial.
The first thing we have to do is put 25x2 + 10x – 15
inside the division bracket and then put 5x + 5 outside of
it.
We repeat the things we performed above.
Next, we divide the first term of the polynomial inside the

division bracket by the first term of the polynomial
outside the division bracket. To perform this, we apply
the quotient rule. We put the result above the bracket and
align it to the first term of the polynomial inside the
bracket.
We divide 25x2 by 5x and obtain 5x. We then put this
answer (i.e., 5x) above the division bracket, making sure
it’s aligned to the first term of the dividend.
Hence, the answer is 5x – 3.
 Special Products and Factoring
Part I: Special Products

What are special products?
Then, we multiply the divisor by the answer we obtained Special products are the result when we multiply
earlier and subtract the answer from the dividend. polynomials in some special cases which include:
This means that we multiply 5x + 5 by 5x to obtain 25x2 + Multiplying a binomial by another binomial (FOIL
25x. We then subtract 25x2 + 25x from 25x2 + 10x to method)
obtain -15x.
Squaring a binomial (multiplying a binomial by itself)
Difference of two squares (multiplying binomials with the
same terms but with opposite signs)
Cubing a binomial (multiplying a binomial to itself thrice) Step 1: Multiply the first terms of the binomials. The first
terms of the binomials are both x. Hence, x times x is
Don’t worry if you cannot grasp now what each case
equal to x2.
means. As we go along with this reviewer, you’ll
gradually understand what these cases are.
You might also notice that special products seem to be
exclusive for binomials. Actually, there are also special
products with trinomials. However, we will be focusing
only on the special cases above since these are the ones
that are usually applied in algebra, such as when solving
quadratic equations and simplifying rational algebraic
expressions.
Special Cases Resulting in Special Products Step 2: Multiply the outer terms of the binomials. The
1. Multiplying a binomial by another binomial (FOIL outer terms are the first term of the first binomial and the
Method) last term of the second binomial. That is, x times 2 is
equal to 2x.
Let us start with the first special case. This case involves
multiplying a binomial by another binomial.
You have learned from the previous chapter that we can
apply the distributive property to multiply these binomials.
However, the FOIL method provides us with an easier
way to multiply binomials.
FOIL stands for First Terms, Outer Terms, Inner terms,
and Last terms. The FOIL method is a technique used to
multiply two binomials.
How to use the FOIL method in 5 steps. Step 3: Multiply the inner terms of the binomials. The
inner terms are the second term of the first binomial and
Multiply the first terms of the binomials.
the first term of the second binomial. That is, 3 times x is
Multiply the outer terms of the binomials. equal to 3x.
Multiply the inner terms of the binomials.

Multiply the last terms of the binomials.
Combine like terms.
Step 4: Multiply the last terms of the binomials. The last

terms of (x + 3) and (x + 2) are 3 and 2 respectively. Thus,
3x2=6
Example 1: Compute for (x + 3)(x + 2).

Solution: Let us use the FOIL method to compute for (x +
3)(x + 2).
Step 3: Multiply the inner terms of the binomials
Step 5: Combine like terms. So far, we have obtained x2 +
2x + 3x + 6. Note that we can combine 2x and 3x since
they are like terms.
Step 4: Multiply the last terms of the binomials
Therefore, using the FOIL method, (x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 +

5x + 6
Example 2: Use the FOIL method to multiply (3x – 1) by
(x + 7)
Solution:
Step 1: Multiply the first terms of the binomials
Step 5: Combine like terms
Hence, using the FOIL method, (3x – 1)(x + 7) = 3x2 +

Step 2: Multiply the outer terms of the binomials
20x – 7.
2. Squaring a binomial
In the previous section, you have learned how to multiply 3x. Afterward, we multiply the result by 2. Therefore, we
a binomial by another binomial. How about if we multiply have 6x.
a binomial by itself?
Step 3: Square the last term of the binomial. The last term
If we multiply a binomial by itself, we obtain the square of of the binomial is 3 and its square is equal to 32 = 9.
that binomial. For instance, if we multiply (x + 3) to itself,
Step 4: Combine the results you have obtained from Step
we have this mathematical sentence:
1 to Step 3. Combining the results we have obtained from
(x + 3)(x + 3) the first three steps, we have x2 + 6x + 9
We can also express (x + 3)(x + 3) as (x + 3)2. (x + 3)2 is Therefore, (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
the square of (x + 3).
We have stated earlier that squaring binomial leads to a
Now, what is (x + 3)2 or (x + 3)(x + 3) equal to? trinomial. It is important to take note that the kind of
trinomial you will obtain when you square a binomial is
You may use the FOIL method to answer this. However,
called a perfect square trinomial. x2 + 6x + 9 is an
I’ll teach you another technique to determine the square of
example of a perfect square trinomial since it was derived
a binomial.
from a square of binomial, in particular, (x + 3)2.
Take note that squaring binomial results in a trinomial. If
Example 2: Expand (p – q)2
the square of a binomial leads to a trinomial, we say that
the square of the binomial is expanded. Solution:
How to square a binomial in 4 steps.
The square of a binomial (x + y)2 is equal to x2 + 2xy +
y2.
This means that to square a binomial, you should:

Square the first term of the binomial.
Multiply the first and second term of the binomial then
multiply the product by 2.
Square the last term of the binomial.
Combine the results you have obtained from Step 1 to
Step 3.
Example 1: Expand (x + 3)2
Solution: Thus, (p – q)2 = p2 – 2pq + q2
Step 1: Square the first term of the binomial. The first Example 3: Compute for (2z – 3)(2z – 3)
term of the binomial is x. Squaring x means raising it to Solution: We can express (2z – 3)(2z – 3) as (2z – 3)2.
the power of 2. Therefore, the square of x is simply x2. This means that we can apply the steps on squaring a
Step 2: Multiply the product of the first and second term binomial to determine the answer to (2z – 3)(2z – 3).
of the binomial by 2. The first term is x while the second
term is 3. Multiplying them together, we have 3 times x or
As you practice further, you will realize that it is
manageable to square a binomial using mental calculation.
For instance, let us try to expand (2w – 3)2 mentally.
The square of the first term (i.e., 2w) is 4w2.
Multiply the first and second terms: 2w times – 3 is -6w.
Multiply -6w by 2, we have -12w.
Then, we square the last term which is -3: (-3)2 = 9
Combining what we have obtained, we have 4w2 – 12w +
9.
3. Difference of two squares

The difference between two squares is a special product
that we obtain when we multiply binomials with the same
terms but with opposite signs (i.e., one uses a
positive/addition sign while the other has a
negative/subtraction sign).
For instance, if we multiply (x + y) by (x – y), we will
obtain a difference of two squares since (x + y) and (x – y)
Thus, (2z – 3)(2z – 3) = 4z2 – 12z + 9 have the same terms (which are x and y) but opposite
signs.
Example 4: What is the product of (5x – 2)(5x – 2)?
If we multiply binomials with the same terms and one
Solution: We can express (5x – 2)(5x – 2) as (5x – binomial has an addition sign while the other has a
2)2. This means that we can apply the steps on squaring a subtraction sign, the result is just the square of the first
binomial to determine the answer to (5x – 2)(5x – 2). term minus the square of the second term, hence, the
term difference of two squares.
Example 1: Compute for (x + 3)(x – 3).

Solution: Since the binomials have the same terms but
with opposite signs, we can conclude that the result will
be a difference of two squares.
To obtain the answer, we just square the first term (which
is x) to obtain x2 and also square the second term (which
is 3) so we obtain 9.
Now, since we have concluded earlier that the result is a
difference of two squares, we just put a minus sign
Therefore, (5x – 2)(5x – 2) = 25x2 – 20x + 4 between x2 and 9.
Therefore, (x + 3)(x – 3) = x2 – 9
Example 2: What is the product of (5y – a)(5y + a)? Therefore, the answer is x2 + 2xy + y2 – 4
with opposite signs, we can conclude that the result will
4. Cubing a binomial
Whereas the square of a binomial is the product obtained
Squaring the first term: (5y)2 = 25y2
when we multiply a binomial by itself, a cube of a
Squaring the second term: (a)2 = a2 binomial is what you get when you multiply the same
binomial to itself three times.
Thus, the answer is 25y2 – a2
The cube of a binomial (x + y) can be expressed as:
Example 3: Compute for (a2 + b2)(a2 – b2)
(x + y)3 = (x + y)(x + y)(x + y)
with opposite signs, we can conclude that the result will How to cube a binomial in 5 steps
To find the cube of a binomial:
Squaring the first term: (a2)2 = a4 (take note that we apply
Cube the first term of the binomial (or raise the first term
the power rule here)
to the exponent of 3).
Squaring the second term: (b2)2 = b4
Multiply the square of the first term by the second term
Therefore, the answer is a4 – b4 then multiply the product by 3.
Example 4: Multiply (1 – 3p)(1 + 3p) Multiply the first term by the square of the second term
then multiply the product by 3.
Solution:
Cube the last term (or raise the last term to the exponent of
Squaring the first term: (1)2 = 1
3).
Squaring the second term: (-3p)2 = 9p2
Combine the results you have obtained from Step 1 – 4.
Therefore, (1 – 3p)(1 + 3p) = 1 – 9p2
You must also need to consider the operation used in the
Example 5: What is [(x + y) – 2][(x + y) + 2] in expanded binomial. If it’s addition, all of the terms of the expansion
form? are positive. On the other hand, if the operation is
subtraction, the second and the last terms are negative and
Solution: Although it seems that there are three terms the rest are positive.
involved in each expression, we can consider (x + y) as a
single term in this case since it is grouped using a In symbols,
parenthesis. Thus, we have two terms for each expression
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
and can consider them binomials.
(x – y)3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
Since the binomials have the same terms but with opposite
signs, we can conclude that the result will be a difference
of two squares.
Squaring the first term: (x + y)2
Squaring the second term: (2)2 = 4
Thus, we have (x + y)2 – 4
However, note that (x + y)2 can be expanded further since
it is a square of a binomial.
Applying the steps on squaring a binomial. We have: (x + Example 1: Expand (a + 1)3
y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
Solution:
Thus, (x + y)2 – 4 = x2 + 2xy + y2 – 4
Step 1: Cube the first term of the binomial (or raise the Since the binomial (2a – b) involves a subtraction sign, it
first term to the exponent of 3). The first term of the means that the second and the last terms of the expansion
binomial is a. Cube of a is just a3. must be negative and the remaining terms must be
positive.
Step 2: Multiply the square of the first term by the second
term then multiply the product by 3. The first term of the Therefore, the answer is 8a3 – 12a2b + 6ab2 – b3.
binomial is a and its square is a2. We multiply a2 to the
second term which is 1. Hence, a2 ✕ 1 = a2. Finally, we
multiply a2 by 3 to obtain 3a2. Part II: Factoring
Step 3: Multiply the first term by the square of the second What is factoring?
term then multiply the product by 3. The first term of the
binomial which is a must be multiplied by the square of Factoring is the process of determining the factors of a
the second term which is 1 (12 = 1). Thus, we have a ✕ 1 certain expression or polynomial. We can consider
= a. We then multiply a by 3 to obtain 3a. factoring as the reverse process of multiplying
polynomials.
Step 4: Cube the last term (or raise the last term to the
exponent of 3). The last term of the binomial is 1 and its Based on what we’ve learned from the previous chapter in
cube is just 13 = 1. Arithmetic about factors and multiples, factors are the
numbers we multiply together to obtain the product. Just
Step 5: Combine the results you have obtained from Steps like numbers, some polynomials also have factors.
1 – 4. Combining what we have obtained from Steps 1 – 4, Through factoring, we will be able to determine what
we have a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1. these factors are.
Since (a + 1)3 has the addition sign, it means that the For example, the trinomial x2 + 4x + 3 can be factored as
terms of the expansions must be all positive. (x + 1)(x + 3). Using the FOIL method, you can verify that
(x + 1)(x + 3) = x2 + 4x + 3
Therefore, (a + 1)3 = a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1.
Example 2: Expand (2a – b)3
Factoring Techniques
Solution:
There are different factoring techniques that we can use to
Let us apply the steps on how to cube a binomial:
figure out the factors of a certain polynomial. In this
Step 1: Cube the first term of the binomial (or raise the section, we will study those techniques one by one:
first term to the exponent of 3). The first term is 2a and its
1. Factoring by the Greatest Common Factor
cube is (2a)3 = 8a3.
Do you still remember the concept of the Greatest
Step 2: Multiply the square of the first term by the second
Common Factor (GCF)? In this section, we will still apply
term then multiply the product by 3. The first term is 2a
the same concept to factor polynomials.
and its square is 4a2. We multiply the latter by the second
term, which is b. Hence, 4a2 ✕ b = 4a2b . Then, we Suppose we have 3x2 and 6x. How can we determine the
multiply the product by 3: 4a2b ✕ 3 = 12a2b. GCF of these expressions?
Step 3: Multiply the first term by the square of the second We need to perform prime factorization on these
term then multiply the product by 3. The first term of the expressions. To do this, we write the numerical
binomial is 2a. We multiply 2a to the square of the second coefficients as a product of its prime factors and just write
term (the second term is b and its square is b2). Thus, 2a the variables with exponents in expanded form.
✕ b2 = 2ab2. Then, we multiply the product by 3 to give
the following result: 2ab2 ✕ 3 = 6ab2 3x2 = 3 ⋅ x ⋅ x
Step 4: Cube the last term (or raise the last term to the 6x = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ x
exponent of 3). The last term of the binomial is b, and the To find the GCF of these expressions, we just take the
cube of b is b3. common factors of the expressions and multiply them
Step 5: Combine the results you have obtained from Steps together. In our list above, note that the common factors
1–4 are 3 and x. Thus, the GCF of 3x2 and 6x is 3x.
Step 2: Obtain the common variables and write the
smallest exponent among these common variables. The
common variables between the given monomials
are x and y. The smallest exponent in x is 1 while the
smallest exponent in y is 3. Thus, we have xy3.
Step 3: Multiply what you have obtained from Steps 1 and
2. We have obtained -2 from Step 1 and xy3 from Step 2.
Thus, the GCF is -2xy3.
Example 3: What is the GCF of a4b3c and ab5c2?
Solution:
Step 1: Find the GCF of the numerical coefficients. Both
expressions have a numerical coefficient of 1. Thus, the
GCF is 1.
Step 2: Obtain the common variables and write the
a. How to Factor a Monomial Using the Greatest Common common variables are a, b, and c. The smallest exponent
Factor (GCF). of a is 1, the smallest exponent of b is 3, and the smallest
exponent of c is 1. Thus, we have ab3c.
A quicker way to determine the GCF of monomials is by
following these steps: Step 3: Multiply what you have obtained from Steps 1 and
2. We have obtained 1 from Step 1 and ab3c from Step 2.
Find the GCF of the numerical coefficients. Thus, the GCF is ab3c.
Obtain the common variables and write the smallest Now that you have an idea how to find the GCF of some
exponent among these common variables. monomials. Let us use the same technique to factor
polynomials.
Multiply what you have obtained from Steps 1 and 2. The
result is the GCF of the monomials. b. How to Factor a Polynomial Using the Greatest
Common Factor (GCF)
Example 1: Let us try the above steps to find the GCF of
35y2 and 49y3. Let us try to factor 15x2 + 3 using its GCF. Again, recall
that factoring means determining the factors of a certain
Solution:
expression.
Step 1: Find the GCF of the numerical coefficients. The
The first step is to determine the GCF of the terms of the
GCF of 35 and 49 is 7.
polynomial. The terms of 15x2 + 3 are 15x2 and 3. Thus,
Step 2: Obtain the common variables and write the we need to find the GCF of 15x2 and 3.
Using the steps we have learned earlier to find the GCF of
common variable between 35y2 and 49y3 is y. We put the
monomials (since both 15x2 and 3 are monomials), we
smallest exponent among the common variables to y.
will be able to obtain the GCF which is 3.
Notice that the smallest exponent is 2. So we put 2 as the
exponent of y. Thus, we have y2. The next step is to divide each term of the polynomial by
the GCF.
Step 3: Multiply what you have obtained from Steps 1 and
2. We have obtained 7 from Step 1 and y2 from Step 2.
Thus, the GCF is 7y2.
Example 2: What is the GCF of -16x2y3 and 2xy4z?
Solution:
Step 1: Find the GCF of the numerical coefficients. The
GCF of -16 and 2 is -2.
The GCF of the terms of the given polynomial is -3pqr.
Dividing each term of the given polynomial by -3pqr:
As you can see above, we’re able to obtain 5x2 and 1.

Combining them will give us 5x2 + 1. This means that the
GCF (which is 3) and 5x2 + 1 are the factors of 15x2 + 3.
Therefore, if we factor 15x2 + 3, we have 3(5x2 + 1). You
can verify using the distributive property that 3(5x2 + 1) =
15x2 + 3. We have obtained 7q and -3. Combining them will give us
7q – 3.
The factors that we obtained by factoring a polynomial
using the GCF are called prime factors. They are called as Thus, -21pq2r + 9pqr = –3pqr(7q – 3).
such because we cannot factor them any further. In our
previous example, 3 and 5x2 + 1 are prime factors. Example 3: Factor ab + ad
Example 1: Factor 14a2b3 – 32a3b Solution:
Solution: The GCF of the terms of the given polynomial is a.
The GCF of the terms of the given polynomial is 2a2b. If we divide each term of the polynomial by a, we will
obtain b and d respectively. Combining them will give
We divide the terms of the given polynomial by the GCF: us b + d.
Therefore, ab + ad = a(b + d).
Example 4: Factor -12x2 + 9x + 3 using the Greatest
Common Factor.
Solution:
The GCF of the terms of the given polynomial is -3.
Dividing each term of the polynomial by -3:
By dividing the terms by the GCF, we’re able to obtain

7b2 and -16a. Combining them will give us 7b2 – 16a.
This means that the GCF (which is 2a2b) and 7b2 – 16a
are the factors of 14a2b3 – 32a3b
Therefore, if we factor 14a2b3 – 32a3b, we’ll
have 2a2b(7b2 – 16a). You can verify using the
distributive property that 2a2b(7b2 – 16a) = 14a2b3 –
32a3b
Example 2: Factor -21pq2r + 9pqr
Solution: We have obtained 4x2, -3x, and -1. Combining them will
give us 4x2 -3x – 1.
Therefore, -12x2 + 9x + 3 = -3(4x2 -3x – 1). A quadratic trinomial can be obtained when we multiply
two binomials by the FOIL method. Hence, if we factor a
Factoring using the GCF is a powerful technique to
quadratic trinomial, there should be two binomials.
determine the factors of an expression. However, not
every expression is factorable this way. For instance, x2 + Here are the steps to factor a quadratic trinomial if a = 1:
6x + 9 is factorable but the GCF of its terms is 1. We
Write the binomials with the first terms as the square root
cannot use the steps we have discussed above to factor
of the leading term of the given quadratic trinomial.
x2 + 6x + 9. In the next section, we will discuss another
way to factor an expression. Think of the factors of the third term whose sum is equal
to the second term.
Write the numbers you have obtained from Step 2 as the
2. Factoring a Quadratic Trinomial
second term of the binomials.
A quadratic trinomial is a trinomial in the form ax2 + bx +
Example 1: Let us apply these steps to factor x2 + 5x + 6.
c, where a, b, and c are real numbers but a is not equal to
0. We usually encounter quadratic trinomials when we Solution:
perform the FOIL method. For example, if we multiply x
+ 2 by x + 3: Step 1: Write the binomials with the first terms as the
square root of the leading term of the given quadratic
trinomial. We start by writing two binomials with x as the
first terms.
Step 2: Think of the factors of the third term whose sum is

equal to the second term. The third term of x2 + 5x + 6 is
6. Think of the factors of 6 that will give you the second
term (which is 5).
Here are the factors of 6 and their sums:
1 and 6 (sum: 1 + 6 = 7)
x2 + 5x + 6 is an example of a quadratic trinomial since it -6 and -1 (sum: -1 + (-6) = -7)

is in the form ax2 + bx + c. 3 and 2 (sum: 3 + 2 = 5)
Other examples of a quadratic trinomial are a2 + 7a + 10; -3 and -2 (sum: (-3) + (-2) = -5)
4x2 + 8x + 1; y2 + 4y + 3; and so on.
Looking at pairs of factors of 6 above, the sum of 3 and 2
Example 1: Is 8x2 + 2x + x a quadratic trinomial? is equal to the second term which is 5.
Solution: No. Note that we can combine 2x and x since Step 3: Write the numbers you have obtained from Step 2
they are like terms. Thus, 8x2 + 2x + x is actually 8x2 + as the second term of the binomials. In this case, 3 and 2
3x. 8x2 + 3x, although it is quadratic, is not a trinomial. are the factors of 6 we obtained from Step 2 so these
a. How to Factor a Quadratic Trinomial if a = 1 numbers become the second term of the binomials:
Let us begin with the simplest type of quadratic

trinomials: those whose leading coefficient is 1 such as
x2 + 5x + 6.
Thus, the factored form of x2 + 8x + 15 is (x + 3)(x + 5).
Thus, the factored form of x2 + 5x + 6 is (x + 3)(x + 2).
Example 3: Factor x2 – 12x + 27.
Example 2: Factor x2 + 8x + 15.
Solution:
Solution:
Step 1: Write the binomials with the first terms as the
Step 1: Write the binomials with the first terms as the square root of the leading term of the given quadratic
square root of the leading term of the given quadratic trinomial. We start by writing two binomials with x as the
trinomial. We start by writing two binomials with x as the first terms:
first terms.
Step 2: Think of the factors of the third term whose sum is

Step 2: Think of the factors of the third term whose sum is equal to the second term. The third term of x2 – 12x + 27
equal to the second term. The third term of x2 + 8x + 15 is is 27. Think of the factors of 27 that will give you the
15. Think of the factors of 15 that will give you the second second term (which is -12).
term (which is 8). Here are the factors of 27 and their sums:
Here are the factors of 15 and their sums: 9 and 3 (sum: 9 + 3 = 12)
1 and 15 (sum: 1 + 15 = 16) -9 and -3 (sum: -9 + (-3) = -12)
-1 and -15 (sum: -1 + (-15) = -16) 27 and 1 (sum: 27 + 1 = 28)
3 and 5 (sum: 3 + 5 = 8) -27 and -1 (sum: (-27) + (-1) = -28)
-3 and -5 (sum: (-3) + (-5) = -8) Looking at the pairs of factors of 27 above, the sum of -9
Looking at the pairs of factors of 15 above, the sum of 3 and -3 is equal to the second term which is -12.
and 5 is equal to the second term which is 8. Step 3: Write the numbers you have obtained from Step 2
Step 3: Write the numbers you have obtained from Step 2 as the second term of the binomials. In this case, the
as the second term of the binomials. In this case, the numbers -9 and -3 we have obtained from Step 2 become
numbers 3 and 5 each becomes the second term of the the second term of the binomials:
binomials:
the second term. The number we have obtained from Step
1 is 3. Think of the factors of 3 such that their sum is the
coefficient of the second term which is -4.
Here are the factors of 3 together with their sums:
3 and 1 (sum is 4)
-3 and -1 (sum is -4)
As you can see, the factors of 3 that give -4 as their sum
Thus, the factored form of x2 – 12x + 27 is (x + (-9))(x + are -3 and -1.
(-3)) or more appropriately, (x – 9)(x – 3).
Step 3: Expand the second term of the trinomial using the
b. How to Factor a Quadratic Trinomial if a ≠ 1. factors you have obtained from Step 2. After expanding,
In the previous section, we have discussed how to factor the expression should now consist of four terms. The
quadratic trinomials if a = 1. However, not every quadratic second term of the trinomial 3x2 – 4x + 1 is -4x. We will
trinomial has a leading coefficient of 1. Most of the expand it by replacing it with the numbers we have
quadratic trinomials we will encounter in mathematics obtained from Step 2. Recall that we have obtained -3 and
have a leading term that is not equal to 1. -1 from Step 2. Thus, we will replace -4x with -3x and -
1x:
So how do we factor quadratic trinomials with a leading
coefficient not equal to 1 such as 2x2 + 5x + 2; 3x2 – 4x + 3x2 – 3x – 1x + 1
1; and 6x2 – x – 1? Step 4: Group the trinomial into two groups. We group the
Here are the steps to factor a quadratic trinomial if a ≠ 1: trinomials using parentheses:
Multiply the coefficients of the first and third terms of the (3x2 – 3x) – (1x + 1)
quadratic trinomial. Step 5: Factor out the GCF of each group. Once you have
Think of the factors of the number you have obtained in factored out the GCF, expect that there will be a common
Step 1 whose sum is equal to the coefficient of the second binomial.
term. We have (3x2 – 3x) – (1x + 1). The first group is 3x2 –
Expand the second term of the trinomial using the factors 3x while the second group is 1x + 1 or x + 1. The GCF of
you have obtained from Step 2. After expanding, the the first group is 3x while the GCF of the second group is
expression should now consist of four terms. 1. We factor out the GCF of the respective groups:
Group the trinomial into two groups. 3x(x – 1) – 1(x – 1)
Factor out the GCF of each group. Once you have factored Note that (x – 1) is the common binomial to 3x(x – 1) –
out the GCF, expect that there will a common binomial. 1(x – 1).
Factor out the the common binomial Step 6: Factor out the common binomial. In 3x(x – 1) –
1(x – 1), (x – 1) is the common binomial. We factor it out
The steps seem to be intimidating but we will discuss to complete the factoring process.
them one by one in our succeeding examples:
(x – 1)(3x – 1)
Example 1: Factor 3x2 – 4x + 1.
Therefore, the factored form of 3x2 – 4x + 1 = (x – 1)(3x
Solution: – 1)
Step 1: Multiply the coefficients of the first and third Here’s a preview of what we have performed above:
terms of the quadratic trinomial. The coefficient of the
first term is 3 while the coefficient of the third term is 1. 3x2 – 4x + 1
Multiplying these two numbers to each other will give us 3x2 – 3x – x + 1
the number 3 as the product.
(3x2 – 3x) – (x + 1)
Step 2: Think of the factors of the number you have
obtained in Step 1 whose sum is equal to the coefficient of 3x(x – 1) – 1(x – 1)
(3x – 1)(x – 1) Step 6: Factor out the the common binomial. In 2x(x + 2)
+ (x + 2), (x + 2) is the common binomial. We factor it out
Example 2: Factor 2x2 + 5x + 2.
to complete the factoring process.
Solution:
(x + 2)(2x + 1)
Step 1: Multiply the coefficients of the first and third
Therefore, the factored form of 2x2 + 5x + 2 = (x + 2)(2x
terms of the quadratic trinomial. The coefficient of the
+ 1)
first term is 2 while the coefficient of the third term is 2 as
well. Their product is 4.
Step 2: Think of the factors of the number you have 3. Factoring a Perfect Square Trinomial
obtained in Step 1 whose sum is equal to the coefficient of
In the previous section, we discussed how to factor
the second term. The number we have obtained from Step
quadratic trinomials. However, it is interesting to note that
1 is 4. Think of the factors of 4 such that their sum is the
there are some special quadratic trinomials that can be
coefficient of the second term which is 5.
factored easily without performing the steps above. What
Here are the factors of 4 together with their sums: are these quadratic trinomials?
4 and 1 (sum is 5) A perfect square trinomial is a quadratic trinomial that is
derived from squaring a binomial.
-4 and -1 (sum is -5)
Suppose (x + 1)2 which we know using the techniques in
2 and 2 (sum is 4)
squaring a binomial is equal to x2 + 2x + 1. Since x2 + 2x
-2 and -2 (sum is -4) + 1 was derived by squaring x + 1 (which is a binomial),
then x2 + 2x + 1 is a perfect square trinomial.
As you can see, the factors of 4 that give 5 as their sum
are 4 and 1. How can we determine if a quadratic trinomial is a perfect
square trinomial?
Step 3: Expand the second term of the trinomial using the
factors you have obtained from Step 2. After expanding, Simple: Get the square root of the first term and the square
the expression should now consist of four terms. The root of the third term. Multiply them together then double
second term of the trinomial 2x2 + 5x + 2 is 5x. We will it. If the result is equal to the second term of the trinomial,
expand it by replacing it with the numbers we have then that quadratic trinomial is a perfect square trinomial.
obtained from Step 2. Recall that we have obtained 4 and
For example, x2 + 2x + 1 is a perfect square trinomial. To
1 from Step 2. Thus, we will replace 5 with 4 and 1:
prove this, we get the square root of the first term (square
2x2 + 4x + x + 2 root of x2 is x) and the square root of the second term
(square root of 1 is 1). Multiply them (1 multiplied by x is
Step 4: Group the trinomial into two groups. We group the equal to x) and double it (x times 2 is 2x), and the result is
trinomials using parentheses: equal to the second term (which is 2x).
(2x2 + 4x) + (x + 2)
Step 5: Factor out the GCF of each group. Once you have
factored out the GCF, expect that there will be a common
binomial.
Continuing from the previous step, we have (2x2 + 4x) +
(x + 2). The first group is 2x2 + 4x while the second group
is x + 2. The GCF of the first group is 2x while the GCF
of the second group is 1. We factor out the GCF of the
respective groups:
2x(x + 2) + 1(x + 2)
Note that (x + 2) is the common binomial to 2x(x + 2) +
Example: Is x2 + 6x + 9 a perfect square trinomial?
1(x + 2).
Solution:
Important Note: When we get the square root of a number,
we actually obtain two values–one is a positive and the
other is a negative number. For instance, the square root of
49 is 7 and -7. However, in this case of factoring perfect
square trinomials, we will only consider the positive
square root of the third term.
Step 3: If the perfect square trinomial has a subtraction
sign, then the factors will have a subtraction sign.
Otherwise, they will be using an addition sign.
How to Factor a Perfect Square Trinomial in 3 Steps.
Since x2 + 14x + 49 has no subtraction sign involved, then
Once you have confirmed that a quadratic trinomial is a the binomials do not have a subtraction sign but an
perfect square trinomial, you can factor it using the steps addition sign instead.
below:
Get the square root of the first term. It is the first term of
our factors.
Get the positive square root of the last term. It is the
second term of our factors.
If the perfect square trinomial has a subtraction sign, then
the factors will have a subtraction sign. Otherwise, they
will be using an addition sign. Thus, x2 + 14x + 49 = (x + 7)(x + 7)
Take note that the factors of a perfect square trinomial are Example 2: Factor x2 – 18x + 81.
two identical binomials.
Solution:
Example 1: Factor x2 + 14x + 49.
Step 1: Get the square root of the first term. It is the first
Solution: term of our factors.
Step 1: Get the square root of the first term. It is the first Square root of x2 is x.
term of our factors. The first term is x2 and its square root
is x. Thus, x is the first term of our factors.
Step 2: Get the positive square root of the last term. It is

the second term of our factors.
Step 2: Get the positive square root of the last term. It is Square root of 81 is 9.
the second term of our factors. The last term is 49 and its
square root is 7. Thus, 7 is the last term of our factors.
What is an equation?
An equation is a mathematical statement that tells you that
two quantities are equal in value.
To determine whether a mathematical statement is an
equation or not, look for the equal sign (=). If there’s a
presence of the equal sign, then the mathematical
Step 3: If the perfect square trinomial has a subtraction statement is an equation.
sign, then the factors will have a subtraction sign. For instance, 3 + 3 = 6 is an equation because it has an
Otherwise, they will be using an addition sign. equal sign. 3 + 3 = 6 tells us that the value of 3 + 3 is
similar to the value of 6.
Example: Which of the following are equations?
a. 2x + 3 = – 9
b. x = – 7
c. x – 5
Thus, x2 – 18x + 81 = (x – 9)(x – 9) Solution: The mathematical statements in a and b are
equations because they have an equal sign. On the other
hand, c is not an equation because of the absence of the
4. Factoring Difference of Two Squares equal sign.
A difference of two squares is a binomial in the form a2 – In an equation, it is important to recognize its left-hand
b2. You have learned in the first part of this reviewer that side and its right-hand side.
the difference of two squares is obtained when two
Left-hand side of the equation – quantities on the left of
binomials with the same terms but with opposite signs are
the equal sign.
multiplied together.
Right-hand side of the equation – quantities on the right of
To factor a difference of two squares:
the equal sign.
Get the square root of the first term and the square root of
the last term.
Express the factors as the sum and difference of the
quantities you have obtained in Step 1.
Example: Factor a2 – 9.
Solution:
Step 1: Get the square root of the first term and the square
root of the last term. The square root of the first term
is a while the square root of the second term is 3. In the above example, the left-hand side of the equation 2x
+ 3 = -9 is 2x + 3 while its right-hand side is -9.
Step 2: Express the factors as the sum and difference of
the quantities you have obtained in Step 1. Expressing the
quantities we have obtained from Step 1 as sum and Solution to an Equation
difference, we have (a – 3)(a + 3).
An equation involves a variable or a value that is unknown
Thus, the answer is (a – 3)(a + 3). or not determined yet. When we say “solve an equation”,
what we really mean is to determine the value being
represented by that unknown variable to make the
 Linear Equations equation hold.
For example, x + 9 = 10 is an equation telling us that x + 9 The left-hand side and the right-hand side of the equation
must be equivalent to 10. are equal. Indeed, x = 5 is the solution to x + 2 = 7.
x is the unknown variable in the equation. When we solve Come to think of it, an equation is a puzzle with a missing
for x + 9 = 10, we determine the value of x so that x + 9 piece. That missing piece is the unknown variable. When
will be equal to 10. you solve for the value of the unknown variable, you are
actually looking for the missing piece that will complete
If x = 1, the left-hand side of the equation and the right-
the puzzle or the equation.
hand side of the equation will be of the same value.
But how do we find that missing piece? How do we find
the solution to the equation?
The answer is we apply the properties of equality to solve
an equation. In the next section of this reviewer, we will
be discussing these properties.
Properties of Equality
The properties of equality are rules or principles that allow
Once we have shown that the left-hand side and the right- us to manipulate equations so we can determine the values
hand side of the equation are equal, then the value of the of the unknown variable. We can use the properties of
variable we used is the solution to the equation. Therefore, equality as the logical explanation for why we manipulate
the solution to the equation x + 9 = 10 is x = 1. an equation in a certain way.
On the other hand, let’s say we use x = 2 for x + 9 = 10 Here are the properties of equality:
1. Reflexive Property of Equality
For any real number p:
p=p
This property is pretty obvious and logical. The value of a
number is always equal to itself.
For instance, 1020 will always be equal to 1020. If
someone tells you that 1020 = 1100, he is logically false
since 1020 is always equal to 1020 by the reflexive
In this case, the left-hand side and the right-hand side are property.
not equal. Thus, x = 2 is not the solution to the equation x 2. Symmetric Property of Equality
+ 9 = 10.
For any real numbers p and q:
Therefore, the solution to an equation is the value of the
unknown variable that will make the equation true. When If p = q, then q = p
we say that the equation is true, it means that the left-hand
This property tells us that in an equation if we switch the
side and the right-hand side of it are equal in value.
positions of the quantities on the left-hand side and the
Example: Is x = 5 the solution to x + 2 = 7? right-hand side of the equation, the equation will still hold.
This also implies that both sides of the equation are of the
Solution: Yes, because if we substitute x = 5 to x + 2 = 7: same value.
x+2=7 For example, we know that 3 + 4 = 1 + 6 is true. By the
(5) + 2 = 7 symmetric property of equality, 1 + 6 = 3 + 4 must also be
true.
7=7
3. Transitive Property of Equality
For any real numbers p, q, and r:
If p = q and q = r, then p = r
The transitive property of equality tells us that if a
quantity is equal to a second quantity, and if the second
quantity is equal to a third quantity, then we can conclude
that the first quantity is equal to the third quantity.
For example, if we assume that x = y and y = w, then by
the transitive property, we can conclude that x = w.
Another example: We know that 10 – 5 = 2 + 3 is true. We
also know that 2 + 3 = 9 – 4. By the transitive property,
we can conclude that 10 – 5 = 9 – 4.
4. Addition Property of Equality (APE) As we can see above, equality is retained.
For any real numbers p, q, and r: SPE tells us that if we subtract two equal quantities by the
same number, the results will still be equal.
If p = q, then p + r = q + r
6. Multiplication Property of Equality (MPE)
APE tells us that if we add a certain number to two equal
quantities, the result will still be equal. For any real numbers p, q, and r:
For example, we know that 5 + 2 = 6 + 1 is true. Suppose If p = q, then pr = qr

that we add 8 to both sides of the equation:
MPE tells us that if we multiply two equal quantities by
the same number, the results will still be equal.
For example, we know that 2 + 2 = 3 + 1. Suppose that we
multiply both sides of this equation by 5:
Notice that even after adding the same number to both of

the quantities, the resulting quantities are still equal.
APE implies that adding the same number to two equal
quantities retains their equality.
5. Subtraction Property of Equality (SPE)
For any real numbers p, q, and r:
If p = q, then p – r = q – r
What if we subtract the same number from two equal As shown above, even after multiplying both sides by the
quantities? Will equality be retained? same number, the results will still be equal.
Yes, if we subtract a number from two equal quantities, 7. Division Property of Equality
the equality will still be retained.
For any real numbers p, q, and r where r ≠ 0:
For instance, we know that 5 + 2 = 6 + 1 is true. Suppose
that we subtract 2 to both sides of the equation: If p = q, then p/r = q/r
This property tells us that if we divide two equal quantities
by the same number (that number can be any number but
must not be equal to 0), then the results will still be equal.
For example, we know that 9 = 8 + 1. Suppose that we
divide both sides of this equation by 3:
As per the division property of equality, the results are

still equal.
We will use the properties above to manipulate equations
8. Distributive Property of Equality and determine the value of an unknown variable. In other
For any real numbers p, q, and r: words, these properties will be used to find the solution to
an equation.
p(q + r) = pq + pr
You most likely remember learning about this in the
previous reviewer (i.e., multiplication of polynomials). Linear Equations in One Variable
This property tells us that multiplying the sum of two or The first type of equation that we will learn how to solve
more addends is equal to the result when we multiply the is linear equations in one variable. These equations are the
addends by that number and add them. simplest type of equations and the easiest ones to answer.
For example, suppose that we want to double the sum of 3 Linear equations are equations such that the highest
and 5. We can express it as: exponent of its variable is 1. The type of linear equations
2(3 + 5) that we are going to solve in this section is those with one
variable only (linear equations with more than one
By the distributive property, we can distribute 2 to each variable will be discussed in the later sections).
addend and still preserve equality.
For example, x + 3 = 9 is a linear equation since the
2(3) + 2(5) highest exponent of its variable is 1. As you can notice, x
+ 3 = 9 has only one variable involved (which is x). Thus,
Now, 2(3) + 2(5) = 16. Hence, 2(3 + 5) = 2(3) + 2(5) = 16
x + 3 = 9 is a linear equation in one variable.
9. Substitution Property of Equality
In other words, linear equations in one variable are in the
If x = y, then either x or y can be substituted into any form ax + b = c, where a, b, and c are real
equation for the other. numbers and a ≠ 0.
Suppose that x + y = 12. If we assume that x = y, then we Example: Which of the following are linear equations in
can replace y with x, and the equation will still hold. one variable?
Thus, if x = y, then x + y = 12 can be x + x = 12 or y + y a. 2x + 7 = 19

= 12.
b. x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
Here’s a table that summarizes the properties of equality:
c. x + y = 2
Solution: The equation in a is the only linear equation in
one variable among the given equations since the highest
exponent of its variable is 1 and it has only one variable.
The equation in b is not a linear equation since the highest
exponent of its variable is 2 (it is a quadratic equation).
Meanwhile, the equation in c, although the highest Note that the explanation why it is valid to add 12 to both
exponent of its variable is 1, is not a linear equation in one sides of the equation is because we apply the addition
variable because there are two variables involved property of equality.
(i.e., x and y).
Example 3: Solve for x in x + 10 = 52
Furthermore, take note that the equation in a is the only
Solution: To isolate x from the constants, we must get rid
equation in the form ax + b = c form.
of 10 by subtracting 10 from both sides of the equation.
In the next section, you are going to learn how to solve Subtracting the same number from both sides of the
linear equations in one variable by applying the properties equation is valid because of the subtraction property of
of equality that we have discussed above. equality (SPE) discussed earlier.
How to Solve Linear Equations in One Variable x + 10 = 52
Example 1: Let us try to solve for the value of x in x – 9 = x + 10 – 10 = 52 – 10 (subtracting 10 from both sides of
10. the equation)
Solution: To find the value of x, our goal is to isolate the x = 42
variable from the constants. This means that if we want to
Thus, the answer is x = 42
solve for x, then x must be the only quantity on the left
side of the equation and the other quantities must be on Transposition Method
the right side. But how can we achieve that?
There is actually a “shortcut” method that we can use
x will be the only quantity on the left if we get rid of -9 on instead of applying the APE or SPE. To isolate x from the
the left side. How can then we remove -9 on the left side? constants, we can transpose the constant to the right-hand
side of the equation so that x will be the only quantity that
The addition property of equality (APE) states that we can
will remain on the left side.
add the same number to both sides of the equation.
Example 1: Let us solve x + 9 = 10 using the transposition
Applying the APE, we can add 9 to both sides of the
method.
equation so we can cancel -9 on the left side:
Solution:
Our goal is to isolate x from other constants by
transposing 9 to the right-hand side of the equation. Once
a quantity “crosses” the equality sign, its sign reverses
(i.e., from positive 9 to -9).
After we transpose 9 to the right-hand side and reverse its
sign, we add it to the quantity on the right-hand side
(which is 10).
Now, it is clearly seen that x = 19.

That’s it! We have solved the value of x in x – 9 = 10. The
answer is x = 19.
Example 2: Solve for x in x – 12 = 22
Solution:
x – 12 = 22
x – 12 + 12 = 22 + 12 (adding 12 to both sides of the
equation)
x = 34 Then, we perform some arithmetic:
Hence, x = 34.
Most of the linear equations in one variable that we have
solved above are in the form of ax + b = c where a = 1 (the
coefficient of x is 1) But what if a is not equal to 1 like
in 2x + 4 = 6? If this is the case, we can solve for x by
applying the division property of equality.
Example 1: Let us try to solve for x in 2x + 4 = 6.
Solution: Again, to solve for x in an equation, it must be
isolated from the constants or x should be the only
quantity on the left-hand side of the equation.
Thus, the answer is x = 1. Let us start by getting rid of 4 on the left-hand side by
using the transposition method:
Example 2: Use the transposition method to solve for x
in x – 9 = 12.
Solution: Transposing -9 to the right-hand side will
reverse its sign (i.e., from negative to positive):
x = 9 + 12
x = 21
Thus, the answer is x = 21.
Example 3: Solve for x in x + 6 = 5 using the transposition
method. What is left is 2x = 2. Again, our goal is to make x the
only quantity on the left-hand side. This means that we
Solution: Transposing 6 to the right-hand side will reverse need to cancel out 2 in 2x. But how do we cancel it?
its sign (i.e., from positive to negative):
We can divide both sides of the equation by 2 so that 2
x=–6+5 will be canceled in 2x. This is valid because the division
x=–1 property of equality guarantees us that dividing both sides
of the equation by the same number will preserve equality.
Thus, the answer is x = -1.
Example 4: Solve for x in x – 4 = – 9 using the
transposition method.
Solution:
x – 4 = -9
x = 4 + (- 9) (transposing -4 to the right-hand side will
change its sign to positive)
x = -5
As we can see, the answer is x = 1.
Thus, the answer is x = -5.
Here’s a quick preview of what we have done above:
Note: In this review, we will be using the transposition
method more frequently to isolate x from other quantities. 2x + 4 = 6
The transposition method is a more convenient method 2x = -4 + 6 (transposing 4 to the right-hand side will turn
than adding numbers to or subtracting numbers from both it into -4)
sides of the equation.
2x = 2
Applying the Division Property of Equality to Solve
Linear Equations in One Variable 2x⁄2 = 2⁄2 (dividing both sides of the equation by 2)
x=1 7x = -2 + 16 Transposition Method (we transpose 2 to the
right-hand side)
Thus, the solution to 2x + 4 = 6 is x = 1
7x⁄7= 14⁄7 Division Property of Equality (divide both
You can verify that x = 1 is the solution by substituting it
sides of the equation by 7)
back to 2x + 4 = 6. Notice that the equation will be true if
x = 1: x=2
2(1) + 4 = 6 More Examples on Solving Linear Equations in One
Variable
2+4=6
This section contains more linear equations in one variable
6=6
to solve. However, these equations are trickier than what
Example 2: Solve for x in 3x – 18 = 27 we have solved so far since they appear in different forms.
Just keep in mind three things so you can solve them: the
Solution: To solve for x, x should be the only quantity on properties of equality, the transposition method, and our
the left-hand side. goal to isolate x from other constants (or x should be the
We start by transposing -18 to the right-hand side. If we only quantity on the left-hand side).
transpose it, it will have a positive sign. Example 1: Solve for x in 3x – 3 = x + 5
3x = 18 + 27 Solution: Let us put all x first on the left-hand side. We
3x = 45 can do this by transposing the x on the right-hand side to
the left-hand side. Just like numbers, variables will also
To cancel out 3 in 3x, we divide both sides of the equation reverse their sign once they cross the equality sign.
by 3:
3x⁄3= 45⁄3
x = 15
Therefore, the answer is x = 15
Example 3: Solve for x in 4x – 18 = 2
Solution: To solve for x, x should be the only quantity on
the left-hand side.
We start by transposing -18 to the right-hand side. If we We can then combine 3x and -x to obtain 2x:
transpose it, it will change its sign from negative to
positive.
4x = 18 + 2
4x = 20
To cancel out 4 in 4x, we divide both sides of the equation
by 4:
4x⁄4= 20⁄4
x=5
Therefore, the answer is x = 5. Now, we have 2x – 3 = 5. We can apply the techniques we
Example 4: Solve for x in 7x + 2 = 16 have learned above to solve this one:
Solution: 2x – 3 = 5
7x + 2 = 16 2x = 3 + 5 Transposition Method
2x = 8
2x⁄2= 8⁄2 Division Property of Equality x=2
x=4 Therefore, the answer is x = 2
Example 2: Solve for 9 – x = 2x – 3 Example 4: Solve for x in 3x + 2⁄2 = 1⁄3
Solution: We start by putting all x on the left-hand side of Solution: In case a linear equation in one variable is
the equation using the transposition method. fractional in form, we “remove” the denominator by
multiplying both sides of the equation by the Least
Common Denominator (this method is valid because of
the multiplication property of equality).
The Least Common Denominator (LCD) is the lowest
common multiple of the denominators 3 and 2. Therefore,
the LCD should be 6.
We then multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD
We can then combine -2x and -x to obtain -3x: (which is 6):
Thus, we have –3x + 9 = – 3. Let us now use the

techniques we have learned to solve for x:
-3x + 9 = -3
-3x = -9 + (-3) Transposition Method
-3x = -12
–3x⁄-3= 12⁄-3 Division Property of Equality
Now, our equation becomes 3(3x + 2) = 2
x=–4
Let us continue solving for x:
Example 3: Solve for 3(2x + 1) = 15
3(3x + 2) = 2
Solution: Since 3 is being multiplied by the sum of
addends, we can apply the distributive property so that our 3(3x) + 3(2) = 2 Distributive Property
equation will be in the form ax + b = c. 9x + 6 = 2
3(2x + 1) = 15 9x = -6 + 2 Transposition Method
3(2x) + 3(1) = 15 Distribute 3 to 3(2x + 1) 9x = -4
6x + 3 = 15 9x⁄9 = -4⁄9 Division Property of Equality
Now, let us continue the process using the techniques we x = -4/9
have learned in the previous sections:
Therefore, the answer is x = -4/9
6x = -3 + 15 Transposition Method
Example 5: Solve for x in x + 4⁄2 = 1⁄4
6x = 12
Solution:
6x⁄6= 12⁄6 Division Property of Equality
x + 4⁄2 = 1⁄4
4(x + 4⁄2) = 4 (1⁄4) Multiply both sides of the equation by x+5=–3
the LCD (which is 4)
x = – 5 + (-3) Transposition Method
2(x + 4) = 1
x = -8
2(x) + 2(4) = 1 Distributive Property
Thus, the number is -8.
2x + 8 = 1
Example 2: Fred has 52 books in his collection. He gave
2x = -8 + 1 Transposition Method some of these books to Claude. Fred also gave some
books to Franz. The number of books that Fred gave to
2x = -7
Franz is twice the number of books that he gave to Claude.
2x⁄2= -7⁄2 Division Property of Equality The number of books that were left to Fred after he gave
some to Claude and Franz is 22. How many books did
x = -7⁄2 Claude receive?
Solving Word Problems Using Linear Equations in One Solution:
Variable
Step 1: Read and understand the given problem and
Now that you have learned the essential techniques and determine what is being asked. The problem is asking us
principles to solve linear equations in one variable, we can to determine the number of books that Claude received
now apply this skill to solve some word problems. from Fred.
To solve word problems using linear equations, follow Step 2: Represent the unknown in the problem using a
these steps: variable. Let x be the number of books that Claude
Read and understand the given problem and determine received. Since Franz received twice the number of books
what is being asked. that Claude received, then we let 2x be the number of
books that Franz received.
Represent the unknown in the problem using a variable.
To summarize:
Construct a linear equation that will describe the problem.
x = number of books that Claude received
Solve for the value of the unknown variable in the linear
equation. 2x = number of books that Franz received
Example 1: The sum of a number and 5 is – 3. What is the Step 3: Construct a linear equation that will describe the
number? problem. It’s stated that after Fred gave some books to
Claude and Franz, there were only 22 books left.
Solution:
We can express this statement this way:
determine what is being asked. The problem is asking us 52 – (number of books that Claude received) – (number of
to determine the number such that the sum of that number books that Franz received) = 22
and 5 is – 3. Using the variables we have set in Step 2:
Step 2: Represent the unknown in the problem using a 52 – x – 2x = 22
variable. Let x represent the number we are looking for.
Step 4: Solve for the value of the unknown variable in the
Step 3: Construct a linear equation that will describe the linear equation.
problem. The problem states that the sum of the unknown
number (represented by x) and 5 is – 3. Therefore, we 52 – x – 2x = 22
construct the linear equation below:
52 – 3x = 22 Combining like terms
x+5=–3
-3x = -52 + 22 Transposition Method
-3x = -30
linear equation. Using the equation we have derived from
Step 3, we solve for the value of x: -3x⁄-3= -30⁄-3 Division Property of Equality
x = 10 3x⁄3= 600⁄3 Division Property of Equality
Since x represents the number of books that Claude x = 200
received from Fred, then Claude received 10 books from
Since x represents the number of male participants in the
Fred.
mini-concert, then there are 200 male participants.
Using the value of x that we have obtained in the
problem, can you determine how many books Franz
received from Fred? Linear Equations in Two Variables (Systems of Linear
Equations)
Yes, the answer is 20 since Franz received twice the
number of books that Claude received. As the name suggests, linear equations in two
variables are linear equations with two variables involved.
Example 3: The total number of participants in a mini-
For instance, x + y = 5 is an example of a linear equation
concert by a local band is 300. The number of female
in two variables because there are two variables involved
participants in the mini-concert is half the number of male
(i.e., x and y).
participants in the event. How many male participants are
there in the mini-concert? Formally, linear equations in two variables are in the
form ax + by = c where a, b, and c are real numbers
Solution:
and a and b are both nonzero.
Solutions of Linear Equations in Two Variables
determine what is being asked. The problem is asking us
to determine the number of male participants in the mini- Linear equations in two variables have a pair of solutions–
concert. one for x and one for y. For example, one possible
solution for x + y = 5 is x = 2 and y = 3.
Step 2: Represent the unknown in the problem using a
variable. Let x be the number of male participants in the However, take note that there are other pairs
mini-concert. Since the number of female participants in of x and y that will satisfy x + y = 5. For instance, if x = 0
the mini-concert is half the number of male participants, and y = 5, the equation will be true. Also, if x = 1 and y =
then we let ½ x represent the number of female 4, the equation will also be true. In other words, there are
participants in the event. infinite values of x and y that will satisfy x + y = 5!
Step 3: Construct a linear equation that will describe the A linear equation in two variables has infinite possible
problem. The total number of participants in the mini- values of x and y. For this reason, we need another two or
concert is 300. We can express this as: more linear equations in two variables that will provide us
with a single pair of values of x and y only.
(Number of Male Participants) + (Number of Female
Participants) = 300 Let us add x – y = 1 in the discussion. For instance, if we
solve for the values of x and y that satisfy x + y = 5 and x
Using the variables we have set in Step 2:
– y = 1 at the same time, we obtain x = 3 and y = 2. Note
x + ½x = 300 that these values of x and y are the only values that will
satisfy both x + y = 5 and x – y = 1.
linear equation.
Let us solve for x in x + ½x = 300
x + ½x = 300
2(x + ½x) = 2(300) Multiplying both sides of the equation
by the LCD
2(x) + 2(½ x) = 600 Distributive Property
2x + x = 600
The pair of equations x + y = 5 and x – y = 1 is called a
3x = 600 system of linear equations.
A system of linear equations is composed of two or more Equation 2: x – y = 3
linear equations. The solution of a system of linear
Step 1: Solve the value of one variable in one of the linear
equations will satisfy all of the equations in the system.
equations in terms of the other variable. Using Equation 1,
Again, the pair x + y = 5 and x – y = 1 is an example of a we solve for the value of y in terms of x. This means that
system of linear equations. we let y be the only quantity on the left-hand side while
the other quantities must be on the right-hand side,
At x = 3 and y = 2, the equations are both satisfied:
including x. To make this possible, we just transpose x to
x+y=5 the right side:
(3) + (2) = 5 at x = 3 and y = 2 x+y=9⟶y=–x+9
5=5 Step 2: Substitute the expression for the variable you have
obtained in Step 1 in the other linear equation. We have
x–y=1 obtained y = -x + 9 in Step 1. What we are going to do is
(3) – (2) = 1 at x = 3 and y = 2 to substitute this value of y into the y in Equation 2:
1=1 x – y = 3 (Equation 2)
Therefore, x = 3 and y = 2 is the solution of the system of x – (-x + 9) = 3 (We substitute y = -x + 9)

linear equations x + y = 5 and x – y = 1. Notice that once we substitute y = -x + 9 in Equation 2,
How to Solve a System of Linear Equations Equation 2 will now be a linear equation in one variable.
There are different ways of solving a system of linear Step 3: Solve for the value of the other variable in the
equations. In this section, we will discuss two methods: equation you have obtained from Step 2. The equation we
the substitution method and the elimination method. have obtained in Step 2 is x – (-x + 9) = 3. Our goal now
is to solve for x.
1. How to Solve a System of Linear Equations by
Substitution We just use the techniques in solving linear equations in
one variable:
To solve a system of linear equations using the
substitution method, follow these steps: x – (-x + 9) = 3
Solve for the value of one variable in one of the linear x + x – 9 = 3 Distributive Property
equations in terms of the other variable. 2x – 9 = 3
Substitute the expression for the variable you have 2x = 9 + 3 Transposition Method
obtained in Step 1 in the other linear equation.
2x = 12
Solve for the value of the other variable in the equation
you have obtained from Step 2. 2x⁄2= 12⁄2 Division Property of Equality
Plug in the value of the unknown variable you have x=6

computed in Step 3 in the expression you have obtained in
Now that we have obtained the value for x which is x = 6,
Step 1 to find the value of the other variable.
let us solve for y.
The steps might be too abstract at this moment but they
Step 4: Plug in the value of the unknown variable you
are actually easy to follow. Let us use these steps in our
have computed in Step 3 in the expression you have
example below:
obtained in Step 1 to find the value of the other variable.
Example 1: Solve for the values of x and y that will satisfy From Step 3, we have obtained x = 6. We substitute x to
x + y = 9 and x – y = 3 the equation we have obtained in Step 1 which is y = -x +
9.
Solution:
y = -x + 9 (The expression we have obtained in Step 1)
Let us write first the given equations:
y = -(6) + 9 (Substitute x = 6 which we have obtained in
Equation 1: x + y = 9 Step 3)
y=3
That’s it! The solution for our system of linear equations
is x = 6 and y = 3.
2. How to Solve a System of Linear Equations by
Elimination.
To solve a system of linear equations using the
elimination method, follow these steps:
Write the given equations in standard form. Step 3: Solve for the value of the remaining variable. The
remaining variable in 2x = 22 is x. We solve for x in this
Add or subtract the given equations so that one variable step by dividing both sides of 2x = 22 by 2:
will be eliminated. If there’s no variable that can be
eliminated by adding or subtracting the equations, you
may multiply an equation by a constant to allow the
elimination of a variable.
Solve for the value of the remaining variable.
Substitute the value of the variable you have computed in
Step 3 to any of the given equations then solve for the
value of the other variable.
Let us follow the above steps in our example below:
Example 1: Solve for the values of x and y that will satisfy
x + y = 10 and x – y = 12
Thus, x = 11
Solution:
Step 4: Substitute the value of the variable you have
Step 1: Write the given equations in standard form. If you computed in Step 3 to any of the given equations then
can recall, the standard form of a linear equation in two solve for the value of the other variable. We substitute x =
variables is ax + by = c. Both x + y = 10 and x – y = 12 11 to one of the given equations. Let us use x + y = 10:
are already in standard form, so we can skip this step.
x + y = 10
Step 2: Add or subtract the given equations so that one
variable will be eliminated. If there’s no variable that can (11) + y = 10 Substituting x = 11
be eliminated by adding or subtracting the equations, you
y = -11 + 10 Transposition Method
may multiply an equation by a constant to allow the
elimination of a variable. y = -1
If we add the equations x + y = 10 and x – y = 12, Therefore, the solution for the system of linear equation
the y variable will be eliminated. There’s no need to is x = 11 and y = -1.
multiply the equations with a constant since we can
immediately cancel a variable just by adding the
equations.  QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
After adding the equations, the resulting equation will be
2x = 22
What Are Quadratic Equations?
Quadratic equations are equations in the form ax2 + bx + c
= 0 where a, b, and c are real numbers and a is not equal
to 0.
In simple words, a quadratic equation has two as the
highest exponent of its variable. For example, x2 + 4x + 4
= 0 is a quadratic equation since the highest exponent of
the variable in this equation is 2.
But why is it important to know if a quadratic equation is

in standard form?
Example: Which of the following are quadratic equations? The answer is because if a quadratic equation is in
standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0, we can easily determine
a) x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 the values for a, b, and c.
b) x2 = 9 a, b, and c are the real number parts of the equation.
c) x + 2 = -2
Solution: The equations in letters a and b are quadratic
equations since the highest exponent of their x (or
variable) is 2. On the other hand, c is not a quadratic
equation since the highest exponent of its x (or variable) is
1, making it a linear equation.
Standard Form of a Quadratic Equation

The standard form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c
=0 Take a look again at this equation: x2 + 4x + 4 = 0. We
already know that this quadratic equation is in standard
form.
The a of a quadratic equation in standard form is the
numerical coefficient of the quadratic term or the term
with x2. In x2 + 4x + 4 = 0, the quadratic term is x2 and
its numerical coefficient is 1. Thus a = 1
When we say that a quadratic equation is in standard form, The b of a quadratic equation in standard form is the
it means that the terms of the equation are arranged in a numerical coefficient of the linear term or the term
manner where the exponents of the variable are with x. In x2 + 4x + 4 = 0, the linear term is 4x and its
decreasing. numerical coefficient is 4. Thus, b = 4.
For example, x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 is in standard form because Lastly, the c of a quadratic equation in standard form is
the terms are arranged in a manner where the exponents of the constant term or the term without the x. In x2 + 4x + 4
the variable are in decreasing order. = 0, the constant term is 4. Thus, c = 4.
Therefore, in x2 + 4x + 4 = 0, the values of a,
b, and c are: a = 1, b = 4, and c = 4.
Example: Determine the values of a, b, and c (the real
number parts) in 2x2 + 4x – 1 = 0
Solution: Since the 2x2 + 4x – 1 = 0 is already in standard For instance, (x + 2)(x + 3) = 0 can be considered as a
form, then the values of a, b, and c are easy to determine: quadratic equation.
a = 2 (the numerical coefficient of 2x2) You’re probably asking: “But there’s no x2 in (x + 2)(x +
3) = 0, so why is it a quadratic equation?”
b = 4 (the numerical coefficient of 4x)
Try to perform the FOIL method on (x + 2)(x + 3) and
c = -1 (the constant term is -1)
let’s see what we’ll obtain:
The a, b, and c of a quadratic equation can be determined
only once we have expressed it in standard form ax2 + bx
+ c = 0. If a quadratic equation is not yet in the standard
form, we cannot immediately tell the values of a, b, and c.
Later in this reviewer, you’ll learn the importance of
determining the values of a, b, and c of a quadratic
equation especially when you start solving them using the
quadratic formula.
(x + 2)(x + 3) when multiplied is equal to x2 + 5x +

Different Forms of Quadratic Equation 6. Thus, the equation (x + 2)(x + 3) = 0 is actually x2 + 5x
Not every quadratic equation that you will encounter and + 6 = 0. This is the reason why (x + 2)(x + 3) = 0 is a
solve is in standard form. Quadratic equations appear in quadratic equation.
different forms. It is important to learn about them since Here are more examples of a quadratic equation in (x + a)
there are specific techniques that we can use to solve (x + b) form or factored form:
equations in these forms.
(x + 1)(x – 3) = 0
ax2 = c or ax2 + c = 0 Form.
(x – 2)(x + 1) = 0
Quadratic equations such as x2 = 9, 2x2 = 16, 5x2 = 10, -
x2 = -1 are in the form ax2 = c. As you might have (x – 1)(x – 1) = 0
noticed, quadratic equations in this form do not have a
Example: Which of the following are quadratic equations?
linear term or a term with a variable raised to 1.
a) (x + 2)(x – 1) = 0
Quadratic equations in the form ax2 = c can also appear in
the form of ax2 + c = 0. b) x2 + x3 = -9
For example, we know that x2 = 9 is a quadratic equation c) 2x2 + 3x = -1
in ax2 = c form. However, if we transpose 9 to the left-
d) x2 = 1
hand side of the equation:
Solution:
x2 = 9
Equation a is a quadratic equation in factored form.
x2 – 9 = 0 Transposition Method
Equation b is NOT a quadratic equation since the highest
This shows that x2 = 9 is the same as x2 – 9 =0 . In other
exponent of its variable is 3.
words, quadratic equations in ax2 = c form can also
appear in the form ax2 + c = 0. Equation c is a quadratic equation but not yet in standard
form. We can transpose -1 to the left side so that it will be
The technique we usually use to solve quadratic equations
in standard form.
in these forms is by extracting the square root. You will
learn more about this method in the succeeding sections. Equation d is a quadratic equation in ax2 = c form.
(x + a)(x + b) Form or the Factored Form. Thus, equations a, c, and d are all quadratic equations.
In some quadratic equations, the exponent of 2 in the
variable can’t be identified unless you perform some
computations first. How to Solve Quadratic Equations
Let us discuss in this section the different methods of Step 1: Isolate the square variable (x2) from other
solving quadratic equations. quantities.
Method 1: How to Solve Quadratic Equation by To remove the numerical coefficient and make x2 the only
Extracting Square Roots quantity on the left-hand side of the equation, we can
divide both sides of the equation by 2.
We usually use this method to solve for x of quadratic
equations that are in the ax2 = c or ax2 + c = 0 form. 2x2⁄2 = 8⁄2
Here are the steps to solve quadratic equations by x2 = 4
extracting the square root:
Step 2: Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
Isolate the square variable (x2) from other quantities. This
x2 = 4
means that x2 must be the only quantity on the left-hand
side and other quantities must be on the right-hand side. √x2 = √4
Take the square root of both sides of the equation. x = ±2
Example 1: Solve for x in x2 = 9 Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = 2 and x2 = – 2
Solution: Example 3: What are the roots of x2 + 4 = 20?
Step 1: Isolate the square variable (x2) from other Solution:
quantities.
Although the given equation seems to be not in the ax2 =
x2 is the only quantity on the left-hand side of x2 = 9. This 0 or ax2 + c = 0 form, we can manipulate the equation so
means that x2 is already isolated from other quantities. that we can solve it by extracting the square root.
Thus, we can skip this step.
Step 1: Isolate the square variable (x2) from other
Step 2: Take the square root of both sides of the equation. quantities.
We get the square root of both sides of the equation. To isolate x2 from other quantities, we can transpose 4 to
the right-hand side of the equation:
x2 + 4 = 20
x2 = – 4 + 20
x2 = 16
x2 = 16
√x2 = √16
Notes:
x = ±4
If we get the square root of x2, the result will be x.
Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = 4 and x2 = – 4
There are two square roots of a number: a positive root
and a negative root, the reason why we put the sign ± Example 4: Solve for the roots of 2x2 – 6 = 0
when we take the square root of a number.
Solution:
Thus, the answers are x1 = 3 and x2 = -3
Step 1: Isolate the square variable (x2) from other
The solutions of a quadratic equation are also called quantities.
the roots of a quadratic equation. Thus, when we say the
roots of x2 = 9, we are referring to the solution of x2 = 9. To isolate x2 from other quantities, we can transpose -6 to
the right-hand side of the equation:
Example 2: What are the roots of 2x2 = 8?
2x2 – 6 = 0
Solution:
2x2 = 6 Thus, the first root is -1
2x2⁄2 = 6⁄2 Solving for Equation 2:
x2 = 3 x+4=–3
Step 2: Take the square root of both sides of the equation. x = – 4 + (-3)
x2 = 3 x=–7
√x2 = √3 Thus, the second root is -7
x = ± √3 Therefore, the roots of the quadratic equation are – 1 and –
7.
√3 is not a perfect square number (there’s no integer
multiplied to itself will give 3). Thus, we just write it as
√3.
Method 2: How To Solve Quadratic Equation by
Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = √3 and x2 = – √3 Factoring
Example 5: Solve for x in x2 – 19 = 6 In this method, we are going to apply what you have
learned about factoring, specifically the method
Solution:
of factoring quadratic trinomials.
x2 – 19 = 6
To solve quadratic equations by factoring, follow these
x2 = 19 + 6 Transposition Method steps:
x2 = 25 Express the given equation in standard form. This means

that one side of the quadratic equation must be 0.
√x2 = √25 Taking the square root of both sides
Factor the expression. You must come up with two factors
x = ±5 after factoring.
The values of x are 5 and -5 Equate each factor to zero and solve each resulting
Example 6: Solve for x in (x + 4)2 = 9 equation.
Solution: Example 1: Solve for the roots of x2 + 5x + 4 = 0 by

factoring.
Note that it is much easier if we start extracting the square
root of both sides first so that the resulting equation is just Solution:
a linear equation: Step 1: Express the given equation in standard form. The
(x + 4)2 = 9 given equation is already in standard form since it is
in ax2 + bx + c = 0 form and one of the sides of the
√(x + 4)2 = √9 Taking the square root of both sides quadratic equation is already 0. Hence, we can skip this
step.
x + 4 = ±3
Step 2: Factor the expression. To factor x2 + 5x + 4,
Since we have two square roots for 9, we are going to
follow the steps on factoring quadratic trinomials.
have to solve two linear equations:
x2 + 5x + 4 = 0
Equation 1: x + 4 = 3
(x + 4)(x + 1) = 0 by Factoring
Equation 2: x + 4 = -3
As shown above, we can come up with two factors which
Solving for Equation 1 first:
are x + 4 and x + 1.
x+4=3
Step 3: Equate each factor to zero and solve each resulting
x = – 4 + 3 Transposition Method equation. We have obtained x + 4 and x + 1 as factors
of x2 + 5x + 4. We set both of these factors to zero. This
x=–1 means that we are going to have two linear equations.
Equation 1: x + 4 = 0 Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = 5 and x2 = 2.
Equation 2: x + 1 = 0 Here’s a quick review of our solution above:
Solving the equations above
Equation 1: Equation 2:
x+4=0x+1=0
x=–4x=–1
Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = – 4 and x2 = – 1.
Here’s a quick preview of what we have done above:
Example 3: Solve for the roots of 2x2 + 3x – 2 = 0 by

factoring.
Solution:
Step 1: Express the given equation in standard
form. Since 2x2 + 3x – 2 = 0 is already in ax2 + bx + c =
0 form and one of its side is already 0, we can skip this
step.
Example 2: Solve for the values of x in x2 – 7x = – 10 Step 2: Factor the expression. You must come up with two
Solution: factors after factoring. Factoring 2x2 + 3x – 2 will give
us (2x – 1)(x + 2):
Step 1: Express the given equation in standard form. To
express x2 – 7x = – 10, we have to transpose – 10 to the 2x2 + 3x – 2 = 0
left-hand side so that the right-hand side will be 0: (2x – 1)(x + 2) = 0 by factoring
x2 – 7x = – 10 Step 3: Equate each factor to zero and solve each resulting
x2 – 7x + 10 = 0 Transposition Method equation. We have obtained 2x – 1 and x + 2 as the factors
of 2x2 + 3x – 2. We set both of these factors to zero. This
Step 2: Factor the expression. Factoring x2 – 7x + 10 will means that we are going to have two linear equations.
give us (x – 5)(x – 2)
Equation 1: 2x – 1 = 0
x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
Equation 2: x + 2 = 0
(x – 5)(x – 2) = 0 by factoring
Solving the equations above
Step 3: Equate each factor to zero and solve each resulting
equation. We have obtained x – 5 and x – 2 as the factors Equation 1: Equation 2:
of x2 – 7x + 10. We set both of these factors to zero. This 2x – 1 = 0 x + 2 = 0
means that we are going to have two linear equations.
2x = 1 x = – 2
Equation 1: x – 5 = 0
To cancel the numerical coefficient in Equation 1, we
Equation 2: x – 2 = 0 divide both of its sides by 2:
Solving the equations above 2x⁄2 = ½
Equation 1: Equation 2: x=½
x–5=0x–2=0 Thus, the roots of the equation are x1 = ½ and x2 = -2.
x=5x=2 Here’s a quick review of what we have done above:
– 10 and have a sum of 8. For this reason, we are going to
solve x2 + 8x – 10 = 0 by completing the square.
Step 1: Put the terms with variable x on the left-hand side
of the equation while the constant term on the right-hand
side. In this case, transpose – 10 (i.e., the constant) to the
right-hand side of the equation while all terms with x stay
on the left-hand side.
x2 + 8x – 10 = 0
Factoring seems to be a powerful technique to solve x2 + 8x = 10 Transposition Method

quadratic equations. However, not every quadratic Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by a (or the
equation can be factored. For instance, x2 + x + 2 = coefficient of the quadratic term). The a in x2 + 8x = 10 is
0 cannot be solved by factoring since there are no two the coefficient of x2. The coefficient of x2 is 1. If we
integers whose product is 2 and have a sum of 1. divide x2 + 8x = 10 by 1, the result will still be x2 + 8x =
But don’t worry, there are other methods available that we 10.
can use in case a quadratic equation is not factorable. Thus, we can skip this step.
These methods are completing the square
method and quadratic formula. Step 3: Divide the b (or the coefficient of the linear term)
by 2 and square the result. Add the result to both sides of
the equation. The b of x2 + 8x = 10 is the coefficient
Method 3: How To Solve Quadratic Equations by of 8x which is 8. Thus, b = 8.
Completing The Square Divide 8 by 2 (8 ÷ 2 = 4)
This method is advisable to use if a quadratic equation is Square the result (42 = 16)
non-factorable.
The number we obtain is 16.
To solve quadratic equations by completing the square,
follow these steps: We add 16 to both sides of x2 + 8x = 10:
Put the terms with variable x on the left-hand side of the x2 + 8x = 10

equation while the constant term on the right-hand side.
x2 + 8x + 16 = 10 + 16 Adding 16 to both sides of the
Divide both sides of the equation by a (or the coefficient equation.
of the quadratic term).
x2 + 8x + 16 = 26
Divide the b (or the coefficient of the linear term) by 2 and
We have obtained the equation x2 + 8x + 16 = 26. After
square the result. Add the result to both sides of the
you apply this step, you will obtain a perfect square
equation.
trinomial (i.e., x2 + 8x + 16). As we have learned from a
Factor the left-hand side of the equation. Express the previous chapter, perfect square trinomials can be
factors as a square of a binomial. factored.
Take the square root of both sides of the equation. Step 4: Factor the left-hand side of the equation. Express
the factors as a square of a binomial. The left-hand side
Solve the resulting linear equations. of x2 + 8x + 16 = 26 is x2 + 8x + 16. This can be factored
Don’t get intimidated by the steps above because we are as (x + 4)(x + 4). We express (x + 4)(x + 4) as (x + 4)2
going to discuss each one in detail in our examples below. To summarize:
Example 1: Solve for the roots of x2 + 8x – 10 = 0 x2 + 8x + 16 = 26
Solution: (x + 4)(x + 4) = 26 by factoring
A closer look will reveal that x2 + 8x – 10 is non- (x + 4)2 = 26 Expressing as a square of a binomial
factorable since there are no two integers whose product is
Let us take the square root of both sides of the equation Solution:
we have obtained from the previous step:
Since 2x2 + 12x + 14 = 0 is not factorable, let us solve this
(x + 4)2 = 26 quadratic equation by completing the square.
√(x + 4)2 = √26 Taking the square root of both sides Step 1: Put the terms with variable x on the left-hand side
of the equation while the constant term on the right-hand
x + 4 = ±√26
side. By transposing 14 (i.e., the constant) to the right-
Since 26 have two square roots (i.e., a positive and a hand side of the equation, all terms with x will remain on
negative square root), we have two linear equations: the left-hand side.
Equation 1: x + 4 = √26 2x2 + 12x + 14 = 0
Equation 2: x + 4 = -√26 2x2 + 12x = – 14 Transposition Method
Step 6: Solve the resulting linear equations. Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by a (or the
coefficient of the quadratic term). The a in 2x2 + 12x + 14
Solving each linear equation: = 0 is the coefficient of x2. The coefficient of 2x2 is 2.
Equation 1: Equation 2: Thus,
x + 4 = √26 x + 4 = -√26 2x2 + 12x = – 14
x = – 4 + √26 x = – 4 -√26 [2x2 + 12x] ÷ 2 = -14 ÷ 2 Dividing both sides of the

equation by a = 2
Therefore, the roots of the equation x2 + 8x – 10 =
0 are x1 = – 4 + √26 and x2 = – 4 –√26 x2 + 6x = – 7
Here’s a quick review of what we have done above: Step 3: Divide the b (or the coefficient of the linear term)
by 2 and square the result. Add the result to both sides of
the equation. The b of x2 + 6x = – 7 is the coefficient
of 6x which is 6. Thus, b = 6.
Divide 6 by 2 (6 ÷ 2 = 3)
Square the result (32 = 9)
The number we obtain is 9.
We add 9 to both sides of x2 + 6x = -7:
x2 + 6x = – 7
x2 + 6x + 9 = – 7 + 9 Adding 9 to both sides of the
equation
x2 + 6x + 9 = 2
We have obtained the equation x2 + 6x + 9 = 2. After
completing this step, you will obtain a perfect square
trinomial. x2 + 6x + 9 is a perfect square trinomial. As we
learned from a previous chapter, perfect square trinomials
can be factored.
Step 4: Factor the left-hand side of the equation. Express
the factors as a square of a binomial. The left-hand side of
the equation is x2 + 6x + 9. This can be factored as (x + 3)
(x + 3). We express (x + 3)(x + 3) as (x + 3)2
Example 2: Solve for the roots of 2x2 + 12x + 14 = 0 x2 + 6x + 9= 2

(x + 3)(x + 3) = 2 by factoring
(x + 3)2 = 2 Expressing as a square of a binomial Method 4: How To Solve Quadratic Equation Using
Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula is a formula that will give you the
Let us take the square root of both sides of the equation
roots of a quadratic equation. You can use this formula for
we have obtained from the previous step:
any type or form of quadratic equation.
(x + 3)2 = 2
The Quadratic Formula.
√(x + 3)2 = √2 Taking the square root of both sides
The quadratic formula is:
x + 3 = ±√2
Since 2 have two square roots (i.e., a positive and a
negative square root), we have two linear equations:
Equation 1: x + 3 = √2
Equation 2: x + 3 = -√2
Step 6: Solve the resulting linear equations.
Solving each linear equation:
Equation 1: Equation 2:
Where:
x + 3 = √2 x + 3 = -√2
a is the numerical coefficient of the quadratic term
x = – 3 + √2 x = – 3 -√2
b is the numerical coefficient of the linear term
Therefore, the roots of the equation 2x2 + 12x + 14 =
0 are x1 = -3 + √2 and x2 = – 3 –√2 c is the constant term
Here’s a quick review of what we have done above: The quadratic formula was derived by completing the
square (see the previous method). If you are curious about
how the quadratic formula was derived, kindly read the
BONUS part of this reviewer.
To use the quadratic formula, you have to determine the
values of a, b, and c first. Afterward, substitute these
values to the formula and compute. You will arrive at two
values because of the ± sign.
Example 1: Use the quadratic formula to solve for the
values of x in 3x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
Solution:
The values of a, b, and c are:
a=3
b=–2
c=–1
Let us substitute these values to the quadratic formula:
Computing for the values of x:
Computing for the values of x:
Hence, the roots of the equation are x1 = 1 and x2 = -⅓

Example 2: Use the quadratic formula to solve for the
values of x in x2 + 3x – 5 = 0
Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation
The values of a, b, and c are:
The discriminant of a quadratic equation allows you to
a=1
determine the “nature of the roots” of a quadratic equation
b=3 without actually solving it.
c=–5 When we say “nature of the roots”, we are actually

referring to three things:
Let us substitute these values to the quadratic formula:
The signs of the roots;
Whether the roots are real or complex numbers; and
Whether the roots are identical or not. If we try to solve x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 using factoring:
Through the discriminant, we can determine if a quadratic x2.+ 4x + 4 = 0
equation will give us roots that are real numbers or
(x + 2)(x + 2) = 0 by factoring
complex numbers, as well as if they are positive or
negative numbers. We can also determine if the roots of x1 = – 2 x2 = – 2
that equation are identical or not.
The roots of x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 are both – 2. Indeed, the roots
The discriminant is the part of the quadratic formula that of the equation are identical and real numbers. The
is under the radical sign (or the square root symbol). discriminant is correct.
Example 2: What is the nature of the roots of 2x2 + 5x – 1
= 0?
Solution:
We have a = 2, b = 5, and c = – 1
Using the discriminant:
D = b2 – 4ac
D = (5)2 – 4(2)(-1)
What does the discriminant tell us? D = 25 + 8
If the computed value of the discriminant is positive (D > D = 33
0), then the quadratic equation has two real distinct roots
(or two real different roots). The discriminant is positive. This means that the nature of
the roots of 2x2 + 5x – 1 = 0 are real and distinct.
If the computed value of the discriminant is 0 (D = 0),
then the quadratic equation has two identical real roots (or Try to verify using any method that the roots of 2x2 + 5x
has only one root that is just repeated). – 1 = 0 are distinct and real.
If the computed value of the discriminant is negative (D < Example 3: The quadratic equation x2 – (k + 2)x + 49 = 0
0), then the quadratic equation has no real roots. This has two identical roots. What must be the value of k?
means that the roots of the quadratic equation are complex
Solution:
numbers.
If the quadratic equation has two identical roots, it means
Let us have some examples:
that its discriminant is equal to 0.
Example 1: Using the discriminant, determine the nature
Thus, we set:
of the roots of x2 + 4x + 4 = 0
D = b2 – 4ac
Solution:
0 = b2 – 4ac
We have a = 1, b = 4, and c = 4
We have a = 1, b = -(k + 2), and c = 49. Substituting these
Using the discriminant:
values:
D = b2 – 4ac
0 = b2 – 4ac
D = (4)2 – 4(1)(4)
0 = (k + 2)2 – 4(1)(49)
D = 16 – 16
Now, let us solve for the value of k:
D=0
0 = k2 + 4k + 4 – 196 Expanding the square of binomial
The value of the discriminant is 0. This means that the
0 = k2 + 4k – 192
roots of x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 are two identical roots (or one
root that is just being repeated). k2 + 4k – 192 = 0 Symmetric Property of Equality
(k + 16)(k – 12) = 0 by factoring
k + 16 = 0 k – 12 = 0 Equating each factor to 0
k = -16 k = 12 Solving for the values of k in the linear
equations
k = – 16 k = 12
Therefore, the values of k should be k1 = – 16 and k2 = 12
Thus, the sum and product of the roots are – 8 and 2,

Sum and Product of the Roots of a Quadratic Equation respectively.
There’s another fun thing about quadratic equations. We

can determine the sum and the product of their roots
Using Quadratic Equations to Solve Word Problems
without actually computing for them. All you have to do is
to use the formulas below. A lot of word problems can be described using quadratic
equations. In this section, we’re going to solve some word
The formula for the sum of the roots of a quadratic
problems using quadratic equations.
equation is:
Here are the steps that you may follow to solve word
x1 + x2 = -b⁄a
problems involving quadratic equations:
The formula for the product of the roots of a quadratic
Read and understand the problem. Identify what is being
equation is:
asked.
x1⋅x2 = c⁄a
Represent unknown quantities using a variable.
Construct a quadratic equation that represents the given
situation or problem.
Solve the quadratic equation.
Example 1: The sum of two numbers is 8 while their
product is 15. What are the numbers?
Solution:
Step 1: Read and understand the problem. Identify what is
being asked. The problem is asking us to determine two
numbers whose sum is 8 and whose product is 15.
The formulas above were derived using the quadratic
formula but we will not show the derivation in this Step 2: Represent unknown quantities using a
reviewer. You may refer here if you’re interested in the variable. Let x be one of the numbers. Since the sum of
formulas’ derivation. the numbers is 8, we can represent the second number as
8 – x.
Example 1: What is the sum and product of the roots of
x2 + 8x + 2 = 0? x = first number
Solution: 8 – x = second number
Using the formulas for the sum and product of the roots: Step 3: Construct a quadratic equation that represents the
given situation or problem. The problem states that the
product of the numbers is 15. We can express it as:
(first number)(second number) = 15
Using the variables we set in Step 2:
x (8 – x) = 15 12 = 2l + 2w
By the distributive property, we have: 12 = 2(l + w) Distributive Property
8x – x2 = 15 6 = l + w Division Property of Equality
The equation above can be expressed in standard form as: w = 6 – l Transposition Method
-x2 + 8x = 15 Now, we substitute the value of w in terms of l in our
second equation:
Multiplying both sides by – 1, we obtain:
8=l⋅w
x2 – 8x = – 15
8 = l (6 – l) Substituting w = 6 – l
x2 – 8x + 15 = 0
8 = 6l – l2
Step 4: Solve the quadratic equation.
We have obtained the quadratic equation 8 = 6l – l2
Let us solve for the values of x in x2 – 8x + 15 = 0. We
can solve this quadratic equation by factoring: Note that we can write it in standard form:
x2 – 8x + 15 = 0 8 = 6l – l2
(x – 3)(x – 5) = 0 l2 – 6l + 8 = 0 Transposition Method
x1 = 3 x2 = 5 Step 4: Solve the quadratic equation.
Based on the solution of our quadratic equation, the Let us solve for l in l2 – 6l + 8 = 0 by factoring:
numbers are 3 and 5.
l2 – 6l + 8 = 0
Example 2: A small rectangular garden has a perimeter of
(l – 4)(l – 2) = 0
12 meters and an area of 8 square meters. Determine the
length and the width of the rectangular garden. l1 = 4 l2 = 2
Solution: Thus, we have two values for the length of the small
rectangular garden according to our solution which are 4
Step 1: Read and understand the problem. Identify what is
meters and 2 meters.
being asked. The problem is asking us to determine the
length and the width of the small rectangular garden given Let us substitute this value of l to w = 6 – l to determine
that its perimeter is 12 meters and its area is 8 square the possible values of the width:
meters.
Using l1 = 4:
Step 2: Represent unknown quantities using a
variable. Let l be the length of the small rectangular w=6–4
garden while let w represent its width. w1 = 2
Step 3: Construct a quadratic equation that represents the Using l2 = 2
given situation or problem. The perimeter of a rectangle is
defined as P = 2l + 2w. Since the small rectangular garden w=6–2
has a perimeter of 12 meters, we have:
w2 = 4
12 = 2l + 2w (Equation 1)
Thus, the possible values of the width are 2 meters and 4
Meanwhile, the area of a rectangle is defined as A = meters.
l ⋅ w. Since the small rectangular garden has an area of 8
Hence the values of the length and width of the rectangle
square meters, we have:
are 4 meters and 2 meters, respectively.
8 = l ⋅ w (Equation 2)
Using Equation 1, we can solve for the value of w in terms
BONUS: How Was the Quadratic Formula Derived?
of l:
The quadratic formula was derived using the completing Formally, a rational expression R(x) is the ratio of two
the square method: polynomials P(x) and Q(x), such that the value of the
polynomial Q(x) is not equal to 0 (because division by 0 is
undefined).
R(x) = P(x)∕Q(x) , where Q(x) ≠ 0
Example: Which of the following is/are rational
expressions?
 Rational Expressions
What Is a Rational Expression?

A rational expression (or rational algebraic expression) is
a ratio of two polynomials. Think of it as a fraction but
instead of whole numbers, its numerator and denominator
are polynomials.
Solution:
The expression in a) is a rational expression since both its
numerator and denominator are polynomials.
The expression in b) is also a rational expression because
x2 + 2x + 1 can be expressed as:
Take note that a constant can be considered a polynomial.

Thus, b) has a numerator and denominator that are both
polynomials.
The expression in c) is also a rational expression since its
numerator (which is 1) is a polynomial while its
denominator is also a polynomial.
The expression in d) is not a rational expression since its
numerator is not a polynomial. Recall that if a variable is
under the radical sign, then the expression is not a
polynomial.
Simplifying Rational Expressions

Just like fractions, we can also reduce rational expressions
into their simplest form. A rational expression is said to be
in its simplest form if and only if its numerator and
denominator have no common factor except 1.
For instance, let us take a look at the following rational
expression:
If we factor both the numerator and denominator, you will
notice that there’s a common factor between them. That
common factor is x:
What’s left with us is ⅖. Both 2 and 5 are prime and have

no common factor except 1. Therefore, the simplified
form of the rational expression in this example is ⅖.
How to Simplify Rational Expressions: 3 Steps
Here are the steps to simplify a rational expression:
Factor the numerator and the denominator.
Look for the common factors between the numerator and
the denominator.
Cancel out the common factors between the numerator
and the denominator.
Example 1: Simplify the following rational expression:
We can cancel out the common factor:

Solution:
1. Factor the numerator and the denominator.
Thus, the simplified form of the rational expression is 6x2.

2. Look for the common factors between the numerator

Solution:
3. Cancel out the common factors between the numerator
1. Factor the numerator and the denominator
We can factor out x2 – 2x as x(x – 2) by factoring using
the Greatest Common Factor (GCF).
and the denominator
Solution:
and the denominator Since y2 – 16 is a difference of the two squares, we can
factor it as (y + 4)(y – 4). On the other hand, y2 – 8y + 16
is a perfect square trinomial that we can factor as (y – 4)(y
– 4).
and the denominator
Solution:
Since x2 – 16x + 64 is a perfect square trinomial, we can
factor it as (x – 8)(x – 8). Meanwhile, we can factor 2x –
16 as 2(x – 8) using its GCF.

and the denominator
2. Look for the common factors between the numerator 1. Factor the numerator and the denominator
and the denominator
We can factor a2 + 7a + 10 as (a + 5)(a + 2).

and the denominator

and the denominator

and the denominator
Therefore, the simplified form of the rational expression

is a + 2.
Solution:
Solution:
We can factor n2 – 16 as (n + 4)(n – 4). Meanwhile, we
can factor n2 + 6n + 8 as (n + 4)(n + 2). 3. Cancel out the common factors between the numerator
and the denominator

and the denominator Thus, the answer to this example is n – 4.
How To Find the Least Common Denominator (LCD) of

Rational Expressions
Before we study how to apply basic operations to rational
expressions, you must learn first how to find the Least
Common Denominator (LCD) of rational expressions.
To find the LCD of rational expressions, follow these
steps:
Factor the denominators of the rational expressions.
Write the factors of the denominators. Match the common
factors in columns.
Bring down each factor in every column. Common factors
in the column must be brought down also.
Multiply the factors you brought down. The resulting
expression is the LCD.
Example 1:
4. Multiply the factors you brought down. The resulting

expression is the LCD
Solution:
The denominators of the given expressions are x –
1 and x2 – 1. Our task is to determine their Least Common
Denominator using the steps above:
1. Factor the denominators of the rational expressions.
x – 1 cannot be factored further. Meanwhile, since x2 –
1 is a difference of two squares, we can factor it as (x + 1)
(x – 1).
2. Write the factors of the denominators. Match the
common factors in columns Thus, the LCD is (x + 1)(x – 1) or x2 – 1.
Example 2:
Solution:
3. Bring down each factor in every column. Common 1. Factor the denominators of the rational expressions.
factors in the column must be brought down also
x2 + 7x + 10 can be factored as (x + 5)(x +
2). Meanwhile, x2 + 4x + 4 can be factored as (x + 2)(x +
2).
2. Write the factors of the denominators. Match the
common factors in columns
Based on our computations above, the LCD of x2 + 7x +

10 and x2 + 4x + 4 is (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 5).
Note: When we are determining the LCD of two rational
expressions, it is advisable to write the obtained LCD in
factored form since expressions are much easier to
multiply and divide if they are in factored form.
3. Bring down each factor in every column. Common
factors in the column must be brought down also Make sure that you already mastered the skill of
determining the LCD of rational expressions before
proceeding to the actual process of adding and subtracting
them.
Operations on Rational Expressions

In this section, we’ll discuss how to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide rational expressions.
1. Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
The process of adding and subtracting rational expressions
is actually similar to the process of adding and subtracting
fractions. Thus, if you know how to add or subtract
fractions, then adding and subtracting rational expressions
will not be so strange to you.
4. Multiply the factors you brought down. The resulting
expression is the LCD The first thing you have to do when adding or subtracting
rational expressions is to look at their denominators. If the
denominators are the same, then we can just add the
numerators of the rational expressions and then copy the
denominator.
a. Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions With
the Same Denominator
Here are the steps in adding rational expressions with the
same denominator:
Add the numerators of the rational expressions. The
resulting expression is the numerator of the answer.
Copy the common denominator and use it as the 2. Copy the common denominator and use it as the
denominator of your answer. denominator of your answer
Simplify the resulting rational expression, if possible.
Formally,
Example 1:
3. Simplify the resulting rational expression, if possible

In this case, we can’t simplify the resulting rational
expression further so it automatically becomes the final
answer.
Example 2:
Solution:
1. Add the numerators of the rational expressions. The
resulting expression is the numerator of the answer
Solution:
Example 3:
Example 4:
Solution:
Solution:
Example 5: Now that you know how to add and subtract rational
expressions with the same denominators, our next goal is
to learn how to add and subtract rational expressions with
different denominators.
b. Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions With
Different Denominators.
To add or subtract rational expressions with different
denominators, follow these steps:
Determine the LCD of the rational expressions.
Express the given rational expressions using the LCD you
Solution:
have obtained by dividing the LCD by the denominator of
the rational expression and then multiplying the result to
the numerator of the rational expression. The results will
be the new numerators of the rational expressions.
Add or subtract the rational expressions you have obtained
from the second step. Simplify the resulting expression, if
possible.
Let us try to apply these steps to our examples below:
Example 1:
Solution:
Using the steps we have mentioned above on adding and
subtracting rational expressions with different
denominators:
1. Determine the LCD of the rational expressions.
3. Add or subtract the rational expressions you have

obtained from the second step. Simplify the resulting
expression, if possible.
2. Express the given rational expressions using the LCD

you have obtained by dividing the LCD by the
denominator of the rational expression and then
multiplying the result to the numerator of the rational
expression. The results will be the new numerators of
rational expressions.
Example 2:
Solution:
1. Determine the LCD of the rational expressions.

The LCD is (x – 1)(x + 1).

expression. The results will be the new numerators of
Example 3:
Solution:
1. Determine the LCD of the rational expressions


expression. The results will be the new numerators of the
2. Multiplication of Rational Expressions

The steps in multiplying rational expressions are actually
similar to the steps in multiplying fractions. Here are the
steps:
Multiply the numerators of the rational expressions. Write
the answer as the numerator of the resulting expression.
Multiply the denominators of the rational expressions.
Write the answer as the denominator of the resulting
expression.
Simplify the resulting expression, if possible.
Example:
We will not perform distributive property in this case

since we are simplifying the expression in the next step.
3. Simplify the resulting expression, if possible.
Solution:
Using the steps in multiplying rational expressions:
1. Multiply the numerators of the rational expressions.
Write the answer as the numerator of the resulting
expression.
2. Multiply the denominators of the rational expressions. Using Cancellation Method in Multiplying Rational
Write the answer as the denominator of the resulting Expressions.
expression.
Just like fractions, we can also apply the cancellation
method to cancel out common factors among the given
expressions to make our computation much easier. Let us
try to apply this technique in our next examples.
Example 1: Apply the cancellation method to calculate the
product of
Solution:
3. Division of Rational Expressions

If you still remember how to divide fractions, then
dividing rational expressions will be easier because the
steps are actually similar. Otherwise, here are the steps
you need to remember when dividing rational expressions:
Get the reciprocal of the divisor or the second rational
expression.
Multiply the rational expression you have obtained in Step
1 to the first rational expression.
Simplify the result, if possible.
Example 2: Example 1:
Solution:
Solution:
1. Get the reciprocal of the divisor or the second rational
expression.
2. Multiply the rational expression you have obtained in
Step 1 to the first rational expression.
3. Simplify the result, if possible.

The result is already in simplified form, so we can skip
this step.
Example 2:
 Inequalities
Solution:
 Using Algebra to Solve Word Problems
C. Basic Geometry
 Perimeter and Area of Plane Figures
 Volume of Solid Figures

D. Basic Statistics  Thermochemistry
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Nuclear Chemistry
 Probability
 Concentration of Solutions
 Organic Chemistry
4. PERCEPTUAL ACUITY
 Biochemistry
 Hidden Figure
 Mirror Image
 Identical Information
3. PHYSICS
A. Mechanics
PART 2  Scalar and Vector Quantities
1. BIOLOGY  Kinematics
 Introduction
 Relative Velocities
 Properties of Life
 Laws of Motion
 Biomolecules
 Friction
 The Cell
 Work, Energy, and Power
 Cellular Metabolism
 Momentum and Impulse
 The Central Dogma of Biology
 Fluid Mechanics
 Biological Diversity
B. Waves and Optics
 The Theory of Evolution
 Mechanical Waves
 Genetics: The Study of Inheritance
 Sound and Vibration
 Animals: Form and Functions
 Light
 Plants: Form and Functions
C. Electricity and Magnetism
 The Principles of Ecology
 Electric Charge and Current
 Circuits
2. CHEMISTRY
 Introduction  Magnetism
 Matter D. Thermodynamics
 Atoms  Temperature and Heat
 The Periodic Table of Elements and Periodic  Laws of Thermodynamics

Trends E. Modern Physics
 Compounds  Nuclear Physics
 Gases  Introduction to Relativity
 Chemical Reactions
 Chemical Kinetics 4. SOCIAL SCIENCE
 Chemical Equilibria A. Sociology and Anthropology
 Introduction
 Acids and Bases
 The Role and Scope of Sociology
 The World in Sociological Lens
 Elements of Sociological Analysis
 Social Institutions
 Economy and Work
 Social Change and Current Trends
 Social Change and Future Trends
 Important Figures in Sociology
 Sociological Terms
 Anthropology as a Social Science
B. Psychology
 Introduction
 Development of Psychology
 Biological Psychology
 Sensation and Perception
 States of Consciousness
 Cognition and Learning
 Memory
 Motivation and Emotion
 Social and Abnormal Psychology
 Psychotherapy
 Health, Stress, and Coping

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PART 1  Measurement Analogies (e.g.

36 and 2 are integers. Note that 36 ÷ 2 = 18. Since there are

This means that all natural numbers are also whole

Example: Is 510 a whole number or a natural number?

Solution: 510 is a natural number since we use it for

Integers A rational number is also a number that can be written as

Again, don’t worry if the definition sounds confusing because

To make it easier for you, here is a list of numbers that can

1. All integers are rational numbers. Example: -1, 0, -

Examples of irrational numbers are the non-terminating non-

There are a lot of important irrational numbers in

Real numbers are the combination of rational and

For example, – 5 is smaller in value than – 2 since – 5 can be

We can also plot fractions and decimals in the real number

Another interesting fact about imaginary numbers is that they

What if we combine a real number and an imaginary

Imaginary Numbers  Operations on Integers

However, there’s no real number that gives the square root of

The rules in dividing integers are actually similar to

The operation inside the parenthesis is 3 x 2 which is

What is an Exponent? E – Simplify any number with exponents.

MD – Perform multiplication or division from left to

How To Compute Numbers with an Exponent

Example 5: Compute for 200 – 15² + (144 ÷ (-12) ) x

Example 4: Compute for 81 ÷ (42 – 7) x 3

We have already performed P of PEMDAS. Since

Are negative numbers a factor of a number?

Prime and Composite Numbers

6 x 25 = 150 For 10:

Prime Factorization Using the Factor Tree

Therefore, the prime factorization of 36 is 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 =

Greatest Common Factor

1. How to find the GCF of given numbers through the

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The ends (red-colored numbers) of the respective factor

Determining the LCM using the listing method seems to

2. How to find the LCM using prime factorization

Express the given numbers as the product of their prime

Solution: 5. Multiply the factors to obtain the LCM.

1. Determine the prime factors of the given numbers

Divisibility Rule for 1: All integers are divisible by 1

Divisibility Rule for 2: An integer is divisible by 2 if and

Example 2: Is 54230 divisible by 4? Using the divisibility rule for 6:

Example 1: Is 294 divisible by 7? Which numbers are divisible by 0?

21 is divisible by 7 since 21 divided by 7 is 3 and it has no A fraction is a part or a section of a whole.

Divide the numerator and the denominator by the GCF.

Types of Decimal Numbers

How To Convert Fractions into Decimals

Therefore, the decimal form of ½ is 0.5

Since the division process is never-ending and we will

Continue adding 0 to the remainder in case it is smaller

How To Convert Decimals into Fractions

We just add the numerators of the given fractions which

Example 4: Bea ate 2⁄8 of the pie that her mother

Step 2: Copy the denominator of the given fractions and

Step 3: Reduce the answer to its lowest terms, if possible.

Transforming Dissimilar Fractions to Similar Fractions

Solution: Step 3: Apply Step 2 for the second fraction.

When we transform the fractions 3⁄5 and 1⁄3 into similar