Propaganda

The term propaganda has a nearly universally negative connotation.
Walter Lippmann
described it as inherently "deceptive" and therefore evil.[1] Propaganda is more an
exercise of deception rather than persuasion. Partisans often use the label to dismiss
any claims made by their opponents while at the same time professing to never employ
propaganda themselves. It is akin to advertising and public relations, but with political
purpose. Although propaganda has been utilized for centuries, the term was first used in
1622 when Pope Gregory XV issued the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide to
counter the growing Protestant threat in order "to reconquer by spiritual arms" those
areas "lost to the Church in the debacle of the sixteenth century."[2] Propaganda has
become a common element of politics and war. As new communications technologies
have developed, propagandists have developed new methods to reach increasingly
large audiences in order to shape their views. The shift to targeting mass audiences and
not just elite publics has been called by some as "new propaganda."[3] This essay aims
to provide a brief overview of the concept of propaganda, various propaganda
techniques, and related topics.
In a nutshell, propaganda is designed to manipulate others' beliefs and induce action in

the interest of the propagator by drilling the message into the listeners' heads. It
involves the use of images, slogans and symbols to play on prejudices and emotions.
The ultimate goal of propaganda is to entice the recipient of the message to come to
'voluntarily' accept the propagandist's position as if it was one's own. Propaganda may
be aimed at one's own people or at members of other groups. It can be designed to
agitate the population or to pacify it. We often think of propaganda as false information
that is meant to reassure those who already believe. Believing what is false can create
cognitive dissonance, which people are eager to eliminate. Therefore, propaganda is
often directed at those who are already sympathetic to the message in order to help
overcome this discomfort. One the one hand, then, propaganda generally aims to
construct the self as a noble, strong persona to which individuals in the domestic
population can feel connected. At the same time, propaganda often attempts to rally the
domestic public to action creating fear, confusion, and hatred by portraying the
antagonist as an abominable figure.[4] Typically, the Other is demonized or
dehumanized.[5] Stereotyping and scapegoating are common tactics in this regard. At
its most extreme, propaganda is intended to overcome a reluctance to kill. In its modern
usage, propaganda also tends to be characterized by some degree of
institutionalization, mass distribution, and repetition of the message. [6]
Propagandists often conceal their purpose, even their identity, in order to distract the
public. White propaganda, for instance, is from a correctly identified source and is not
intentionally deceptive. Black propaganda, by contrast, is purposefully deceptive in
giving the impression that the source is friendly.[7] Finally, the term gray propaganda
has been used to describe propaganda that falls somewhere in between.
Although the range of propaganda techniques is seemingly limitless, space permits only
an abbreviated discussion.[8] One common technique is bandwagoning, in other words
appealing to people's desire to belong especially to the winning side, rather than the
rightness of the position. Doublespeak involves the use of language that is deliberately
constructed to disguise or distort its actual meaning. Examples might include
downsizing, extraordinary rendition, or the coalition of the willing. These may take the
form of euphemisms, which are used to make something sound better than it is such as
the term collateral damage. Another strategy is to appeal to authority. For instance, the
World War II-era series This is War! emphasized how FDR's leadership qualities were
similar to greats like George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.[9] At other times,
testimonials may be effective. Propaganda is also often heavily laced with
rationalization and oversimplification. On the latter point, glittering generalities are words
that, while they may have different positive meaning for individual, are linked to
concepts that are highly valued by the group. Therefore, when these words are invoked,
they demand approval without thinking, simply because such an important concept is
involved. For example, when a person is asked to do something in 'defense of
democracy' they are more likely to agree. The concept of democracy has a positive
connotation to them because it is linked to a concept that they value. Propagandists
sometimes use simple name-calling to draw a vague equivalence between a concept
and a person, group, or idea. At other times, they may use "plain folks rhetoric" in order
to convince the audience that they, and their ideas, are "of the people." Finally,
propaganda often tries to at least implicitly gain the approval of respected and revered
social institutions such as church or nation in order to transfer its authority and prestige
to the propagandist's program.
Overall, many have pointed out that the most effective propaganda campaigns rely
heavily on selective truth-telling, the confusion of means and ends, and the presentation
of a simple idyllic vision that glosses over uncomfortable realities.[10] Psychologists
Pratkanis and Aronson recommend four strategies for a successful propaganda
campaign.[11] The first point is the importance of pre-persuasion. The propagandist
should attempt to create a climate in which the message is more likely to be believed.
Second is the credibility of the source. He/she should be a likable or authoritative
communicator. Third, the message should be focused on simple, achievable goals.
Finally, the message should arouse the emotions of the recipient and provide a targeted
response.
It is unclear whether technological developments are making propaganda efforts easier

or not. On the one hand, advances in communications technologies may be reducing
government control over information.[12] Through the internet and satellite television,
people need no longer rely solely on their governments for information. On the other
hand, technology may make propaganda more effective. For example, it can make the
experience of war more superficial and distort the lessons of prior conflict.[13] In
addition, one can get overwhelmed with the amount of information on the internet,
making it difficult to determine whether a particular source is credible. What is more,
there appears to be significant 'virtual Balkanization' in which like-minded individuals
form closed communities in which other viewpoints are not sought after.
Whether for scholars or the average person, Jowett and O'Donnell offer a 10 point
checklist for analyzing propaganda:[14]
1. The ideology and purpose of the propaganda campaign,

2. The context in which the campaign occurs (for example, history or the
ideological and social mileu),
3. Identification of the propagandist,
4. The structure of the propaganda organization (for example, identifying the
leadership, organizational goals, and the form of media utilized),
5. The target audience,
6. Media utilization techniques,
7. Special techniques to maximize effect (which include creating resonance
with the audience, establishing the credibility of the source, using opinion
leaders, using face-to-face contact, drawing upon group norms, using
rewards and punishment, employing visual symbols of power, language
usage, music usage, and arousing emotions),
8. Audience reaction to various techniques,
9. Counterpropaganda (if present),
10. Effects and evaluation.

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The term propaganda has a nearly universally negative connotation.

In a nutshell, propaganda is designed to manipulate others' beliefs and induce action in

It is unclear whether technological developments are making propaganda efforts easier

1. The ideology and purpose of the propaganda campaign,

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