UNIT-II

Solid state electronic devices - PN junction diode, BJT, FET, DIAC, TRIAC and LEDs. Analog
signal conditioning, operational amplifiers, noise reduction, filtering.

Solid-State Electronics
There are many semiconductor-based solid-state switches such as diodes, thyristors, transistors and
integrated circuits. As name implies, a semiconductor is neither a good conductor of electrical current
nor an insulator. Under certain circumstances, the resistive properties of a semiconductor can be varied
between those of a conductor and those of an insulator. In general, the resistance of semiconductor
materials such as silicon, germanium, etc. decreases as temperature increases, and ultimately a point
is reached when they become conductors as the temperature rises.
Pure silicon and germanium are poor conductors and are of little use. To overcome this, a process
called doping is utilized. The process of doping is adding elements such as arsenic, phosphorous,
antimony, indium, boron, etc. to silicon and germanium to improve their conductivity.
Three types of doped semiconductors are commonly used in the semiconductor industry based on
the nature of the impurity as follows:
1. N-type: This negative-type semiconductor has impurities of the elements with five valence
electrons, for example arsenic, phosphorous or antimony. The electrons in the impurities
(doping element) are very easily freed and become conduction electrons. The impurities
contribute to the conduction electrons which act as dominant current carriers and are known as
donors since there are more conduction band electrons. The valence band holes act as minority
carriers (Figure 2.1). Note that the term N-type implies an excess of electrons in the material after
covalent bonds are formed between the semiconductor material and the donor.

Fig. 2.1 N-type semiconductor: a) N-type material and b) energy diagram

2. P-type: This has, as the doping material, elements with three valence electrons like indium,
boron, gallium and aluminum. These semiconductors are commonly known as receptors. The
existence of covalent bonding structure is due to the use of trivalent element. The P-type material
is shown to have an excess of holes in the valence band as depicted in Figure 2.2. There are many
valence band holes than conduction band electrons, therefore holes are the majority carriers.

Fig. 2.2 P-type semiconductor: a) P-type material and b) energy diagram

3. PN junction: There is little use of either N-type or P-type materials in isolation and hence the
PN junction is constructed by joining the two different types of materials at a junction as shown
in Figure 2.3. Note that there is an overlap of conduction and valence bands of the material and
consequently results in diffusion of free electrons from the N-type material to the P-type material.
The diffusion across the junction leaves one positively charged bond in the N-type material and
one negatively charged bond in the P-type material. Subsequently, the N-type material will lose
conduction band electron and P-type material will lose valence band hole. At this point, both
bonds- have been depleted of charge carriers and the junction ends up having a layer called the
depletion layer. The difference in charges on two sides of the junction is called barrier potential.
 Fig. 2.3 PN junction

PN Junction Diode
A diode is a two-electrode device and often acts as a one-way conductor. The basic type of diode is
the PN junction diode. The construction and symbol of PN junction diode is shown in Figure 2.4.
The positive P-end connection is called anode and the negative N-end connection is called cathode.
Some electrons in the N-material near the junction are attracted to the holes in the P-material, thus
leaving holes in the N-material. Therefore a potential difference exists across the layers due to
diffusion of charges and hence, the material will conduct in one direction but not in the opposite
direction. We can control the width of depletion layer to control the resistance of the PN junction and
thus, the amount of current passing through the device by applying a potential to the junction. This
can be achieved in the following two ways.

Fig. 2.4 Semiconductor diodes: a) Construction b) Symbol

 1.Forward biasing: Here the applied voltage causes the N-type material to be more negative than
the P-type material and potential is used to reduce the resistance of a PN junction. Figure
2.5(a) shows a diode connected in the forward-biased condition. The diode is connected in
such a way that the cathode has a more negative voltage applied to it with respect to the
anode. The applied voltage opposes the contact potential and closes the depletion layer. Here
the rapid rise in current only occurs when the potential difference exceeds the threshold value.
2.Reverse biasing: A PN junction is reverse-biased when the applied voltage causes the N-type
material to be more positive than the P-type material. The connection for reverse .biasing the
PN junction is given in Figure 2.5(b). The effect is to widen the depletion layer and the
junction current is reduced to almost zero. The diode blocks the current and the potential
barrier increases [Figure 2.5(b)].
Figure 2.6 shows a typical operating curve for a basic diode. Note that if the voltage across the diode
is positive, relatively large amount of current flow occurs for small voltages. This is a forward-biased
condition. Therefore, in the forward direction, the diode has a very small resistance and can be
ignored. On the other hand, in the reverse-biased region, for moderate values of negative voltage, the
current is very small. However, a large current will flow for a sufficiently large reverse-bias voltage
applied to the diode and the diode enters the reverse breakdown region. Therefore, in the reverse
direction, the diode conducts very little, up to a critical value of the applied voltage. This critical
limiting value of reverse voltage is known as the Zener voltage. Up to this voltage, the reverse
saturation current is independent of voltage. Diodes that are intended to operate in the breakdown
region are called Zener diodes.

Fig. 2.5 PN diode: a) Forward biased and b) Reverse biased

Fig. 2.6 Current voltage relationship for a PN semiconductor diode

In an ideal forward-biased diode circuit shown in Figure 2.7, the forward voltage V F equals the
knee voltage Vk and is approximately equal to 0.7 V for all practical diodes. This is the voltage
below which the current in the circuit is near zero. If the supply voltage is below this value the diode
conduction is negligible. That is the point on the knee of the curve in the first quadrant of the Figure
2.6.
VS = V F + V R
VF = 0.7 V
VR = VS – 0.7
Here VF is the drop in the diode (forward drop) and VR is the voltage drop in the resistance.
Therefore, the expression for current is
IT = VR /R = (VS – 0.7)/R

Fig. 2.7 Diode circuit

AC Rectification
The process of obtaining unidirectional current and voltage from an alternating current and voltage
is called rectification. Therefore, a rectifier is a device that permits current flow through it in one
direction only. One of the most common uses of a diode in signal processing is in a rectifier circuit.
There are two basic types of rectifier circuits: the half-wave, full-wave rectifiers.
Half-Wave Rectifier
A half-wave rectifier is made up of a diode and resistor as shown in Figure 2.8. If a diode is placed in
a circuit that has an alternating voltage applied to it, the diode will only conduct for half of the 360°
of the sine wave. The diode direction determines which half-cycle will be eliminated, whether it is
the negative half or the positive half of the input. The circuit eliminates half-cycle of input by the
one-way conduction of the diode in the positive cycle of the input due to forward-biasing. When the
polarity of the input supply wave reverses (negative half-cycle), the diode is reverse-biased,
preventing conduction in the circuit. Similarly, a half-wave rectifier with diode direction reversed
will conduct during the negative half of the input.

Fig. 2.8 Rectification diode forward-biased

Full-Wave Rectifiers
Full-wave rectification can be obtained with a diode bridge circuit shown in Figure 2.9. The circuit is
also known as bridge rectifier, consists of four diodes and a, resistor. The bridge rectifier alternates
conduction between two diode pairs. When D1 and D3 are ON, D2 and D4 are OFF. A current will
flow from negative end (A) through D1, then through the load R and return through D3. Diodes D1
and D3 are forward-biased and will conduct. Diodes D2 and D4 are reverse-biased and do not
conduct. Hence, current will not be able to flow through Diodes D2 and D4.
 When polarity is changed during the negative half-cycle of the input, current flows through D 2
and D4. Therefore, the circuit arrangement ensures that the current consists of a continuous series of
half sine waves. When calculating circuit output, sum of the diode voltage drops should be used. In
this case
VR = Vpeak – 1.4 V

Fig. 2.9 Full wave rectification using a diode bridge

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
The term transistor stands for transfer resistor. Transistors are used primarily as amplifying devices
that can transfer current from a low-resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. One major type of
transistor is the bipolar transistor, a three-terminal component that consists of two PN diodes
connected together with one common section as shown in Figure 2.10. Three terminals are called the
emitter, the collector and the base. The emitter and the collector are made up of same semiconductor
materials, while the base is made up of another type of semiconductor material. There are two
configurations: PNP and NPN transistors.
NPN transistor has N-type emitter and collector terminals and a P-type base. The PNP transistor
has P-type emitter and collector terminals and an N-type base. Figure 2.11 shows the construction of
BJT with symbols. Note that the arrow always points in the direction of the hole flow (current), or
from the P-type to N-type sections, no matter whether the P-type section is the emitter or the base.
Operating Principles
There are two junctions in the BJT. One is the interface at which the emitter and base are joined and
is called base—emitter junction. The other one is the interface where base and collector meet, known
as collector—emitter junction.

Fig. 2.10 Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Fig. 2.11 Bipolar Transistors: a) construction and b) symbols
NPN Transistor
An NPN transistor with voltage sources connected is represented in Figure 2.12 and consists of a
layer of P-doped semiconductor (the base) between two N-doped layers. A small current entering
the base in common emitter (CE) mode is amplified in the collector output. The arrow in the NPN
transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow
when the device is in forward active mode. Note that the emitter terminal is common to both voltage
sources. There are three operating regions for the transistors:
1.Cut-off region: Here both base-emitter. and collector-emitter junctions are reverse-biased.
With the larger depletion layers, only small amount of reverse current passes from the emitter
to the collector.
2.Active region: Here the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction
is reverse-biased. BJTs operate in the active region as amplifiers. To make the transistor
conduct appreciable current (of the order of 1 mA) from collector to emitter, base-emitter
voltage (VBE) must be above a threshold voltage value that is large enough to overcome the
barrier potential of the junction. This applied voltage causes the lower PN junction to "turn
on" allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base.
3.Saturation region: When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is said to be
operating in the saturation region. Here the collector current reaches its maximum value as
determined by the collector supply voltage and the value of the load resistance or impedance.
PNP Transistor
A PNP transistor with voltage sources connected is represented in Figure 2.13. The majority carriers
in the emitter P-type material are holes. The base-emitter junction is forward-biased and the base-
collector junction is reverse-biased. Note that the polarities of voltage applied to the PNP device
must be opposite to those applied to NPN devices, and hence the current flow. PNP transistors cause
a lot of holes to cross from the emitter region to the base region, as the base is slightly doped with N-
type impurity. Large proportions of the holes in the base region cross the base-collector junction into
collector region, thereby creating the collector current.
 Fig. 2.12 NPN Transistor

Fig. 2.13 PNP Transistor

Common Configurations
In a transistor circuit, the common central section is referred to as the base and the other two
terminals are called the emitter and the collector. Normally one terminal will be used as the input
terminal, the other as the output terminal. The third terminal is common to input and output. Based
on input, output and common terminal connection in the transistor circuit, three possible connection
schemes for the transistor are shown in Figure 2.14.
1.Common base (CB) configuration scheme: In this emitter is the input terminal, collector is
the output terminal and base is the common terminal.
2.Common emitter (CE) configuration scheme: Here base is the input terminal, collector is the
output terminal and emitter is the common terminal.
3.Common collector (CC) configuration scheme: Here base is the input terminal, emitter is the
output terminal and collector is the common terminal.
Characteristic Curves
The effects of changing various voltages and current in a transistor circuit can be studied and
presented in the form of characteristic curves.
Common Base Characteristics
In CB configuration emitter current is the input current and collector current is the output. Similarly,
emitter-base voltage is regarded as the input voltage and collector-base voltage is regarded as the
output voltage. Figure 2.15 shows an NPN transistor in a circuit for understanding CB
characteristics.
Fig. 2.14 a) CB configuration b) CE configuration c) CC configuration of NPN and PNP
transistors

Fig. 2.15 Circuit for CB configuration

1.Input characteristics: The input characteristics can be studied by varying emitter current for
fixed values of VCB. The base—emitter junction is forward-biased and V EB is varied. IE is
plotted with respect to VEB. The typical characteristic of input current IE versus input value of
VEB is given in Figure 2.16. Note that I E increases rapidly with increase in V EB for a given
value of VCB. Further, for a given value of VEB, IE increases with increasing VCB.
2.Output characteristics: Output characteristics can be studied by measuring output current
(collector) as VCB is adjusted for fixed setting of the emitter current. The output characteristics
are given in Figure 2.17. Over a wide range of collector-base voltage, the collector current is
independent of the collector-base voltage as the emitter current is kept constant by varying R 1.
With the emitter current equal to zero, the collector current is very small. If V CB is made
 slightly negative, the collector no longer attracts the majority carriers leaving the emitter, and
IC falls rapidly to zero. This portion of the plot where V CB is negative is called the saturation
region of the transistor. Note that IC increases rapidly just as VCB begins to increase slightly
beyond its initial value. At a high collector-base voltage, the collector current increases
rapidly. In the active region, the curves more or less level-off, the collector current essentially
is constant for further increases in VCB and is nearly equal to the value of IE. Similar to a
reverse-biased diode, the current through collector-base junction of a transistor may increase
suddenly if the reverse-biasing voltage across it is made sufficiently large. This region is
known as breakdown region and the sudden increase in collector current is caused by the
avalanching mechanism.

Fig. 2.16 CB input characteristics

Fig. 2.17 CB output characteristics

Common Emitter Characteristics
In CE configuration, one of the external voltage sources is used to forward bias the base-emitter
junction and the other one is used to reverse bias the collector-base junction (Figure 2.18).
1.Input characteristics: The base current is the input current and V EB is varied with fixed values
of VCE. The CE input characteristics resemble a family of forward-biased diode curves as
shown in Figure 2.19. Note that IB increases as VCE decreases for a fixed value of VBE. A large
value of VCE results in large reverse bias of the collector junction, which widens the depletion
region and makes the base smaller, and hence causes decrease in base current (IB).
2.Output characteristics: Figure 2.20 shows the NPN transistor current with its CE
characteristics. It is noted that the collector—emitter voltage must be positive to produce a
positive collector current.

Fig. 2.18 NPN transistor in common emitter circuit

Fig. 2.19 CE input characteristics

Fig. 2.20 CE output characteristics

To obtain the output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant by adjusting the base
—emitter voltage VBE. The collector—emitter voltage is increased in steps to observe the
collector current IC. Note that the output characteristics have three regions.
 Saturation region: The region of curves to the left of "knee" is called saturation region and
typical characteristics are distinguished by a line for all output curves. Here, both junctions
are forward-biased and an increase in the base current does not cause a corresponding
change in IC.
Active region: The transistor is used as a linear amplifier in this region. Here, emitter—base
junction is forward-biased and the collector—base junction is reverse-biased.
Cut-off region: In this region, the transistor is OFF and hence the collector current is zero.
Also, both junctions are reverse-biased.
Common Collector Characteristics
The circuit given in Figure 3.21 shows that the base—collector voltage is the input voltage and the
base current is the input current. Also, the emitter—collector voltage is the output voltage and the
emitter current is the output current.

Fig. 2.21 Circuit for common collector configuration

1.Input characteristics: In order to study the input characteristics, VEC is kept at a fixed value
and the base—collector voltage is increased, the corresponding value of I B is noted. Figure
2.22 shows typical set of input characteristics for CC configuration. We can see that the base
current goes to 0 very quickly as VCB increases slightly.
2.Output characteristics: The typical output curves of IE versus collector—emitter voltage, VCE,
for different fixed values of IB resemble the CE output characteristics.

Fig. 2.22 Common collector input characteristics

Field-Effect Transistor (FET)
An FET is a three-terminal device such as the BJT, but operates by a different principle. FETs are
voltage- controlled devices and are unipolar because conduction in the FET is the result of only one
dominant charge carrier. The three terminals are called the source, the drain and the gate. The
voltage applied to the gate controls the current flowing in the source—drain channel. No current
flows through the gate electrode, thus the gate is essentially insulated from the source—drain
channel. Because no current flows through the gate, the input impedance of the FET is extremely
large (in the range of 1010—I015 Ω). The large input impedance of the FETs makes them an excellent
choice for amplifier inputs. There are two types of FETs:
1. Junction field-effect transistor (JFET).
2. Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).
JFET
The construction of and symbols used for JFET are shown in Figure 2.23. There are two types of
JFETs based on semiconductors used, N-channel and P-channel. In the JFET, the gate-channel
contact is a reverse-biased PN junction. The gate-channel junction of the JFET must always be
reverse-biased otherwise it may behave as a diode. All JFETs are depletion mode devices — they are
ON when the gate bias is zero (VGS= 0).

Fig. 2.23 JFET: a) N-channel JFET and b) P-channel JFET

The difference is the arrow head on the gate lead. The arrow head points inward on the N-channel
and points outward on the P-channel. The operation of both is identical with the exception that
polarities of the voltages are reversed. N-channel JFET is normally used with positive voltage
supply, while P-channel JFET is used with negative voltage supply.
Drain—source voltage (VDS) causes the conduction through JFET. If the drain voltage is increased
from zero, the cross-sectional area of the channel will be reduced. This will result in increase in the
width of the gate. The resistance of the wider gate with narrower channel will be greater and this will
be controlled by applying reverse bias to the gate—source junction (VGS). This reverse-biases the
gate—source junction, causing depletion layer to form that prevents the current flow. If the area of
the channel decreases then the drain current will decrease. Note that as VGS increases, ID decreases.
Other method to control depletion layer is to change VGS and keeping the value of VDS constant.
The size of depletion layer can be increased by reverse biasing the junction between the gate and
source. These facts are reflected in the characteristic curves.
The general characteristic of an FET is shown in Figure 2.24 and there are three regions of JFET
operations. Note that, for given value of gate voltage, an increase in drain—source voltage from zero
initially gives a linear rise in the drain current.
Regions of JFET Operation
The three regions of JFET are as follows.
1.Cut-off region: The transistor is OFF. There is no conduction between the drain and the source
when the gate—source voltage is greater than the cut-off voltage. The value of V GS that causes
ID to drop to approximately zero is called the cut-off voltage.
2.Active region (also called the saturation region): The transistor is ON. The drain current is
controlled by the gate—source voltage (VGS) and is relatively insensitive to VDS. In this region
the transistor can act as an amplifier. This region is called constant current region as I D will
remain constant for a constant value of VGS for a range of values of VDS between pinch-off and
cut-off voltages.
3. Ohmic region: The transistor is ON, but behaves as a voltage-controlled resistor. When Vim is
less than its value in the active region, the drain current is roughly proportional to the source
—drain voltage and is controlled by the gate voltage.
JFET has the following features in relation to tripolar transistors: Applications are similar to that
of a transistor but these following features make it more applicable to some specific applications.
1.Very high input impedance.
2.Less operational variation with respect to temperature.
3.Noise problem in communication is minimal.
4.Operating-frequency bandwidth is small.

Fig. 2.24 Characteristics of an FET

MOSFET
Alternate means of controlling the resistance of the sources to a drain channel can be achieved by a
MOSFET. This is an FET in which the gate is insulated from the conducting channel by a thin layer
of silicon oxide. By placing an insulating layer between the gate and the channel, a wider range of
control (gate) voltages and further decreases in the gate current (and thus increases the device input
resistance) can be obtained. The insulator is typically made of an oxide (such as silicon dioxide,
Si02). The substrate is often connected to the source internally. The insulated gate is on the opposite
side of the channel from the substrate. The bias voltage on the gate terminal either attracts or repels
the majority carriers of the substrate across the PN junction with the channel. This narrows (depletes)
or widens (enhances) the channel, respectively, as VGS changes polarity.
The construction and the symbols for the MOSFET are shown in Figure 2.25 and they are of two
types: P-channel type and the N-channel type. For N-channel MOSFETs, positive gate voltages with
respect to the substrate and the source ( Vcs > 0) repel holes from the channel into the substrate,
thereby widening the channel and decreasing the channel resistance. Conversely, VGs < 0 causes
holes to be attracted from the substrate, thereby narrowing the channel and increasing the channel
resistance. The polarities are reversed for P-channel devices. The common abbreviation for an N-
channel MOSFET is NMOS, and for a P-channel MOSFET, it is PMOS.
There are two modes of operation for MOSFETs as they can both deplete the channel, like the
JFET, and also enhance it. The construction of MOSFET devices differs depending on the channel
size in the resting state.
A depletion mode device (also called a normally ON MOSFET) has a conducting channel in the
resting state (when there is no reverse bias across gate to substrate) and this channel gets constricted
with reverse-biased voltage across the gate and substrate. This device conducts current with no bias
applied. When the gate—source junction is reverse-biased as shown in Figure 2.26(a), the biasing
voltage depletes the channel and effectively reduces the width of channel, thereby increasing its
resistance. This operation is exactly similar to JFET operating state.
An enhancement mode device (also normally called an OFF MOSFET) is built without a channel
and does not conduct current when VGS = 0; increasing forward bias forms a channel that conducts
current.

Fig. 2.25 MOSFET construction and symbols: a) N-channel depletion type MOSFET and b) N-
channel enhancement type MOSFET
 Fig. 2.26 a) Depletion mode of MOSFET and b) Enhancement mode of MOSFET
When positive potential is applied to the gate see Figure 2.26(b), V GS is positive and channel is
effectively widened to reduce the resistance. ID increases the above the value of ID when the sources
source and terminal are shortened together (IDSS)
For an enhancement mode NMOS, the operation can be separated into three different modes
(Figure 2.27), depending on the voltages at the terminals as depicted in Figure 2.26(b).
1.Cut-off or sub-threshold mode: When VGS is less than the threshold voltage of the device
(Vth), the transistor is turned OFF, and there is no conduction between the drain and the
source.
2.Linear mode: When VGS > Vth and VDS < (VGS - Vth). In this case the transistor is turned ON
and a channel has been created that allows current to flow between the drain and the source.
The MOSFET operates like a resistor, controlled by the gate voltage relative to both the
source and drain voltages.
3.Saturation mode: When VGS > Vth and VDS >(VGS - Vth). Here, the switch is turned ON and a
channel has been created that allows current to flow between the drain and the source. Since
the drain voltage is higher than the gate voltage, a portion of the channel is turned OFF. The
onset of this region is also known as pinch-off The drain current is now relatively
independent of the drain voltage and the current is controlled by only the gate—source
voltage.
MOSFET has the following features in comparison with JFET:
1. High input resistance.
2. Higher gain.
3. Greater fragility.
4. Has zero-effect voltage.
5. Easier to fabricate.
 6. Drain resistance is less.
7. Operated in both depletion and enhancement modes.

Fig. 2.27 Characteristic curves for an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET

Diode AC Switch (DIAC) and Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)
DIAC
A DIAC is a four-layered device whose top and bottom layers contain both N- and P-materials. The
construction and .symbol of DIAC is shown in Figure 2.28.
The terms anode and cathode no longer apply, so the connections are simply named main terminal 1
(MT1) and main terminal 2 (MT 2). Each terminal can serve as either anode or cathode, according to
the polarity of the applied voltage. The DIAC, like the four-layer diode, remains non-conducting
until its break over voltage is reached, at which point it turns ON fully and remains ON until the
applied voltage or circuit current is reduced below the holding values at which conduction can be
maintained. Note that MT1 is positive with respect to MT2 during the positive half-cycle, whereas in
the negative half-cycle, MT2 is positive with respect to MT1.

Fig. 2.28 DIAC: a) construction and b) symbol

TRIAC
TRIAC is a bidirectional device that can be used to give a controlled AC output and is essentially a
two-way Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) with One gate. If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back
parallel fashion, we have a new device known as the TRIAC. The TRIAC construction and symbol
are shown in Figure 2.29.
TRIACs are usually used in simple, low-power applications like household dimmer switches. Note
that the conduction is blocked in either direction until a gate pulse of any polarity is applied when the
device goes to a low-impedance state. Conduction continues until the current falls below a holding
current. Figure 2.30 shows an AC circuit using a TRIAC and the output wave form from the circuit.

Fig. 2.29 a) TRIAC equivalent circuit and b) TRIAC schematic symbol

Fig. 2.30 a)TRIAC with AC circuit and b) output waveforms

Light-Emitting Diodes and Optical Isolation
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
When current flows through a forward-biased PN junction [Figure 2.31(a)], free electron cross the N-
side and recombine with holes on the P-side. If the free electron in the conduction band recombines
with a hole in valence band, then it releases energy as it falls into that lower energy state. The energy
is released in the form of heat and light.
If the material is translucent such as gallium phosphide or gallium arsenide phopshide, the light
energy released is visible. The phenomenon of conversion of electrical energy to light energy is
called electroluminescence. A PN junction device which emits light when forward-biased is called
LED and is an example of the phenomenon electroluminescence. LED symbol is shown in Figure
2.31(b).

Fig. 2.31 a) PN junction and b) symbol

Photodiodes
A photodiode is a PN junction device which converts light signal into electrical signals. The PN
junction is kept in an opaque casing such that the light rays are allowed to fall on one surface across
the junction. When PN junction is reverse-biased, it behaves as a photoconductive device due to
changes in resistance with respect to light intensity. This will create hole electron pairs and
movement of hole electron pairs can be properly connected in a circuit to obtain current flow. The
construction and symbol of photodiode is shown in Figure 2.32.

Fig. 2.32 Photodiode: a) construction and b) symbol

Optical Isolators (Optocoupler)

Optical isolation is used when signal is required to transfer from one part of a system to another, but
direct electrical connection is undesirable or difficult. Examples of application for optical isolators
are the instrumentation used for electrical power generating plants, medical electronics, etc. In
medical electronics, for safety reasons, it is required to avoid direct electrical connections between
patients and the electrical power. As shown in Figure 2.33, the signal to be transferred through an
optical isolator is applied through a LED. The signal is then carried by the light wave to a photodiode
detector that .converts light power back to electrical current. It is imperative that the detector current
is proportional to the incident light power. As the signal is carried by a light wave, the detector
circuits can be electrically isolated from signal source. The LED driver amplifier will force a current
through the diode that is proportional to supply voltage.

Fig. 2.33 Optical isolator

Analog Signal conditioning
Signal conditioner
A signal conditioner performs operations on signals to convert them to a form suitable for use by
another component. The input to a signal conditioner is normally the output from a sensor
that is usually described in the form of an analog signal. The analog signal is continuous and time
varying. The signals from sensors may not be in the suitable form and will usually be in the millivolt
range. In general, a signal undergoes transformation when it passes through different processing,
transmission or storing devices. Therefore, a signal can not only be distorted and weakened, but
also voluntarily transformed to mitigate background noise as it moves. From this perspective,
the operations performed by a signal conditioner include:
1.isolation and impedance conversion;
2.noise reduction;
3.amplification;
4.linearization and conversion.
Isolation and Impedance Conversion
The purpose of isolation and impedance conversion is to avoid or minimize the destruction of
the signal measured and to protect the measuring instruments. In some situations, this means
electrical isolation of the primary element with an isolation amplifier and supply of high
impedance at the input to the signal conditioner.
It is also important that when sensors and transducers, controllers, plant equipment and signal
conditioner hardwares are interconnected, the impedances should be matched properly at each
interface. Otherwise there will be a loading effect due to improper impedance matching. Voltage
followers and isolation amplifiers can be used for the impedance conversion.
Noise Reduction and Filtering
Signal systems exist in an environment filled with high levels of electromagnetic energy
causing noise in electric signal lines. It is very important to prevent the noise from entering the
signal. Noise reduction is possible with various types of filters; for example, band pass filters,
low pass filters, etc.
Amplification
The small voltage produced by the sensors needs to be amplified and converted into an electric
signal suitable for use by application devices. Changing the level of an analog signal is often
accomplished using an operational amplifier. The operational amplifier is the heart of signal
processing. The simplest and most common form of signal processing is amplification. Other forms
include signal inversion, differentiation, integration, addition, subtraction and comparison.
Linearization and Signal Conversion
Many primary elements produce nonlinear outputs and the signal must be linearized to produce
a nearly ideal calibration. Specialized analog circuits, such as offsetting circuits, proportional
output circuits, etc., are used to linearize a signal. Figure 2.34 illustrates the purpose of a
linearization circuit to produce an output that varies linearly with some variable.
The most common approach is to provide the nonlinear signal input to a computer to perform
the linearization using a computer algorithm.
Sometimes it is necessary to convert the signal from a voltage to a current or vice versa. Simple
operational amplifier (op-amp) converter circuits can be used for this purpose. Also, it is
necessary to convert one type of electrical signal into another. For example, a bridge circuit can
be used to convert the change in resistance of a resistance temperature detector (RTD) into
voltage.

Fig. 2.34 Linearization circuit

Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)
An op-amp is an electronic device that behaves like a voltage-controlled source. The op-amp was
developed many years ago for analog computing and was designed to perform mathematical
operations. They are highly stable high-gain DC devices. Since there is no capacitive
coupling between their various amplifying stages, they can handle signals from zero
frequency (DC signals) up to a few hundred kHz. Op-amps are among the most widely used
electronic components today, and are used in a vast array of consumer, industrial and scientific
devices.
Basically, the op-amp is nothing but a differential amplifier that amplifies the difference
between two inputs. It comprises resistors, transistors, diodes and capacitors. Figure 2.35
shows the model circuit of an op-amp.
The output voltage of the op-amp is linearly proportional to the voltage difference
between the input terminals V 1 and V2 by a factor of the gain A. However, the output voltage
is limited to the range - Vcc to + Vcc, where Vcc is the supply voltage specified by the designer
of the op-amp. The range - Vcc ≤ Vo ≤ + Vcc is often called the linear region of the amplifier,
and when the output swings to +V cc or - Vcc the op-amp is said to be saturated. Figure 2.36
illustrates three modes of op-amp depending upon the input voltage. The three modes are:
1.positive saturation, where V o = Vcc;
 2. linear region, where - Vcc ≤ Vo ≤ + Vcc ;
3. negative saturation, where Vo = - Vcc;

Fig. 2.35 A circuit model of an operational amplifier

Fig. 2.36 Characteristics of an op-amp

An ideal op-amp has infinite gain (A = ∞), infinite input resistance (R1 = ∞) and zero output
resistance (Rf = 0). Figure 2.37 shows the symbol for an op-amp. There are two inputs, the
inverting input (—) and the non-inverting input (+). Here V2 or V+ is the non-inverting input,
V1 or V— the inverting input and V-0 the output.

Fig. 2.37 Circuit symbol for an op-amp

An op-amp requires two power supplies to operate the supply of a positive voltage (+ V cc)
and a negative voltage (-Vcc) with respect to circuit common. This bipolar power supply allows
op-amps to generate output signals of either polarity. The output signal (V o) range is not
unlimited.
A typical practical op-amp integrated circuit (IC) (some single, some dual) in eight-pin
dual in-line packages (DIPs) is shown in Figure 2.38 along with pin configurations.
 Fig. 2.38 a) Practical op-amp IC and b) Pin configuration
The equation for output signal is derived as follows: Considering the arbitrary current
directions and applying Kirchhoff's current law (KCL), we have
V i−V s
i 1=
Ri

V s−V o
i 2=
Rf
Linear Op-amp Circuits
Inverting Amplifier
The basic circuit of an inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 2.39. The inverting amplifier
changes the sign and the level of the input signal. The output impedance is low.
The non-inverting input is connected directly to the circuit common (i.e., V + = 0 V),
therefore Vs = 0 V, therefore
Vi
i 1=
Ri
−V o
i 2=
Rf

Since there is no current flow to any input, therefore i 1 = i2. This implies
V i −V o
=
Ri Rf
Therefore, the output signal of the inverting amplifier is given by
V o =−
( )
Rf
Ri i
V

Thus, the gain of the inverting op-amp is equal to the ratio of R f (feedback resistor) over Ri
(input resistor). Note that an inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while
amplifying it.
 Fig. 2.39 Circuit for inverting amplifier
Non-Inverting Amplifier
The non-inverting amplifier circuit can increase the size of the signal and in some cases, leave it
unchanged. A non-inverting amplifier circuit is shown in Figure 2.40. In this case, the input
voltage Vi is applied directly at the non-inverting input terminal. Applying Ohm's law, we have
i1 + i2 = 0, such that
V i V i−V o
+ =0
R1 R2
Therefore,

( )
V o = 1+
R2
R1 i
V

Fig. 2.40 Circuit for non inverting amplifier

The gain of the non-inverting amplifier depends on the ratio of the feedback resistor R f and
the ground resistor R1. A non-inverting amplifier is designed to provide a positive voltage gain.
Summing Amplifier
The summing amplifier is a logical extension of the previously described circuit, with two or
more inputs. A summing amplifier adds two or more input signals forming an output that is the
inverse of the sum. The summing amplifier shown in Figure 2.41 is a variation of the inverting
amplifier.
Applying KCL we have
i=i 1 +i 2+i 3 +…+i n
The equation for the output of the summing amplifier can be derived as
V o=
(
V1 V2
+ + …+
R1 R2
Vn
)
Rn f
R

Thus if all input resistors are equal, the output is a scaled sum of all inputs; whereas, if they are
different, the output is a weighted linear sum of all inputs.

Fig. 2.41 Circuit for a summing amplifier

Difference Amplifier
A difference amplifier precisely amplifies the difference of two input signals. A typical circuit
for this amplifier is shown in Figure 2.42. The circuit uses two pairs of matched resistors R 1 and
R2, Rf and R3.
By taking Vx = Vy and applying the voltage divider rule for V y to resistors R2 and R3,

(
V x =V y =V 2
R3
)
R3 + R2
The voltage Vx is across R1 and Rf and the current through R f must be equal to that from V 1
through R1:
V 1−V x V x −V o
=
R1 R2
On substituting for Vx and rearranging, the output of the difference amplifier is given by:
V o=
(
R3 Rf + R1
) ( )
R 1 R2 + R3
V 2−
Rf
R1 1
V

If R1 = R2 and Rf = R3, then

Rf
V o =( V 2−V 1 )
R1

Fig. 2.42 Circuit for a difference amplifier

In real life, the op-amp output will be different for the two similar input conditions due to a
slight difference in the way the op-amp handles the two inputs. The inputs are amplified by
slightly different gain. Therefore, the common level of the two signals is amplified and added to
the output. The voltage that is common to both input leads of a differential op-amp is called a
common mode voltage. Common mode voltage can be a problem in many applications where it
is present. The ability of an op-amp to minimize the influence of the common mode voltage is
measured by the common mode rejection ratio, which is the ratio of the differential gain of the
op-amp to the common mode gain. The common mode rejection ratio is a major concern in a
differential amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier
The basic differential amplifier is an important component of an instrumentation amplifier. An
instrumentation amplifier is a differential amplifier with high input impedance, high common
mode rejection ratio and balanced differential inputs. Instrumentation amplifiers are essentially
used in process control or measurement application. Figure 2.43 shows one type of
instrumentation amplifier. Here the value of external resistance (R e) can be adjusted to obtain a
wide range of gain. The following equation for the output of instrumentation amplifier can be
used:
 V o=
( 2 R 1+ R e
Re )( )
Rf
R2
( V 2−V 1 )

Fig. 2.43 Circuit for instrumentation amplifier

Differentiator
The differentiator generates an output signal proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage. A typical circuit of the differentiator is shown in Figure 2.44 and is realized with only a
single capacitor and a single resistor.
Applying KCL, we can write
dV i V o
C + =0
dt R f
The output of this circuit is
V o =−Rf C ( )
dV i
dt
Obviously, a constant input (regardless of its magnitude) generates a zero output signal. In
reality, the differentiator circuit exhibits an erratic and unstable response. Thus, it is used in
combination with other circuitry to minimize the instability.

Fig. 2.44 Circuit for a differentiator

Integrator
The integrator generates an output signal proportional to the rate of time integral of the input
signal. An inverting amplifier can be converted into an integrator by replacing the feedback
resistor by a capacitor as shown in Figure 2.45.
Referring to the integrator circuit and applying KCL at the inverting input terminal, we have
dV o V i
Cf + =0
dt R
On integrating the above equation and rearranging we get
 V o =−
( R1C )∫ V (t ) dt
f
i

A typical application of the (analog) integrator in chemical instrumentation is the integration

of chromatographic peaks, because its output will be proportional to the peak area.

Fig. 2.45 Circuit for an integrator

Comparators
A comparator is used to determine whether one signal is greater than the other. Hence, a
comparator circuit accepts two input voltages and indicates which one is greater. It consists of
an op-amp in open-loop configurations with no feedback or input resistors as shown in Figure
2.46. The inverting terminal is connected to the reference voltage, and the input will be the
variable voltage connected to the non-inverting terminal.
The practical operation of the comparator circuit is as follows:
1.The lamp is OFF when V i is less than Vref.
2.The lamp is ON when Vi is greater than Vref.

Fig. 2.46 Circuit for a comparator

Voltage Follower
An op-amp voltage follower has unity voltage gain and very high input impedance. A voltage
follower is shown in Figure 2.47. The input voltage is connected to the non-inverting input, and
the output terminal is connected to the inverting input terminal. A voltage follower is placed in
between the primary sensor a nd the signal conditioner to reduce the current produced by the
sensor and the loading effect.

Fig. 2.47 Circuit for a voltage follower

Current Amplifiers
Current amplifiers amplify the current signal and are used to accomplish current compatibility
in electronic circuits. The general model of the current amplifier is based on the equation
io = A i 1
A simple current-amplifying circuit is shown in Figure 2.48 where the input is connected to
the negative lead of the op-amp, and positive lead and the resistor R are grounded. The feedback
resistor drawn through the output load is connected to the negative terminal. Note that the
current flow is through the feedback resistor. The resistor R influences the current gain. The
output current is given by the sum of current flowing through R and Rf:
i o=i 1 +( )
Rf
i
R 1
The gain of current amplifier is given by
A=1+ f ( )
R
R

Fig. 2.48 Circuit for a current amplifier

Noise Reduction
Special circuits called filters are used to reduce noise in the signals. Actually, filter is a device
that allows only the desirable part of a signal to pass through, rejecting the unwanted part. In
typical applications the filters are used to remove a certain band of frequencies from the signal
and allow other signals to transmit. The range of frequencies allowed to transmit is known as a
pass band.
Passive and Active Filters
Passive analog filters employ circuits containing elements such as resistors and capacitors, and
do not require an external power source. Active filters use active components such as transistors
and an op-amp including passive elements. Here, external power is needed for the operation of
active elements. Active filters are widely used due to their following advantages:
1.The loading effect is negligible.
2.Low signal level can be amplified along with filtering.
3.They are available in a low cost and compact IC form.
4.They are free from electromagnetic interference.
However, passive filters can be used at very high frequencies, do not require power supply
and are less expensive.
Types of Filters
There are four categories of filters:
1.low pass filter;
2.high pass filter;
3.band pass filter;
4.band reject (notch) filter.
Low Pass Filters
A low pass filter allows all signals below certain frequency to pass through. This frequency is
called cut-off or break-point frequency (ω c)as shown in Figure 2.49.

Fig. 2.49 Ideal frequency response curve for low pass filter
All components of the signal that are above the cut-off frequency are reduced in amplitude.
The simplest circuit of the low pass filter is shown in Figure 2.50(a) with RC passive elements.
The passive filter is associated with the circuit loading that arises because the input impedance
is not sufficiently high. This can be resolved using an active filter as shown in Figure 2.50(b)
with very high input impedance and low output impedance, while maintaining unit voltage gain.
In the case of the low pass filter, the actual variation of rejection with frequency is shown in
Figure 2.50(c). Analog low pass filters are very common in signal conditioning, as they can be
designed to reduce noise without affecting the information content of the signal. Analog active
filters are also widely used as anti-aliasing filters in digital signal processing.
The equation of low pass filter can be obtained as
dV o
τ +V o=V i
dt
where τ = RC is the time constant. The transfer function relating input and output is given by
V o (s ) 1
=
V i ( s ) τs+1
The cut-off frequency can be derived as ω c =1/τ. If the attenuation factor A, defined as the
ratio of the amplitude before filtering to the amplitude after filtering, is known then is given as
ωc = A/τ.
Fig. 2.50 Circuits for a) passive low pass filters; b) active low pass filters and c) frequency
response curve
High Pass Filters
A high pass filter is just the opposite of the low pass filter and allows all signal components
above the cut-off frequency to pass through, and prevents all signals below that frequency
(Figure 2.51). High pass filters do not make much sense in signal condition due to noise
interference. Passive and active high pass filters and their characteristics are shown in Figure
2.52.

Fig. 2.51 Ideal frequency response curve for a high pass filter
Band Pass Filters
A band pass filter has two frequency values that are separated by a frequency range called the
band width. An ideal band pass filter passes all signal components within a frequency band as
shown in Figure 2.53. All components of the signal that are outside the two frequency values
(ω1), and (ω2) are reduced in amplitude.
The passive circuit shown in Figure 2.54(a) is obtained by combining elements of low pass and
high passes passive filters. Figure 2.54(b) represents an active band pass filter. The radio tuner
is an adjustable band pass filter.

Fig. 2.52 Circuits for a) passive high pass filters; b) active high pass filters and c)
frequency response curve

Fig. 2.53 Ideal frequency response curve for a band pass filter
Band Reject Filter (Notch Filter)
A band reject filter is just the opposite of the band pass filter and is used to filter out narrow
bands of noise components from the signal. It does not affect the components of signal on either
side of frequency values as shown in Figure 2.55.
A passive band reject filter is formed when the output RLC series resonant circuit is taken
off the LC series combination as shown in Figure 2.56. An active circuit that could serve as a
notch filter and its frequency response are shown in Figure 2.57.
Fig. 2.54 Circuits for a) passive band pass filters; b) active band pass filters and c)
frequency response curve

Fig. 2.55 Ideal frequency response curve for a band reject filter

Fig. 2.56 Circuit for a passive band reject filter

Fig. 2.57 a) Circuit for active band reject filter b) frequency response curve