ART&CULTURE MODULE FOR

CSE PRELIMS 2023

Ancient, Medieval, Art &

Culture – 5

(Post-Vedic)

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 Post Vedic Era
Polity:

• Period of 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapada) mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya (of

Sutta Pitaka)
o Earlier Jana (tribe) → Janapada (states) → Mahajanapada (ie big states.)
o Westernmost – Kamboja and Gandhara
o Easternmost – Anga
o Southernmost – Asmaka
• Some monarchies and some republics (gana-sanghas)
o Historians don’t use the word republic anymore. Because there was no universal
franchise. Only the heads of the family voted. Thus, gana-sangha

Shodasha Mahajanapadas
State Capital State Capital
1 Gandhara Takshashila 9 Kosala Sharvasti /Saket/Ayodhya
2 Kambhoja Rajpura/Kapisi 10 Kashi Rajghat
3 Kuru Indraprastha 11 Malla Pavapuri
4 Panchal Ahhichata/Kampilya 12 Vajji Vaishali
5 Matsya Viratnagar/Bairat 13 Magadha Rajgir (Girivraja)/Patliputra
6 Shaursena Mathura 14 Anga Champa/Bhagalpur
7 Vatsa Kausambi 15 Avanti Ujjain/Mahishmati
8 Chedi Suktimati 16 Asmaka Potali

Important monarchies

Vatsa, Kaushal,
Kuru, Panchala,
Kashi Magadha, Avanti +
Matsya, Shaurasena
Lichhavi

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 Administrative Development

Later Vedic Buddha Age

Janapada Mahajanpadas emerged as the most prominent political units
King with sacrifices King is much more powerful and exalted.
Pompous titles: chakravartin, sarvabhauma, Samrat
Kings can donate land to Brahmanas and Settis without taking
permission from the community.
New Theories of Kingship in Indian Tradition
• Aitareya Brahmana: kingship was authorized by the divine.
When the war was going on between gods and demons,
Prajapati appointed the king to help god win the war.
• Concept of Mahasamatta (Buddhist): People came together
and elected a king, agreed to give portion of their production.
Thus, the institution of the king enjoyed a limited power.
(More suited to gana-sangahs)
Sabha and Samiti • Parishad (Council of Ministers)
• Royal seals came into existence.
• Officer mentioned: Amatya, Mahamatras
• Development of written language:
o Official documentation ‘Akshapataladhikrita’
o Laws, courts, legal codes came into existence (caste
based organization began to replace flexible tribal
ethos)
• For the first time, a standing army and a permanent
bureaucracy came into existence. (Seniya Bimbisara of
Magadha)
Taxation: • Taxes
• Bali had become ▪ Bali – now became regular tax on agriculture.
compulsory. ▪ Shulka
• Shulka/Bhaga was ▪ Vishthi
there? • Gradually all economic activities came to be taxed.
• Two officers • Taxation system was put in place: Almost half a dozen officials
Bhagaduga and
associated with revenue administration are mentioned in the
Sannihitri
contemporary literature.
▪ Rajjugrahaka- one who measures the land (this implies
that land measurement had started during this period)
▪ Dronamapaka- Official who collected tax in grains.
▪ Shaulkika- Officer who collected toll.
▪ Sangrahitri- Treasurer
▪ Koshadhyaksha- Treasurer
▪ Kammikas- Custom officials

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 Additionally, officials like Tundiya and Akasiya were described as
involved in coercive taxation. (According to Jataka stories)
Kula and family Grama/village was the smallest unit of administration during this
period. This trend continued till today.

Emergence of so-called Republics

The period of 6th century BCE was a period of transformational changes in the Ganga Valley.
This was the period when tribal polities were being consolidated under various state polities.
• At least 10 non-monarchial republics are mentioned in the Pali texts (Anguttara
Nikaya)
• Similarly, Greek scholars have mentioned republics like Malavas, Kshudraka,
Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, etc.

Lichchhavi • Most important gana-sangha is

• Strongest republic
• In north Bihar, with capital Vaishali
• Confederate of 8 clans (atta-kula – not 8 tribes but 8 leading
families)
• Lichchhavi, Videha (Mithila), Vajji, Malla (Kushinara, Pava)
(Malla part of it or not, sources vary)
• Mahavira was associated with it – Jnatri Clan, suburb of Vaishali
Shakya • Not among 16
• Capital Kapilavastu
• Buddha came from here (so, both Mahavir and Buddha came from
republics)
Malla of • Some sources say it was not a part of Lichchhavi
Kushinagar • Buddha died here. Today it is a part of Buddhist circuit.

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 Rise of Magadha
Magadha ruled by the total of six dynasties namely-
• Haryanka (544-413) (Bimbisara, Ajatshatru)
• Shishunaga (413-345)
• Nanda (345-322)
• Maurya
• Sunga
• Kanva

Some of the reasons/factors behind the rise of Magadha Mahajanpada:

Geo-Economic Factors: (material factors)
• Defendable capitals
o Girivraja was surrounded by hills on five sides.
o Patliputra was surrounded by Ganga, Son, Gandak and Ghaghra Rivers.
• Resource base
o Fertile alluvial land
o Agrarian surplus → craft specialisation → more trade.
o Riverine navigation → commercial income
• Forest and mineral resources
o Better availability of timber and elephants
o Mines – copper and iron

Ideological factors: Comparative freedom from Brahmanical orthodoxy.

• Varnashramadharma was not rigidly enforced.
• Heterodox sects such as Jainism and Buddhism served to decrease the social conflict,
creating stability.
• They did not observe varna restrictions on occupation.
• They also abjured violence and animal sacrifice thus cultivators were able to preserve
their animal’s wealth which improved productivity and led to prosperity.
Role of ambitious kings of Magadha:
1. Bimbisara: (Haryana dynasty)
o Efficient reorganization of kingdom
▪ Convening an assembly of 80000-gram bhojakas (village headmen).
▪ First ruler of Magadha to create a standing army. That is why he is called
as Shrenik Bimbisara.
o Expansion through military conquest
▪ Victory over Champa, the capital of Anga Mahajanapada
o Expansion through three Matrimonial alliances -
▪ Kashi was received in dowry when he married Koshaladevi, sister of
Prasenjit of Koshala who had earlier conquered it.
▪ Chellana from Vajji confederacy, sister of Chetaka.
▪ Third wife was Khema, daughter of Madra in Punjab.
• She is considered the first of the Buddha's two chief female
disciples, along with Uppalavanna.
o Diplomatic efforts:

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 ▪ Diplomatic ties with the ruler of Avanti, Chandrapradyot (He had some
disease and Jivaka was sent to take care of him) and the ruler of Taxila,
Pushkashirin.
2. Ajatsatru
a. He killed his father Bimbisara.
i. Prasenjit got angry and took back Kashi which was given in dowry.
Ajatshatru defeated Kosala and pressurized Prasenjit to give his daughter
in marriage and also Kashi again as a dowry.
b. Expansion
i. Gana sangha: a long war with Vajji.
ii. Then the next target was Kosala state itself.
c. He is believed to have been a follower of Jainism but later embraced Buddhism.
3. Shishunaga:
a. Avanti was equally powerful, main rival and had access to similar resource base as
Magadh - iron source, elephants, trade route. Both were enlarging their domain.
Even Avanti was growing at the cost of its neighbouring Mahajanapada. After a
bitter rivalry lasting for many decades, Magadha under Shishunaga broke the
resistance of Avanti power, which was completely annexed.
b. He later transferred the capital to Magadhat to Vaishali. Under Kalashoka, son of
Shishunaga, the second Buddhist council was convened and shifted the capital
back to Pataliputra.
4. Mahapadmananda (title Ekrat):
a. Came from Shudra dynasty (non-Kshatriya)
b. Considering the economic and strategic importance of Kalinga region,
Mahapadmananda annexed it to the Magadha Mahajanapada. (Mentioned in
Hathigumpha inscription indirectly)
i. Near Mahanadi, where he later constructed embankment.
ii. Route to south India
5. Dhanananda
a. He kept his empire intact and possessed a powerful army.
b. However, his oppressive rule and tax policy was resented by the people. Thus, he
was supplanted by the Mauryan dynasty.
c. His reign saw Alexander’s invasion.

Persian Invasions

Haryanka Dynasty Shishunag Nandas Maurya

(544-413) (413-345) (? – 322) (322-185)
Bimbisara Ajatashatru Udayin Others
(544-492) (492-60) (469-44) (444-13)
Buddha (563-483)
530s: 510s: 327-325:
Cyrus Darius I Alexander
invaded invaded Invasion
Seleucid
Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE)
Empire

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 Economic Changes
Agrarian Economy:

• Extension
o Expansion of agriculture in more fertile middle Doab area.
o Eastward migration → increased the number of settlements.
o Middle Ganga basin was densely forested: Clearance with the help of iron
implements and iron ploughshare.
• Crops and Technology
o Paddy transplantation increased production.
o Ashtadhyayi – land was tilled two or three times.
• Organization
o Development of concept of private ownership of land. Buddhist sources mention
Khetpati, Khetswamy, Vathupati etc. different kinds of proprietors.
o Size of farm-holding increasing manifold.
o Slaves (dasas) and labourers (kammakaras) were employed in agrarian processes
for the first time.
o Grahapatis/Gahapatis associated with the agrarian activities came into existence.
They held respectable social position. (eg Anathapindaka)
o Ashadhyayi – officer named Kshetrakara appointed to supervise agricultural fields.

Overall impact is larger agrarian surplus. It prepared the way for further changes.
• Growth in population
• Food for even those who were not directly involved into cultivation.
• Supported formation of states.
• Progress of crafts industry and trade.
Development of Crafts:
• Proliferation: 18 types of crafts are mentioned in the Buddhist source in Rajgriha.
• Specialisation
• Localization
1. Eg. Vaishali - 500 potters settled in some demarcated area.
• Examples
1. Burnt bricks made comeback after a gap of a few centuries.
2. NBPW pottery: luxury ware
3. Punch marked coins of sliver/copper with various animal figures and symbols.

Trade & Commerce:

Internal Trade Foreign Trade

• Important trade routes developed • Both, maritime and land routes were used in
during this period. foreign trade.
• Uttarapath: Taxila to Tamralipti port • Taxila in the north-west was linked to Central
• Dakshinapath: Mathur-Ujjain- Asia via Afghanistan and to West Asia via
Bharuch Iran.
• Sarthavaha leading cargos on • Bengal in east was linked to Burma via land
interstate transport route.

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 • Silver, Gold, Jade, and Lapis Lazuli were
imported from Central and West Asia. Jade
was imported from Burma also.

First time reference to Guilds.

• Associations of both merchants and craftsmen in the same trade
• They performed various functions:
• Regulation of standards
• Maintenance of discipline
• Training
• Setting of prices
• Authority to punish and expel corrupt members.
• Even women who aspired Buddhist sangha membership required guild permission
of which her husband was a member.
• They used to elect their head:
• Sreshthi/Setthi/Mahasetthi for merchants and traders
• Jetthala/pamukkha for craftsmen
• Sarthavaha for caravan
• Imp – their decision was even accepted by the state.

Currency System: Beginning of money

economy.
• Punch Marked Coins represent the first
currency system of the Indian
subcontinent.
• The word used for them was
Karshapana. These were mostly made of
silver. There were some copper coins
too, while some coins were made by
mixing silver and copper.

Second Urbanisation
• Roughly after 1000 years of Harappan
urbanisation, this was the 2nd
urbanization. If the centre of the first
urbanization was Indus valley, the centre
of the second urbanization was Ganga valley.
• Literary Evidence
• Term Nagar first time comes up in Taittariya Aranyaka.
• Alexander’s historian Aristobulus tell us that, apart from 9 states, he conquered as
many as 500 towns during his north-western campaign. Though, it appears to be
an exaggeration but there are archaeological evidence of an urban settlement
from Taxila.
• Buddhist sources mention 60 towns and 6 large town given the status of
prosperous cities: Rajgriha, Champa, Kashi, Shravasti, Saket and Kaushambi.

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 Social Changes

• Class system – increasing inequality.

1. Dalidda, sadhana-adhana, Sugata-dugata.
2. New social classes emerged viz. Sresthin/Setthi and Grihapati/Gahpati
3. Still, kinship ties continued to be important. (nati-kulani)

After Upanishads, the sutra literature emerged which was compiled in order to face the
challenge of Buddhism/Jainism. Among that, Kalpasutras is quite significant which is divided
between Shrautasutra, Grihyasutra and Dharmasutra. Later, Smriti literature expended social
and religious laws. Gautam Dharmashastra is the oldest, but others were Baudhayana,
Vashishta, and Apastambha. Gautam and Vashistha belonged to North India while
Baudhayana and Apastambha belonged to Southern India.

• Brahmanical world-view.
1. Four-fold Varna division was now based on the birth. The varna system became
more elaborate and the social boundaries were becoming more rigid.
2. Rights of pater family increased – he could disinherit the son. In Sutra literature,
there is a hint at the selling of son by his father.
3. Injunction against seafaring (Baudhayana).
4. Brahmanas free from taxes and punishment
5. Shudras were subordinated to other varnas.
6. Rules of inter-dining and inter-marriage became stricter.
7. First time we notice untouchability, mentioned in Buddhist literature. Chandalas
were the worst affected persons. Other untouchables mentioned are Nishada,
Vena, Rathakara, and Pukkus.
• Slavery was in vogue.
1. Vinayapitaka mentions three types of slaves.
• Buddhists-Jains too mention varna system but its powerful association with religious
sanction is lacking in them.
• Due to the increased rigidity of varna system, social status of women further declined.
They were firmly subjugated to their male relations.
1. There was discrimination between boys and girls in inheritance.
2. The fact that Bimbisar received Kashi in dowry indicates that the dowry system
was a normal social practice.

Vinaya Pitaka mentions 10 kinds of unions between a man Dharmasutras classify

and woman marriages into 8 types
1. When a woman is bought by money (dhanakkhita) 1. Brahma
2. when she stays of her own accord with a man 2. Daiva
(chhandavasini); 3. Arsha
3. when a man gives her money (bhogavasin). 4. Prajapatya
4. when a man gives her clothes (patavasini); 5. Gandharva
5. when an ablution of water is performed (odapattakani); 6. Asura
6. when she removes her headgear (obhatachumbata); 7. Rakshasa
7. when she is also a female slave (dasinama); 8. Paishacha
8. when she is also a servant (kammakari);
9. when she is temporarily with a man (muhuttika); This idea is elaborated on in
10. when she is captured in a raid (dhajahata). the Smritis.

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 Except for the chhandavasini union, all the others involve
either some sort of economic exchange or the already
subordinate position of the woman.

Philosophical Developments (Shramanas)

Causes

• Main Ideological reason

o The Brahmanical religion had become very complex and costly. The rigid ritualism
and priestly domination had made the goal of spiritual salvation complicated for
common people. When it reached the eastern part of India, opposition started.
These people didn’t like sacrifices, rituals, daan-dakshina, enforcement of Sanskrit
etc. Thus started one of the most intellectually frenetic centuries of India.
• There were other material causes too:
o Increasing class difference between haves and have-nots leading to social tensions
o Large scale cow slaughter for sacrifices might have created strain on cattle wealth
required for agriculture.
o The emergence of territorial kingdoms was creating frequent conflict, leading to
loss of life and property. It was also harmful for trade and commerce.
o Due to the second urbanisation some aspirational groups, such as merchants,
traders, artisans and craftsmen, had become prosperous and were looking to
improve their social status. This was impossible with the rigid Varna system, and
thus they were looking for alternatives.
It was in this background that some wise spiritual leaders proposed their philosophies,
leading to the emergence of a number of religious sects.

Features:

1. The defining characteristic of the age was rationalism, not faith, and the greatest religious
reformers of the age—Buddha, Mahavira and Gosala—were all rationalists, who ignored
or rejected the concept of god and the authority of the Vedas.
2. The intellectual life of this age was dominated by peripatetic polemicists known as
Parivrajakas (wanderers), who constantly toured the land to propagate their radical
doctrines and to engage rival theorists in public debates at Kutagarshalas.
3. Asceticism had become something of a high fashion in India at this time, attracting many
even (or especially) from the upper crust of society.

India in the sixth century BC was very much a free society, open, syncretic and progressive.
“The most perfect freedom, both of thought and of expression, was permitted . . . a
freedom probably unequalled in the history of the world” – Rhys Davids.

Many schools of philosophy developed. These are called heterodox – oppose Brahmanical
system. As many as 62 different philosophical or religious schools flourished in India in the
sixth century BC, according to the Digha Nikaya. (Jainism mentions 363). And each held a

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widely different view. The Acharanga-sutra, a Jain text, states that the sages of the age held
such conflicting views as: “The world exists, the world does not exist; the world is
unchangeable, the world is ever changing; the world has a beginning, the world has no
beginning; the world has an end, the world has no end; . . . there is beatitude, there is no
beatitude; there is hell, there is no hell.”
The views of six samaṇa in the Pali Canon (based on the Buddhist text Samannaphala Sutta)

Shramana
School View
(samana)
• Denies any reward or punishment for either good
or bad deeds. There is neither karma nor rebirth.
• Perhaps, it prepared the base for Sankhya
Puraṇa Akriyavadi
philosophy in future according to which soul is
Kassapa (Amoralism)
completely different from body.
• Later, this sect merged into the sect of
Makhaliputra Goshala.
• He accompanied Mahavira for 6 years but they
soon parted their ways.
Ajivika, • We are powerless; suffering is pre-destined.
Makkhali Niyativada Everyone has the fixed destiny. You cannot change
Goshala (Fatalism, it.
deterministic) • Bindusara gave patronage Ajivika. Ashoka and
Dasharath donated some caves. So, in Mauryan era
it was flourishing. Later it declined gradually.
Yadrichchhavada • First known materialist thinker.
Ajita
(later Lokayata) • Live happily; with death, all is annihilated. There is
Kesakambalin
(Materialism) no relation between compassion/charity and fate.
• He was also determinist and didn’t believe in
Karma or rebirth.
• There are seven original elements (earth, water,
grace, air, joy, pain, soul) are eternal, neither
Pakudha Shashwatavada
created nor destroyed. So, in the world no one kills
Kaccayana (Eternalism)
another person. If one cuts the body of another
person with sword, the person doesn’t die.
• Possibly, this paved the path for the emergence of
Vaisheshika in future.
Nigaṇṭha Jainism
Nataputta (Restraint)
• "I don't think so. I don't think in that way or
otherwise. I don't think not or not not."
Sanjaya Ajnana
(Suspension of judgement.)
Belaṭṭhiputta (Agnosticism)
• He highlighted uncertainty associated with the
theory of heaven and hell.

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 Charvaka of Lokayata
1. He was a disciple of Brihaspati and composed Brihaspati Sutra.
2. Views:
a. Only materialist school in India
b. Direct perception is the only means of knowledge. There is no
atma/paramatma/next life/heaven/hell/karma. Death is the end of life.
Sensual pleasures are the only objective of life.
c. You have got only one life – thus enjoy to the max.
d. Man is aggregate of the four elements. When he dies, earth returns to the
aggregate of earth, water to water, fire to fire, and air to air, while his senses
vanish into space.
3. Abu'l-Fazl summarizes Charvaka philosophy as "unenlightened" and characterizes their
literature as "lasting memorials to their ignorance".

Almost all other schools declined gradually. Only Jainism and Buddhism survived.

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