1 Organic Formulae

Displayed Formulae

 Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of
organic compounds.
 Organic compounds are those which contain carbon
 For conventional reasons metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
are not included in organic compounds
 Many of the structures you will be drawing are hydrocarbons
 A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms
 Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways:
o Displayed Formulae
o General Formulae
o Structural Formulae

The displayed formula shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and bonds in a
molecule

 For example:

 This displayed formula tells us several things about the compound

o It has 5 carbon atoms
o It has 12 hydrogen atoms
o It has only single bonds

Structural Formulae
EXTENDED

 In structural formulae, enough information is shown to make the structure clear, but
most of the actual covalent bonds are omitted
  Only important bonds are always shown, such as double and triple bonds
 Identical groups can be bracketed together
 Side groups are also shown using brackets
 Straight chain alkanes are shown as follows:

Structural Isomers

 Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae
 The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound
 Compounds with the same molecular formula can have different structural formulae due
to the different arrangement of their atoms in space
 Two examples of structural isomers are shown below

Table showing Structural Isomerism in C4H10

 Table showing Structural Isomerism in C4H8

Exam Tip
Remember: Only double and triple bonds are shown in structural formulae.
Homologous Series

 This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical
properties due to them having the same functional group
 The functional group is a group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement
that is responsible for the characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous
series

Table of Compounds & their Functional Groups

Exam Tip
Make sure you can identify the functional group for each homologous series.
General Formulae
General Formulae

 This type of formula tells you the composition of any member of a whole homologous
series of organic compound
 For example, all of the alkanes have the general formula C nH2n+2, where n represents the
number of carbon atoms
 This tells you that however many carbon atoms there are in the alkane, doubling this
number and adding two will give you the number of hydrogen atoms present in the
alkane
 General formulae can be used to work out the formula of a compound from different
homologous series if the number of carbon atoms present is known

General Formula of Common Homologous Series

Homologous Series General Formula

Alkanes CnH2n+2

Alkenes CnH2n

Alcohols CnH2n+1OH

Carboxylic Acids CnH2n+1COOH

Worked Example
What is the formula of an alcohol that contains 5 carbon atoms?

Answer

Number of carbons = 5

Number of hydrogens (excluding in the functional group) = 2 x 5 + 1 = 11

Formula = C5H11OH

Worked Example
A compound has the formula C12H24. To which homologous series does this compound
belong to?

Answer
There are 12 carbon atoms, so n = 12

There are twice the number of hydrogen atoms than carbon atoms = 2n

Therefore the general formula of the compound is C nH2n which means this compound is
an alkene

General Characteristic of Homologous Series

EXTENDED
Characteristics of a Homologous Series

 All members of a homologous series have:

o The same general formula
o Same functional group
o Similar chemical properties
o Gradation in their physical properties, such as melting and boiling point
o The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH 2
o These characteristics are shown below for ethanol and propanol, which belong to
homologous series, alcohols

Table of Characteristics of Ethanol and Propanol

Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the general formula for each homologous series.
Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds

 Saturated compounds have molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds
 Examples of compounds that are saturated are alkanes
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2

Alkanes contain only carbon-carbon single bonds so are saturated

 Unsaturated compounds consist of molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon

bonds are not single bonds
 They contain carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C)
 Examples of compounds that are unsaturated are alkenes.
 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula is CnH2n
 The presence of the double bond, C=C, means they can make more bonds with other
atoms by opening up the C=C bond and allowing incoming atoms to form another
single bond with each carbon atom of the functional group
 Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single
bonds

Alkenes contain one carbon-carbon double bond so are unsaturated

Exam Tip
Remember: Saturated compounds have Single bonds only. Unsaturated compounds
have doUble bonds

Naming Organic Compounds

 The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix (or stem) and the end part
(or suffix)
 The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest continuous chain
in the compound
 The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound
 Structures of organic compounds

Exam Tip
Make sure you can draw and name the structures given above.

Further Naming of Organic Compounds

EXTENDED
Further Rules for Naming Compounds

 When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be located it is
important to distinguish exactly which carbon the functional group is on
 Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the functional
group is
 For example:
o Propan-1-ol is alcohol with an -OH functional group
o The 2 in the name indicates that the -OH group is located on the second carbon
atom
In propan-1-ol the -OH group is located on the first carbon atom
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alcohols
Carboxylic acids
Esters
1 Fossil Fuels
Common Fossil Fuels

 A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy

 This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives
 Most common fossil fuels include coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons such as methane
and propane which are obtained from crude oil
 Hydrocarbons are made from hydrogen and carbon atoms only
 The main constituent of natural gas is methane, CH4

Petroleum & Fractional Distillation

Petroleum

 Petroleum is also called crude oil and is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which also
contains natural gas
 It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and
under the sea)
 Diagram showing crude oil under the sea

 Petroleum itself as a mixture isn't very useful but each component part of the mixture,
called a fraction, is useful and each fraction has different applications
 The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process
called fractional distillation
 The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which
depend on the number of carbon atoms in the chain
 The boiling point and viscosity of each fraction increase as the carbon chain gets
longer
Fractional Distillation

Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation

 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column

 The fractionating column is hot at the bottom and cools at the top
 Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid
and are tapped off at the bottom of the column
 Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at
the top to be tapped off
 The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points
and are tapped off as liquids.
 The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the
fractionating column as gases
 The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the
fractionating column
Properties of Fractions

 Viscosity
o This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid.
o High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily.
o If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon
molecules also increases which results in the liquid becoming more viscous with
the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain.
o The liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass
 Colour
o As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as it gets
thicker and more viscous
 Melting point/boiling point
o As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater.
o More heat is needed to separate the molecules.
o With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point
 Volatility
o Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise.
o With increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile.
o This is because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing
molecular size

Uses of Fractions

 Refinery gas: heating and cooking

 Gasoline: fuel for cars (petrol)
 Naphtha: raw product for producing chemicals
 Kerosene: for making jet fuel (paraffin)
 Diesel: fuel for diesel engines (gas oil)
 Fuel oil: fuel for ships and for home heating
 Lubricating oil: for lubricants, polishes, waxes
 Bitumen: for surfacing roads
Trends in Properties

Exam Tip
When defining a hydrocarbon, ensure you say that it has hydrogen and carbon
atoms only.
Alkanes: Properties & Bonding

 Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbons

 The term saturated means that they only have single carbon-carbon bonds, there are no
double bonds
 The general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2
 They are colourless compounds which have a gradual change in their physical properties
as the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases
 Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do
undergo combustion reactions, can be cracked into smaller molecules and can react
with halogens in the presence of light in substitution reactions
 Methane is an alkane and is the major component of natural gas

 Methane undergoes complete combustion forming carbon dioxide and water:

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

This Table shows the Displayed Formula of the First Four Members of the Alkane
Homologous Series
Substitution Reaction of Alkanes with Halogens
Extended

 In a substitution reaction, one atom (or group of atoms) is swapped with another atom
(or group of atoms)
 Alkanes undergo a substitution reaction with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet
radiation (sunlight is a source of UV radiation)
 This is called a photochemical reaction
 The UV light provides the activation energy, Ea, for the reaction
 A hydrogen atom is replaced with the halogen atom
 More than one hydrogen atom can be substituted depending on the amount of
ultraviolet radiation there is
In the presence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, methane reacts with chlorine to form
chloromethane and hydrogen chloride

Exam Tip
You need to be able to draw the displayed and structural formulae of the products
formed when one halogen atom replaces a hydrogen (also known as monosubstitution)

Catalytic Cracking

 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C)

 Their general formula is CnH2n
 The presence of the double bond, C=C, means they can make more bonds with other
atoms by opening up the C=C bond and allowing incoming atoms to form another
single bond with each carbon atom of the functional group
 Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single
bonds
 This makes them much more reactive than alkanes

The displayed formula of the first three alkenes

Manufacture of Alkenes

 Although there is use for each fraction obtained from the fractional distillation of crude
oil, the amount of longer chain hydrocarbons produced is far greater than needed
 These long chain hydrocarbon molecules are further processed to produce other
products
 A process called catalytic cracking is used to convert longer-chain molecules
into short-chain and more useful hydrocarbons
 Shorter chain alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen are produced from the cracking of longer
chain alkanes
 Alkenes can be used to make polymers and the hydrogen used to make ammonia
 Kerosene and diesel oil are often cracked to produce petrol, other alkenes and hydrogen
 Cracking involves heating the hydrocarbon molecules to around 600 – 700°C
to vaporise them
 The vapours then pass over a hot powdered catalyst of alumina or silica
 This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules as they come into contact with the
surface of the catalyst, causing thermal decomposition reactions
 The molecules are broken up in a random way which produces a mixture of smaller
alkanes and alkenes
 Hydrogen and a higher proportion of alkenes are formed at higher temperatures and
higher pressure
 The 10 carbon molecule decane is catalytically cracked to produce octane for
petrol and ethene for ethanol

Exam Tip
When describing what happens to bromine water in an alkene ensure you say
colourless, and not clear.
Distinguishing from Alkanes
Distinguishing Between Alkanes & Alkenes

 Alkanes and alkenes have different molecular structures

 All alkanes are saturated and alkenes are unsaturated
 The presence of the C=C double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes
cannot
 This allows us to tell alkenes apart from alkanes using a simple chemical test
using bromine water

 Bromine water is an orange coloured solution of bromine

 When bromine water is shaken with an alkane, it will remain as an orange solution as
alkanes do not have double carbon bonds (C=C) so the bromine remains in solution
 When bromine water is shaken with an alkene, the alkene will decolourise the bromine
water and turn colourless as alkenes do have double carbon bonds (C=C)
 The bromine atoms add across the C=C double bond hence the solution no longer
contains the orange coloured bromine
 This reaction between alkenes and bromine is called an addition reaction
 Each carbon atom of the double bond accepts a bromine atom, causing the
bromine solution to lose its colour

Exam Tip
When describing what happens to bromine water in an alkene ensure you say
colourless, and not clear.

Addition Reactions
EXTENDED

 Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which atoms of a simple molecule add across the
C=C double bond
 The reaction between bromine and ethene is an example of an addition reaction
Bromine atoms add across the C=C in the addition reaction of ethene and bromine

 Alkenes also undergo addition reactions with hydrogen in which an alkane is formed
 These are hydrogenation reactions and occur at 150ºC using a nickel catalyst
 Hydrogenation reactions are used to manufacture margarine from vegetable oils
o Vegetable oils are polyunsaturated molecules which are partially hydrogenated to
increase the Mr and turn the oils into solid fats

Hydrogen atoms add across the C=C in the hydrogenation of ethene to produce an
alkane

 Alkenes also undergo addition reactions with steam in which an alcohol is formed.
 Since water is being added to the molecule it is also called a hydration reaction
 The reaction is very important industrially for the production of alcohols and it occurs
using the following conditions:
 o Temperature of around 300ºC
o Pressure of 60 - 70 atm
o Concentrated phosphoric acid catalyst

A water molecule adds across the C=C in the hydration of ethene to produce
ethanol

Exam Tip
You need to be able to draw the displayed formulae of the products of alkenes with
water, hydrogen and bromine.

Alcohols

 All alcohols contain the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group which is the part of alcohol
molecules that is responsible for their characteristic reactions
 Alcohols are a homologous series of compounds that have the general
formula CnH2n+1OH
 They differ by one -CH2 in the molecular formulae from one member to the next
 Diagram showing the first three alcohols

 Ethanol (C2H5OH) is one of the most important alcohols

o Ethanol can also be represented by its structural formula CH 3CH2OH
 It is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic drinks such as wine and beer
 It is also used as fuel for cars and as a solvent
 Alcohols burn in excess oxygen and produce CO 2 and H2O
 Ethanol undergoes complete combustion:

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H20 (l)

The Manufacture of Ethanol

 There are two methods used to manufacture ethanol:

o The hydration of ethene with steam
o The fermentation of glucose
 Both methods have advantages and disadvantages which are considered

Hydration of ethene

o A mixture of ethene and steam is passed over a hot catalyst of phosphoric
acid at a temperature of approximately 300 °C
o The pressure used is 60 atmospheres (6000kPa)
o The gaseous ethanol is then condensed into a liquid for use
 A water molecule adds across the C=C in the hydration of ethene to produce
ethanol

Fermentation of glucose

o Sugar or starch is dissolved in water and yeast is added
o The mixture is then fermented between 25 and 35 °C with the absence of oxygen
for a few days
o Yeast contains enzymes that catalyse the break down of starch or sugar to
glucose
o If the temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and if it is
too high the enzymes will become denatured
o The yeast respire anaerobically using the glucose to form ethanol and carbon
dioxide:

C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH

 The yeast are killed off once the concentration of alcohol reaches around 15%, hence the
reaction vessel is emptied and the process is started again
 This is the reason that ethanol production by fermentation is a batch process

Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the conditions for both hydration and fermentation.
Comparing Methods of Ethanol Production
Extended
Carboxylic Acids

 The carboxylic acids behave like other acids

 They react with:
o metals to form a salt and hydrogen
o carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
 They also take part in neutralisation reactions to produce salt and water
 Ethanoic acid (also called acetic acid) is the acid used to make vinegar, which contains
around 5% by volume of ethanoic acid
 The salts formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids all end –anoate
 So methanoic acid forms a salt called methanoate, ethanoic a salt called ethanoate etc.
 In the reaction with metals, a metal salt and hydrogen gas are produced

Example reactions of carboxylic acids

 The reaction of ethanoic acid with magnesium forms the salt

magnesium ethanoate and hydrogen gas:

2CH3COOH + Mg → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2

 In the reaction with hydroxides, salt and water are formed in a neutralisation reaction
 For example, the reaction between potassium hydroxide and propanoic acid forms the
salt potassium propanoate and water:

CH3CH2COOH + KOH → CH3CH2COOK + H2O

 In the reaction with carbonates a metal salt, water and carbon dioxide gas are produced
 For example, in the reaction between potassium carbonate and butanoic acid, the salt
potassium butanoate is formed with water and carbon dioxide

2CH3CH2CH2COOH + K2CO3 → 2CH3CH2CH2COOK + H2O + CO2

Exam Tip
You need to be able to name and give the formulae of the salts produced in these
reactions.
Formation of Ethanoic Acid
EXTENDED
Making Carboxylic Acids

 Two methods used to make carboxylic acids are:

o Oxidation by fermentation
o Using oxidising agents
 The microbial oxidation (fermentation) of ethanol will produce a weak solution of
vinegar (ethanoic acid)
 This occurs when a bottle of wine is opened as bacteria in the air (acetobacter) will use
atmospheric oxygen from air to oxidise the ethanol in the wine

C2H5OH (aq) + O2 (g) → CH3COOH (aq)+ H2O (l)

 The acidic, vinegary taste of wine which has been left open for several days is due to the
presence of ethanoic acid
 Alternatively, oxidising agent potassium manganate(VII) can be used
 This involves heating ethanol with acidified potassium manganate(VII) in the presence
of an acid
 The heating is performed under reflux which involves heating the reaction mixture in a
vessel with a condenser attached to the top
 The condenser prevents the volatile alcohol from escaping the reaction vessel as alcohols
have low boiling points
 The equation for the reaction is:

CH3CH2OH (aq) + [O] → CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)

 The solution will change from purple to colourless

 The oxidising agent is represented by the symbol for oxygen in square
brackets
Diagram showing the experimental setup for the oxidation with KMnO 4 using reflux
apparatus
Esterification
EXTENDED

 Alcohols and carboxylic acids react to make esters in esterification reactions

 Esters are compounds with the functional group R-COO-R
 Esters are sweet-smelling oily liquids used in food flavourings and perfumes
 Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid
(catalyst) to form ethyl ethanoate:

CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) ⇌ CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)

 Diagram showing the formation of ethyl ethanoate

Naming Esters

 An ester is made from an alcohol and carboxylic acid

 The first part of the name indicates the length of the carbon chain in the alcohol, and it
ends with the letters ‘- yl’
 The second part of the name indicates the length of the carbon chain in the carboxylic
acid, and it ends with the letters ‘- oate’
o E.g. the ester formed from pentanol and butanoic acid is
called pentyl butanoate

Diagram showing the origin of each carbon chain in ester; this ester is ethyl
butanoate

Table showing the Formation of Esters

Polymers
Polymers: The Basics

 Polymers are large molecules built by linking 50 or more smaller molecules called
monomers
 Each repeat unit is connected to the adjacent units via covalent bonds
 Some polymers contain just one type of unit
o Examples include poly(ethene) and poly(chloroethene), commonly known as PVC
 Others contain two or more different types of monomer units and which are
called copolymers
o Examples include nylon and biological proteins
 Different linkages also exist, depending on the monomers and the type of
polymerisation
o Examples of linkages are covalent bonds, amide links and ester links
 Diagram showing how lots of monomers bond together to form a polymer

 Poly(ethene) is formed by the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers

 Addition polymerisation involves the addition of many monomers to make a long
chained polymer
 In this case, many ethene monomers join together due to the carbon carbon double
bond breaking
 Poly(ethene) is formed by addition polymerisation using ethene monomers

Addition Polymers
EXTENDED

 Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many monomers and only occur in
monomers that contain C=C bonds
 One of the bonds in each C=C bond breaks and forms a bond with the adjacent
monomer with the polymer being formed containing single bonds only
 Many polymers can be made by the addition of alkene monomers
 Others are made from alkene monomers with different atoms attached to the monomer
such as chlorine or a hydroxyl group
 The name of the polymer is deduced by putting the name of the monomer in brackets
and adding poly- as the prefix
 For example if propene is the alkene monomer used, then the name is poly(propene)
 Poly(ethene) is formed by the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers

Deducing the polymer from the monomer


o Polymer molecules are very large compared with most other molecule
o Repeat units are used when displaying the formula
o To draw a repeat unit, change the double bond in the monomer to a single
bond in the repeat unit
o Add a bond to each end of the repeat unit
o The bonds on either side of the polymer must extend outside the brackets (these
are called extension or continuation bonds)
o A small subscript n is written on the bottom right hand side to indicate a large
number of repeat units
 o Add on the rest of the groups in the same order that they surrounded the
double bond in the monomer

Examples of addition polymerisation: polythene and PVC

 Deducing the monomer from the polymer

o Identify the repeating unit in the polymer
o Change the single bond in the repeat unit to a double bond in the monomer
o Remove the bond from each end of the repeat unit
 Diagram showing the monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer
(polychloroethene)

Exam Tip
You should be able to draw the box diagrams representing polymers where each box
represents a part of the repeating hydrocarbon chain. The functional groups on the
monomers and the link formed in the polymers are the important parts and must be
clearly drawn.

Condensation Polymers
EXTENDED

 Condensation polymers are formed when two different monomers are linked together
with the removal of a small molecule, usually water
 This is a key difference between condensation polymers and addition polymers:
o Addition polymerisation forms the polymer molecule only
o Condensation polymerisation forms the polymer molecule and
one water molecule per linkage
 The monomers have two functional groups present, one on each end
 The functional groups at the ends of one monomer react with the functional group on
the end of the other monomer, in so doing creating long chains of alternating
monomers, forming the polymer
 Hydrolysing (adding water) to the compound in acidic conditions usually reverses the
reaction and produces the monomers by rupturing the peptide link

Forming Nylon

 Nylon is a polyamide made from dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a -

COOH group at either end) and diamines (an amine with an -NH2 group at either end)
 Each -COOH group reacts with another -NH 2 group on another monomer
 An amide linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link

The condensation reaction in which the polyamide, nylon is produced

 The structure of nylon can be represented by drawing out the polymer using boxes to
represent the carbon chains
 Diagram showing a section of nylon

Forming Polyesters

 PET or polyethylene terephthalate to give its full name, is a polyester made

from dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a -COOH group at either end)
and diols (alcohol with an -OH group at either end)
 Each -COOH group reacts with another -OH group on another monomer
 An ester linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link
 For every ester linkage formed in condensation polymerisation, one molecule of water is
formed from the combination of a proton (H+) and a hydroxyl ion (OH–)
 PET is also used in synthetic fibres as is sold under the trade name of terylene
 The condensation reaction in which PET is produced

 The structure of PET can be represented by drawing out the polymer using boxes to
represent the carbon chains
 This can be done for all polyesters
 Diagram showing a section of PET

Exam Tip
You don't need to know the detailed chemical structure of PET, just the symbolic
drawing showing the alternating blocks and the linking ester group. Be careful not to
exactly repeat the linking group in nylon or PET; the link alternates by reversing the
order of the atoms, rather like a mirror image.

Plastics & their Disposal

 Synthetic polymers are ones made in a factory, for example nylon, terylene and lycra
 Nylon is a polyamide used to produce clothing, fabrics, nets and ropes
 PET, also known as Terylene, is a polyester made from monomers which are joined
together by ester links
 PET is used extensively in the textile industry and is often mixed with cotton to
produce clothing

Table showing Uses of Plastics

Non-biodegradable plastics

 These are plastics which do not degrade over time or take a very long time to degrade,
and cause significant pollution problems
 In particular plastic waste has been spilling over into the seas and oceans and is causing
huge disruptions to marine life
 In landfills waste polymers take up valuable space as they are non-biodegradable so
microorganisms cannot break them down. This causes the landfill sites to quickly fill up
 Polymers release a lot of heat energy when incinerated and
produce carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change
 If incinerated by incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide will be produced which is a
toxic gas that reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen
 Polymers can be recycled but different polymers must be separated from each other
which is a difficult and expensive process

PET Re-polymerisation

 PET stands for polyethylene terephthalate, a common polymer used to make things like
plastic bottles
 It is a condensation polymer consisting of repeating ester units, so it is type of polyester,
like terylene
 One of the problems with recycling polymers is that the condition needed to break them
down, which are usually high temperatures and pressures, can degrade the monomers
making them unusable for re-polymerisation
 PET is relatively easy to convert back into the monomers
 It can be depolymerised either using enzymes or by chemical methods
 Enzymes present in microbes breakdown the PET into the original monomers
 The same can be achieved using solvents a catalyst and mild heating
 The breakdown of PET into its two monomers takes place using enzymes or
chemical catalysts and mild conditions

 The monomers are recovered and be be polymerised into new PET

 This saves on resources and energy, reducing the carbon footprint of the production
process
Proteins
Extended

 Proteins are condensation polymers which are formed from amino acid monomers
joined together by amide links (in proteins also known as a peptide link) similar to the
structure in nylon
 The units in proteins are different however, consisting of amino acids
 Amino acids are small molecules containing NH2 and COOH functional groups

General structure of an amino acid

 There are twenty common amino acids, each differing by their side chain, represented
by R
 Proteins can contain between 60 and 600 of these amino acids in different orders
 These are the monomers which polymerise to form the protein
 Diagram showing condensation polymerisation to produce a protein

 The structure of proteins can be represented using the following diagram whereby the
boxes represent the carbon chains

Diagram showing a section of protein