Current
Current
Current
ALLEN
Common Lecture Notes Enthuse Course (12th Appearing)
Topic : CURRENT ELECTRICITY Lectures / Hours allotted : 15 L/22.5 Hrs
LECTURE # 01
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
In electrostatics we have completed the properties associated with a charge at rest. But in this chapter
we will discuss the property of charge in motion which is called electric current.
Types of electric current.
1. Direct current (dc)
2. Alternating current (ac)
In this chapter we will only deal with dc.
Electric current
Time rate of flow of electric charge through cross section is called electric current.
(A) Average electric current
If Q charge flow through a cross section in time interval Dt then average current is defined as
DQ
Iavg =
Dt
dQ dQ
Iins = or I =
dt dt
Numericals :-
Que. 20 A current flows through a cross section of 20 cm 2 for 20 msec. Find out no of free e– crossing
through that area.
Q ne
ÞI= =
t t
It 20 ´ 20 ´ 10–3 4
n= = = × 1018
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e 1.6 ´ 10 –19
1.6
= 2.5 × 1018
Que. A conducting wire having material density 20g/cc and atomic mass no 200 calculate the no of free e–
per unit volume (each atom of conductor gives 1 e– )
Let v = volume
m = mass
d = density
Q 200 g material having no of atom = NA
æ NA ö
Q m material having no of atom = ç ´m÷
è 200 ø
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1 atom gives one e–
NA
So, total no of e– = ´m
200
So, no of e– per unit volume is
æ NA ö
ç ´m÷
n= è 200 ø
V
NA m
= ´
200 v
NA ´ d
=
200
Que. An e– revolving on a circular track of radius 1.6 cm with a constant speed 3.14 × 1017 m/sec. Find out
the current flowing in the circle.
v
Time period e
–
r
2pr
T= v
e
I=
T
e ev
I= =
æ 2pr ö 2pr
ç ÷
è v ø
t=2
2
Q= ò (2 + 4t)dt = Q = éë 2t + 2t ùû 0
2
t =0
= 2 × 2 + 2 × (2)2 = 12C
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Note:-
dQ = Idt
t2
Que. I(A)
10
5
t = (s)
2 8 12
A 1= 6×5 A2 = 1 (5+10) (4)
2
given is a graph of a wire, find out the amount of charge following through the wire in the time
interval t = 2s to t = 12 s
t2
= A1 + A2
1
=6×5+ (5 + 10) (4)2
2
= 30 + 30 = 60C
Points
Direction of electric current is in the direction of flow of (+)ve charge or in the direction of electric
field.
In other words we can say direction of electric current is just opposite to the direction of flow of (–)
ve charge particles.
Electric current is also known as conventional current.
Conventional current
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All these electric current have both magnitude and direction but not considered as vector quantity it
does not follow law of vector addition.
Charge carriers
Without charge carriers electric current is not possible
Types
Conductors ® Free e–
Semiconductors ® e– & holes
Insulators ® absent
Electrolyte ® +ve and –ve ions
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Intrinsic properties of a conducter in terms of free e –
1 3
mv 2 = KT
2 2
3KT
Vrms = ; 105 m / s
m
Neutral conductor
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–
+ e E
Fe F = – eE
DV
+ a = –eE
– m
On applying potential difference across a conductor we get an electric field inside the conductor due
to which all free e– experience electrostatic force in the direction opposite to the applied field.
due to this force e– get accelerated and during motion they face so many collision on their path. In
this way they travel with a average velocity opposite to the direction of applied field.
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DRIFT VELOCITY (vd)
The average velocity by which the e– are drifting opposite to the direction of applied electric field due
to potential difference inside a conductor is called as drift velocity of electrons.
ur
order of V d is about 10 –4 m/s
Note :
(1) Electric field due to current carrying conductor outside the wire is zero.
(2) Inside the wrie is non zero.
r uur
Redation between vd and E
Due to application of potential difference across a conductor the free electrons get accelerated opposite
to the applied field.
for electrons
r r r r
v1 = u + at1 (where u is thermal velocity of e– )
Similarly for other electron
r r r
v 2 = u 2 + a t2
r r r
v N = u N + a tN
r r r r r r
( u1 + a t1 ) + ( u 2 + a t 2 ) + ....... + ( u N + a t N )
=
N
r r r
æ u1 + u 2 ......... + u N ö r æ t1 + t2 ......t N ö
vd Þ ç
N ÷ + a + .ç N ÷
è ø è ø
r ur r
vd = O + a t
r r
Þ vd = a t
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r r
r Fe -eE
Q a= =
m m
r æ et ö r æ et ö
v d = - ç ÷ E or v d = - ç ÷ E
èmø èmø
Mobility (µ) :- It is defined as the ratio of drift velocity to applied electric field.
vd et
µ= or µ =
E m
Vd
If temperature is constant then mobility remains constant then is constant.
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LECTURE # 02
Relation between I and Vd :-
direction of flow of electrons
A +
L
time required to treavel L , t =
vd
Q neAL vd
=
t L
i = neAvd
r
CURRENT DENSITY (J)
Electric current is defined as rate flow of charge through a cross section that is a macrolevel study.
But the study of current in terms of direction as well as magnitude through a very small cross section
is a micro level study. We introduces a new physical quantity that is called current density.
Definition Þ "Electric current flowing through per unit cross section which is put perpendiculary on
its path is called current density through that cross section.
r
Direction of J is along electric field.
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A : |A|= A
I J
A E
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J
I
q
dA
I
J = dAcosq
I = J dA cos q
r uuur r ur
or I = J·dA or I = J·A
Case I Þ If current density is uniform over a cross section then
r uuur
I = J·dA or I = JA cos q
unit of J Þ A/m2 or A/cm2
dimention of formula Þ formula Þ [AL–2 ]
So J = n eV d
é et ù ì æ et ö ü
again, J = ne ê E ú íQ Vd = ç ÷ E ý
ëm û î èmø þ
æ ne 2 t ö r r
J =ç ÷ E or J = sE or J = sE
è m ø
ne t
2
Hence s= m
It is called conductivity
of the given matterial
–
n = no of e per
A unit volume
Volume of wire = AL
Total no fo free e– = nAL
for an electron = P = mvd
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So, Pnet = (nAl) (mvd)
é æ I öù
= nAl ê m ç ÷ ú {I = neAvd}
ë è neA ø û
(60)(9 ´ 10 –3 ) (1000)
Þ
1.6 ´ 10 –19
Que. The no of free e– per 10 mm of on ordinary copper wire is above 2 × 1021. The avg. drift speed of e–
is 0.25 mm/sec the current flowing is :
l
A
N = Total no of free e–
æ Nö
I = neAvd Þ ç ÷ eAvd
è Al ø
Nev d æ N ö
= = ç ÷ ev
l èlø d
2 ´ 10 2
= × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.25)
10
= 8A
Que.
A1 A2
A1 < A2
Figure is represnting a current carrying wire with having non uniform cross sectional area find out
the relation b/w physical quataties on their two ends.
(i) i (ii) Vd (iii) J (iv) E
(1) Electric current is the rate flow of electric charge and that is completely independent from the cross
section of given figure. Hence I1 = I2
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I I
(2) I = ne Avd Þ vd = Þ vd µ
neA A
v d1 > v d 2
(3) J = nevd Þ J µ vd
J1 > J 2
(4) J = sE Þ J a E
E1 > E 2
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Que. a b
A wire of length l having radius a and b at their ends as shown figure. Current I is flowing through
the wire find current density of wire at a distance x from the end of Radius a.
radius = a+y
v (b-a)
a a a b
Sol.
x
æ b-a ö
Change in radius per unit length of wire = ç ÷
è l ø
So change in radius at the required cross -section
æ b-a ö
Y= ç ÷x
è l ø
é æ b-a ö ù
r = a+ y = ê a + ç ÷ xú
ë è l ø û
So, A = pr2
2
é æb-a ö ù
= p êa + ç ÷ xú
ë è l ø û
I I
Hence Þ J = = 2
A é æb-a ö ù
pê + ç
a x
÷ ú
ë è l ø û
Que. The current density across a cylindrical conductor of radius R varies in magnitude according to the equation J
æ rö
= J0 çè 1 - ÷ø where r is the distance from the central axis. Thus, the current denisty is maximum J0 at the axis
R
(r = 0) and decreases linearly to zero at the surface (r = R). The current in terms of J0 and conductor's cross-
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sectional area A is :-
Sol. dr
Area of ring
O r
dA = (2 pr)dr
R
r uur
I= ò J·d A
= ò JdA cosq
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R
æ r ö
òJ 0 ç 1 - ÷ ( 2prdr )
0 è Rø
R
æ r2 ö
= 2 pJ 0 ò ç r - ÷ dr
0è
Rø
R
é r 2 r3 ù
= 2 pJ 0 ê – ú
ë 2 3R û
é R2 R3 ù
= 2 pJ 0 ê – ú
ë 2 3R û
éR2 ù
= 2 p J 0 ê ú
ë 6 û
pJ 0 R 2
I=
3
A = pR2
so
J0A
I=
3
r
Resistivity r (µW-cm)
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1
· Unit of a is
°C
· Resistance correspoinding to temperature difference (DT) is given as Rt = R0 (1 + aDT)
Where Rt = Resistance at t° C, R0 = Resistance at 0° C
DT = Change in temperature, a = Temperature coefficient of resistance
*[For metals : a is positive but for semiconductors and insulators : a is negative]
· Resistance of the conductor decreases linearly with decrease in temperature and becomes zero at a specific
temperature. This temperature is called critical temperature. Below this temperature a conductor becomes a
superconductor.
Que. At room temp (27°C) the resistance of a heating element is 100W. What is the temp of the element if
the resistance found to be 117W given that a = 1.7 × 10–4/°C
t = 27°C t=?
Sol.
R0 = 100 W Rt = 117 W
100 = R0 (1 + 27a)
117 = R0 ( 1 + aT)
117 1 + aT
=
100 1 + 27a
1.17 + 31.59a = 1 + aT
0.17
= T - 31.59
a
T = 1000 + 31.59
T = 1031.59°C
Que. A heating element using nicrome connected to a 230 V supply than initial current is 3.2A after few
sec at steady state current is 2.8 A. What is the value of temperature at steady state if the room temp
is 27°C
(a = 1.7 × 10–4)/°C
Ii = 3.2A If = 2.8Å
230V 230V
27°C °C = ?
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230 230
Sol. R0 = R1 = W Rt = Rf = W
3.2 2.8
Rt = R0 [1 + a (t – t0)]
230 230
=
2.8 3.2
[1 + a(t – 27)]
3.2
= [1 + a (t – 27)]
2.8
0.4
= a (t – 27)
2.8
1
t= = a ( t - 27 )
7
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1
t= + 27
7 ´ 1.7 ´ 10 –4
t = 840 + 27 = 867°C
Que. The resistance of a platinum wire at ice point is 5 W and at steam point is 5.39 W if it is inserted in hot
water then resistance is found to be 5.795 W calculate the temp of hot water .
Sol. R0 = 5 W (ice)
R100 = 5.39W (100°C)
Rt = 5.79 (t = ?)
R t – R0
t = R – R × 100°C
100 0
R1a1 + R 2 a 2
a eq =
R1 + R 2
Que. For a conductor V-I graph is ploated at two temp T1 and T2 shown in figure. Select the correct one
2
(1) T1 = T2 (2) T1 < T2 (3) T1 > T2 (4) T1 =
2
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Sol. q1 > q2
tan q > tan q2
Þ T1 > T2
Que. If the temperature change for a metalic wire is 5°C then change in resistance is 8 × 10–5 W. If a is
10–4 per °C calculate the resitance at 0°C
RT = R0 (1 + a Dt)
Rt
– 1 = aDt
R0
( Rt – R0 )
= aDt
R0
DR
R 0 = aDt
DR
R0 =
aDt
8 ´ 10 –5
=
4 ´ 10 –4 ´ 5
= 0.4 × 10–1 = 0.04 W
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LECTURE # 03
OHM'S LAW:
Under same physical condition, potential difference across any resistor is proportional to current.
i
i = ne A Vd & Vd =
neA Vµ i i
R1
V = iR
é eEt ù R= Resistance
Now, i = neA ê ú R2
ë me û
R2 > R1 V
æ ne t ö
2
i=ç ÷ A´ E
è me ø
V æ ne 2 t ö A
QE = i= ç ÷ ´n
l è m e ø l
éæ m ö l ù
V = êç 2e ÷ ú ´ i
ëè ne t ø A û
V = Ri
æ m öl
R = ç 2e ÷
è ne t ø A
rl me
QR = Þ r= 2
A ne t
RESISTANCE : - It is the obstruction in the flow of current.
It is independent of V & i
for ohmic conductors
V æ m e ö l rL
R= =ç ÷ =
i è ne 2 t ø A A
Unit – W(ohm)
M1L2 T -2
Dimension- A1T1 A1 = éë M L T A ùû
1 2 -3 -2
( )( )
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Resistance depends on
(i) temperature
(ii) Nature of material
(iii) dimension (length & area)
Note:- On increasing temperature, resistance of conductor increases & of semi-conductor & electrolyte
decreases.
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m
r= 1m
ne 2 t
Unit ® Wm
D.F = [ML3T – 3A–2]
Resistivity depends only on (i) temperature
(ii) Nature of material
Conductivity: It is the conductance offered by cube of side 1m.
1 ne2 t
s= =
r m
eEt
Vd =
m
i æ ne 2 t ö
=ç ÷E
A è m ø
r r
J = sE
Note:- If wire is stretched,
rl l rl 2
R= ´ = Þ R µ l2
A l Vol
rl A rVol 1 1
R= ´ = 2 Þ Rµ 2 µ 4
A A A A r
1 1
R µ l2 µ 2
µ 4
A r
Q. A wire is stretched by 30% of its original. Find % increase in resistance.
Sol. Let original length be %
then
R µ l2
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R 1 (1.3)
2
=
R 1
R1 = 1.69R
DR = (1.69–1) × 100%
= 69%
Q. A wire is compresed by 30% of its original length. Find % increase in resistance is ?
Sol. R µ l2
2
R æ 1 ö
= çç ÷
R ' è (1 - 0.3 ) ÷ø
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R 1
=
R ' ( 0.7 )2
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Gold ± 5%
Sliver ± 10%
No colour ± 20%
Q. Red
Q.
34 × 102W ± 5% 62 × 10 ± 20%
5
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LECTURE # 04
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS:
Series combination V1 V2
I = current = same
V = V1 + V2 R1 R2
i Rs = iR1 + iR2 i
R s = R1 + R 2 V
R S = nR
Parellel combination
V = same R1
i1
i = i1 + i2 (conservation of charge)
R2
V 1 1 i2
= + i
R p R1 R 2
V
1 1 1
= +
R p R1 R 2
R 1R 2
Rp =
R 1 + R 2 In case of two parallel resistor
R1
£ R p < R 1 & R 2 (if R1 < R2)
2
R
RP =
n
Q. Two resistors when connected in series their effective resistance is 10W. When both are connected in
parellel effective resistance is 2.1 W then the resistor are :
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Sol. R1 + R2 = 10
R1 + R 2
= 2.1
R1 + R 2
R 1R 2
= 2.1
10
R1R2 = 21
\ R1 = 3 ; R2 = 7
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Q. 36V 24V
3A 8W
12W
6W 4W
3A
6W
6A
60V
Find current and potential difference across each resistor
Reff. = 10W
V 60
i= = = 6A
R 10
32V
4A 8W
1A 12W
4A
6W 5W
3A 4W
Q. 48V 20V 12V
8A
80V
If power through 12W resistor is 12 watt. Then find EMF (Voltage) of battery.
EMF = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
= 32 + 48 = 80V
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LECTURE # 05
KIRCHOFF'S LAW
Ist Kirchoff's current Law:-
It states that algebric sum of current at any junction is always zero i.e.
'At any junction incoming current = outgoing current
It is based on conservation of charge.
i3
i1
i4 i1 + i2 = i3 + i4 + i5
i2 i5
2A
i1= 5A
5A i2 = 5A
3A I2 i3 = 10A
1.
10A
i1 5A i3
8A
2A
5A i1 = 1A
1A 3A i2 = 7A
i1 2A i3 = 2A
i3
2. i4 = 5A
i2 5A
8A 7A i4
+v – i R
(–v) (–iR)
+v – i R
(+v) (+iR)
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Q. Write the equation of KVL + – + –
i = i + i2 2V 3W
Loop(1) i2 2
+ – + –
– 10 – 2i1 – 5 – 2i = 0 ...(1)
i1 10V 2W
Loop(2) 1
i
– 2 – 3i2 + 2i1 + 10 = 0 ...(2) + –
–2W + 5V
3W
– 2 – 3 i1 + 1 i2 + 10 + 2i2 + 5 = 0 3W
(1) 10V
Loop 2
2V
i
i1
+ 3i + 3 + 3i1 + 2 = 0
i2 5V 2W
Q.1 Find VAC, VCF, VAE, VAB
VAC = VA – VC = 8 + 6 + 10 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 4 A B C
2W 2W 2W
= 42 V
VCF = 16 + (–4) – 4 – 10 – 6 – 8 2A 2A
= 16 – 32 = – 16 V 6V 5V 4A
VAE = – 12 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 4 3W 1A 2A 10V
= – 12 + 18 = 6V 3A 4W 4V 2A
4A 3A 3W
VAB = 4 – 5 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 4 4W 4W 1W
= 17 V
F E D
NODAL METHOD :
Q. Find Potential difference between junction
2W 10V
i1
i2
V 0 volt
5V 1W
i3
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10V 1W
Sol. i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V - 10 V - 5 V - 10
+ + =0
2 1 1
V – 10 + 2V – 10 + 2V – 20 = 0
5V = 40
V = 8V
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Q. Find potential difference between junction
D
20V 4W 10V
1W
i1
i2
V
10V 2W 10V 0 volt
i3
– +
10V C 2W 5V
Sol. i1 + i2 + 13 = 0
V - 20 - 10 V - 10 - 10 V + 10 - 5
+ + =0
4 2 2
V - 30 V - 20 V + 5
+ + =0
4 2 2
2V - 60 + 4V - 80 + 4V + 20
=0
8
10V – 120 = 0
V = 12
Ans. i1 = 4.5 A ; i2 = –4 ; i3 = 8.5A
5V 2W i3
V
i2 i1
20V
2W
3W
V
2W
20
10V
1W
5V 2W
Sol. I1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V - 10 + 5 V + 20 V + 5 - 20
+ + =0
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4 4 4
V - 5 V + 20 V - 15
+ + =0
4 4 4
V - 20 + 2V + 20
4
3V = 0
-5
\ i1 = = – 1.25A ; i1 = 5A ; i3 = – 3.75 A
4
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Q. Find current in each branch
10V 2W
i1
i2
V
8V 4W
i3
16V
i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
V - 10 V - 8
+ + i3 = 0
2 4
16 - 10 16 - 8
+ + i3 = 0
2 4
i1 = 3A i2 = 2A i3 = – 5A
Q. Find VAB
A
2W 3W
x
R=4W
2W 3W
3W 2W
® 4W
V volt O Volt
B
3W 2W
V y
Now,
é1 1 1ù é1 1ù
Let (x-y) be K ; K ê + + ú = V ê - ú
ë 2 2 3û ë 2 3û
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é8ù é3 - 2 ù
Kê ú =Vê ú
ë6û ë 6 û
é8ù é1 ù
Kê ú = Vê ú VAB = Vx – Vy = x – y
ë6û ë6û
V éVù
K= \VAB = ê ú
8 ë8û
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LECTURE # 06
Q. Find RAB in each case:
R
R
A C B R
(ii) A Þ
R
3R
Ans. RAB =
5
C
R
R R
C C R
(iv) A A C B Þ
A B
4R
Ans. RAB =
3
Solving Symmetrical Circuits :
2R
R
R R
R R 2R
A
(i) B
Þ
A B
R R
2R
R
Ans. 2R/3
R R
R
R R R R R
R
A R R R B
ÞA
R
(iv)
R R B
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R R R R R
R
R
R R
Ans. 6R/7
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2A 12W
4A 6W
6W 4W 6A 4W
A A B B
(vii) 12W C Þ 12A
24V
24V
2W G 1W 2W
Q. A E
4W 3W
2W
F
C F
1W
2W 2W
3W
H
1W B
D
RAB = ?
Ans. G 1W F
2W 2W
A B
RAB = 5W
Q. 4W 1W
E F
C
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1W
2.5W
A E 3W
6W
E F
4W
2W 3W
D B
RAB = ?
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Ans. 1W
E 4W F
2.5W 2W 3W
A 4W B
2.5W 0.5W 3W
A B
RAB = 6W
Q. Hanging Circuit:
B
R
R R
B B
A
R
RAB = ?
Method 2
A
R R
R R
B
Ans. R
R
A B
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R
R
R
RAB =
4
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LECTURE # 07
Q. In the given question calculate (i) RAC (ii) RHD (iii) RBG
(i) RAC
4W 2W
1W
B C 4W 8W
RAC = 6W
1W 2W
D (ii) RHD
A 1W 4W 2W 8W 2W O
H
4W 4W
3W
H E 8W
3W 4W 4W
RHO = 9W
4W 3W
F (iii) RBG
G
12 W 4W G
B
1W
4W
RBG = 8W
4W A 12W
16W
Þ A B
12W B 4W
16W
48V
Ref = 8W
V 48
\ i= = = 6A
R 8
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Q. Find RAB :
Let RAB = R
2W 2W 2W
R ´1 A ¥
RAB = 2 + 1W
R +1 1W 1W
B ¥
R 2W
R=2+ A
R +1
1W 1W R
R B
R–2 =
R +1
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(R–2) (R+1) = R
R2 – 2R + R – 2
4 - 4 ´1´ ( -2)
R = 2+
2
2 + 4 + 8 2 + 12
R2 – 2R – 2 = 0 = = 1+ 3
2 2
Q. Consider a cube having resistance R at each edge. Find effective resistance about (i) face diagonal
(ii) Body diagonal (iii) Edge length 8 7
3R
® Face Diagonal = 5
4 6
5R 4
® Body diagonal = 3
6
1 2
7R
® Edge length =
12
1. Face diagonal
5 6,8 7
3R
®
4
1 2,4 3
Body diagonal
1 2,4,5 7
R/3 R/6 R/3
5R
Ans.
6
Edge length
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3 7
R
R/2 R/2
2,4 6,8
B
A R/2
R/2 R/2
1 5
R
7R
Ans.
12
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L-6 & L7
B.B-5 Q- 1, 2, 3, 4
Ex-I Q- 31 to 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57
Ex.-II Q- 4, 7, 18, 40, 41, 48
Ex.-III Q- 7, 8, 26
L-6 & L7
B.B-5 Q- 1, 2, 3, 4
Ex-I Q- 32 to 45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58
Ex.-II Q- 4, 7, 18, 40, 41, 49
Ex.-III Q- 7, 8, 26
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LECTURE # 08
CELL
It is device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
A B cell
E= emf r = internal
resistance
VAB = Terminal
Potential difference
E, r = 0 E, r¹0
Open circuit
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Discharging
A B T.P.D = VAB = E – ir
E r
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Charging
A r B T.P.D = VAB = E + ir
E
Short Circuited
T.P.D = E – ir
A B
E r
æEö
=E– ç ÷r = 0
èrø
Q. 10V battery of internal resistance 1W is charged by a battery of 110 V, 9W, then find (i) current in the
circuit (ii) terminal potential difference.
10V 1W
+ –
+ –
110V 9W
110 - 10
Sol. (i) i =
9 +1
100
= = 10A
10
(ii) T.P.D. = E + ir
= 10 + (10 × 1)
= 20V
Q. A cell of e.m.f E when connected to resistor of 4W and 9W then current in the circuit are 2A & 1A
respectively. Then find internal resistance.
E r
E
=2
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Sol.
4+r
E = 8 + 2r ...(i)
E
=1
9+r
E=9+r ....(ii)
From (i) & (ii)
\ 8 + 2r = 9 + r
r = 1W
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Q. Find current in the circuit & T.P.D of E1, E2, E3.
10V 1W 5V 2W
E1 E2
30V 2W
E3
Sol. Net P.D = 30 – (10 + 5)
= 15V
æVö
Current = ç ÷
è r ø
Net resistance = 5W
15
\i= = 3A
5
\ TPD(E1) = E1 + ir1
= 10 + (3)(1)= 13V
TPD (E2) = E2 + ir2
= 5 + (3) × 2
= 11 V
TPD[E3] = E3 – ir3 Work done is +ve only for E3. & in E3 only chemical e® electrned energy.
30 – (3 × 2)
= 24 V
MAXIMUM POWER THEOREM
When the resistance of load resistor is equal to resistance of combination, then dissipated power
through it is maximum.
Q. Find the value of R for which power through it is max.
E r(known)
E
i=
r+R
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R(unknown)
E2R
P=
(R + r)
2
dP
For max. power, =0
dR
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æ u ö vu '- u ' v
By division rule, ç ÷=
èvø v2
dP
= E 2 é( r + R ) 1 - R2 ( r + R ) ù = 0
2
dR ë û
E 2 ( r + R ) [ r + R - 2R ] = 0 P
R=r E2
Pmax = 4r
E2r
Pmax =
( 2r )
2
R=r R
Q. Calc (i) R for which power through it is max. (ii) Max. Power
6W
20V
3W
3W R
A
Sol.
(i) R = 5W [r known = 2 + 3 = 5W]
E 2 20 ´ 20
(ii) Pmax = = = 20W
4r 4´ 5
(iii) Find the value of R for which power through A is max.
P = i 2R
Pmax when R is minimum
Min. Possible value of R = zero \r=0
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LECTURE # 09
COMBINATION OF CELLS :
1. Series combination
nE
(i) i =
nr + R
(ii) Potential difference across each cell = E – ir
If polarity of 1 cell is reversed, then
n-cell (n-2)E nr
E r E r E r E r
Þ
R
R
Enet = (n – 2) E
i=
( n - 2) E
(i)
nr + R
(ii) T.P.D across the cell whose porarity is reversed.
= E + ir
Parallel combination:-
E
Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\ENTHUSE_(12TH)_NOTES\CURRENT ELECTRICITY.P65
r E r/n
E
r
E n times i
r
R
r
E
R
E
i=
r
R+
n
E.m.f remains E
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1. If cells have different e.m.f then, by nodal.
E1 r1
V
E2 r2
V - E1 V - E 2
+ =0
r1 r2
é1 1 ù E E
Vê + ú = 1 + 2
ë r1 r2 û r1 r2
E1 E 2
+
r1 r2 E r + E 2 r1
V= = 12
1 1 r1 + r2
+
r1 r2
Mixed combination of cells :
Total cells = m × n
nE
nr
nE m
nr
nE r
m Rows
nr Þ
nE
nr R
R
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Q. 20 cells each of e.m.f 2V and 1W internal resistance are arranged in series. This combination is
charged by a voltage of 200 V. When 80W resistor is connected in series then find current in the
circuit.
20 × 2V 20 W
200 - 40 160
Sol. i= = = 1.6A
20 + 80 100
80W 200V
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Q. 10 cells of emf 20V and internal resistance 5W are arranged in parellel . A load resistor of 4.5W is
connected across the combination then find current in the circuit.
20V 0.5
r
20 20
Sol. current = = = 4A
( 4.5 + 0.5 ) 5
4.5W
Q. There are 200 cells of emf 2V and internal resistance 1W. There are m rows having n cell in each row.
If the combination have net emf of 50V. Then find
(i) m (ii) n (iii) net internal resistance
Sol. m × n = 200
n (2) = 50
n = 25
n× r
nE m
200
\ m= =8
25
\ (i) m = 8
(ii) n = 25
nr 25 ´ 1 25
(iii) net internal resistance = = = W
m 8 8
Q. There are n cells of emf 2V and internal resestance 1W in each row. There are m rows which are
arranged in parallel. If the combination have net emf = 100 V & net internal resistance = 5W. Then
calcualte (i)m & (ii)n
n ´1
=5
m
50 ´ 1
=5
m
m = 10
\ (i) m = 10 (ii) n = 50
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Q. There are n rows having m cells in each row. The emf & internal resistance of the cell are 5V and 2W.
If the combination has net emf = 20V & internal resistance = 1W then find no. of cells.
Sol. 20 = m × 5
(i) m = 4
mr
= net rest
n
4´ 2
= 1W
n
(ii) n = 8
(iv) Total cell = 8 × 4 = 32
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LECTURE # 10
GALVANOMETER:
It is used to detect the presence of current or to measure small amount of current.
G
ig
G = resistance of galvanometer
ig = max. current through galvanometer
or
Current of galvanometer at max. deflection
Moving coil. galvanometer (D.C) ig i
G
deflection ig–i
iµq
S
I×G = (ig – i) S
Q. A galvanometer of resistance 10W has ig current flowing through it, find the shunt requered so that
deflection of galvanometer becomes 20% of its max.
Sol. i µ q
q' = 0.2q
ig 0.2 ig
(i) = 0.2ig G
0.2ig × 10 = 0.8 ig × S 0.8ig
S
10
S = = 2.5W
4
Q. A galvanometer of resistance 18W has max. current ig. It is shunted by a resistor of 12W, then deflection
decreases by ?
Sol. 18 × I = 12 (ig – I)
3I = 2ig – 2I
5I = 2ig
2i g
I=
5
2 3
\ q decreases by 1 - = of initial deflection = 60%
5 5
in parellel.
Shunt resistor (s) – It is a resistor of low resistance connected in parellel.
Ideal Ammeter has zero resistance.
Real Ammeter has very low resistance.
G
ig
Range of G = 0 – Ig (mA)
Range of A = 0 – I (A)
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I Ig
G
(I–Ig)
S
IgG = (I – Ig) S
I g ( G + S ) = IS
Q. A galvenometer of resistance 199.8W has 50 division and current through each division is 20mA per
division, it is shunted by 0.2W resistor, then find the range of ammeter formed.
Sol. ig = 50 × 20mA =1000mA = 1ma
ig (G + S) = I(0.2)
200 = I(0.2)
I = 1000mA
I = 1A
Range = 0 – 1A
Q. A galvanometer of resistance 2990W has maximum current 5mA. It is shunted by 10W resistor. Then
find the range of ammeter.
Sol. Ig(G + S) = IS
5 × 10–3 [2990 + 10] = I (10)
5 × 10–3 [3000]
15 = I (10)
I = 1.5 A
Range = 0 – 1.5 A
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:
ig
G
G V = ig(G+S)
ig S
High resistance
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Q. V
495W 1500W
A 5W
200V
If the resistance of ammeter and voltmeter are 5W & 1500W then find the reading of ammeter and
voltmeter.
200 1
(i) i = = = 0.1A
2000 10
1500
(ii) V = ´ 200 = 150V
2000
Q. Find the reading of voltmeter if (i) voltmeter is ideal (ii) if resistance of voltmeter is 1200W.
Sol. (i) V ® 150V V
resistance equal \ voltage will equally destribute
5V = 300 V 300V
V = 60V
\ Across 6000W V' = 2V = 2 × 60 = 120V
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LECTURE # 11
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE :-
P R
If = , then V = V
Q S A B
A
I1 – Ig
P R
i1
1 G 2
i2
Q S
i2 + i g
B
\ Current through
G = Zero
Proof : Loop-1 Loop - 2
– i1 P – ig G + i2 Q = 0 – (i1 – ig) R + (i2 + ig) S + igG = 0
If ig = 0 ® VA = VB
– ip + i2 Q = 0 – i1R + i2S = 0
i1P = i2Q i1 R = i 2 S
i2 P i2 R
= =
i1 Q i1 S
P R
= or PS = QR
Q S
Different forms of wheatstone bridge-
A B
A
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R R
R
R A R B
A R C R D B Þ
R R R
Ans. R
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12W 2W
6W
R 4W
G 3W
Q.
2W
10W
6W
METER BRIDGE
Principle - wheatstone bridge
It is used to find the resistance of unknown resistor . The wire of meter bridge is made up of
constantan, because they have high resistivity and low temp. coefficent.
The area of cross- section of the wire is uniform.
P(Known) Q(Unknown)
G
l 100–l
1m= 100cm
rL
R=
A
A = const.
\Rµl
P l
=
Q 100 - l
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Q. In meter bridge experiment initially balance point is at 30cm when 20W resistor is connected in series
with P, then null point shifts by 10 cm, then find P & Q.
P 30 3
Sol. = =
Q 70 7 P Q
7P G
Þ 7P = 3Q \ Q =
3
P + 20 40 2
= =
Q 60 3
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\ 3P + 60 = 2Q
7P
3P + 60 = 2 ´
3
9P + 180 = 14P
180 = 5P
P = 36W Q = 84 W
Q. Find Q if null point is at 60cm.
P=6W Q= ?
P 60
=
Q 40 G
60cm
6 60
= \ Q = 4W
Q 40
(ii) Now 12W is connected in parellel to Q. then find shift in null point.
Q
P 6 2 l P
4W
= = = 6W
Q 3 1 100 - l
G
Null point = 66.7cm 12W
Shift = 66.7 – 60 = 6.7cm
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LECTURE # 12
POTENTIOMETER
It is a device which is used to measure emf and internal resistance of the cell.
It is also used to compare the emf of two cells.
It is based on null deflection method. Hence, it gives more accurate reading than voltmeter.
Potentiometer wire is made up of magnin, constantan & eureka because of their high resistivity & low
temperature coffecient.
RH E r RH
E r
A
R/l
A B
R/l B
e
i=
r + R + RH
ER
V = iR =
r + R + RH
VAB
PG =
l
ER
Potentialgradient ( PG ) =
(r + R + RH )l
Q. A cell of emf 20V & int resistance 1W is connected to a potentiometer wire of resistance 9W & length 10m,
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Sol. i= = = 2A 20V 1W
r + R 9 +1
VAB = iR = 2 × 9 = 18 V 9W
VAB 18 A 10m B
\ P.G. = = = 1.8V / m
l 10
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Q. A cell of emf 30V and 1W is connected to a potentiometer wire of resistance 14 W and length 5m, then find
its potential gradient.
30V 1W
30
i= = 2A
15W 5m
VAB = 2 × 14 = 28V
14W
VAB 28
\ P.G. = = = 5.6V / m
l 5
E r
Note :
G
E1
G
E2
G
E4 E3
G
E5 E6
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LECTURE # 13
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER
r (P.G) ll
E
Þ
R,l
A B G
l1
G
E1, R E1
ER
P.G =
(r + R ) l
At null point,
E1 = (P.G) l1
Q. A cell of emf 32V having internal resistance 1W is connected to a potentiometer wire of length 10m &
resistance 15W then find P.G. of wire.
ER
P.G =
(i)
(r + R ) l
32 ´15
= 3V / m
(15 + 1)10
(ii) If cell E1 gives null point at 4m , then find E1.
E1 = (P.G) 4 = 3 × 4 = 12 V/m
(iii) If cell E2 gives null point at 7m, then E2 is
E2 = 3 × 7 = 21 V/m
(iv) If cell E2 has emf 31 V, then find is null point
E2 = (P.G) L
31 = (3) l,
l1 = 10.3
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ER 20 ´ 8 160
Sol. (i) P.G = = = = 1.6V / m
( r + R ) l ( 2 + 8 )10 100
(ii) E1 = PG(l1)
E1 = 1.6 × 2.5 = 4V
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2. Comparison of emf of two cells :-
E
l2
A l1 B
G
E1
G
E2
E1 = (P.G) l1
E2 = (P.G) l2
E1 l 1
\ =
E2 l2
Q. In potentiometer experiment, cell E1 gives null point at 2m when cell E2 is connected in series with
E1 then null point is at 5m, then find E1 ; E2
E
5m
A B
2m
G
E1
G
E1 E2
E1 2 æ l1 ö
= ç ÷
E1 + E 2 5 è l 1 + l 2 ø
\ E1 = 2
E1 + E2 = 5
2 + E2 = 5
\ E2 = 3
E1 2
\ =
E2 3
E1
Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\ENTHUSE_(12TH)_NOTES\CURRENT ELECTRICITY.P65
Q. Calc.
E2 = ?
E
5m
A B
2m
G
E1 E2
G
E1 E2
E1 - E 2 2
\ =
E1 + E 2 5
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2E1 = 7 E1 = 3.5
E2 = 1.5
E1 7
=
E2 3
Q. Finding the internal resistance of the cell.
A B
G
E r
R K
E = ( PG ) l1
After closing the switch
T.PD = E – ir
Er
TPD = E –
R+r
ER
TPD = ( R + r)
TPD = (PG)l2
ER
= ( PG ) l 2
r+R
r + R l1
=
R l2
Q. In potentiometer experiment, a cell is when open circuited then null point is at 4m & when its terminals
are connected with 5W resistor, then null point is at 3.5m then find int. resistance.
r +5 4
Sol. =
5 3.5
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r +5 8
=
5 7
7(r + 5) = 40
7r + 35 = 40
5
r= W
7
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Q. When switch S2 is closed then null point is at 5m, when S1 is closed, then null point is at 2m, then find
R1/R 2 ?
A B
S1 G S2
R1 R2
R1 2
=
R1 + R 2 5
R1 2
\ =
R2 5
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LECTURE # 14
POWER
In conductors, when electric field is applied, e– accelerate and collides with other electrons and atoms
due to which energy dissipates in the form of heat.
V2
Power = i 2 R = vi =
R
Heat Loss = power ´ time
= i 2 Rt
BULB
Prated, Vrated
2
Vrated
Pr ated =
R
2
Vrated
R=
Prated
1
Rµ
Prated
2
Vrated V2 V2
= 1 = 2
Prated P1 P2
Domestic home appliances are connected in parellel, if one appliance connected gets impaired, circuit
does not break.
Note- Series combination,
1
Brightness µ power µ voltage µ R µ
Prated
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Parellel combination
1
Brightness µ Power µ current µ µ Prated
R
3R 2R
B1 B2
3V 2V
Q. B1 = 100W, 200V
B2 = 150W, 200V
Brightness
3V + 2V = 200
5V = 200
V = 40
B1 ® 120 V B2 ® 80V
For 200V, No one will fuse
B1 will be brighter.
(ii) Find the power of each bulb.
2
Vrated R 12 V22
= =
Prated P1 P 2
2
Vrated V2
= 2
Prated P2
200 ´ 200 80 ´ 80
=
150 P
80 ´ 80 ´ 150
P2 = = 24W
400 ´ 100
(iii) If supplied voltage is 450V then which bulb will fuse.
5V = 450
V = 90
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B1 ® 3 × 90 = 270V
B2 ® 2 × 90 = 180
For fuse, V > Vrated
\ V > 200V
\ B1 will fuse.
(iv) If supplied voltage is 550V, then which bulb will fuse.
3V + 2V = 550
V = 110
B1 ® 3 × 110 = 330 V B2 ® 2 × 110 = 220 V
\ V is greater than Vrated both will fuse.
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Q. Comment on the brightness of bulb B1 & B2 in the given cases after closing the switch.
Sol.(a) On closing the switch potential difference across A & B get equal.
B2
B1
A B
Fig. (a)
\ No current flows in wire AB
\ B2 = brightness = zero
B1 = brightness ()
B3
B1 B2
(b)
V
Fig.(b)
B1 & B2 = same
B3 > B1 = B2
Voltage across B3 is more.
Que. A motor (500 W, 200V) is connected with 300 V mains. What value of resistance we have to put in
series with the motor so that it can run safely.
V 100
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R= = =40 W
I 2.5
500
I= = 2.5 A
200
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LECTURE # 15
Important points :-
1. Usually, we use
P I2 R (in series)
and
V2
P= (in parallel)
R
3. If the given appliances having same voltage rating are connected series and parallel respectively by
same voltage then equivalent power consumption is calculated as :-
Parallel
Series V
V V P1
P1 P2
V
P1
V
V
P1 P2
Peq = Peq = P1 + P2
P1 + P2
Important artical
A certain amount of water is boiled separated with the help of two heater coils then time taken in
processes are t1 and t2 respectively.
If the same amount of water is boiled in the combination of series and paralled of heater coil then new
time to produce same heat is
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