292

Hardening
Douglass F. Jacobs, Thomas D. Landis, and Kim M. Wilkinson 15
To promote survival and growth following outplanting, nursery stock must first
undergo proper hardening. Hardening increases plant durability and resistance to
stress by gradually acclimating plants to field conditions before outplanting. With-
out proper hardening, plants are likely to suffer from transplant shock, grow poorly,
or die on the outplanting site. It is important to understand that native plant nurs-
eries are different from ornamental nurseries in that most native plants planted in
reforestation and restoration projects must endure an outplanting environment in
which little or no aftercare is provided.
Hardening refers to practices during the nursery cycle that prepare plants for
the stresses of handling, shipping, outplanting, and field establishment (Longman
and Wilson 1998, Landis and others 1999). Plant hardiness primarily develops
internally, although certain external characteristics such as thickening stems and
reduced succulence in the foliage are indicators of hardiness. This process takes
time and a common mistake of nursery growers is not to schedule adequate time to
harden their crops.
To properly harden plants, it is important to consider the Target Plant Concept
presented in Chapter 3, Defining the Target Plant, and crop planning presented in
Chapter 4, Crop Planning: Propagation Protocols, Schedules, and Records. Using
knowledge of the expected conditions of a given outplanting site, nursery cultiva-
tion may be adjusted to acclimatize plants for site conditions by promoting specific
traits. For instance, on sites where drought is anticipated, a larger proportion of
roots relative to shoots may be desirable to improve plant resistance to moisture
stress. Based on the client’s anticipated outplanting date, the propagation schedule
can then be developed to include an appropriate hardening period in the nursery
before plants are delivered to the client.
In this chapter, we illustrate the importance of proper hardiness in promoting
plant performance following outplanting, discuss how hardiness changes through
the nursery growing cycle, describe how plants may be conditioned to prepare them
for the characteristics of a particular outplanting site, and suggest treatments that
may be used in tropical plant nurseries to help promote hardiness.

Facing Page: Well-hardened crops at Native Nursery on Maui. Photo by Diane L. Haase.

293
Figure 15.1—Nursery plants go through three stages of growth: establishment, rapid growth, and hardening. The hardening phase
is crucial to plant survival after outplanting, yet is too often neglected by nursery managers. Illustration adapted from Dumroese
and others 2008.

The Importance of Hardening A

As described in Chapter 3, Defining the Target Plant,
the success of nursery plants is not determined by how
nice the plants look in the nursery, but rather by how
well the plants survive and thrive after outplanting. As
described in Chapter 4, Crop Planning: Propagation Pro-
tocols, Schedules, and Records, plants need to be cultured
through three phases of growth: establishment, rapid
growth, and hardening (figure 15.1). During the estab-
lishment and rapid growth phases, ideal conditions for
development and growth are provided (figure 15.2A).
These first two growth phases provide plants with opti-
mal levels of all potentially limiting factors (water, light,
nutrition, and so on) while minimizing environmental B
stresses. Plants should not go out to the field while they
are still in their rapid growth phase; these plants look lush
and healthy but are not prepared for the stresses of out-
planting (figure 15.2B). The hardening phase of nursery
culture is essential to acclimate plants to the stresses of
handling and transport, and the conditions of the out-
planting site.
All good growers will do their best to reduce stresses to
plants when they leave the nursery, as described in Chap-
ter 16, Harvesting and Shipping, and Chapter 17, Out-
planting. Nevertheless, nursery plants will be exposed to a
series of unavoidable stresses when it is time for them to
leave the nursery. The harvesting process requires moving Figure 15.2—Succulent shoot tissue (A) would be damaged
and handling plants, which creates potential for physical by the stresses of handling, transport, and outplanting. Plants
in their rapid growth phase look lush but are not prepared for
and internal damage. Following harvesting, nursery plants
the stresses of outplanting. The hardening phase creates a con-
are transported to the outplanting site (figure 15.3). Dur- trolled amount of stress for plants, gradually acclimating them
ing transportation and handling at the site, plants are often to the conditions of the outplanting site (B). Photo A by Doug-
exposed to unfavorable environmental conditions until lass F. Jacobs, and photo B by J.B. Friday.

294 Tropical Nursery Manual

being outplanted. For instance, a ride in the back of a truck, Objectives of the Hardening
even when protected under a cover, will be bumpy and pos- Phase
sibly hot. Sunny and windy conditions on the outplanting
site can result in overheating or desiccation damage. The objectives of the hardening phase will vary by species
and outplanting environments. In general the objectives are
The hardening phase creates a controlled amount of to—
stress for the plants while they are still in the nursery,
helping the plants to survive the stresses of handling and • Slow shoot growth.
shipping and acclimating them to the conditions of the • Encourage root and stem diameter growth (for good
outplanting site (figure 15.2B). Often, these conditions shoot-to-root balance).
include full sun, low amounts of available nutrients, and • Acclimate to the outplanting environment.
limited soil moisture. After outplanting (figure 15.4), the
• Condition to endure stress.
plants may undergo a period of “transplant shock”. This
shock is primarily because of moisture stress and lasts • Fortify for survival after outplanting.
until the roots are able to grow out into the surrounding
Practices to reach these objectives may include—
soil to access water and nutrients, compete with other
plants, resist insect and animal browse damage, and • Introducing gradual, moderate moisture stress.
endure extreme temperatures. • Progressively exposing plants to sun equivalent to
Proper hardening takes time, and it is a common mis- outplanting conditions (full sun in most cases, partial
take to rush the process. This mistake often happens when shade for understory plantings).
growing more than one crop per season or when grow- • Reducing fertilization rates and changing mineral
ers try to force a little extra height growth with crops that nutrient ratios.
grow more slowly than expected. Improper hardening can • Providing good airflow and wind exposure.
also be an issue if the outplanting window was not prop-
erly defined, as described in Chapter 17, Outplanting. For • Culturing for root health and proper shoot-to-root
example, for areas with a pronounced dry season, the late balance.
or early arrival of the wet season may complicate harden-
ing schedules. Hardening requirements vary by species and
outplanting sites, but for many tropical species, hardening
phases of 4 to 12 weeks are common.

Figure 15.3—Hardening prepares nursery plants for a series Figure 15.4—Recently outplanted nursery stock must rapidly
of unavoidable stresses they will experience when it is time for develop new roots that can grow out into the surrounding soil to
them to leave the nursery. These stresses include handling and access water and nutrients, compete with other plants, resist in-
transportation, such as a ride in the trunk of a car. Photo by sect and animal browse damage, and endure extreme tempera-
Thomas D. Landis. tures. Photo by Douglass F. Jacobs.

Hardening 295
 A B C

Figure 15.5—This native plant grew way too large for such a small and inappropriate container; it is unlikely that this tree would flourish
if outplanted (A). These tall, spindly seedlings were grown close to one another and have been held too long (B). These seedlings are root-
bound from being held too long (C). Photo A by J.B. Friday, photo B by Diane L. Haase, and photo C by Thomas D. Landis.

Shoot-to-Root Balance way to keep them in proper shoot-to-root balance. Man-

Shoot-to-shoot balance is the ratio of shoot biomass aging light, nutrition, airflow, and other factors are also
to root biomass, not shoot length to root length. It is one important, as described in the following sections.
important way to describe plant size and balance. Grow-
ing nursery plants to the appropriate size for a specific Conditioning Plants for
container size is critical. Plants grown too long in small Outplanting
containers or too close to one another become tall and To induce plant hardiness and properly condition plants
spindly and do not have enough stem strength to resist to resist stresses, nursery practices are gradually adjusted.
physical stresses after outplanting (figures 15.5A, 15.5B).
In addition, these “top-heavy” plants do not have enough
roots to provide moisture to the foliage, so water stress
can develop after outplanting. In tropical areas, top-
heavy plants face the additional risk of storm-force winds
and are susceptible to blow overs, particularly in the first
few years after outplanting. Roots in containers that are
too small often begin to spiral and become compacted
(figure 15.5C). In these “rootbound” plants, most roots
become woody and less effective in water uptake and,
after outplanting, do not grow out from the compacted
root mass to promote structural stability.
One key to developing a plant with a sturdy shoot and
well-balanced root system is to select a container that is
appropriate for the species and conditions on the out-
planting site (figure 15.6). Plants should be moved from
the shaded or protected areas in the nursery as soon as Figure 15.6—Some keys to developing a plant with a sturdy
they have reached their target height. Experienced grow- shoot and well-balanced root system are to select an appropri-
ers know that moving plants from a protected area of the ate size container; to move plants from protected areas to open
compounds; and to otherwise manage light, nutrition, airflow,
nursery to an open compound is an easy and effective and water. Photo by Ronald Overton.

296 Tropical Nursery Manual

 A A

B
B

Figure 15.7—Nurseries manipulate environmental factors—light,

nutrition, airflow, and water—to slow shoot growth and induce
hardiness (A). At the Metropolitan Arboretum nursery for Parque
Doña Inés in Puerto Rico, native palm seedlings are hardened on
weed barrier cloth in full sun (B). The pots are mulched with locally Figure 15.8—Reducing irrigation to induce a mild moisture
available white stones to reduce weeds and water loss from evapora- stress helps harden crops (A). Severe water stress to the point that
tion. Illustration A by Jim Marin, and photo B by Brian F. Daley. plants wilt (B) is harmful, however. Photos by Thomas D. Landis.

These adjustments must not be too severe, however, because soils, or salt spray? Understanding the character of the
overly stressed plants will actually be less hardy. To under- site is best accomplished by interacting closely with the
stand how nursery practices affect hardening, growers need client ordering the plants. These factors all reflect the
to know the role that environmental conditions play in cre- main principles of Chapter 3, Defining the Target Plant,
ating hardiness in plants. In the tropics, the main environ- which suggest that the characteristics of nursery stock be
mental factors that affect plant hardiness are light, water, matched to those of the intended outplanting site. Expe-
and nutrition (figure 15.7). Wind, airflow, and other condi- rience is the best teacher—experiment on a few plants
tions also affect plant hardiness. When nursery plants have and discover which hardening practices work best in
reached their optimum (“target”) size, growers adjust shade/ your nursery circumstances and outplanting sites.
sunlight, water stress, fertility, airflow/wind, and physical
factors such as root or shoot pruning to slow shoot growth Water
and induce hardiness. Reducing irrigation duration or frequency creates a
In determining how to properly condition plants for mild moisture stress, slows shoot growth, and helps con-
the intended outplanting site, it is important to con- dition nursery stock to withstand drier conditions on
sider the characteristics of the species and the outplant- outplanting sites (figure 15.8A). This reduced water avail-
ing site. For instance, is this a light-demanding species ability decreases the possibility of producing top-heavy
or a shade-loving species? Will plants be outplanted in plants and encourages the formation of smaller leaves
an open field or underneath an existing canopy of trees? with thicker cuticles that transpire less (lose less water)
Will the site be prone to extended dry periods? Do other after outplanting. Smaller shoots are also less likely to be
extreme site conditions exist such as high wind, poor physically damaged during transplant.

Hardening 297
 Watering frequency needs to gradually be reduced to Install shadecloth or move the crop to a shadehouse
ensure that plants do not permanently wilt or experi- to reduce the amount of light a crop receives when it
ence severe water stress (figure 15.8B). Adjusting irri- will be outplanted in understory or partial shade con-
gation for hardening requires close observation and ditions. Shading is probably an overused treatment in
experience. The best way to quickly and accurately nurseries, however, because most species (even those
evaluate the water status of container plants is to weigh classified as shade tolerant) tend to grow best in full sun-
the growth container. See Chapter 11, Water Quality light. In addition, many tropical plants often grow exces-
and Irrigation, for a discussion of irrigation monitoring sively in height (“stretch”) under high shade, which may
with container weight. create a shoot-to-root imbalance. Nonetheless, if the spe-
After plants are hardened, they will still require a cies is shade loving and will be planted onto a site under-
full watering before outplanting and will need good soil neath an existing canopy, then shading may be a useful
moisture availability at the outplanting site during their treatment.
early establishment in the field. Many tropical areas have
pronounced wet and dry seasons. Planting shock can Mineral Nutrition
often be minimized by outplanting after the onset of the Reducing or stopping fertilization along with reduc-
rainy season, as described in Chapter 3, Defining the Tar- ing irrigation slows shoot growth and hardens plants.
get Plant, and Chapter 17, Outplanting. Among the mineral nutrients, nitrogen, particularly
in the ammonium form, is the primary driver of shoot
Sunlight growth. During hardening, it can be helpful to reduce
The use of sunlight and shading as a conditioning or stop nitrogen fertilization to induce a mild nutrient
treatment depends on the conditions on the outplanting stress. (Note: the use of controlled-release fertilizers with
site and the light needs of the species. Plants that will be long release periods can prevent or delay hardiness from
planted into full sun conditions should receive minimal developing.)
or no shading during nursery cultivation, especially dur- Some fertilizers have been specifically developed to
ing the hardening phase. If plants were started in a cov- aid in plant hardening, often containing a low-nitro-
ered area (figure 15.9A), they need to be progressively gen–high-potassium formulation. Calcium nitrate is
exposed to a level of sunlight equivalent to the outplant- also a useful hardening fertilizer because it contains the
ing site (full sun in most cases, partial shade for under- nitrate form of nitrogen, which does not promote shoot
story plantings) (figure 15.9B). Growing plants in out- growth. Calcium also helps develop strong cell walls and
door areas also exposes them to ambient temperatures. leaf waxes. Be sure not to use a similar product known as

A B

Figure 15.9—Shade may be used during early phases of plant growth (A), but shade should be removed in the hardening phase to
expose plants to a level of sunlight equivalent to the outplanting site (B). Photo A by Thomas D. Landis, and photo B by Diane L. Haase.

298 Tropical Nursery Manual

calcium ammonium nitrate because the ammonium can observed plants repeatedly handled during crop monitor-
stimulate shoot growth. ing tended to develop greater stem diameter. The effect is
replicated by gently moving a horizontal pole (such as a
Air and Wind clean length of bamboo, or a light PVC pipe) through the
Increased distance between individual containers crowns of the plants in both directions. Of course, this
improves air circulation, allows more sunlight to reach practice must be done gently, especially when the foli-
lower leaves, encourages the development of shorter age is still succulent. Nurseries with traveling irrigation
plants with larger stem diameter, and also promotes booms have mechanized the process by hanging a PVC
thickening of the leaf cuticle. Containers with individual, pipe from the boom. A good time to brush plants is right
removable cells can be changed to every other slot to after overhead irrigation because the rod also shakes
increase spacing within the trays during the hardening excess water from the foliage and reduces the potential
period (figure 15.10). for foliar diseases such as Botrytis.
An interesting wind simulation treatment is known
Root Culturing
as “brushing.” This practice came about after growers
A vigorous, fibrous root system distributed evenly
throughout the container will rapidly proliferate after
outplanting. Containers with vertical ribs facilitate
healthy root structure by limiting root spiraling and are
designed to promote air pruning at the drainage hole.
Other root culturing features such as sideslit air pruning
and copper pruning are effective, especially with vigor-
ous rooted species. See Chapter 7, Containers, for more
information on these features.
After plants are moved outdoors, it is important not
to place the containers directly on the ground (figure
15.11). Instead, plants need to be placed on benches or
pallets to facilitate air pruning of roots (figure 15.12).
Otherwise, roots may grow directly into the ground,
which will require the added task of root pruning during
harvest. Root pruning immediately before outplanting
can make the plants more vulnerable to pathogenic fungi
and may delay quick root outgrowth after outplanting.
If plants must be on the ground, placing groundcovers
under them that are impenetrable to roots (such as fab-
rics treated with copper) can be helpful.

Shoot Pruning
Pruning shoots or “top pruning” is sometimes required
if the top is too large for the root system. In general, the
shoots of grasses, forbs, and some shrubs and trees can be
pruned. However, many trees can be negatively affected
by shoot pruning, so it is generally only recommended
as a problem-solving technique for species known to be
tolerant of pruning. Faster growing plants with a multi-
stemmed form tend to tolerate shoot pruning whereas
slower growing plants or species characterized by a single
leading shoot tend not to tolerate shoot pruning. When
working with new species, a small pruning trial is the best
Figure 15.10—Containers with individual, removable cells can way to see how the species responds.
be changed to every other slot to increase spacing within the trays
during the hardening period. Photo by Diane L. Haase.

Hardening 299
 A A

Figure 15.11—Plants grown in direct contact with soil (A) may Figure 15.12—Plants in a hardening area need to be placed on
grow into the ground (B). Photos by Douglass F. Jacobs. benches designed to facilitate air pruning and prevent roots from
growing into the ground (A) such as the benches used in this nursery
in Rota (B). Photos by Thomas D. Landis.

For species that can tolerate shoot pruning, shoot smaller plants and helps them reestablish a growth rate
pruning can help maintain a proper shoot-to-root balance that is consistent with the rest of the crop.
and reduce water stress resulting from excessively high It is critical that shoot pruning treatments not be too
transpirational demand. Pruning also stimulates more severe; a rule of thumb is never to remove more than
stem and root growth. Pruning should be done just above one-third of the total shoot. Pruned plants should always
the height of the smaller plants that have been overtopped be healthy and have enough stored energy to rapidly grow
(figure 15.13). This practice results in additional light for new tissue. The International Society of Arboriculture

300 Tropical Nursery Manual

 (http://www.isa-arbor.com/) publishes extensively on when
and how to best prune plants for improved plant health
and form. It is best to prune succulent tissue because
woody stem tissue has less regenerative ability.
Some growers have delivered “striplings” for outplanting,
which are severely pruned saplings, sometimes with foliage
also removed. The perceived advantage to striplings is they
A are easy to transport, harder to damage in shipping, and
lose less water to transpiration immediately after plant-
ing. This extreme practice is not recommended because
stripping plants of their foliage often results in mortality
after outplanting.

References
Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; Barnett, J.P. 1999. The con-
tainer tree nursery manual: volume 6, seedling propaga-
tion. Agriculture Handbook 674. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 167 p.
Longman, K.A.; Wilson, R.H.F. 1998. Protecting grow-
B ing trees: preparing young trees for planting. In: Longman,
K.A. Growing good tropical trees for planting. London,
United Kingdom: Commonwealth Science Council: 155–158.
Figure 15.13—For species that can tolerate shoot pruning, the
objective is to reduce the height of taller plants (A), thereby exposing
smaller plants to more light and allowing them to “catch up” (B).
Illustrations by Jim Marin.

Hardening 301