History of mathematics

The history of mathematics deals with the origin of discoveries in mathematics and the mathematical
methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written
examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the
Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, followed closely by Ancient Egypt and the Levantine
state of Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and
also in the patterns in nature, the field of astronomy and to record time and formulate calendars.

The earliest mathematical texts available are from Mesopotamia and Egypt – Plimpton 322 (Babylonian
c. 2000 – 1900 BC),[2] the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian c. 1800 BC)[3] and the Moscow
Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian c. 1890 BC). All of these texts mention the so-called Pythagorean
triples, so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread
mathematical development after basic arithmetic and geometry.

The study of mathematics as a "demonstrative discipline" began in the 6th century BC with the
Pythagoreans, who coined the term "mathematics" from the ancient Greek μάθημα (mathema), meaning
"subject of instruction".[4] Greek mathematics greatly refined the methods (especially through the
introduction of deductive reasoning and mathematical rigor in proofs) and expanded the subject matter of
mathematics.[5] Although they made virtually no contributions to theoretical mathematics, the ancient A proof from Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC), widely
Romans used applied mathematics in surveying, structural engineering, mechanical engineering, considered the most influential textbook of all time.[1]
bookkeeping, creation of lunar and solar calendars, and even arts and crafts. Chinese mathematics made
early contributions, including a place value system and the first use of negative numbers.[6][7] The Hindu–
Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and
were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics through the work of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī.[8][9] Islamic mathematics, in turn,
developed and expanded the mathematics known to these civilizations.[10] Contemporaneous with but independent of these traditions were the mathematics
developed by the Maya civilization of Mexico and Central America, where the concept of zero was given a standard symbol in Maya numerals.

Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were translated into Latin from the 12th century onward, leading to further development of mathematics in Medieval
Europe. From ancient times through the Middle Ages, periods of mathematical discovery were often followed by centuries of stagnation.[11] Beginning in
Renaissance Italy in the 15th century, new mathematical developments, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made at an increasing pace that continues
through the present day. This includes the groundbreaking work of both Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of infinitesimal calculus
during the course of the 17th century.

Table of numerals
European (descended from the West Arabic) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Arabic-Indic ٠ ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩
Eastern Arabic-Indic (Persian and Urdu) ۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹

Devanagari (Hindi) ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९

Bengali ০ ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫ ৬ ৭ ৮ ৯

Chinese – Japanese 零 一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九
Tamil ௧ ௨ ௩ ௪ ௫ ௬ ௭ ௮ ௯

Prehistoric
The origins of mathematical thought lie in the concepts of number, patterns in nature, magnitude, and form.[12] Modern studies of animal cognition have shown that
these concepts are not unique to humans. Such concepts would have been part of everyday life in hunter-gatherer societies. The idea of the "number" concept
evolving gradually over time is supported by the existence of languages which preserve the distinction between "one", "two", and "many", but not of numbers
larger than two.[12]

The Ishango bone, found near the headwaters of the Nile river (northeastern Congo), may be more than 20,000 years old and consists of a series of marks carved in
three columns running the length of the bone. Common interpretations are that the Ishango bone shows either a tally of the earliest known demonstration of
sequences of prime numbers[13] or a six-month lunar calendar.[14] Peter Rudman argues that the development of the concept of prime numbers could only have
come about after the concept of division, which he dates to after 10,000 BC, with prime numbers probably not being understood until about 500 BC. He also
writes that "no attempt has been made to explain why a tally of something should exhibit multiples of two, prime numbers between 10 and 20, and some numbers
that are almost multiples of 10."[15] The Ishango bone, according to scholar Alexander Marshack, may have influenced the later development of mathematics in
Egypt as, like some entries on the Ishango bone, Egyptian arithmetic also made use of multiplication by 2; this however, is disputed.[16]

Predynastic Egyptians of the 5th millennium BC pictorially represented geometric designs. It has been claimed that megalithic monuments in England and
Scotland, dating from the 3rd millennium BC, incorporate geometric ideas such as circles, ellipses, and Pythagorean triples in their design.[17] All of the above are
disputed however, and the currently oldest undisputed mathematical documents are from Babylonian and dynastic Egyptian sources.[18]

Babylonian
Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians through the Hellenistic
period almost to the dawn of Christianity.[19] The majority of Babylonian mathematical work comes from two widely separated periods: The first few hundred
years of the second millennium BC (Old Babylonian period), and the last few centuries of the first millennium BC (Seleucid period).[20] It is named Babylonian
mathematics due to the central role of Babylon as a place of study. Later under the Arab Empire, Mesopotamia, especially Baghdad, once again became an
important center of study for Islamic mathematics.

In contrast to the sparsity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more
than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s.[21] Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was
moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework.[22]

The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians, who built the earliest civilization in
Mesopotamia. They developed a complex system of metrology from 3000 BC that was chiefly concerned with
administrative/financial counting, such as grain allotments, workers, weights of silver, or even liquids, among other
things.[23] From around 2500 BC onward, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with
geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this
period.[24]

Babylonian mathematics were written using a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral

Geometry problem on a clay tablet
system.[21] From this derives the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60
belonging to a school for scribes;
minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle, as well as the use of Susa, first half of the 2nd millennium
seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree. It is thought the BCE
sexagesimal system was initially used by Sumerian scribes because 60 can be
evenly divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 and 30,[21] and for scribes (doling out
the aforementioned grain allotments, recording weights of silver, etc.) being able to easily calculate by hand was essential,
and so a sexagesimal system is pragmatically easier to calculate by hand with; however, there is the possibility that using a
The Babylonian mathematical tablet sexagesimal system was an ethno-linguistic phenomenon (that might not ever be known), and not a mathematical/practical
Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC.
decision.[25] Also, unlike the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, the Babylonians had a place-value system, where digits
written in the left column represented larger values, much as in the decimal system. The power of the Babylonian notational
system lay in that it could be used to represent fractions as easily as whole numbers; thus multiplying two numbers that contained fractions was no different from
multiplying integers, similar to modern notation. The notational system of the Babylonians was the best of any civilization until the Renaissance, and its power
allowed it to achieve remarkable computational accuracy; for example, the Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation of √ 2 accurate to five decimal
places.[26] The Babylonians lacked, however, an equivalent of the decimal point, and so the place value of a symbol often had to be inferred from the context.[20]
By the Seleucid period, the Babylonians had developed a zero symbol as a placeholder for empty positions; however it was only used for intermediate
positions.[20] This zero sign does not appear in terminal positions, thus the Babylonians came close but did not develop a true place value system.[20]

Other topics covered by Babylonian mathematics include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, and the calculation of regular numbers, and their
reciprocal pairs.[27] The tablets also include multiplication tables and methods for solving linear, quadratic equations and cubic equations, a remarkable
achievement for the time.[28] Tablets from the Old Babylonian period also contain the earliest known statement of the Pythagorean theorem.[29] However, as with
Egyptian mathematics, Babylonian mathematics shows no awareness of the difference between exact and approximate solutions, or the solvability of a problem,
and most importantly, no explicit statement of the need for proofs or logical principles.[22]

Egyptian
Egyptian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the Egyptian language. From the Hellenistic
period, Greek replaced Egyptian as the written language of Egyptian scholars. Mathematical study in
Egypt later continued under the Arab Empire as part of Islamic mathematics, when Arabic became the
written language of Egyptian scholars. Archaeological evidence has suggested that the Ancient Egyptian
counting system had origins in Sub-Saharan Africa.[30] Also, fractal geometry designs which are
widespread among Sub-Saharan African cultures are also found in Egyptian architecture and
cosmological signs.[31]

The most extensive Egyptian mathematical text is the Rhind papyrus (sometimes also called the Ahmes Image of Problem 14 from the Moscow Mathematical
Papyrus after its author), dated to c. 1650 BC but likely a copy of an older document from the Middle Papyrus. The problem includes a diagram indicating the
Kingdom of about 2000–1800 BC.[32] It is an instruction manual for students in arithmetic and geometry. dimensions of the truncated pyramid.
In addition to giving area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and working with unit
fractions, it also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge,[33] including composite and prime
numbers; arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means; and simplistic understandings of both the Sieve of Eratosthenes and perfect number theory (namely, that of the
number 6).[34] It also shows how to solve first order linear equations[35] as well as arithmetic and geometric series.[36]

Another significant Egyptian mathematical text is the Moscow papyrus, also from the Middle Kingdom period, dated to c. 1890 BC.[37] It consists of what are
today called word problems or story problems, which were apparently intended as entertainment. One problem is considered to be of particular importance because
it gives a method for finding the volume of a frustum (truncated pyramid).

Finally, the Berlin Papyrus 6619 (c. 1800 BC) shows that ancient Egyptians could solve a second-order algebraic equation.[38]

Greek
Greek mathematics refers to the mathematics written in the Greek language from the time of Thales of Miletus (~600 BC) to the closure of the Academy of Athens
in 529 AD.[39] Greek mathematicians lived in cities spread over the entire Eastern Mediterranean, from Italy to North Africa, but were united by culture and
language. Greek mathematics of the period following Alexander the Great is sometimes called Hellenistic mathematics.[40]
 Greek mathematics was much more sophisticated than the mathematics that had been developed by earlier cultures. All
surviving records of pre-Greek mathematics show the use of inductive reasoning, that is, repeated observations used to
establish rules of thumb. Greek mathematicians, by contrast, used deductive reasoning. The Greeks used logic to derive
conclusions from definitions and axioms, and used mathematical rigor to prove them.[41]

Greek mathematics is thought to have begun with Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c.546 BC) and Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582–
c. 507 BC). Although the extent of the influence is disputed, they were probably inspired by Egyptian and Babylonian
mathematics. According to legend, Pythagoras traveled to Egypt to learn mathematics, geometry, and astronomy from
Egyptian priests.

Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore.
The Pythagorean theorem. The
Pythagoreans are generally credited
He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales'
with the first proof of the theorem. Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a
mathematical discovery has been attributed.[42] Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that
mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was "All is number".[43] It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term
"mathematics", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins. The Pythagoreans are credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean
theorem,[44] though the statement of the theorem has a long history, and with the proof of the existence of irrational numbers.[45][46] Although he was preceded by
the Babylonians, Indians and the Chinese,[47] the Neopythagorean mathematician Nicomachus (60–120 AD) provided one of the earliest Greco-Roman
multiplication tables, whereas the oldest extant Greek multiplication table is found on a wax tablet dated to the 1st century AD (now found in the British
Museum).[48] The association of the Neopythagoreans with the Western invention of the multiplication table is evident in its later Medieval name: the mensa
Pythagorica.[49]

Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) is important in the history of mathematics for inspiring and guiding others.[50] His Platonic Academy, in Athens, became the
mathematical center of the world in the 4th century BC, and it was from this school that the leading mathematicians of the day, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 390 -
c. 340 BC), came.[51] Plato also discussed the foundations of mathematics,[52] clarified some of the definitions (e.g. that of a line as "breadthless length"), and
reorganized the assumptions.[53] The analytic method is ascribed to Plato, while a formula for obtaining Pythagorean triples bears his name.[51]

Eudoxus developed the method of exhaustion, a precursor of modern integration[54] and a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable
magnitudes.[55] The former allowed the calculations of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures,[56] while the latter enabled subsequent geometers to make
significant advances in geometry. Though he made no specific technical mathematical discoveries, Aristotle (384–c. 322 BC) contributed significantly to the
development of mathematics by laying the foundations of logic.[57]

In the 3rd century BC, the premier center of mathematical education and research was the Musaeum of Alexandria.[59] It
was there that Euclid (c. 300 BC) taught, and wrote the Elements, widely considered the most successful and influential
textbook of all time.[1] The Elements introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest
example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof. Although most of the
contents of the Elements were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework.[60] The
Elements was known to all educated people in the West up through the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still
taught in geometry classes today.[61] In addition to the familiar theorems of Euclidean geometry, the Elements was meant as
an introductory textbook to all mathematical subjects of the time, such as number theory, algebra and solid geometry,[60] One of the oldest surviving
including proofs that the square root of two is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Euclid also wrote fragments of Euclid's Elements,
found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to
extensively on other subjects, such as conic sections, optics, spherical geometry, and mechanics, but only half of his
circa AD 100. The diagram
writings survive.[62] accompanies Book II, Proposition
5.[58]
Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse, widely considered the greatest
mathematician of antiquity,[63] used the method of exhaustion to calculate the
area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, in a manner not too dissimilar from modern
calculus.[64] He also showed one could use the method of exhaustion to calculate the value of π with as much
10 10
precision as desired, and obtained the most accurate value of π then known, 3+ 71 < π < 3+ 70 .[65] He also studied
Archimedes used the method of exhaustion
to approximate the value of pi. the spiral bearing his name, obtained formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution (paraboloid, ellipsoid,
hyperboloid),[64] and an ingenious method of exponentiation for expressing very large numbers.[66] While he is also
known for his contributions to physics and several advanced mechanical devices, Archimedes himself placed far
greater value on the products of his thought and general mathematical principles.[67] He regarded as his greatest achievement his finding of the surface area and
volume of a sphere, which he obtained by proving these are 2/3 the surface area and volume of a cylinder circumscribing the sphere.[68]

Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 BC) made significant advances to the study of conic sections, showing that one
can obtain all three varieties of conic section by varying the angle of the plane that cuts a double-napped cone.[69]
He also coined the terminology in use today for conic sections, namely parabola ("place beside" or
"comparison"), "ellipse" ("deficiency"), and "hyperbola" ("a throw beyond").[70] His work Conics is one of the
best known and preserved mathematical works from antiquity, and in it he derives many theorems concerning
conic sections that would prove invaluable to later mathematicians and astronomers studying planetary motion,
such as Isaac Newton.[71] While neither Apollonius nor any other Greek mathematicians made the leap to
coordinate geometry, Apollonius' treatment of curves is in some ways similar to the modern treatment, and some
of his work seems to anticipate the development of analytical geometry by Descartes some 1800 years later.[72] Apollonius of Perga made significant advances
in the study of conic sections.
Around the same time, Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276–194 BC) devised the Sieve of Eratosthenes for finding
prime numbers.[73] The 3rd century BC is generally regarded as the "Golden Age" of Greek mathematics, with
advances in pure mathematics henceforth in relative decline.[74] Nevertheless, in the centuries that followed significant advances were made in applied
mathematics, most notably trigonometry, largely to address the needs of astronomers.[74] Hipparchus of Nicaea (c. 190–120 BC) is considered the founder of
trigonometry for compiling the first known trigonometric table, and to him is also due the systematic use of the 360 degree circle.[75] Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70
AD) is credited with Heron's formula for finding the area of a scalene triangle and with being the first to recognize the possibility of negative numbers possessing
square roots.[76] Menelaus of Alexandria (c. 100 AD) pioneered spherical trigonometry through Menelaus' theorem.[77] The most complete and influential
trigonometric work of antiquity is the Almagest of Ptolemy (c. AD 90–168), a landmark astronomical treatise whose trigonometric tables would be used by
astronomers for the next thousand years.[78] Ptolemy is also credited with Ptolemy's theorem for deriving trigonometric quantities, and the most accurate value of π
outside of China until the medieval period, 3.1416.[79]

Following a period of stagnation after Ptolemy, the period between 250 and 350 AD is sometimes referred to as the "Silver Age" of
Greek mathematics.[80] During this period, Diophantus made significant advances in algebra, particularly indeterminate analysis,
which is also known as "Diophantine analysis".[81] The study of Diophantine equations and Diophantine approximations is a
significant area of research to this day. His main work was the Arithmetica, a collection of 150 algebraic problems dealing with
exact solutions to determinate and indeterminate equations.[82] The Arithmetica had a significant influence on later mathematicians,
such as Pierre de Fermat, who arrived at his famous Last Theorem after trying to generalize a problem he had read in the
Arithmetica (that of dividing a square into two squares).[83] Diophantus also made significant advances in notation, the Arithmetica
being the first instance of algebraic symbolism and syncopation.[82]

Among the last great Greek mathematicians is Pappus of Alexandria (4th century AD). He
is known for his hexagon theorem and centroid theorem, as well as the Pappus
configuration and Pappus graph. His Collection is a major source of knowledge on Greek
mathematics as most of it has survived.[84] Pappus is considered the last major innovator in
Greek mathematics, with subsequent work consisting mostly of commentaries on earlier Title page of the 1621
work. edition of Diophantus'
Arithmetica, translated into
The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (AD 350– Latin by Claude Gaspard
The Hagia Sophia was designed by 415). She succeeded her father (Theon of Alexandria) as Librarian at the Great Library and Bachet de Méziriac.
mathematicians Anthemius of Tralles
wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian
and Isidore of Miletus.
community in Alexandria had her stripped publicly and executed.[85] Her death is
sometimes taken as the end of the era of the Alexandrian Greek mathematics, although work did continue in Athens for
another century with figures such as Proclus, Simplicius and Eutocius.[86] Although Proclus and Simplicius were more philosophers than mathematicians, their
commentaries on earlier works are valuable sources on Greek mathematics. The closure of the neo-Platonic Academy of Athens by the emperor Justinian in 529
AD is traditionally held as marking the end of the era of Greek mathematics, although the Greek tradition continued unbroken in the Byzantine empire with
mathematicians such as Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, the architects of the Hagia Sophia.[87] Nevertheless, Byzantine mathematics consisted mostly
of commentaries, with little in the way of innovation, and the centers of mathematical innovation were to be found elsewhere by this time.[88]

Roman
Although ethnic Greek mathematicians continued under the rule of the late Roman Republic and subsequent Roman
Empire, there were no noteworthy native Latin mathematicians in comparison.[89][90] Ancient Romans such as Cicero
(106–43 BC), an influential Roman statesman who studied mathematics in Greece, believed that Roman surveyors and
calculators were far more interested in applied mathematics than the theoretical mathematics and geometry that were prized
by the Greeks.[91] It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from
Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy.[92]

Using calculation, Romans were adept at both instigating and detecting financial fraud, as well as managing taxes for the
treasury.[93] Siculus Flaccus, one of the Roman gromatici (i.e. land surveyor), wrote the Categories of Fields, which aided
Roman surveyors in measuring the surface areas of allotted lands and territories.[94] Aside from managing trade and taxes,
the Romans also regularly applied mathematics to solve problems in engineering, including the erection of architecture such
as bridges, road-building, and preparation for military campaigns.[95] Arts and crafts such as Roman mosaics, inspired by Equipment used by an ancient
previous Greek designs, created illusionist geometric patterns and rich, detailed scenes that required precise measurements Roman land surveyor (gromatici),
for each tessera tile, the opus tessellatum pieces on average measuring eight millimeters square and the finer opus found at the site of Aquincum,
vermiculatum pieces having an average surface of four millimeters square.[96][97] modern Budapest, Hungary

The creation of the Roman calendar also necessitated basic mathematics. The first calendar allegedly dates back to 8th
century BC during the Roman Kingdom and included 356 days plus a leap year every other year.[98] In contrast, the lunar calendar of the Republican era contained
355 days, roughly ten-and-one-fourth days shorter than the solar year, a discrepancy that was solved by adding an extra month into the calendar after the 23rd of
February.[99] This calendar was supplanted by the Julian calendar, a solar calendar organized by Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) and devised by Sosigenes of
Alexandria to include a leap day every four years in a 365-day cycle.[100] This calendar, which contained an error of 11 minutes and 14 seconds, was later
corrected by the Gregorian calendar organized by Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585), virtually the same solar calendar used in modern times as the international
standard calendar.[101]

At roughly the same time, the Han Chinese and the Romans both invented the wheeled odometer device for measuring distances traveled, the Roman model first
described by the Roman civil engineer and architect Vitruvius (c. 80 BC – c. 15 BC).[102] The device was used at least until the reign of emperor Commodus
(r. 177 – 192 AD), but its design seems to have been lost until experiments were made during the 15th century in Western Europe.[103] Perhaps relying on similar
gear-work and technology found in the Antikythera mechanism, the odometer of Vitruvius featured chariot wheels measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter turning
four-hundred times in one Roman mile (roughly 4590 ft/1400 m). With each revolution, a pin-and-axle device engaged a 400-tooth cogwheel that turned a second
gear responsible for dropping pebbles into a box, each pebble representing one mile traversed.[104]

Chinese
An analysis of early Chinese mathematics has demonstrated its unique development compared to other parts of the world, leading scholars to assume an entirely
independent development.[105] The oldest extant mathematical text from China is the Zhoubi Suanjing ( 周髀算經 ), variously dated to between 1200 BC and 100
BC, though a date of about 300 BC during the Warring States Period appears reasonable.[106] However, the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips, containing the earliest known
decimal multiplication table (although ancient Babylonians had ones with a base of 60), is dated around 305 BC and is perhaps the oldest surviving mathematical
text of China.[47]
 Of particular note is the use in Chinese mathematics of a decimal positional notation
system, the so-called "rod numerals" in which distinct ciphers were used for numbers
between 1 and 10, and additional ciphers for powers of ten.[107] Thus, the number 123
would be written using the symbol for "1", followed by the symbol for "100", then the
Counting rod numerals symbol for "2" followed by the symbol for "10", followed by the symbol for "3". This was
the most advanced number system in the world at the time, apparently in use several
centuries before the common era and well before the development of the Indian numeral
system.[108] Rod numerals allowed the representation of numbers as large as desired and allowed calculations to be carried out on
the suan pan, or Chinese abacus. The date of the invention of the suan pan is not certain, but the earliest written mention dates
from AD 190, in Xu Yue's Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures.

The oldest extant work on geometry in China comes from the philosophical Mohist canon c. 330 BC, compiled by the followers of
Mozi (470–390 BC). The Mo Jing described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small The Tsinghua Bamboo
Slips, containing the world's
number of geometrical theorems as well.[109] It also defined the concepts of circumference, diameter, radius, and volume.[110]
earliest decimal
multiplication table, dated
In 212 BC, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang commanded all books in the Qin Empire other than officially sanctioned ones be burned.
305 BC during the Warring
This decree was not universally obeyed, but as a consequence of this order little is known about ancient Chinese mathematics States period
before this date. After the book burning of 212 BC, the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) produced works of mathematics which
presumably expanded on works that are now lost. The most important of these is The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, the
full title of which appeared by AD 179, but existed in part under other titles beforehand. It consists of 246 word problems involving
agriculture, business, employment of geometry to figure height spans and dimension ratios for Chinese pagoda towers, engineering,
surveying, and includes material on right triangles.[106] It created mathematical proof for the Pythagorean theorem,[111] and a
mathematical formula for Gaussian elimination.[112] The treatise also provides values of π,[106] which Chinese mathematicians
originally approximated as 3 until Liu Xin (d. 23 AD) provided a figure of 3.1457 and subsequently Zhang Heng (78–139)
approximated pi as 3.1724,[113] as well as 3.162 by taking the square root of 10.[114][115] Liu Hui commented on the Nine
Chapters in the 3rd century AD and gave a value of π accurate to 5 decimal places (i.e. 3.14159).[116][117] Though more of a
matter of computational stamina than theoretical insight, in the 5th century AD Zu Chongzhi computed the value of π to seven
decimal places (between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927), which remained the most accurate value of π for almost the next 1000
years.[116][118] He also established a method which would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere.[119]

The high-water mark of Chinese mathematics occurred in the 13th century during the latter half of the Song dynasty (960–1279), The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art, one of the
with the development of Chinese algebra. The most important text from that period is the Precious Mirror of the Four Elements by
earliest surviving
Zhu Shijie (1249–1314), dealing with the solution of simultaneous higher order algebraic equations using a method similar to
mathematical texts from
Horner's method.[116] The Precious Mirror also contains a diagram of Pascal's triangle with coefficients of binomial expansions China (2nd century AD).
through the eighth power, though both appear in Chinese works as early as 1100.[120] The Chinese also made use of the complex
combinatorial diagram known as the magic square and magic circles, described in ancient times and perfected by Yang Hui (AD
1238–1298).[120]

Even after European mathematics began to flourish during the Renaissance, European and Chinese mathematics were separate traditions, with significant Chinese
mathematical output in decline from the 13th century onwards. Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci carried mathematical ideas back and forth between the two
cultures from the 16th to 18th centuries, though at this point far more mathematical ideas were entering China than leaving.[120]

Japanese mathematics, Korean mathematics, and Vietnamese mathematics are traditionally viewed as stemming from Chinese mathematics and belonging to the
Confucian-based East Asian cultural sphere.[121] Korean and Japanese mathematics were heavily influenced by the algebraic works produced during China's Song
dynasty, whereas Vietnamese mathematics was heavily indebted to popular works of China's Ming dynasty (1368–1644).[122] For instance, although Vietnamese
mathematical treatises were written in either Chinese or the native Vietnamese Chữ Nôm script, all of them followed the Chinese format of presenting a collection
of problems with algorithms for solving them, followed by numerical answers.[123] Mathematics in Vietnam and Korea were mostly associated with the
professional court bureaucracy of mathematicians and astronomers, whereas in Japan it was more prevalent in the realm of private schools.[124]

Indian
The earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent is the Indus Valley civilization (mature second phase:
2600 to 1900 BC) that flourished in the Indus river basin. Their cities were laid out with geometric
regularity, but no known mathematical documents survive from this civilization.[126]
The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated
The oldest extant mathematical records from India are the Sulba Sutras (dated variously between the 8th between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD.
century BC and the 2nd century AD),[127] appendices to religious texts which give simple rules for
constructing altars of various shapes, such as squares, rectangles, parallelograms, and others.[128] As with
Egypt, the preoccupation with temple functions points to an origin of mathematics in religious ritual.[127] The Sulba Sutras give methods for constructing a circle
with approximately the same area as a given square, which imply several different approximations of the value of π.[129][130][a] In addition, they compute the
square root of 2 to several decimal places, list Pythagorean triples, and give a statement of the Pythagorean theorem.[130] All of these results are present in
Babylonian mathematics, indicating Mesopotamian influence.[127] It is not known to what extent the Sulba Sutras influenced later Indian mathematicians. As in
China, there is a lack of continuity in Indian mathematics; significant advances are separated by long periods of inactivity.[127]

Pāṇini (c. 5th century BC) formulated the rules for Sanskrit grammar.[131] His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules,
transformations, and recursion.[132] Pingala (roughly 3rd–1st centuries BC) in his treatise of prosody uses a device corresponding to a binary numeral
system.[133][134] His discussion of the combinatorics of meters corresponds to an elementary version of the binomial theorem. Pingala's work also contains the
basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called mātrāmeru).[135]

The next significant mathematical documents from India after the Sulba Sutras are the Siddhantas, astronomical treatises from the 4th and 5th centuries AD (Gupta
period) showing strong Hellenistic influence.[136] They are significant in that they contain the first instance of trigonometric relations based on the half-chord, as is
the case in modern trigonometry, rather than the full chord, as was the case in Ptolemaic trigonometry.[137] Through a series of translation errors, the words "sine"
and "cosine" derive from the Sanskrit "jiya" and "kojiya".[137]

Around 500 AD, Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya, a slim volume,

written in verse, intended to supplement the rules of calculation used in
astronomy and mathematical mensuration, though with no feeling for
logic or deductive methodology.[138] It is in the Aryabhatiya that the
decimal place-value system first appears. Several centuries later, the
Muslim mathematician Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Aryabhatiya as
a "mix of common pebbles and costly crystals".[139]
Indian numerals in stone and copper inscriptions[125]
In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem,
Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for the first time,
in Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, he lucidly explained the use of zero as both
a placeholder and decimal digit, and explained the Hindu–Arabic
Ancient Brahmi numerals in a part of India
numeral system.[140] It was from a translation of this Indian text on
Explanation of the sine rule
mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic mathematicians were introduced to this
in Yuktibhāṣā
numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to Europe by
the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. Various symbol sets are used to represent
numbers in the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi numerals. Each of the roughly dozen major scripts of India has its own
numeral glyphs. In the 10th century, Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work contains a study of the Fibonacci sequence and Pascal's triangle, and describes the
formation of a matrix.

In the 12th century, Bhāskara II,[141] who lived in southern India, wrote extensively on all then known branches of mathematics. His work contains mathematical
objects equivalent or approximately equivalent to infinitesimals, the mean value theorem and the derivative of the sine function although he did not develop the
notion of a derivative.[142].[143]In the 14th century, Narayana Pandita completed his Ganita Kaumudi.[144]

Also in the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama, the founder of the Kerala School of Mathematics, found the Madhava–Leibniz series and obtained from it a
transformed series, whose first 21 terms he used to compute the value of π as 3.14159265359. Madhava also found the Madhava-Gregory series to determine the
arctangent, the Madhava-Newton power series to determine sine and cosine and the Taylor approximation for sine and cosine functions.[145] In the 16th century,
Jyesthadeva consolidated many of the Kerala School's developments and theorems in the Yukti-bhāṣā.[146][147] It has been argued that certain ideas of calculus like
infinite series and taylor series of some trigonometry functions, were transmitted to Europe in the 16th century[6] via Jesuit missionaries and traders who were
active around the ancient port of Muziris at the time and, as a result, directly influenced later European developments in analysis and calculus.[148] However, other
scholars argue that the Kerala School did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration, and that there is not any direct evidence of their results
being transmitted outside Kerala.[149][150][151][152]

Islamic empires
The Islamic Empire established across the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia, and in parts of India in the 8th
century made significant contributions towards mathematics. Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in
Arabic, they were not all written by Arabs, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as
the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time.[153]

In the 9th century, the Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote an important book on the Hindu–
Arabic numerals and one on methods for solving equations. His book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, written
about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the
West. The word algorithm is derived from the Latinization of his name, Algoritmi, and the word algebra from the title of
one of his works, Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by
Completion and Balancing). He gave an exhaustive explanation for the algebraic solution of quadratic equations with
positive roots,[154] and he was the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake.[155] He also discussed
the fundamental method of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side
of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. This is the operation which al-
Khwārizmī originally described as al-jabr.[156] His algebra was also no longer concerned "with a series of problems to be
resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes
for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study." He also studied an equation for its own
sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically Page from The Compendious Book
called on to define an infinite class of problems."[157] on Calculation by Completion and
Balancing by Muhammad ibn Mūsā
In Egypt, Abu Kamil extended algebra to the set of irrational numbers, accepting square roots and fourth roots as solutions al-Khwārizmī (c. AD 820)
and coefficients to quadratic equations. He also developed techniques used to solve three non-linear simultaneous equations
with three unknown variables. One unique feature of his works was trying to find all the possible solutions to some of his
problems, including one where he found 2676 solutions.[158] His works formed an important foundation for the development of algebra and influenced later
mathematicians, such as al-Karaji and Fibonacci.

Further developments in algebra were made by Al-Karaji in his treatise al-Fakhri, where he extends the methodology to incorporate integer powers and integer
roots of unknown quantities. Something close to a proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove
the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes.[159] The historian of mathematics, F. Woepcke,[160] praised Al-Karaji for being "the first
who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus." Also in the 10th century, Abul Wafa translated the works of Diophantus into Arabic. Ibn al-Haytham was the first
mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, using a method that is readily generalizable for determining the general formula for the sum
of any integral powers. He performed an integration in order to find the volume of a paraboloid, and was able to generalize his result for the integrals of
polynomials up to the fourth degree. He thus came close to finding a general formula for the integrals of polynomials, but he was not concerned with any
polynomials higher than the fourth degree.[161]
In the late 11th century, Omar Khayyam wrote Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid, a book about what he perceived as flaws in Euclid's Elements, especially
the parallel postulate. He was also the first to find the general geometric solution to cubic equations. He was also very influential in calendar reform.[162]

In the 13th century, Nasir al-Din Tusi (Nasireddin) made advances in spherical trigonometry. He also wrote influential work on Euclid's parallel postulate. In the
15th century, Ghiyath al-Kashi computed the value of π to the 16th decimal place. Kashi also had an algorithm for calculating nth roots, which was a special case
of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner.

Other achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the
modern trigonometric functions besides the sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-
Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam and the development of an algebraic notation by al-Qalasādī.[163]

During the time of the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire from the 15th century, the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant.

Maya
In the Pre-Columbian Americas, the Maya civilization that flourished in Mexico and Central America during the 1st
millennium AD developed a unique tradition of mathematics that, due to its geographic isolation, was entirely independent
of existing European, Egyptian, and Asian mathematics.[164] Maya numerals used a base of twenty, the vigesimal system,
instead of a base of ten that forms the basis of the decimal system used by most modern cultures.[164] The Maya used
mathematics to create the Maya calendar as well as to predict astronomical phenomena in their native Maya astronomy.[164]
While the concept of zero had to be inferred in the mathematics of many contemporary cultures, the Maya developed a
standard symbol for it.[164]

Medieval European
Medieval European interest in mathematics was driven by concerns quite different from those of modern mathematicians.
One driving element was the belief that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created order of nature, The Maya numerals for numbers 1
frequently justified by Plato's Timaeus and the biblical passage (in the Book of Wisdom) that God had ordered all things in through 19, written in the Maya script
measure, and number, and weight.[165]

Boethius provided a place for mathematics in the curriculum in the 6th century when he coined the term quadrivium to describe the study of arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, and music. He wrote De institutione arithmetica, a free translation from the Greek of Nicomachus's Introduction to Arithmetic; De institutione musica,
also derived from Greek sources; and a series of excerpts from Euclid's Elements. His works were theoretical, rather than practical, and were the basis of
mathematical study until the recovery of Greek and Arabic mathematical works.[166][167]

In the 12th century, European scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily seeking scientific Arabic texts, including al-Khwārizmī's The Compendious Book on
Calculation by Completion and Balancing, translated into Latin by Robert of Chester, and the complete text of Euclid's Elements, translated in various versions by
Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia, and Gerard of Cremona.[168][169] These and other new sources sparked a renewal of mathematics.

Leonardo of Pisa, now known as Fibonacci, serendipitously learned about the Hindu–Arabic numerals on a trip to what is now Béjaïa, Algeria with his merchant
father. (Europe was still using Roman numerals.) There, he observed a system of arithmetic (specifically algorism) which due to the positional notation of Hindu–
Arabic numerals was much more efficient and greatly facilitated commerce. Leonardo wrote Liber Abaci in 1202 (updated in 1254) introducing the technique to
Europe and beginning a long period of popularizing it. The book also brought to Europe what is now known as the Fibonacci sequence (known to Indian
mathematicians for hundreds of years before that)[170] which Fibonacci used as an unremarkable example.

The 14th century saw the development of new mathematical concepts to investigate a wide range of problems.[171] One important contribution was development
of mathematics of local motion.

Thomas Bradwardine proposed that speed (V) increases in arithmetic proportion as the ratio of force (F) to resistance (R) increases in geometric proportion.
Bradwardine expressed this by a series of specific examples, but although the logarithm had not yet been conceived, we can express his conclusion
anachronistically by writing: V = log (F/R).[172] Bradwardine's analysis is an example of transferring a mathematical technique used by al-Kindi and Arnald of
Villanova to quantify the nature of compound medicines to a different physical problem.[173]

One of the 14th-century Oxford Calculators, William Heytesbury, lacking differential calculus and the
concept of limits, proposed to measure instantaneous speed "by the path that would be described by [a
body] if... it were moved uniformly at the same degree of speed with which it is moved in that given
instant".[176]

Heytesbury and others mathematically determined the distance covered by a body undergoing uniformly
accelerated motion (today solved by integration), stating that "a moving body uniformly acquiring or losing
that increment [of speed] will traverse in some given time a [distance] completely equal to that which it
would traverse if it were moving continuously through the same time with the mean degree [of Nicole Oresme (1323– Adam Ries is known as
speed]".[177] 1382), shown in this the "father of modern
contemporary illuminated calculating" because of
Nicole Oresme at the University of Paris and the Italian Giovanni di Casali independently provided manuscript with an his decisive contribution
graphical demonstrations of this relationship, asserting that the area under the line depicting the constant armillary sphere in the to the recognition that
foreground, was the first Roman numerals are
acceleration, represented the total distance traveled.[178] In a later mathematical commentary on Euclid's
to offer a mathematical unpractical and to their
Elements, Oresme made a more detailed general analysis in which he demonstrated that a body will acquire
proof for the divergence of replacement by the
the harmonic series.[174] considerably more
practical Arabic
numerals.[175]
in each successive increment of time an increment of any quality that increases as the odd numbers. Since Euclid had demonstrated the sum of the odd numbers are
the square numbers, the total quality acquired by the body increases as the square of the time.[179]

Renaissance
During the Renaissance, the development of mathematics and of accounting were intertwined.[180] While there is no direct relationship between algebra and
accounting, the teaching of the subjects and the books published often intended for the children of merchants who were sent to reckoning schools (in Flanders and
Germany) or abacus schools (known as abbaco in Italy), where they learned the skills useful for trade and commerce. There is probably no need for algebra in
performing bookkeeping operations, but for complex bartering operations or the calculation of compound interest, a basic knowledge of arithmetic was mandatory
and knowledge of algebra was very useful.

Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) wrote books on solid geometry and linear perspective, including De Prospectiva Pingendi (On Perspective for Painting),
Trattato d’Abaco (Abacus Treatise), and De quinque corporibus regularibus (On the Five Regular Solids).[181][182][183]

Luca Pacioli's Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità (Italian: "Review of Arithmetic,
Geometry, Ratio and Proportion") was first printed and published in Venice in 1494. It included a 27-page treatise on
bookkeeping, "Particularis de Computis et Scripturis" (Italian: "Details of Calculation and Recording"). It was written
primarily for, and sold mainly to, merchants who used the book as a reference text, as a source of pleasure from the
mathematical puzzles it contained, and to aid the education of their sons.[184] In Summa Arithmetica, Pacioli introduced
symbols for plus and minus for the first time in a printed book, symbols that became standard notation in Italian
Renaissance mathematics. Summa Arithmetica was also the first known book printed in Italy to contain algebra. Pacioli
obtained many of his ideas from Piero Della Francesca whom he plagiarized.

In Italy, during the first half of the 16th century, Scipione del Ferro and Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia discovered solutions for
Portrait of Luca Pacioli, a painting
traditionally attributed to Jacopo de'
cubic equations. Gerolamo Cardano published them in his 1545 book Ars Magna, together with a solution for the quartic
Barbari, 1495, (Museo di equations, discovered by his student Lodovico Ferrari. In 1572 Rafael Bombelli published his L'Algebra in which he
Capodimonte). showed how to deal with the imaginary quantities that could appear in Cardano's formula for solving cubic equations.

Simon Stevin's De Thiende ('the art of tenths'), first published in Dutch in 1585, contained the first systematic treatment of
decimal notation in Europe, which influenced all later work on the real number system.[185][186]

Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for accurate maps of large areas, trigonometry grew to be a major branch of mathematics.
Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his Trigonometria in 1595. Regiomontanus's table of sines and cosines was published in
1533.[187]

During the Renaissance the desire of artists to represent the natural world realistically, together with the rediscovered philosophy of the Greeks, led artists to study
mathematics. They were also the engineers and architects of that time, and so had need of mathematics in any case. The art of painting in perspective, and the
developments in geometry that involved, were studied intensely.[188]

Mathematics during the Scientific Revolution

17th century
The 17th century saw an unprecedented increase of mathematical and scientific ideas across Europe. Galileo observed the moons
of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based Hans Lipperhey's. Tycho Brahe had gathered a large quantity of
mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky. By his position as Brahe's assistant, Johannes Kepler was first
exposed to and seriously interacted with the topic of planetary motion. Kepler's calculations were made simpler by the
contemporaneous invention of logarithms by John Napier and Jost Bürgi. Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of
planetary motion.[189] The analytic geometry developed by René Descartes (1596–1650) allowed those orbits to be plotted on a
graph, in Cartesian coordinates.

Building on earlier work by many predecessors, Isaac Newton discovered the laws of physics that explain Kepler's Laws, and
brought together the concepts now known as calculus. Independently, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, developed calculus and much of
the calculus notation still in use today. He also refined the binary number system, which is the foundation of nearly all digital
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(electronic, solid-state, discrete logic) computers, including the Von Neumann architecture, which is the standard design paradigm,
or "computer architecture", followed from the second half of the 20th century, and into the 21st. Leibniz has been called the
"founder of computer science".[190]

Science and mathematics had become an international endeavor, which would soon spread over the entire world.[191]

In addition to the application of mathematics to the studies of the heavens, applied mathematics began to expand into new areas, with the correspondence of Pierre
de Fermat and Blaise Pascal. Pascal and Fermat set the groundwork for the investigations of probability theory and the corresponding rules of combinatorics in
their discussions over a game of gambling. Pascal, with his wager, attempted to use the newly developing probability theory to argue for a life devoted to religion,
on the grounds that even if the probability of success was small, the rewards were infinite. In some sense, this foreshadowed the development of utility theory in the
18th–19th century.

18th century
The most influential mathematician of the 18th century was arguably Leonhard Euler (1707–1783). His contributions range from founding the study of graph
theory with the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem to standardizing many modern mathematical terms and notations. For example, he named the square root of
minus 1 with the symbol i, and he popularized the use of the Greek letter to stand for the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. He made numerous
contributions to the study of topology, graph theory, calculus, combinatorics, and complex analysis, as evidenced by the multitude
of theorems and notations named for him.

Other important European mathematicians of the 18th century included Joseph Louis Lagrange, who did pioneering work in
number theory, algebra, differential calculus, and the calculus of variations, and Pierre-Simon Laplace, who, in the age of
Napoleon, did important work on the foundations of celestial mechanics and on statistics.

Modern

19th century
Throughout the 19th century mathematics became increasingly abstract.[192] Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) epitomizes this Leonhard Euler

trend. He did revolutionary work on functions of complex variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series, leaving aside
his many contributions to science. He also gave the first satisfactory proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra and of the
quadratic reciprocity law.

This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean

geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer
holds. The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and
his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently
defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels
Behavior of lines with a common perpendicular in each
no longer holds. In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to
of the three types of geometry
less than 180°. Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century
by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be
found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°. Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and Carl Friedrich Gauss
vastly generalizes the three types of geometry, and he defined the concept of a manifold, which generalizes the ideas of curves and
surfaces, and set the mathematical foundations for the theory of general relativity.[193]

The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra. Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan
Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra. The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called
Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1. Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in electrical
engineering and computer science. Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass reformulated the calculus in a more rigorous fashion.

Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored. Niels Henrik Abel, a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, a Frenchman, proved that there is no general
algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four (Abel–Ruffini theorem).[194] Other 19th-century mathematicians used this in their
proofs that straight edge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to
construct a square equal in area to a given circle. Mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve all of these problems since the time of the ancient Greeks. On the
other hand, the limitation of three dimensions in geometry was surpassed in the 19th century through considerations of parameter space and hypercomplex
numbers.

Abel and Galois's investigations into the solutions of various polynomial equations laid the groundwork for further developments of group theory, and the
associated fields of abstract algebra. In the 20th century physicists and other scientists have seen group theory as the ideal way to study symmetry.

In the later 19th century, Georg Cantor established the first foundations of set theory, which enabled the rigorous treatment of the notion of infinity and has become
the common language of nearly all mathematics. Cantor's set theory, and the rise of mathematical logic in the hands of Peano, L.E.J. Brouwer, David Hilbert,
Bertrand Russell, and A.N. Whitehead, initiated a long running debate on the foundations of mathematics.

The 19th century saw the founding of a number of national mathematical societies: the London Mathematical Society in 1865,[195] the Société Mathématique de
France in 1872,[196] the Circolo Matematico di Palermo in 1884,[197][198] the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in 1883,[199] and the American Mathematical
Society in 1888.[200] The first international, special-interest society, the Quaternion Society, was formed in 1899, in the context of a vector controversy.[201]

In 1897, Kurt Hensel introduced p-adic numbers.[202]

20th century
The 20th century saw mathematics become a major profession. By the end of the century, thousands of new Ph.D.s in mathematics were being awarded every year,
and jobs were available in both teaching and industry.[203] An effort to catalogue the areas and applications of mathematics was undertaken in Klein's
encyclopedia.[204]

In a 1900 speech to the International Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert set out a list of 23 unsolved problems in mathematics.[205] These problems,
spanning many areas of mathematics, formed a central focus for much of 20th-century mathematics. Today, 10 have been solved, 7 are partially solved, and 2 are
still open. The remaining 4 are too loosely formulated to be stated as solved or not.

Notable historical conjectures were finally proven. In 1976, Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel proved the four color theorem, controversial at the time for the
use of a computer to do so.[206] Andrew Wiles, building on the work of others, proved Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995.[207] Paul Cohen and Kurt Gödel proved
that the continuum hypothesis is independent of (could neither be proved nor disproved from) the standard axioms of set theory.[208] In 1998, Thomas Callister
Hales proved the Kepler conjecture, also using a computer.[209]

Mathematical collaborations of unprecedented size and scope took place. An example is the classification of finite simple groups (also called the "enormous
theorem"), whose proof between 1955 and 2004 required 500-odd journal articles by about 100 authors, and filling tens of thousands of pages.[210] A group of
French mathematicians, including Jean Dieudonné and André Weil, publishing under the pseudonym "Nicolas Bourbaki", attempted to exposit all of known
mathematics as a coherent rigorous whole. The resulting several dozen volumes has had a controversial influence on mathematical education.[211]
 Differential geometry came into its own when Albert Einstein used it in general relativity.
Entirely new areas of mathematics such as mathematical logic, topology, and John von
Neumann's game theory changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by
mathematical methods. All kinds of structures were abstracted using axioms and given
names like metric spaces, topological spaces etc. As mathematicians do, the concept of an
abstract structure was itself abstracted and led to category theory. Grothendieck and Serre
recast algebraic geometry using sheaf theory. Large advances were made in the qualitative
study of dynamical systems that Poincaré had begun in the 1890s. Measure theory was
developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Applications of measures include the
Lebesgue integral, Kolmogorov's axiomatisation of probability theory, and ergodic theory.
Knot theory greatly expanded. Quantum mechanics led to the development of functional Newtonian (red) vs. Einsteinian orbit
A map illustrating the Four analysis. Other new areas include Laurent Schwartz's distribution theory, fixed point theory, (blue) of a lone planet orbiting a star,
Color Theorem singularity theory and René Thom's catastrophe theory, model theory, and Mandelbrot's with relativistic precession of
fractals. Lie theory with its Lie groups and Lie algebras became one of the major areas of apsides
study.

Non-standard analysis, introduced by Abraham Robinson, rehabilitated the infinitesimal approach to calculus, which had fallen into disrepute in favour of the
theory of limits, by extending the field of real numbers to the Hyperreal numbers which include infinitesimal and infinite quantities. An even larger number system,
the surreal numbers were discovered by John Horton Conway in connection with combinatorial games.

The development and continual improvement of computers, at first mechanical analog machines and then digital electronic machines, allowed industry to deal with
larger and larger amounts of data to facilitate mass production and distribution and communication, and new areas of mathematics were developed to deal with this:
Alan Turing's computability theory; complexity theory; Derrick Henry Lehmer's use of ENIAC to further number theory and the Lucas–Lehmer primality test;
Rózsa Péter's recursive function theory; Claude Shannon's information theory; signal processing; data analysis; optimization and other areas of operations research.
In the preceding centuries much mathematical focus was on calculus and continuous functions, but the rise of computing and communication networks led to an
increasing importance of discrete concepts and the expansion of combinatorics including graph theory. The speed and data processing abilities of computers also
enabled the handling of mathematical problems that were too time-consuming to deal with by pencil and paper calculations, leading to areas such as numerical
analysis and symbolic computation. Some of the most important methods and algorithms of the 20th century are: the simplex algorithm, the fast Fourier transform,
error-correcting codes, the Kalman filter from control theory and the RSA algorithm of public-key cryptography.

At the same time, deep insights were made about the limitations to mathematics. In 1929 and 1930, it was proved the truth or falsity of all statements formulated
about the natural numbers plus either addition or multiplication (but not both), was decidable, i.e. could be determined by some algorithm. In 1931, Kurt Gödel
found that this was not the case for the natural numbers plus both addition and multiplication; this system, known as Peano arithmetic, was in fact incomplete.
(Peano arithmetic is adequate for a good deal of number theory, including the notion of prime number.) A consequence of Gödel's two incompleteness theorems is
that in any mathematical system that includes Peano arithmetic (including all of analysis and geometry), truth necessarily outruns proof, i.e. there are true statements
that cannot be proved within the system. Hence mathematics cannot be reduced to mathematical logic, and David Hilbert's dream of making all of mathematics
complete and consistent needed to be reformulated.

One of the more colorful figures in 20th-century mathematics was Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (1887–1920), an Indian
autodidact[212] who conjectured or proved over 3000 theorems , including properties of highly composite numbers,[213]
the partition function[212] and its asymptotics,[214] and mock theta functions.[212] He also made major investigations in the
areas of gamma functions,[215][216] modular forms,[212] divergent series,[212] hypergeometric series[212] and prime number
theory.[212]

Paul Erdős published more papers than any other mathematician in history,[217] working with hundreds of collaborators.
Mathematicians have a game equivalent to the Kevin Bacon Game, which leads to the Erdős number of a mathematician.
This describes the "collaborative distance" between a person and Erdős, as measured by joint authorship of mathematical
papers.[218][219] The absolute value of the Gamma
function on the complex plane
Emmy Noether has been described by many as the most important woman in the history of mathematics.[220] She studied
the theories of rings, fields, and algebras.[221]

As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: by the end of the century, there were hundreds of specialized
areas in mathematics, and the Mathematics Subject Classification was dozens of pages long.[222] More and more mathematical journals were published and, by the
end of the century, the development of the World Wide Web led to online publishing.

21st century
In 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced the seven Millennium Prize Problems.[223] In 2003 the Poincaré conjecture was solved by Grigori Perelman
(who declined to accept an award, as he was critical of the mathematics establishment).[224]

Most mathematical journals now have online versions as well as print versions, and many online-only journals are launched. There is an increasing drive toward
open access publishing, first made popular by arXiv.

Future
There are many observable trends in mathematics, the most notable being that the subject is growing ever larger as computers are ever more important and
powerful; the volume of data being produced by science and industry, facilitated by computers, continues expanding exponentially. As a result, there is a
corresponding growth in the demand for mathematics to help process and understand this big data.[225] Math science careers are also expected to continue to grow,
with the US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimating (in 2018) that "employment of mathematical science occupations is projected to grow 27.9 percent from 2016 to
2026."[226]

See also
Mathematics
portal

Archives of American Mathematics History of logic History of statistics

History of algebra History of mathematicians History of trigonometry
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Notes
a. The approximate values for π are 4 x (13/15)2 (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), and 339/108 (3.1389)
1. (Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p. 119) 13. Williams, Scott W. (2005). "The Oldest Mathematical Object is in
2. Friberg, J. (1981). "Methods and traditions of Babylonian Swaziland" (http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/lebom
mathematics. Plimpton 322, Pythagorean triples, and the bo.html). Mathematicians of the African Diaspora. SUNY Buffalo
Babylonian triangle parameter equations", Historia Mathematica, 8, mathematics department. Retrieved 2006-05-06.
pp. 277–318. 14. Marshack, Alexander (1991). The Roots of Civilization, Colonial
3. Neugebauer, Otto (1969) [1957]. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (ht Hill, Mount Kisco, NY.
tps://books.google.com/books?id=JVhTtVA2zr8C). Vol. 9 (2 ed.). 15. Rudman, Peter Strom (2007). How Mathematics Happened: The
Dover Publications. pp. 1–191. ISBN 978-0-486-22332-2. First 50,000 Years (https://archive.org/details/howmathematicsha00
PMID 14884919 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14884919). 00rudm/page/64). Prometheus Books. p. 64 (https://archive.org/detai
{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) Chap. IV "Egyptian ls/howmathematicsha0000rudm/page/64). ISBN 978-1-59102-477-
Mathematics and Astronomy", pp. 71–96. 4.
4. Turnbull (1931). "A Manual of Greek Mathematics". Nature. 128 16. Marshack, A. (1972). The Roots of Civilization: the Cognitive
(3235): 5. Bibcode:1931Natur.128..739T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e Beginning of Man's First Art, Symbol and Notation. New York:
du/abs/1931Natur.128..739T). doi:10.1038/128739a0 (https://doi.or McGraw-Hill.
g/10.1038%2F128739a0). S2CID 3994109 (https://api.semanticsch 17. Thom, Alexander; Archie Thom (1988). "The metrology and
olar.org/CorpusID:3994109). geometry of Megalithic Man", pp. 132–51 in Ruggles, C. L. N. (ed.),
5. Heath, Thomas L. (1963). A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Dover, p. Records in Stone: Papers in memory of Alexander Thom.
1: "In the case of mathematics, it is the Greek contribution which it is Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33381-4.
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mathematics a science." On the Role of Calculating Aids in Ancient Egyptian & Babylonian
6. Joseph, George Gheverghese (1991). The Crest of the Peacock: Arithmetic" (https://books.google.com/books?id=c4yBmjnY1JIC&pg
Non-European Roots of Mathematics. Penguin Books, London, pp. =PA199). Abstraction & Representation: Essays on the Cultural
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8. Kaplan, Robert (1999). The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of 20. (Boyer 1991, "Mesopotamia" p. 26)
Zero. Allen Lane/The Penguin Press, London. 21. (Boyer 1991, "Mesopotamia" p. 25)
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24. Melville, Duncan J. (2003). Third Millennium Chronology (http://it.stl
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awu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/3Mill/chronology.html) Archived (http
Archimedes and Apollonius." – Pierre Simon Laplace http://www-
history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html s://web.archive.org/web/20180707213616/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmel
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25. Powell, M. (1976), "The Antecedents of Old Babylonian Place
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th340.htm) 70. (Boyer 1991, "Apollonius of Perga" p. 146)
35. "Egyptian Papyri" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/ 71. (Boyer 1991, "Apollonius of Perga" p. 152)
HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html). www-history.mcs.st- 72. (Boyer 1991, "Apollonius of Perga" p. 156)
andrews.ac.uk. 73. (Boyer 1991, "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 161)
36. "Egyptian Algebra – Mathematicians of the African Diaspora" (http:// 74. (Boyer 1991, "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 175)
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bra.html#areithmetic+series). www.math.buffalo.edu.
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cient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin). www.math.buffalo.edu.
77. (Boyer 1991, "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 163)
39. Eves, Howard (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics,
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40. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 99)
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41. Bernal, Martin (2000). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western
Science", pp. 72–83 in Michael H. Shank, ed. The Scientific 81. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 180)
Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of 82. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 181)
Chicago Press, p. 75. 83. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 183)
42. (Boyer 1991, "Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 43) 84. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 183–
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44. Eves, Howard (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, 85. "Internet History Sourcebooks Project" (https://sourcebooks.fordha
Saunders, ISBN 0-03-029558-0. m.edu/source/hypatia.asp). sourcebooks.fordham.edu.
45. Kurt Von Fritz (1945). "The Discovery of Incommensurability by 86. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 190–
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46. Choike, James R. (1980). "The Pentagram and the Discovery of an 87. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 193)
Irrational Number". The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal. 11 88. (Boyer 1991, "Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 194)
(5): 312–316. doi:10.2307/3026893 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F302 89. (Goodman 2016, p. 119)
6893). JSTOR 3026893 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3026893).
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47. Qiu, Jane (7 January 2014). "Ancient times table hidden in Chinese
91. (Cuomo 2001, pp. 192–95)
bamboo strips" (http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hid
den-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482). Nature. 92. (Goodman 2016, pp. 120–21)
doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14482 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2 93. (Cuomo 2001, p. 196)
014.14482). S2CID 130132289 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor 94. (Cuomo 2001, pp. 207–08)
pusID:130132289). Retrieved 15 September 2014.
95. (Goodman 2016, pp. 119–20)
48. David E. Smith (1958), History of Mathematics, Volume I: General
96. (Tang 2005, pp. 14–15, 45)
Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics, New York: Dover
Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), ISBN 0-486-20429- 97. (Joyce 1979, p. 256)
4, pp. 58, 129. 98. (Gullberg 1997, p. 17)
49. Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics, Volume I: General 99. (Gullberg 1997, pp. 17–18)
Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics, New York: Dover 100. (Gullberg 1997, p. 18)
Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), ISBN 0-486-20429- 101. (Gullberg 1997, pp. 18–19)
4, p. 129.
102. (Needham & Wang 2000, pp. 281–85)
50. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 86)
103. (Needham & Wang 2000, p. 285)
51. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 88)
104. (Sleeswyk 1981, pp. 188–200)
52. Calian, George F. (2014). "One, Two, Three… A Discussion on the
105. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 201)
Generation of Numbers" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151015233
836/http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORI 106. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 196)
N%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf) (PDF). New Europe College. 107. Katz 2007, pp. 194–99
Archived from the original (http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobl 108. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 198)
eja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf) (PDF) on 109. (Needham & Wang 1995, pp. 91–92)
2015-10-15.
110. (Needham & Wang 1995, p. 94)
53. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 87)
111. (Needham & Wang 1995, p. 22)
54. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 92)
112. (Straffin 1998, p. 164)
55. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 93)
113. (Needham & Wang 1995, pp. 99–100)
56. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 91)
114. (Berggren, Borwein & Borwein 2004, p. 27)
57. (Boyer 1991, "The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 98)
115. (de Crespigny 2007, p. 1050)
58. Bill Casselman. "One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid" (ht
116. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 202)
tp://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html).
University of British Columbia. Retrieved 2008-09-26. 117. (Needham & Wang 1995, pp. 100–01)
59. (Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p. 100) 118. (Berggren, Borwein & Borwein 2004, pp. 20, 24–26)
60. (Boyer 1991, "Euclid of Alexandria" p. 104) 119. Zill, Dennis G.; Wright, Scott; Wright, Warren S. (2009). Calculus:
Early Transcendentals (https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Hk4
61. Eves, Howard (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics,
Uhb1Z0C) (3 ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. xxvii. ISBN 978-0-
Saunders. ISBN 0-03-029558-0 p. 141: "No work, except The Bible,
7637-5995-7. Extract of p. 27 (https://books.google.com/books?id=R
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3Hk4Uhb1Z0C&pg=PR27)
120. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 205) 143. Plofker 2009 pp. 197–98; George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest
121. (Volkov 2009, pp. 153–56) of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin
Books, London, 1991 pp. 298–300; Takao Hayashi, "Indian
122. (Volkov 2009, pp. 154–55)
Mathematics", pp. 118–30 in Companion History of the History and
123. (Volkov 2009, pp. 156–57) Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences, ed. I. Grattan. Guinness,
124. (Volkov 2009, p. 155) Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1994, p.
125. Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The 126.
Hindu-Arabic system (https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref 144. "Narayana - Biography" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biogr
797082), Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "The 1, 4, and 6 are aphies/Narayana/). Maths History. Retrieved 2022-10-03.
found in the Ashoka inscriptions (3rd century BC); the 2, 4, 6, 7, and 145. Plofker 2009 pp. 217–53.
9 appear in the Nana Ghat inscriptions about a century later; and
146. Raju, C. K. (2001). "Computers, mathematics education, and the
the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9 in the Nasik caves of the 1st or 2nd century
alternative epistemology of the calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā" (http://ckr
AD – all in forms that have considerable resemblance to today’s, 2
aju.net/papers/Hawaii.pdf) (PDF). Philosophy East & West. 51 (3):
and 3 being well-recognized cursive derivations from the ancient =
325–362. doi:10.1353/pew.2001.0045 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fp
and ≡."
ew.2001.0045). S2CID 170341845 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
126. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 206) CorpusID:170341845). Retrieved 2020-02-11.
127. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 207) 147. Divakaran, P. P. (2007). "The first textbook of calculus: Yukti-bhāṣā",
128. Puttaswamy, T.K. (2000). "The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Journal of Indian Philosophy 35, pp. 417–33.
Mathematicians". In Selin, Helaine; D'Ambrosio, Ubiratan (eds.). 148. Almeida, D. F.; J. K. John and A. Zadorozhnyy (2001). "Keralese
Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western mathematics: its possible transmission to Europe and the
Mathematics. Springer. pp. 411–12. ISBN 978-1-4020-0260-1. consequential educational implications". Journal of Natural
129. Kulkarni, R.P. (1978). "The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras" (http Geometry. 20 (1): 77–104.
s://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.i 149. Pingree, David (December 1992). "Hellenophilia versus the History
n/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf) (PDF). of Science". Isis. 83 (4): 554–563. Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P (http
Indian Journal of History of Science. 13 (1): 32–41. Archived from s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Isis...83..554P).
the original (http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/I doi:10.1086/356288 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F356288).
NSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-02-06. JSTOR 234257 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/234257).
130. Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. "The Indian Sulbasutras" (http://www-g S2CID 68570164 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:685701
roups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html). 64). "One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's
Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland. demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of
131. Bronkhorst, Johannes (2001). "Panini and Euclid: Reflections on trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic
Indian Geometry". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 29 (1–2): 43–80. arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles
doi:10.1023/A:1017506118885 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1 Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the
017506118885). S2CID 115779583 (https://api.semanticscholar.or calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by
g/CorpusID:115779583). Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit
132. Kadvany, John (2008-02-08). "Positional Value and Linguistic that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one
Recursion". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 35 (5–6): 487–520. read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.565.2083 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/su which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the
mmary?doi=10.1.1.565.2083). doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5 (http 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we
s://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10781-007-9025-5). ISSN 0022-1791 (http understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1791). S2CID 52885600 (https://api. the calculus; but many historians still find it impossible to conceive
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52885600). of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the
calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In
133. Sanchez, Julio; Canton, Maria P. (2007). Microcontroller
this case the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are
programming : the microchip PIC. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical
p. 37. ISBN 978-0-8493-7189-9.
solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and
134. Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). The Heritage of Thales, powerful solution."
Springer, ISBN 0-387-94544-X
150. Bressoud, David (2002). "Was Calculus Invented in India?". College
135. Hall, Rachel W. (2008). "Math for poets and drummers" (http://peopl Mathematics Journal. 33 (1): 2–13. doi:10.2307/1558972 (https://doi.
e.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf) (PDF). Math Horizons. 15 (3): 10– org/10.2307%2F1558972). JSTOR 1558972 (https://www.jstor.org/st
11. doi:10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 (https://doi.org/10.108 able/1558972).
0%2F10724117.2008.11974752). S2CID 3637061 (https://api.sema
151. Plofker, Kim (November 2001). "The 'Error' in the Indian "Taylor
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:3637061).
Series Approximation" to the Sine" (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhma
136. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 208) t.2001.2331). Historia Mathematica. 28 (4): 293.
137. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 209) doi:10.1006/hmat.2001.2331 (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.200
138. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 210) 1.2331). "It is not unusual to encounter in discussions of Indian
139. (Boyer 1991, "China and India" p. 211) mathematics such assertions as that 'the concept of differentiation
was understood [in India] from the time of Manjula (... in the 10th
140. Boyer (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". History of Mathematics (http
century)' [Joseph 1991, 300], or that 'we may consider Madhava to
s://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye). Wiley. p. 226 (http
have been the founder of mathematical analysis' (Joseph 1991,
s://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226).
293), or that Bhaskara II may claim to be 'the precursor of Newton
ISBN 9780471543978. "By 766 we learn that an astronomical-
and Leibniz in the discovery of the principle of the differential
mathematical work, known to the Arabs as the Sindhind, was
calculus' (Bag 1979, 294).... The points of resemblance, particularly
brought to Baghdad from India. It is generally thought that this was
between early European calculus and the Keralese work on power
the Brahmasphuta Siddhanta, although it may have been the Surya
series, have even inspired suggestions of a possible transmission
Siddhanata. A few years later, perhaps about 775, this Siddhanata
of mathematical ideas from the Malabar coast in or after the 15th
was translated into Arabic, and it was not long afterwards (ca. 780) century to the Latin scholarly world (e.g., in (Bag 1979, 285))... It
that Ptolemy's astrological Tetrabiblos was translated into Arabic
should be borne in mind, however, that such an emphasis on the
from the Greek."
similarity of Sanskrit (or Malayalam) and Latin mathematics risks
141. Plofker 2009 182–207 diminishing our ability fully to see and comprehend the former. To
142. Cooke, Roger (1997). "The Mathematics of the Hindus" (https://archi speak of the Indian 'discovery of the principle of the differential
ve.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213). The History of calculus' somewhat obscures the fact that Indian techniques for
Mathematics: A Brief Course. Wiley-Interscience. pp. 213–215 (http expressing changes in the Sine by means of the Cosine or vice
s://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213). versa, as in the examples we have seen, remained within that
ISBN 0-471-18082-3. specific trigonometric context. The differential 'principle' was not
generalized to arbitrary functions – in fact, the explicit notion of an
arbitrary function, not to mention that of its derivative or an algorithm
for taking the derivative, is irrelevant here"
152. Katz, Victor J. (June 1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India" (ht 173. Murdoch, John E. (1969). "Mathesis in Philosophiam Scholasticam
tp://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Math/Aydin/Teach/Fall12/128/CalcIsla Introducta: The Rise and Development of the Application of
mIndia.pdf) (PDF). Mathematics Magazine. 68 (3): 163–74. Mathematics in Fourteenth Century Philosophy and Theology", in
doi:10.2307/2691411 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2691411). Arts libéraux et philosophie au Moyen Âge (Montréal: Institut
JSTOR 2691411 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2691411). d'Études Médiévales), pp. 224–27.
153. Abdel Haleem, Muhammad A. S. "The Semitic Languages", 174. Pickover, Clifford A. (2009), The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110251586.811, "Arabic became the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics (http
language of scholarship in science and philosophy in the 9th s://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA104),
century when the ‘translation movement’ saw concerted work on Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., p. 104, ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-
translations of Greek, Indian, Persian and Chinese, medical, 9, "Nicole Oresme ... was the first to prove the divergence of the
philosophical and scientific texts", p. 811. harmonic series (c. 1350). His results were lost for several
154. (Boyer 1991, "The Arabic Hegemony" p. 230) "The six cases of centuries, and the result was proved again by Italian mathematician
equations given above exhaust all possibilities for linear and Pietro Mengoli in 1647 and by Swiss mathematician Johann
quadratic equations having positive root. So systematic and Bernoulli in 1687."
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Berggren, Lennart; Borwein, Jonathan M.; Borwein, Peter B. (2004), Pi: A Source Book, New York: Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-20571-7
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Further reading

General
Aaboe, Asger (1964). Episodes from the Early History of Mathematics. New York: Random House.
Bell, E. T. (1937). Men of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/menofmathematics0041bell). Simon and Schuster.
Burton, David M. (1997). The History of Mathematics: An Introduction. McGraw Hill.
Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (2003). Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences. The Johns Hopkins
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7397-3.
Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times.
Struik, D. J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics, fourth revised edition. Dover Publications, New York.

Books on a specific period

Gillings, Richard J. (1972). Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Heath, Thomas Little (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics. Oxford, Claredon Press.
van der Waerden, B. L. (1983). Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations, Springer, ISBN 0-387-12159-5.

Books on a specific topic

Corry, Leo (2015), A Brief History of Numbers, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198702597
Hoffman, Paul (1998). The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of Paul Erdős and the Search for Mathematical Truth. Hyperion. ISBN 0-
7868-6362-5.
Menninger, Karl W. (1969). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13040-0.
Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-40341-3.

External links

Documentaries
BBC (2008). The Story of Maths.
 Renaissance Mathematics (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9hq), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Robert Kaplan, Jim Bennett & Jackie
Stedall (In Our Time, Jun 2, 2005)

Educational material
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/) (John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson; University
of St Andrews, Scotland). An award-winning website containing detailed biographies on many historical and contemporary mathematicians, as
well as information on notable curves and various topics in the history of mathematics.
History of Mathematics Home Page (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/mathhist/) (David E. Joyce; Clark University). Articles on various topics in
the history of mathematics with an extensive bibliography.
The History of Mathematics (http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/) (David R. Wilkins; Trinity College, Dublin). Collections of material on the
mathematics between the 17th and 19th century.
Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathword.html) (Jeff Miller). Contains information on the
earliest known uses of terms used in mathematics.
Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html) (Jeff Miller). Contains information on the history of
mathematical notations.
Mathematical Words: Origins and Sources (http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Mathematical%20Words.htm) (John Aldrich,
University of Southampton) Discusses the origins of the modern mathematical word stock.
Biographies of Women Mathematicians (http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/women.htm) (Larry Riddle; Agnes Scott College).
Mathematicians of the African Diaspora (http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/) (Scott W. Williams; University at Buffalo).
Notes for MAA minicourse: teaching a course in the history of mathematics. (2009) (http://fredrickey.info/hm/mini/MinicourseDocuments-09.pdf)
(V. Frederick Rickey & Victor J. Katz).
Ancient Rome: The Odometer Of Vitruv (https://www.history-of-physics.com/2017/08/ancient-rome-odometer-of-vitruv.html#:~:text=What%20W
as%20the%20Odometer%20of%20Vitruvius.%20The%20Odometer,wheel%20which%20was%20manually%20moved%20along%20by%20h
and). Pictorial (moving) re-construction of Vitusius' Roman ododmeter.

Bibliographies
A Bibliography of Collected Works and Correspondence of Mathematicians (http://mathematics.library.cornell.edu/additional/Collected-Works-
of-Mathematicians) archive dated 2007/3/17 (https://web.archive.org/web/20070317034718/http://astech.library.cornell.edu/ast/math/find/Colle
cted-Works-of-Mathematicians.cfm) (Steven W. Rockey; Cornell University Library).

Organizations
International Commission for the History of Mathematics (http://www.unizar.es/ichm/)

Journals
Historia Mathematica
Convergence (http://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence), the Mathematical Association of America's online Math History Magazine
History of Mathematics (http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/history.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20061004065105/http://archives.
math.utk.edu/topics/history.html) 2006-10-04 at the Wayback Machine Math Archives (University of Tennessee, Knoxville)
History/Biography (http://mathforum.org/library/topics/history/) The Math Forum (Drexel University)
History of Mathematics (https://web.archive.org/web/20020716102307/http://www.otterbein.edu/resources/library/libpages/subject/mathhis.ht
m) (Courtright Memorial Library).
History of Mathematics Web Sites (http://homepages.bw.edu/~dcalvis/history.html) (David Calvis; Baldwin-Wallace College)
History of mathematics (https://curlie.org/Science/Math/History) at Curlie
Historia de las Matemáticas (https://web.archive.org/web/20030219004407/http://webpages.ull.es/users/jbarrios/hm/) (Universidad de La La
guna)
História da Matemática (http://www.mat.uc.pt/~jaimecs/indexhm.html) (Universidade de Coimbra)
Using History in Math Class (https://web.archive.org/web/20110707053917/http://math.illinoisstate.edu/marshall)
Mathematical Resources: History of Mathematics (http://mathres.kevius.com/history.html) (Bruno Kevius)
History of Mathematics (https://web.archive.org/web/20080615051823/http://www.dm.unipi.it/~tucci/index.html) (Roberta Tucci)

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