REVIEWER

What is Ethics?

Ethics
• The word ethics is coined from the Greek work “ethicos” or that which pertains to
“ethos”, which can mean custom, or character. From this etymological meaning, ethics is
taken to mean as a philosophical science that deals with the morality of human conduct or
human acts

• Morality of human acts refers to the goodness or the badness, the rightness or
wrongness of human acts.

• The branch of philosophy dealing with the values relating to human conduct, with respect
to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the
motives and ends of such actions.

• John Deigh Definition – ethics is the study of what are good and bad ends to pursue life.
It is therefore a practical discipline, whose primary aim is to determine how one ought to
lie and what actions one ought to do in conduct of one’s life.

• The study of standards of right and wrong that inform us as to how we ought to behave.
These standards relate to unwritten rules that are necessary for humans to live among
each other, such as “don’t hurt others.” We function better as a society when we treat each
other well.
• It can also refer to the standards themselves. They often pertain to rights, obligations,
fairness, responsibilities, and specific virtues like honesty and loyalty.

• Ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead
their lives.

• Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as
moral philosophy.

• Also refers to the study and development of one’s ethical standards. As feelings, laws,
and social norms can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to regularly examine
one’s standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also means,
then, the continuous effort of studying moral beliefs and moral conduct and striving to
ensure that the institutions live up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based.

• Ethics remains distinct from such disciplines because it is not a matter of factual
knowledge in the way that the sciences and other branches of inquiry are. Instead, it has
to do with determining the nature of normative theories and-applying these sets of
principles to practical moral problems.
 •

What is not “ethics”?

We need to distinguish ethics from what it is not. It’s easier if you can remember that ethics
doesn’t change:
• Ethics is not what’s legal.
• The law often puts into writing our ethical standards (don’t hurt others=don’t commit
homicide) but it also usually reflects our cultural beliefs at the time. For example, hunting
is legal in Virginia, but it would be difficult to say that everyone agrees that it is ethical to
hunt. Some people will argue that hunting is ethical because it manages the wildlife
population, while others will argue that it is never ethical because it creates pain and
suffering.
• Ethics is not what you feel.
• Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is not a matter of
following one’s feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing
what is right. Feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical. In fact, most times our
feelings are very egocentric: what’s best for me and my nearest and dearest? But making
judgments based on these sentiments could be detrimental to society as a whole,
• Ethics is not religion.
• Nor should one identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high
ethical standards. If ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to
religious people. But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the
devout religious person. Religions may teach ethical standards, and you may personally
use religion to guide your beliefs, but people can have ethics without necessarily
belonging to a religion. Therefore, ethics and religion are not interchangeable.
• Ethics is not a political ideology.
• A political party may share your values and offer ethical arguments to supports its
policies, but your decisions aren’t automatically ethical, just because you belong to one
political party or another. In fact, many, if not most, political debates are built from
arguments that claim one aspect of an ethical dilemma is more significant than another.

THE ORIGINS OF ETHICS

When did ethics begin and how did it originate? If one has in mind ethics proper—i.e., the
systematic study of what is morally right and wrong-it is clear that ethics could have come into
existence only when human beings started to reflect on the best way to live. This reflective stage
emerged long after human societies had developed some morality, usually in the form of
customary standards of right and wrong conduct, The process of reflection tended to arise from
such customs, even if in the end it may have found them wanting. Accordingly, ethics began with
the introduction-of the first moral codes.

Virtually every human society has some form of myth to explain the origin of morality. In the
Louvre in Paris, there is a black Babylonian column with a relief showing the sun god Shamash
presenting the code of laws to Hammurabi, known as the Code of Hammurabi. The Hebrew
Bible (Old Testament) account of God’s giving the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount
Sinai might be considered another example.

In the dialogue Protagoras by Plato, there is an avowedly mythical account of how Zeus took
pity on the hapless humans, who were physically no match for the other beasts. To make up for
these deficiencies, Zeus gave humans a moral sense and the capacity for law and justice, so that
they could live in larger communities and cooperate.
There is some difficulty, already known to Plato, with the view that morality was created by
divine power. In his dialogue Euthyphro, Plato considered the suggestion that it is divine
approval that makes an action right. Plato pointed out that, if this were the case, one could not
say that the gods approve of such actions because they are right. Why then do they approve of
them? Is their approval entirely arbitrary? Plato considered this impossible and so held that there
must be some standards of right or wrong that are independent of the likes and dislikes of the
gods.
• Euthyphro suggests that what is holy is what is agreeable to the gods.

Modern philosophers have generally accepted Plato’s argument because the alternative implies
that if, for example, the gods had happened to approve of torturing children and to disapprove of
helping one’s neighbors, then the torture would have been good and neighborliness bad.

Character vs Personality

Character Personality
It is objective in nature. It is within a person
It is subjective. It changes at point in time
A particular system of trait that is permanentA set of characteristics that each person
to each person possesses
It is molded depending on his environment It influences how one behaves as well as
one’s motivation
One’s character shows on how the person acts The image that one presents in front of other
and reacts to his or her peers and how she or (appear to be)
he deals with everything that happens around
him or her (actually be)
Revolves around Revolves around
• Integrity • Image creation
• Fidelity • Public relation
• Compassion • Communication
• Contribution • Management
• Responsibility
• Justice
• Courage

Ethics vs Morality
Ethics Morality
What is it? Rules of conduct Principles or habit
Source Social system Individual
Why we do it Because society says it is the Because we believe in
right thing to do something being right or
wrong
Flexibility They tend to be consistent Usually consistent, but can
within a certain context but change if an individual’s
can vary between contexts. beliefs change.
Ethics and Values

There are several definitions about ethics and values, each more ‘verbose and vague than the
other. For one, ethics is defined as “the science of the morality of human acts and rational human
behavior.” Values, on the other hand, have been ostentatiously described as a “qualitatively
determined behavior which has a normative obligatory character and presupposes the liberty of
possible decision.”

To simplify further, ethics is the capacity to determine right conduct and the knowledge of what
is right from wrong. Values, on the other hand, are the application of ethics. It must be stressed
that these two concepts should always be together, for an expert in ethics might not be
necessarily a values-oriented person, and vice-versa. It’s one thing to know what’s good or bad,
and another thing to apply what you know.

Understanding human acts

Human acts are actions that proceed from the deliberate free will of man. In a broader
perspective, the term human acts refer to any activity performed by man. This activity could
either be physical, spiritual, internal or external.

Element of Human Acts

• Knowledge
• Freedom
• Voluntariness

Human acts vs Acts of Man

Human acts Acts of Man
It requires man’s rationality It does not require man’s rationality
It requires knowledge, freedom and Done without knowledge, without consent
voluntariness and involuntary
It does not need man’s freedom and will
Man takes responsibility of his action It does not make man responsible for his
action

THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR

Morality and integrity are important characteristics to demonstrate. Human instinctively knows
that it is good to be moral and act with integrity, but by coming to an understanding of the
reasons for morality and integrity, a person will be motivated to champion such behavior. Among
the reasons to be moral and integral, regardless of occupation are to:

• Make society better. When you help make society better, you are rewarded with also
making better own lives and the lives of your families and friends. Without moral
conduct, society would be a miserable place.

• Treat everyone equally. Equality is a cornerstone of most Western democracies, where all
individuals are afforded the same rights. This is not possible without the majority of
citizens behaving morally.

• Secure meaningful employment. Often employers will look at a person’ past behavior as a
predictor of future behavior. Someone who has a history of immoral behavior will have
difficulty securing employment in a meaningful job, as that person may not be trusted.
 • Succeed at business. If you are employed in an occupation in which there you must rely
on others, your moral conduct will determine the degree of goodwill that you receive
from others. Businesses that have a checkered moral history are typically viewed with
caution and are unlikely to attract new customers through word of mouth, and therefore
are unlikely to prosper. This is especially the case where social ‘media makes customer
reviews readily accessible.

• Lessen stress. When you make immoral decisions, you tend to feel uncomfortable and
concerned. about our & decision making. Making the right moral decision, or taking a
principled perspective on an issue, reduces stress.

ETHICS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

The police are essential to democracy. By ensuring that no person is above the law, the police
protect citizens from victimization. Through, the enforcement of the law, police ensure that no
individual or group violently assert its will over public order

ETHICAL ROLE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

The ethical role is performed by being objective and ethical in personal behavior and in
functioning as a representative of the criminal justice system, The police officers are
representatives of the criminal justice system even when not in the performance of their duties.
Therefore, they must observe the following;

* To act in a manner that reflects the belief in the fundamental value of ethical behavior and
application of this value to their job.

* To conduct daily activities in an objective manner striving to be uninfluenced by emotion,

personal prejudice, or insufficient evidence,

* To provide objective and constructive assistance or information ta all persons, regardless of

personal feelings.

* To assist the public to understand how they can help in achieving objective and ethical
behavior.

Two division of Ethics

General ethics – it is the study of the general principles of morality

Special ethics – it is the study of the application of the general principles of morality, included in
this division is the category of professional ethics.

Professional ethics – it a set of moral code to which every profession must subscribe

Police ethics – it is a practical science that treats the principle of human morality and duty as
applied to law enforcement .
Four main branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics-nature of ultimate reality.

Epistemology-people come to learn what they know.

Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology
refers to the nature and origin of knowledge and truth.

Axiology-study of principles and values.

These values are divided into two main kinds ethics and aesthetics.
-Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal values.
-Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful.

Logic-seeks to organize reasoning.

Logic has two types deductive and inductive reasoning.
-Deductive reasoning involves examining a general case, deducing a general set of rules or
principles, and then applying these rules to specific cases.
-Inductive reasoning involves taking specific examples and considering the general principles,
rules, or cases that caused them

Ethical Principles

Beneficence-professional duty to do or produce good.

Nonmaleficence-Prevent harm or risk of harm to clients

Autonomy-Self-rule or self-governance

Justice-Fairness in relation to distribution or allocation of time, resources and services

Fidelity-Keeping promises or commitments

Classification of actions according to the

Norms of Morality

Moral (Good) actions

Immoral (Bad) actions
Amoral (indifferent) actions

Modifiers of Human Acts

Ignorance – absence of knowledge which a person out to possess

Classification of ignorance
-Vincible ignorance – can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts
-Invincible ignorance – is the type which a person possesses without being aware of it, or having
awareness but lacks the means to rectify it.

Passion – either tendencies towards desirable objects, or tendencies away from undesirable or
harmful things
Classification of Passions
Positive emotion
Negative emotion

Fear – disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or harm to
himself or loved ones.

Act done with fear

Act out of fear or because of fear

Violence – refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose
of compelling said person to act against his will.

Habits – is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a
certain manner.

Permanent inclination to act in a certain way.

- Word “habit-forming – refer to certain experience
show how easy it is for one to acquire a habit.

Rights and Duties

Right – it is anything which is owed or due.

It is something to which a person has a just and lawful claim
It is anything that a person can lawfully demand

Duty – it is anything we are obliged to do or to omit

It is moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting or avoiding.

Kinds of Rights

Natural rights
Human rights
Civil rights
Ecclesiastical or religious rights
Alienable and inalienable right
Right of jurisdiction
Right to property
Juridical right
Non-juridical right

Human rights

-Pertains to the right of man

-Inherent to man by virtue of being a human being
-The supreme, inherent and inalienable rights to life, dignity and to self-development

Basic human rights

-Right to life
-Right to liberty
-Right to property
Bill of rights

List of individual liberties, freedom and rights which are guaranteed and protected
under Art. 3 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution
It is the protection of individuals against abuses of the State
This likewise pertains to the protection of the rights of an accused.

Kinds of Duty

Natural – imposed by natural law

Positive duties – positive law
Affirmative duties – which require the performance of
a certain act
Negative duties – which require the omission of a
certain act