C15.

1 → Rus ng
● Corrosion is caused by chemical reac ons between the metal and substances in the environment.
Corrosion is also described as the forma on of compounds on the surface of a metal when it is
exposed to air, water or an electrolyte. When a metal corrodes it forms oxides or hydrated oxides.
● The products of corrosion can affect the strength of the metal, as well as its appearance. In extreme
cases the metal will be effec vely destroyed.
● The corrosion of iron is called rus ng. Rust forms on the surface of iron (and most steels). The rust is a
si , crumbly substance and soon flakes off, exposing fresh iron, so that more iron can rust. However,
the protec ve oxide layer formed on aluminium protects the aluminium beneath it from further
corrosion.
● Air and water are both needed for iron to rust.
The experiment shows that both air and water
are required in order for iron to rust.
● Rust is a form of iron(III) oxide, Fe₂O₃. It has
water loosely bonded in its structure. It is
called hydrated iron(III) oxide.
Iron + oxygen + water → hydrated iron(III)
oxide
Preven ng Rust
● In order to prevent rus ng, iron must be protected from water and oxygen in the air. This can be
achieved by coa ng iron or steel:
○ Paint
○ Oil or grease
○ Plas c
○ A less reac ve metal
○ A more reac ve metal
Method: Descrip on Explana on

Paint Paint is used to coat any sta c This forms a protec ve barrier between the
(non-moving) parts of a metal object. E.g. iron metal and oxygen in the air and water
bike frame to prevent rus ng.

Oil or grease Oil or grease is used to coat any moving This forms a protec ve barrier between the
parts of a metal object. E.g. the chain of iron metal and oxygen in the air and water
the bike to prevent rus ng.

Plas c Plas c is a cheap method of covering iron This layer of plas c prevents access of
metal frames and objects. oxygen in the air and water to the iron
surface.

A less reac ve Less reac ve metals such as n, silver and These less reac ve/unreac ve metals will
metal gold are used to coat the iron metal either not corrode at all or will corrode very
objects by a process called electropla ng. slowly, much slower than the iron metal
would have rusted.

A more reac ve More reac ve metals such as zinc are The zinc will react with oxygen to form a
metal used to coat iron in a process called protec ve layer called zinc oxide which
galvanisa on. The zinc is sacrificed to protects the iron metal underneath from
protect the iron ‒ sacrificial protec on. rus ng.
Galvanising Iron
● Zinc is used to protect iron. The iron is galvanised.
● The zinc is more reac ve than the iron. This is because it is a stronger reducing agent than iron, so it
has a stronger tendency to form posi ve ions by giving away electrons. As the zinc loses electrons they
become oxidised.
○ Therefore, any water or oxygen reacts with the zinc rather than the iron (protec ng the iron
atoms from oxida on).
● This is called sacrificial protec ng. The zinc is sacrificed to protect the iron.

Sacrificial Protec on
● Magnesium and aluminium can be used instead of zinc.
● Sacrificial protec on is used under harsh condi ons:
○ When iron is in contact with seawater, which accelerates rus ng
○ Bars of magnesium connected to the legs on an iron pier or a ship’s steel hull
○ Used to protect underground pipes, which can be a ached to the sacrificial metal by wires
● The bars of the sacrificial metal eventually need replacing.
● Sacrificial protec on is also used where the coa ng is likely to be scratched, such as when emptying
commercial wheelie bins or lamp posts.

C15.2 → Useful alloys

● Pure metals, such as copper, gold, iron and aluminium are rela vely so and easily shaped. Their
regular layers of posi ve ions in their giant la ces can slide over each other when forces are applied to
the metal.
● Making mixtures of metals, called alloys, produces more useful materials. In the alloy, different-sized
metal ions (or other atoms) make it harder for the layers to slide over each other. The layers are
distorted. This means that alloys are much harder than pure metals.
● Malleable → moulded/hammered into shapes easily
● Duc le → can be stretched into wires easily
● Strong → able to resist and withstand damage from a par cular force
● Hard-wearing → it is durable and does not change appearance easily
● Magne c → it is able to a ract to a magne c or other magne c objects

Copper alloys
● Bronze is made by mixing copper with n.
● Bronze is used to make statues and decora ve items. It is also used to make ship’s propellers because
of its toughness and resistance to corrosion
● Brass is made by mixing copper with zinc. Brass is much harder than copper but it is workable.
● It can be hammered into sheets and pressed into intricate shapes. This property is used to make
musical instruments such as trumpets. It is also used for door fi ngs and taps.

Aluminium alloys
● Aluminium has a low density for a metal. It can be alloyed with a wide range of other elements. There
are over 300 alloys of aluminium available with very different proper es.
● Lightweight but strong aluminium alloys are used to build aircra , while others can be used as armour
pla ng on tanks and other military vehicles.
Gold alloys
● Gold can be made harder by adding other elements. Gold is usually alloyed with copper when it is used
to make jewellery.
● Pure gold wears away more easily than its alloy with copper. By varying the propor ons of the two
metals, it is also possible to get different shades of gold objects.
● The purity of gold is o en measured in carats.
○ 24-carat gold is almost pure gold (99.9%).
○ 18-carat gold is 75% of gold

Steels
● Steels are alloys of iron with carbon and/or other elements. By carefully controlling the amounts of
carbon and other elements, the proper es of steels can be changed for different uses.
Type of steel % carbon Proper es Examples of uses

Low-carbon steel Less than 0.4% So and very easy to bend & Car bodies, wrought iron
shape gates

Medium-carbon About 0.8% Hard & strong, less easy to bend Nuts, bolts, screws, tubes,
steel & shape girders

High-carbon steel 1.0 - 1.5% Very hard, quite bri le Hammer heads, knives,
scissors, railway lines
Carbon steels
● These are simplest steel and are made by removing most of the carbon from the iron obtained from a
black furnace.
● The carbon content decreases from about 4% to 0.03% in steel-making.
● These are the cheapest steels to make.
● They are used in:
○ Bodies of cars
○ Machinery
○ Ships
○ Containers
○ Structural steel

Alloy steels
● Steels made with 1% to 5% of other metals are more expensive than carbon steel. Each of these metals
produces a steel that is well-suited for a par cular use.
● Nickel-steel alloys are used to make long-span bridges, bicycle chains and military armour-pla ng. That
is because they are very resistant to stretching forces.
● Tungsten steel is used to make high-speed tools such as drill bits because it operates well under hot
condi ons.
● The chromium-nickel steels are known as stainless steels. They combine hardness and strength with
great resistance to corrosion and they don’t rust. These proper es make them ideal for use in cooking
utensils and cutlery.
● Stainless steels are also used in the chemical industry to make reac on vessels. This makes chemical
plants expensive to set up, but the pipework and reac on vessels o en have to withstand high
temperatures and pressures, as well as corrosive chemicals.
 C15.3 → The proper es of polymers
● Polymers can be made from chemicals from crude oil. Small molecules called monomers join together
to make bigger molecules called polymers. As the monomers join together, they produce a tangled web
of very long chain molecules.
● The proper es of a polymer depend on:
○ The monomers used to make it
○ The condi ons chosen to carry out the reac on.
● Polymer chains can be made from many different monomers. The monomers chosen make a big
difference to the proper es of the polymer made.
● There are two types of poly(ethene). One is called high density (HD) and the other is low density (LD)
poly(ethene). Both are made from ethene monomers, but they are formed under different condi ons.
○ Using very high pressure and traces of oxygen, ethene forms LD poly(ethene). The polymer
chains are randomly branched and cannot pack
closely together, hence its lower density.
○ Using a catalyst at 50℃ and slightly
raised pressure, ethene makes HD poly(ethene).
This is made up of straighter poly(ethene) chains.
They can pack more closely together than branched
chains, hence its higher density. It also has a higher
so ening temperature and is stronger than LD
poly(ethene).
● When thermoso ening polymers are heated they become so quite easily and they will re-set when
they cool down. They are made up of individual polymer chains that are tangled together.
● In thermoso ening polymers, the forces between the polymer chains are weak. When you heat the
polymer, these weak intermolecular forces are broken. The polymer becomes so . When the polymer
cools down, the intermolecular forces bring the polymer molecules back together. Then the polymer
hardens again. This type of polymer can be remoulded.
● When thermose ng polymers are heated they do not melt because they have strong covalent bonds
forming cross-links between their polymer chains.
● In thermose ng polymers, their monomers make covalent bonds between the polymer chains when
they are first heated in order to shape them. These covalent bonds are strong, and they stop the
polymer from so ening. The covalent cross-links between chains do not allow them to separate. Even
if heated strongly, the polymer will s ll not so en. Eventually, the polymer burns at high enough
temperatures.
 C15.4 → Glass, ceramics and composites
Glass
● Glass is made of sand (SiO₂), limestone (CaCO₃) and sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃). This makes the most
common form of glass, called soda-lime glass. Recycled glass is also becoming more important, making
up to 30% of some glass-making mixtures.
● These raw materials are heated to 1500℃. At this high temperature, they melt and react to form
molten glass. As it cools down, the glass turns into a solid. However, the par cles do not form a regular
pa ern. It is as if the par cles in the molten glass are frozen in place.
● There are many different types of glass. These can be made by varying the glass-making mixture or by
incorpora ng other materials into the glass.
○ For example, in borosilicate glass, the raw materials are sand and boron trioxide, B₂O₃. This type
of glass is used for ovenware and for test tubes because it melts at higher temperatures than
soda-lime glass.

Ceramics
● Examples of ceramic objects made from clay are bricks, les, crockery, bathroom sinks, baths and
toilets. Clay ceramics are hard, but generally bri le, materials that are electrical insulators are resistant
to chemical a ack. They are made by moulding wet clay into the desired shapes, and then hea ng
them in a furnace to around 1000℃.
● The clay contains compounds of metals (such as aluminium and potassium) and non-metals (silicon and
oxygen), with ionic bonding between ions, but also has some covalent bonding between non-metal
atoms. These ions and atoms are arranged in giant structures that form layers.
● When the clay is wet, the water molecules get between the layers of clay and make it slimy (on a
po er's wheel). However, when they are fired in a furnace, the water is driven out and strong bonds
form between the layers in the giant structure, changing the proper es drama cally.
● The higher the temperature in the kiln or furnace, the harder the ceramic formed.
● Ceramics are bri le because a sharp blow can distort the layers in their structure so that ions with like
charges are adjacent and repel each other, cracking the ceramic object.

Composites
● Most composites are made of two materials, making a product with improved proper es for a
par cular use. They are o en a matrix of one material surroundings and binding together fibres or
fragments of the other material ‒ a process called reinforcement.
○ For example, glass and ceramics are both hard but bri le. However, a combina on of the two,
heated together, form a composite glass-ceramic which is hard but also very tough. It is no
longer bri le as the glass melts between the crystals in the ceramic, so any cracks cannot
spread through the whole structure.
● Composites of ceramics with polymers as the binding material are tough and flexible, such as
fibreglass. This is made of fine threads of glass embedded in a polymer resin that hardens once
moulded into shape. It forms a tough, flexible, waterproof material with a low density, ideal for kayaks.
● Advanced composites are now being made that use carbon fibres or carbon nanotubes instead of glass
fibres, with many new applica ons possible for tough, lightweight materials that can also be made to
conduct electricity.
● Other example of composites include:
○ Wood, for example, plywood, which is made of thin sheets of wood glued together, with the
grain in successive layers running at right angles to each other. This means that plywood resists
 spli ng along the grain. MDF (medium-density fibreboard) is another wood composite, made
from wood chips, shavings or sawdust compressed together and bound using a polymer resin.
This can be cut into intricate shapes without splintering.
○ Concrete, made from cement, sand and gravel mixed with water and le to set. Concrete is a
very hard composite and is very strong in compression. It can be made more resistant to
bending forces by se ng it around a matric of steel rods, forming “reinforcing concrete”.

C15.5 → Making ammonia ‒ the Haber process

Nitrogen-based fer lisers
● Plants need nitrogen to grow, as it is one of the elements they need to make proteins.
● As the crop plants grow, they take in nitrogen in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO₃-(aq). From the soil
through their roots. Then the farmer harvests the crop, so most parts of the plant are not allowed to
rot back into the soil. So the nitrogen absorbed from the soil during growth is not replaced by the
natural cycling of nitrogen. Therefore, farmers need fer lisers to replace nitrogen and other nutrients
in the soil before they sow their next crops.

The Haber process

● The Haber process provides a way of turning nitrogen in the air into ammonia.
● Ammonia has many different uses. The most important of these is to make fer lisers.
● The raw materials for the produc on of ammonia are:
○ Nitrogen from the air
○ Hydrogen, from methane gas, CH₄
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen gases are pumped in through the pipes.
2. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is compressed to a pressure of 200 atmospheres
and heated to a temperature of 450℃.
3. The mixture is passed through a reac on vessel containing an iron catalyst.
4. The mixture is then cooled so that the ammonia liquifies and can then be removed.
5. Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are returned to the reac on vessel via the
compressor.
● The reac on used in the Haber process is reversible. This means that the ammonia gas made breaks
down again into nitrogen and hydrogen.
 C15.6 → The economics of the Haber process
● The nitrogen gas needed for the process is extracted from the air. This is a free resource but there are
energy costs in separa ng the nitrogen from the other gases in the air. This is done by the frac onal
dis lla on of liquid air.
● The cooling down of the air to a temperature of about -200℃ to liquefy it requires energy. In the
cooling process, air needs to be compressed by high-pressure pumps which are expensive to run.
● The hydrogen for the process is made by reac ng methane gas with steam at very high temperature:
Methane + steam → hydrogen + carbon monoxide
● The water is cheap but there are costs involved in hea ng the reac on mixture to make superheated
steam. However, the main cost in making ammonia is the price of methane gas. This has to be brought
from the gas industry as natural gas (a diminishing fossil fuel).
● The methane, or the hydrogen it produces, also provides another way to obtain nitrogen for the Haber
process. The flammable gases are mixed with air and react with oxygen in a reac on vessel. This
removes the oxygen from air, leaving mainly nitrogen gas.

The effect of pressure

● Nitrogen and hydrogen react to make ammonia in a reversible reac on:
N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ⇌ 2NH₃ (g)
● There are four molecules of gas on the le -hand side of the equa on, but on the right-hand side there
are only two molecules of gas. This means that the volume of the reactants is greater than the volume
of the products.
● An increase in pressure will tend to shi to the posi on of the equilibrium to the right, producing more
ammonia in order to reduce the pressure.
● A pressure of 200 atmospheres is chosen, due to the fact that high pressures would be expensive as it
would require equipment like vessels and pipes to be strong enough to withstand very high pressures
otherwise there is a danger of an explosion. To avoid high costs, a pressure of 200 atmospheres is
chosen as a compromise. Despite the fact, 200 atmospheres gives a lower yield than it would with even
higher pressures, it reduces the costs and helps produce a reasonable rate of reac on between gases.

The effect of temperature

● The forward reac on is exothermic in the Haber process.
● Energy transferred to surroundings = 93kJ - 46.5kJ/mol of ammonia
● Lowering the temperature would increase the amount of ammonia in the reac on mixture at
equilibrium. This happens because the forward reac on to form ammonia transfers energy to the
surroundings, thereby raising the temperature of the surroundings (opposing the change introduced).
● A really low temperature is not used as the rate of reac on would be very slow because the gas
molecules would collide less frequently and with less energy. Running a chemical plant is expensive, so
to make ammonia commercially, the reac on needs to go quickly. Therefore, a compromise
temperature of 450℃ is used as it is a reasonably high temperature to get the reac on going at a
reasonable rate ,even though this reduces the yield of ammonia.

The effect of a catalyst

● An iron catalyst is also used in the Haber process to speed up the reac on. T
● The catalyst speeds up the rate of both the forward and reverse reac ons by the same amount.
Therefore, it does not affect the actual yield of ammonia, but it does cause ammonia to be produced
more quickly, which is an economic considera on in the industry.
 C15.7 → Making fer lisers in the lab
● The ammonia made in the Haber process can be used as a fer liser itself in liquid form. However, most
is changed into compounds of ammonia by reac ng ammonia solu on with different acids.

Ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate

NH₃ (aq) + HNO₃ (aq) →NH₄NO₃ (aq)

Ammonia + phosphoric acid → ammonium phosphate

3NH₃ (aq) + H₃PO₄ (aq) → (NH₄)₃PO₄ (aq)

Ammonia + sulfuric acid → ammonium sulfate

2NH₃ (aq) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → (NH₄)₂SO₄ (aq)

● Salts are formed when acids and alkalis react together

in a neutralisa on reac on.
Making ammonium sulfate fer liser in the lab
Aim: To make ammonium sulphate fer liser in the laboratory by tra ng ammonia solu on against dilute
sulfuric acid.

1. Use the pipe e and pipe e filler to put exactly 25cm³ ammonia solu on in the conical flask.
2. Clamp the bure e ver cally in the clamp stand about halfway up its length, allow space for conical
flask,
3. Use the small funnel to carefully fill the bure e with dilute sulfuric acid to 0cm³ line.
4. Open the tap so that the sulfuric acid flows into the flask 1cm³ at a me
5. A er adding each 1cm³ sulphuric acid, dip a glass rod into the solu on and then test this drop on a
piece of blue litmus paper. Look for a colour change from blue to pink.
6. Keep adding acid un l the litmus just turns pink, repeat the inves ga on un l you get two volumes of
sulphuric acid within 0.1cm³ of each other ‒ concordant results.
7. Record your results in a table.
8. Pour the solu on into an evapora ng dish, heat over a water bath un l about half of the water from
the solu on has evaporated.
9. Leave the rest of the solu on to evaporate slowly to leave crystals of ammonium sulfate.
 C15.8 → Making fer lisers in the lab
● As well as nitrogen crops also need significant amounts of the nutrients phosphorus and potassium for
healthy growth. Farmers can buy fer lisers that provide compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. No compound containing all 2 elements has yet been made for use as a fer liser. Therefore
bags of NPK fer liser contain formula ons of compounds to provide all three of the macronutrients.
● The sources of phosphorus are deposits of phosphate-containing rock which is dug or mined from the
ground. It cannot be used directly on the soil, as it is insoluble in water, so the rock is treated with acids
to make fer liser salts. Phosphate rock is treated:
○ With nitric acid acid to produce phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄, and calcium nitrate Ca(NO₃)₂. Then the
phosphoric acid is neutralised with ammonia to produce ammonium phosphate, (NH₄)₃PO₄
○ With sulfuric acid to produce single superphosphate, a mixture of calcium, Ca₃(PO₄)₂, and
calcium sulfate, CaSO₄
○ With phosphoric acid to produce triple superphosphate, which is calcium phosphate, Ca₃(PO₄)₂.
● The potassium salts potassium chloride, KCl, and potassium sulfate, K₂SO₄, are mined from the ground.
All potassium compounds are soluble in water, so they can be separated from the impuri es and used
directly.

Laboratory Industry

Star ng materials Reactants are purchased by a chemical Reactants are made from raw materials.
supplier for the school lab.

Equipment and Cheap, versa le, reusable laboratory Very expensive chemical equipment is needed ‒
method equipment. Room temperature for reac on vessels and pipes which can withstand
neutralisa on reac on, then heated with a chemical a ack, high pressures and
Bunsen burner to evaporate water temperatures between 60℃ - 450℃

Safety Dilute chemicals used for safety precau on, Poten ally very hazardous, due to concentrated
lab coats and goggles worn at all mes. chemicals, high temperature and high pressures
‒ explosions can occur

Scale/yield Small quan es can be made slowly Large quan es can be made quickly

Running costs Running cost high as this method is labour Due to automa c controls and con nuous use
intensive of machinery, running and labour costs are low.