International

Human Resource UNIT 3 CROSS-CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Management : An
Overview
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Major Economies and HRM Practices
3.3 HRM in Japan
3.4 HRM in the United States
3.5 HRM in the United Kingdom
3.6 HRM in Turkey
3.7 HRM in the Arab Middle East
3.8 HRM in India
3.9 HRM in China
3.10 Summary
3.11 Self-Assessment Questions
3.12 Further Readings/ References

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter examines the ramification of the contextual factors that play a
significant role in HRM activities in the seven major economies. These
countries represent a fair picture as they sample the countries from fully
developed to developing economies. As every country has its unique set of
cultural diversity, the contextual factors also differ from country to land in a
significant way. A wide array of human resource management and
management techniques and styles in these nations presents a diverse and
complex world in which multinational corporations must operate and survive.

Most MNCs are home to the most economically advanced nations but operate
in many different countries. Emerging economies benefit from foreign direct
investment from MNCs from financially progressive governments. As such,
best practices are constantly flowing between these countries.

3.2 MAJOR ECONOMIES AND HRM

PRACTICES
The US (USA), European Association (EU), and Japan, popularly known as
“The Triad” are the birthplace of many multinational corporations. It also has
many subsidiaries and companies in developing and underdeveloped
countries. Developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have a
small number of multinationals, but they contribute significantly to the global
scenario. Therefore, triad multinationals have greater power to decide
whether to share their country's strategies, policies, and practices with host
country firms. Over time, academicians and practitioners have considered
MNCs models and sources of managerial innovations.
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The comparison between developed and developing economies allows Cross-Cultural
Diversity
examining if they can successfully transfer to the host nations. The countries
being reviewed as mentioned below:

Developed Countries:
• United State of America (USA)
• Japan
• United Kingdom (UK)

Developing Countries:
• Turkey
• India
• The Middle East
• China

While the discussion focuses on cultural characteristics and their impact on

HRM practices, contextual factors are considered as they play a significant
role in determining HRM practices. Cultural change is seen to be very slow
and lasts for centuries. Their influence on work-related attitudes and values is
substantial for HRM. The long-lasting and detectable impacts are found in
the long and short term. Political and financial circumstances are unstable
and change quickly. At the same time, their implication can be observed in
the long-term HRM. Thus, they are more tentative and speculative in nature.

3.3 HRM IN JAPAN

Japan has a very homogenous culture as most people share its cultural
characteristics, excluding some individual and regional variations. It also has
a tiny percentage of immigrants making up its population which is in contrast
to the US. Solid feelings towards groups and communities characterize
Japanese society. Hofstede (1980) found in his study that Japan’s score was
46 on individualism, while the US scored 91 and the UK scored 89,
respectively.

Japanese are loyal to the groups with which they are affiliated and are ready
to sacrifice their interest in favor of the group interest. A collectivist approach
is evident when comparing Japan within the group to the UK, a country of
individualism and collectivism. In the UK, the ingroup includes the proximal
nuclear family: spouse, children, guardian, or parents. Within the Indian
group are close relatives and extended families, grandparents, siblings,
sisters, uncles, aunties, nephews, nieces, companions, and family members.
While in the context of Japan, the above is included in addition to the
organization to which you belong.

Japanese people are diligent and have a strong sense of duty or indebtedness.
Japanese society lacks a western style horizontal social class system, while it
has a vertical stratification by the institute or group of institutes. These
structures are found in employee unions. Trade unions are company based.
At the same time, they compared it with the UK, where trade unions are
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International based on professional skills and between companies and organizations. The
Human Resource
Management : An characteristics of Japanese unions and management are based on corporate
Overview culture, and relationships are based on cooperation and harmony.

Status differentiation and acknowledgment can be seen in other ways than in

Western societies. Status is differentiated by actions such as the number of
bows they bow at the time of encounter, the seating arrangement at the table,
and the serving of food.

Another characteristic of Japanese companies is the “Ringi” method of policy

and decision-making. This includes informal counseling and problem-
solving. The process begins with preparing a written proposal, distribution to
those impacted by the execution of the proposition, and circulation to senior
administration. It is a time-consuming process, and thus it is only used in
critical decision-making. Employees, especially those at the operational level,
are encouraged to suggest improvements and groundbreaking thoughts in the
'suggestion box' situated on organization premises. Quality circle is one more
instrument utilized for employee participation. A quality circle is a little
gathering activity of workers and employees doing similar work, led by a
manager. This is a voluntary inclusion in the quality circle. Volunteers are
prepared for issues such as problem identification and problem-solving
techniques. Quality circles are non-mandatory and, therefore, synonymous
with Japanese collectivist culture. In addition to this measure, other
management practices sustain success—techniques such as lifetime
employment, a wage system based on seniority, and high interest in
employee training.
Lifetime employment is referred to as ‘nenko’ but is not prescribed in the
law. However, it is a standard practice in all the major enterprises, where
employees are hired and remain in the same organization for the rest of their
working lives. They undertake different ranges of jobs and progress up in the
organizational hierarchy. However, nenko is found only in large companies
and is served by a third of the country's workforce. The remaining part-time
workers and contract employees are employed for a certain period according
to their qualifications and work content.

Depending on the age and educational background, workers' salaries are low
and rise gradually until they retire. Age-appropriate wages and promotion
systems strengthen the long-term employment system. However, wages are
not dependent on performance. Performance-based factors prevent
complacency through job security through awards and bonuses. Additional
financial incentives accrue up to 1/3 of earnings.

Employees see the company as a family, an economically active social unit.

This perspective creates high employee loyalty and emotional dependence on
the organization. While the recent trends suggest that there has been a
downshift from these ideas and towards long-term commitment to the
company recently as the younger workforce is switching jobs more
frequently.

Teamwork and consensus are distinctive styles of Japanese organizational

culture. Employees view themselves as member of the community and stress
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over consensus and teamwork. Managers seek their subordinate’s approval in Cross-Cultural
Diversity
decision-making and seek their approval. The critical factor contributing to
cohesion is the solid obligation to their colleagues and supervisors.
Supervisors feel indebted for their promotion towards their workers whose
contributions are valuable.

Job rotation, which leads to employment flexibility, is a prominent feature of

Japanese companies. Employers do not hire based on job specifications but
on comprehensive qualifications that go through an introductory phase. They
are first socialized before the initiation of on-the-job training. They are
competent in using in-house training and moving between different
departments to solve organizational problems. The early stages involve
manual labor, such as working in a store and later as a manager. During these
periods, various tasks are assigned that reflect long-term employee
developmental goals strategically planned, considering production. As a
result, employees can complete all activities at the end of training.

Japanese companies operate in a strict hierarchical system, with no rank

equivalents between workers and employees. Open-plan offices
accommodate upper-level managers and lower-level employees under one
roof. This goes against the libertarian idea of the Japanese management
system.

3.4 HRM IN THE UNITED STATES

The United States is often viewed as a melting pot in terms of ethnic
diversity, as its population includes people of diverse backgrounds. The most
prominent national cultural feature is individualism in American culture.
Americans are independent, ambitious, and profoundly individualistic. They
value freedom and accept that people can shape and control their fates. The
interest of her next of kin is paramount. The focus is on personal and
financial success. The in-group does not include workspaces. Principal
commitment and loyalty are not to your organization or another group.
Individualism influences and inspires the ethics of American management
and personal management. Diligence and long working hours when required,
individual employee decision-making motivation, outstanding self-image,
initiative, promotion, and high income as a reward are highlighted as positive
personal employee achievements. In addition, individualistic nature
encourages managers to promote on a merit basis; status, hierarchy, and
gender are often neglected in such times. The reward system is performance-
oriented and based on individual job performance.

A focus on personal freedom and success means that individuals are free to
pursue careers and change jobs to achieve success. As also implies,
organizations can hire and fire people according to their needs or market
conditions. Organizations are also free to pursue their success. Most
American companies hire based on a particular job need. As there is a limited
commitment between the employer and the employee, the job and skills
required for the specific job are clearly defined for the job. In organizations
like participatory management, bosses are friendly, and subordinates are
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International willing to question the authorities. On the one hand, employees are open to
Human Resource
Management : An any uncertainty associated with the job, contrasting to other nations. This, in
Overview turn, facilitates decision-making, risk-taking, and the entrepreneurial go-
getter spirit while promoting competitiveness.

One of the most prominent features of American culture is anti-trade

unionism. Most workers and employees perform their job in the non-union
sector; thus, employer power is relatively high in the political and economic
scenario. There is no obligation towards employees, and it is accessible to lay
off employees in whatever way they desire. At the same time, their contract
can be terminated with or without any reason whatsoever. The employer
determines the employment conditions of employment. Management’s
preferential mode of dealing with employees is through human resource
management practices, not trade unions.

There is a dislike for rules and regulations in the American culture, but at the
same time, they are in place in the organization and society. Roles and
functions are clearly defined and legally enforced on the employees through
business contracts. Laws are drafted under the constitution to prevent the
misuse of power by the employer. The bureaucratic model provided by
Weber (1947) acts as a model of professionalism. Professionalism is also
mirrored in their business education. The established interactive management
system based on objective (MBO) is prevalent in American organizations.
This drives better performance, increased company visibility, and employee
engagement with the organization.
On the contrary, it leads to incredible bureaucracy and overproduction.
American organizations have the highest working hours, productivity, and
employee training costs. Employee training is always taken very seriously
despite leaving the organization for a better prospectus.
Most of the MNCs follow ethnocentric policies for HRM. A slight deviation
from the centrally determined strategy is accepted, keeping the view of the
requirements of the host countries. The local managers also have some
autonomy to modify strategy implementation.

3.5 HRM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Scotland, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland form the United Kingdom.
Even though it comprises four different nations, each country has a
distinctive cultural characteristic. At the same time, they share numerous
comparative values and institutions that bind them together. The Englishmen
are very individualistic, and much emphasis is kept on valuing freedom and
liberty. But at the same time, there is much consideration for the community,
and group action is also part of the cultural imprint. Collectivism has its roots
in the period between the 18th century and the 19th century and thus has
helped in building up powerful trade unions to represent workers and
employees. Union membership is craft-based and impacts the organization as
a whole. Many unions represent workers within the same organization and
bargain between unions. The fight realistically by the unions is for better
wages and working conditions. The essential belief is that they represent the
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workforce, where the workers’ desires are pushed onto the employer. Cross-Cultural
Diversity
The employee-employer relationship is purely contractual, and employees do
not expect managers to take care of them and solve their problems.
Employees see this as an invasion of privacy. Management and employees
have an impersonal, task-oriented relationship. Employees are considered
career oriented and switch to another company in search of a better
prospectus. In comparison to American culture, employee training is not
taken strictly. Thus, the workforce has lower productivity rates in comparison
to Americans.

A study by Hofstede (1980) found that the UK scored lower on the power
divide than other countries. They are different from their superiors inside and
outside of the workplace. People care more about their liberty than equality.
Authorities are questioned, but it is done subtly and indirectly through
confrontation. In most cases, the argument is wrapped up around humor.
People do not like to be ordered or dictated, but authority is respected when
used well.

Power inequality is prevalent in class consciousness. It is observed based on

an individual's family background, education, and accent. The organizational
hierarchy is observed based on discriminatory treatment, with manual
workers, low-level clerks forming one group, and managers and senior staff
forming another group. White collar employees and managers are given
preferential treatment such as better power, pay, working condition, etc. At
the same time, manual or blue-collar employees are treated poorly. Due to
dual therapy, white and blue-collar employees have a dual hostile
environment.

3.6 HRM IN TURKEY

Turkey is one of the biggest business partners of the European Union (EU).
The geographical location of Turkey proves to be a significant advantage.
Situated between the Middle East, Europe, and Asia, it is a gateway
connecting the three geographical regions. With the additional advantages of
new business-accommodating regulations, a developing economy, and
abundant natural resources. Turkey draws in tons of foreign ventures and has
one of the best economic prospects. Subsequent government introduction of
pro-market economic policies and opening up the doors of liberalization for
foreign direct investment (FDI) has behaved Turkey's economic growth.

The modern Republic of Turkey is based on legal, political, and social

reforms. Despite its high diversity, Turkey is characterized by nationalism
and secularism, transforming it into a secular Western-style state.

The culture is a blend as it is conservative and traditional, especially in rural

areas and groups of lower socioeconomic status. Hofstede's (1980) study
suggests a collectivist society in which masculine and feminine values are on
par, power distances are large, and uncertainty avoidance is strong.
Furthermore, Turkish culture is malleable, maintaining the status quo and
hierarchy. Modern Turkish culture is less collectivist, less hierarchical, and
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International less secure. Both sides influence Turkey's social and organizational structure
Human Resource
Management : An due to its geographic location, hence a mixture of Western and Eastern
Overview values. Nevertheless, general collectivist and individualistic tendencies
remain to this day.

In an organizational context, hierarchy is a way of exercising leadership. It is

important to respect authority. Due to the enormous power disparity, there is
a disparity in equality between superiors and subordinates. It is most common
in decision-making and wealth. Authoritarian leadership also complicates
dialogue between management and employees. This organization includes
highly centralized decision-making, highly personalized and strong
leadership, and partial delegation of powers or duties.
Turkish managers are not very socially friendly but have good interpersonal
relationships. They prefer to be supervised rather than managed and are not
the dominant personality type. They have a high level of tolerance and are
very empathetic. They are highly innovative and prefer the conceptual over
the concrete but are bound by traditional methods. They prefer an intuitive
approach to decision-making and pay attention to detail. They don't like to
change jobs often because they don't take risks and don't see their job as an
end. They are not good at controlling their emotions.

3.7 HRM IN THE ARAB MIDDLE EAST

The Middle East includes Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Egypt, Iran, and Oman.
The majority of the countries in the Middle East are of Arab ethnicity and
follow Islam. Individuals perceive themselves as having a place with an
isolated local area from the Persian Bay to Morocco in North Africa. The
nationals of these nations shared an obligation of an unmistakable inclination
of personality and shared traits, a similar language, religion, and history.
Even though there are contrasts in variety, three components tie the Bedouins
together—a solid premise of their character, the sensation of fellowship, and
shared predetermination.

Middle Easterners are profoundly collectivist with a solid feeling of

faithfulness to their in-bunch. In-bunch participation goes past close family
and incorporates more distant family, family members, and companions.
Bunch direction supports customs like interviews, acquiescence to seniors,
dedication, eye-to-eye communication, and organization of a particular
interaction. Seniors' regard is imbued in the Islamic tradition, which urges
devotion to work, collaboration, and amicability. Faithfulness to the
gathering has brought about a low capacity to bear groundbreaking thoughts
and difficulties.

Similar qualities are seen in the association, as they are leveled and unified.
Paternalistic, dictator, the initiative style across various associations, follows
the executive’s style. Subordinates hope to be counseled yet don't anticipate
participating in the dynamic cycle as equivalent accomplices. More
established individuals stand firm in senior situations. Advancement and pay
depend on devotion to the chiefs instead of occupation execution. Be that as
it may, things are changing as a more current age acquaints western-style the
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board rehearses with the association. Cross-Cultural
Diversity
The Bedouin tradition ‘Majlis’ of holding the council meeting has been
carried over to the organization. Managers and workers from different levels
get together and convey through private contact, discussion, and systems
administration. Written letters and memos are avoided.

The extensive use of expatriates is the main feature of Arab companies’

recruitment. Higher-level expatriates are recruited from developed countries
like Europe and North America. In contrast, for lower-level jobs, expatriates
are recruited from India, Pakistan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and other Arab
countries. This is because their nationals are not ready to find these menial
jobs. There are widespread wealth disparity and working conditions for top-
level and lower-level positions. Expatriates at higher levels are very well paid
and are provided tax exemption with comfortable accommodation provided
by the employer. However, the agreements are present moment with no work
assurance, security, or agreement restoration. Lower-level expatriates are
paid very low; the accommodation conditions are also wrong. The working
conditions are very harsh in comparison to locals. There is likewise extensive
oppression of women for homegrown and expatriates. Unions are allowed but
are formed by a single ruling party controlled by the government, so no
severe labor movement has been observed.

Middle Easterner representatives come up short on a modern mindset with a

repugnance for frameworks and systems. There is sloppiness and designation.
They also have a very non-professional attitude towards business. They have
an individualist approach towards work and prefer working alone instead of
in a team. They are always prepared to stake claim to the praises for good
deeds and pass the wrongdoings on to others or conditions when things turn
out badly. Nepotism and intense socio-cultural pressure are observed during
recruitment. No countries mentioned have a democratic process and are also
found in an organizational context. There is a disdain for committee or group
meetings and teamwork in general. Managers prefer individual consultation
over group discussion when making decisions involving more than one
subordinate. Associates also view the participative management style as a
symbol of weakness. However, they expect to be part of the consultation, not
the final decision.

3.8 HRM IN INDIA

India is a multicultural society like the US, with numerous dialects, religions,
and customs changing from one locale to another. But at the same time, there
are specific characteristics that all people commonly share. Fatalism,
emotional expressiveness, hospitality, and friendliness are standard features
observed across the cultural spectrum. Collectivism is shared by most people
and is also identified in the working environment. The people are community
conscious. Community association incorporates close family, more distant
family, direct relatives, companions, caste, and religious groups. But the,
group orientation is not observed in the workplace.

There is a significant power distance observed amongst the people. There is a

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International high degree of regard and submission to older folks, and everybody shares
Human Resource
Management : An these qualities in gatherings. India has a very rigid caste system and is
Overview accepted by the people. Individuals draw power based on the caste hierarchy;
thus, power and privilege have added to the immense power distance. People
are not class-cognizant however are caste and sub-caste-conscious.

Organizations are hierarchical, with the focal decision-making process, and

practically zero power is given to the lower rank. The management style is
authoritarian or paternalistic, distinguishing between white and blue-collar
employees. Due to these, there is much separation in power, pay, working
circumstances, and honors for individuals in higher and lower positions. Even
though authority commands respect, people with management or control do
not go unchallenged. Being a democracy-based country, individuals partake
in a high degree of opportunity for articulation and on not hold back to voice
or scrutinize their perspectives.

In the organization, trade unions are a means of representing countervailing

power to the management. Trade unions are not craft based however are plant
or national associations that run locally in each state. Their exercises center
around their individuals' advantage in plants or nearby industries.
Arrangements are given and guaranteed under the law for setting up working
advisory groups in production lines and plants. Employees take part in the
decision-making process through this mechanism. Many legislations act
under the constitution and safeguard the employees and their well-being.

Individuals are creative and dedicated. They have a feeling of obligation.

They are frugal and innovative, aggressive and materialistic. They like to
work under bosses and look for supervisors' endorsement before making
independent decisions.

3.9 HRM IN CHINA

China is perhaps the most antiquated human civilization on the planet, with
the main populace possessing the world. The nation was under socialist rule
beginning around 1921 that had severe command over the life and security of
individuals. The party headed post-World War II in the country under the
dictatorship of Mao Zedong, who had strict control over the life and security
of the people. In 1978, Deng Xiaoping, his successor, introduced several
market reforms and decentralized decision-making. But to date, the political
reforms continue to remain tight despite economic control being relaxed.
China has much diversity due to the various ethnic groups, languages, and
religions, but the people share some common characteristics despite the
diverse culture. The engravings of social variety should be visible because of
the long imperial history and customary legacy, the communist system, the
power of the Han ethnic gathering, and the impact of the Confucian way of
thinking. Confucian philosophy has helped mold Chinese culture. Values like
moral development, the significance of relational connections, family
direction, regard for age and order, and the idea of destiny can, in any case,
be tracked down today.

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One of the fundamental aphorisms that guide the Chinese culture is the Cross-Cultural
Diversity
philosophy of ying-yang, which acknowledges the simultaneous presence of
inverse qualities and convictions inside an individual. Because of these ethics
and values, the Chinese are collectivist and lean toward the group.
Frequently, they show individualistic inclinations also. They are not a part of
in-groups. They have a tenacity of personalized loyalty and this lack
organizational belief. Personal networking is essential to gain cooperation
and get things done, but this behavior is not duplicated in more prominent
organizations but can be found in smaller organizations.
There is a lack of discipline and willingness of the supervisors to control
employee behavior; consistency in performance and follow-through are
rarely maintained. Managers leaving the organization often convince their
subordinates to join them. Also, some employees stay in the organization
because they have a strong relationship with their superiors.

There have been no independent trade unions, and trade union leaders are
often political party personnel with much say in the organization’s
performance. This has many implications for employee behavior at the
workplace. Government has a lot of control and influence on the life of the
people and their daily affairs. The government extends this control even
during the recruitment process of the organization.

Managers who have survived the cultural revolution are not proactive or
settle on intense choices and have no free feelings. There is reluctancy
associated among managers to share information or make a risky decision.
There is a tenacity in maintaining political relationships instead of achieving
organizational goals. Problems are ignored till they cannot be overlooked,
and most of the time, the solutions are based on precedent involving veto of
power by the authority. Managers depend on rules and methods. While
acquiescence, impulse control, and acknowledgment of social commitments
are empowered, decisiveness and innovativeness are frequently overlooked.
This is fundamental because of the school system, where students are
pinpointed on their way of thinking and do not have a say. It is a hierarchical
society where status is regarded. Managers are making a couple of decisions
and not being considered accountable, and the instability of the world of
politics.

But with the passage of time and the changing workforce, practices have also
changed. The newer generation is tolerant, assertive, and lenient about
observing rules and regulations.

Case Study: Tata Motors

Tata Motors never honestly had Daewoo's business vehicle business on its
radar. The authority offers had come through KPMG, the authority counselor
to Daewoo. The language was an enormous obstruction; however, as the
acquisition cycle was straightforward and unbiased as being finished through
the court, Tata Motors chose to offer the organization in July 2003.
On their most memorable visit to the Daewoo CV plant in Korea, Tata
Motors MD posed the organization an unusual inquiry: what sort of
organization was Daewoo hoping to join forces with? Know not to be
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International especially enamored with Indians; the middle-level manager was candid.
Human Resource
Management : An Daewoo needed to cooperate with a notable, conceivably European
Overview organization that would carry its new innovative technology and money.
The MD's quick response was to pull back and question whether they needed
to make this acquisition. In the wake of confronting a few obstacles and
direction from the gathering executive, the MD and his group concluded to
accomplish something remarkable that was not finished previously, " We
realized that to acquire Daewoo, we had to go beyond the pricing issue and
connect with the Korean society." After the first meeting, Kant, the MD, sent
letters to Bombay House (Tata Motors Headquater) requesting a Korean-
translated version of all Tata Motors brochures and pamphlets, alongside a
film with experiences on the group’s qualifications, heritage, work culture,
and philosophy, to be conveyed to the Daewoo employee and shareholders
in.
The outcome was startling in the exceptional endeavors that were made. On
his next visit to Daewoo, Kant was stunned to find that everybody from the
governor, mayor, trade minister, and employee union leader needed to meet
him. " We sensed that they had been surprised and impressed by our sincerity
and the fact that Tata Motors was owned by a trust that followed the highest
standards of corporate governance. I think the fact that we were not behaving
like buyers, rather as a company trying to sell itself to them, is what sealed
thing for us,” recalls Kant.
During further visits to Korea, before the final court announcement on the
final bidder selection, it was sure that the Daewoo representatives needed to
be related to Tata. At last, Daewoo was given over to Tata after the court
order, which was the most un-notable among the ten bidders.
Post-Acquisition took about a half year; Tata Motors made cognizant
attempts to hold the emotional bonds made during the acquisition process.
Any employee sent to Daewoo is first prepared in language, culture, and food
propensities. The cooks at the Daewoo have likewise figured out how to
prepare and appreciate Indian food. The union leaders from Korea have again
been flown over to Jamshedpur and Pune plants to comprehend Tata Motors’
size of activities.
The acquisition being a triumph is clear from the portion of the overall
industry Daewoo CV appreciates today. Medium CV rolled by Tata Motors
in Korea has a piece of the pie of 25% in the country. The heavy CV
fragment's portion of the overall industry has expanded from 21% to 27%.
Currently, 45% of the Daewoo CV's production is for exports and is adding
to the bottom line of Tata Motors’ consolidated earnings.
Questions:
1. Why did Daewoo not show much interest in Tata Motors?
2. What did Tata Motors do to draw in Daewoo to see the value in Tata’s
credentials?
3. What advances did Tata Motors take to accomplish cultural integration
with the Daewoo CV plant after its acquisition?

Source: Business Today, 3-12-2006

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 Cross-Cultural
3.10 SUMMARY Diversity

The cultural environment plays a significant role in the way managers run
their organization while managing the employees they are situated in. MNCs
are also not exempted in this regard. They have to consider the socio-cultural
environment before implementing organizational practices. Managers need to
adjust and change their HRM practices and approaches because of the
national characteristics of different nations and regions where they work. A
similar transformation and change are pertinent when homegrown single-
country organizations adapt foreign best practices to improve performance.

3.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the significant cultural differences between Individualistic
society and Collectivist society
2. How is the USA's culture different from China's culture?
3. What is the significant cultural difference between India and Turkey?
4. What are the significant differences between the seven economies in the
context of employee management styles?

3.12 FURTHER READING/ REFERENCES

• Hickson, D. J. (1993). Management in Western Europe. Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter.
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultural Consequences. London and California:
SAGE Publication.
• Jackson, T. (2002). International IHRM. Sage Publications.
• Ali, A. J. (1993). Preface. International Studies of Management and
Organization, 23, 3-6.
• Arslan, M. (2001). A cross-cultural comparison of achievement and
power orientation as leadership dimensions in three European countries:
Britain, Ireland, and Turkey. Business Ethics: A European Review, 22(3),
340-345.
• Briggs, P. (1988). The Japanese at Work: illusions of the ideal. Industrial
Relations Journal, 19, 24-30.
• Lawrance, P. (2000). What you see is what you get: thoughts on
American Management. In M. H. Tayab, International Business:
Theories, Policies, and Practices (pp. 487-493). London: Pearson
Education.
• Mathur, P., Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R. N., &'. (1996). Work culture in
Indian Organization: a comparison between public and private sector.
Psychology and Developing Society, 8(2), 199-222.

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