. DR. PANJABRAO DESHMUKH KRUSHI VIDHYAPEET AKOLA .

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR ORNAMENTAL CROPS. MAP AND LANDSCAPING

. SEMESTER END THEORY EXAMINATION 2019 – 2020 .

Name Of Students :- _________________________________________________________________________

College Name :- __________________________________________________________________________

Enroll .Number :- __________________________________________________________________________

Course No :- Hort – 354 (1+1) SEM V (NEW)

Course Title :- Production Technology For Ornamental Crops. Map And Landscaping.

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Q 1 Define ornamental crops and landscaping and write down scope and
importance and principle of landscaping .

Ornamental cropping / Ornamental Horticulture: It refers to the study of various

groups of ornamental plants which are used to decorate indoor and outdoor gardens.

Importance of ornamental crops

 Ornamental plants provides aa cooling effects in the houses .
 They are used to make perfumes, medicines, and dyes .
 They can be a source of income in the family.
 Use of uncultivable land
 High returns
 Growing of flowering and non-flowering ornamental plants is a thriving
business in the cities and urban areas.
 Government policies available for avoiding farmers losses.
 Effective market value .

Landscaping :- It consists of planning and arrangement of home gardens. Public

garden for bio – aesthetic purpose.

Importance of landscaping

• The art of landscape gardening will involve considering the total environment of
any new development and then shaping it using natural elements such as
landform, trees, shrubs, and water to form a pleasing harmony.

• This can make a constructive contribution to the improvement rather than the
destruction of environment.

• Plants that form an important element in landscape design aid in reducing the
pollution of the environment and minimizing some of the effects of heat, sound,
wind, air etc.

• Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthetic process
and purifying the air.

• Plants with thick foliage also trap pollutants, which are later on washed away by
the rains.

• Some plants, such as Hydrangea, Mustard, and Hyacinth absorb toxic material
from the environment they are in.

• Plants can block, diffuse, guide or channel winds. Plants can be used to direct
wind so that the wind flushes out the polluted air.

• Plants control erosion caused due to excessive wind, rain or snow.Plants with
good branching and deep root system and also those with fibrous surface roots
help reducing the loss of fertile top soil.
 • Plants reduce radiated heat thereby bringing down temperature.

• In winter, deciduous trees which shed their leaves allow lights to pass through,
thereby warm the space.

Basic
BasicPrinciples
Principles

(1) Background : The background in a garden, whether a wall, tall trees or a hedge
should be neutral in nature; that is to say this should not become a distracting feature
over the main features of the garden.

(2) Contrast : The design should be such that it should break monotony. To achieve
this, a variation in form, texture, or colour has to be brought in.

(3) Balance or Proportion : A balance has to be maintained between different

components (masses, forms, colour, etc.) of a garden. In a formal garden, this is
achieved by balancing the quantity or by objects, whereas in an informal garden this
can be achieved by planting a small mass of colour in front of a large neutral mass.
Overcrowding of plants or other garden features should be avoided.

(4) Focalization : Any good design has a focal point – the place where the viewer’s eye
is first attracted. Focalization is sometimes referred to as focalization of interest or
simply focal point. The focal point is the strongest element in the design in any given
view. A home’s focal point is often the front door. The landscape focal point is often
something close to the front door to enhance the entrance of the home.
Each area of the landscape may include a focal point, but it is certainly not necessary.
Landscape designers should not overuse focal points. In any view, people are attracted
to interesting plant forms, bright colors and artistic, architectural design as well as art
or sculptures. Mix it up, have some fun and create interesting focal points.

(5) Simplicity : Simplicity is what the name implies – simple. Keeping landscapes
simple, not cluttered or fussy is always a good practice. This is not the opposite of
complexity. Many landscapes have very complex features, including the architectural
design, water features and extensive lighting features. Landscapes that make people
happy and comfortable avoid using too many colors, shapes, curves and textures, but in
no way does this mean simplistic, boring or lack of imagination.

(6) Repetition : The repetition or duplicating some features of a garden helps achieve
rhythm, balance, and unity. In a formal garden, generally the same feature is repeated.
But for an informal design this need not be so. Here one may repeat the colour tone
without disturbing the texture, form, or quantity. If there is a circular path this can be
repeated by having two or three consecutive circular shaped beds of annual flowers,
hedges, and shrubbery border. Thus, though the shape is repeated, the variation in
texture, colour, and form ensure that the design does not look monotonous.

(7) Rhythm : A landscape designer should have an artistic sense to understand how to
bring in rhythm in the design. Arranging the different elements haphazardly, without
harmony, does not enhance beauty. Harmonious lines, often artistically curved, bring in
rhythm to the landscape. A group of shrubs in front of a rockery breaks the rhythm.
Repetition of certain elements, such as form, enhances the rhythm.

(8) Variety : To break the monotony in a garden, variety is essential. This is achieved
by contrast of colour, form, and texture. Planting of different seasonal flowers all in red
colour, does not necessarily mean variety.

Besides these, a design should be simple, easy to maintain, and provide comfort for
inmates.

(9) Unity : The principle of unity is easily measured if the other five landscape
principles have been properly executed throughout the landscape. Unity in design
simply means all the separate parts of the landscape work together to create a great
total design. Colors, shapes, sizes, textures and other features work together to create a
unified space. Patterns and colors are often repeated.
Q 2 Write Down Importance And Scope Of Medicinal And Aromatic Plants .

Medicinal Plants : Medicinal plants are those plants rich in secondary metabolites
and are potential sources of drugs. These secondary metabolites include alkaloids,
glycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, steroids etc.3-5 in Kharif and Rs. 5-10/spike in
Rabi/Summer.

Importance and scope for cultivation of medicinal plants in India :

1. India is one of the few countries where almost all the known medicinal plants can
be cultivated in some part of the country of the other. Among the various plants in
great demand in the country and abroad are Opium poppy, tropane alkaloid
bearing plants, sapogenin bearing yams, senna, psyllium husk and seeds, cinchona
and ipecac.

2. The ancient Indian System of Medicine (ISM) is predominantly a plant-based

material medica making use of most of our native plants. It caters to almost the
entire rural population of our country mainly because of the scarcity of modern
allopathic health care in our villages

3.ISM offers most appropriate or first line therapy against many diseases like
jaundice, bronchial asthma, rheumatoid arthiritis, diabetes etc, for which
allopathic medicines have as yet no cure. It is well known that most allopathic
medicines have as yet no cure. It is well known that most allopathic medicines
produce many morbid side-effects. It is for this reason that more and more people
in the western societies are showing increasing interest and preference for
organic drugs and their preparations.

4. India has about 2,000 species of medicinal plants and a vast geographical area
with high production potential and varied agro-climatic conditions. Most of these
plants can subsist under stress conditions and are thus suited even for rainfed
agriculture. Cultivation of medicinal plants offers considerable scope for rural
employment and export for foreign-ex-change earnings.

5. India is already a major exporter of medicinal plants. It is estimated that rupees

86 crores worth of raw materials and drugs from medicinal plants are exported
from India. It holds monopoly in the production and export of psyllium and senna
and is second largest exporter of Opium latex.

6. Many of the medicinal plants required by the trade are gathered mainly from the
wild growth thus depleting the vegetation of its valuable medicinal plant wealth
(eg: Rauvolfia, Dioscorea). On account of this
 Aromatics Plants : Aromatic plants are those plants possess essential oils in one
or more plant parts.

Aromatics Plants which possess essential oils in one or

more plant parts. Wood sandal; Bark - cassia; Foliage -

lemon grass; Flowers - jasmine; Fruits - citrus; Seeds -

coriander.

Uses of aromatic crops:

1. In food and flavour industry - spices and condiments

2. In perfumery, soap and cosmetics

3. Pharmaceutical and drug industries.

4. To manufacture pesticides, disinfectants due to antifungal, antiseptic and

insecticidal properties.

5. In pain industry - as solvents.

6. Distilled wastes are used in manufacture of card boards, cheap paper, packing
material.

Essential oil industry in India:

In India it is a cottage industry. India is the traditional producer of essential oils such as
sandal wood, palmarosa, lemon grass. Indians use the plants and products in rituals,
ceremonies. Some aromatic plants find place in materia medica, sandle wood, mint and
fennel etc. Distillation process was mentioned in charaka and sushrita samhita (written
over 3000 to 4000 years ago). India is endowed with various agro-climatic conditions,
suitable for growing different aromatic plants.

Essential oil industry is not strong in India because:

1. Farmers are not aware of the significance and profitability.

2. Lack of marketing facilities.

3. High initial investment.

4. Price fluctuation

5. Competition for land domestically.

6. Lack of scientific knowledge on cultivation.

7. Deadly diseases like spike disease of sandal wood or fusarial wilt of

Geranium1
 8. Lack of germplasm collection and maintenance.

9. Risk, as the produce is priced on the basis of the principle.

10. Larger quantities are required.

11 Lack of testing facilities.

Importance of Aromatic Plants:

Aromatic plants are from a numerically large group of
economically important plants. These are increasing demand for essential oils, aroma
chemicals drugs and pharmaceuticals in the world market since two decades. Aromatic
compounds are present in plants i.e. in root, wood, bark, foliage, flower, fruit, seed etc.

1. Aromatic plants produce essential oils, perfumes and flavours are in use with our
civilization since several thousand years.

2. Due to Vast area and varied agro-climatic condition, it can be commercial cultivated
in different part of India successfully.

3. Essential oils and aroma chemicals are indispensable in various human activities.
4.They are adjuncts of cosmetics, soaps, pharmaceutical preparation, perfumer
confectionery, ice-cream, aerated waters, disinfectants, agarbatti etc.
5.Some of the important aromatic plants like Lemon grass, Citronella, Palmarose,
Vetiver, Geranium, Lavender, Dawana etc. have great demand in our country.
Q 3 Write In Brief Cultivation Of Rose Flower Under Protected Condition .

ROSE
Botanical Name - Rosa indica Family - Rosaceae
Rosa hybrida Origin - USA
Rosa sinensis 2n = 14

King of Flowers, Queen of Flowers

Most favourite flower of world. It ranks first in global cut flower trade. Also grown for
essential oil, rose water and gulkand.

Classes of Roses –
Roses are broadly classified under two groups: i. Old
Garden roses or Wild roses ii. Modem Garden
Roses

i) Old Garden Roses:

i) Old garden roses includes the crosses between:
a) European Roses x wild roses- and
b) Asian or China roses x wild roses
European roses are having tendency to produce the bloom only once in a year i.e.
during summer while Asian or China roses are having habit to produce the flowers
throughout the year or at least twice in a year. Due to the development modem roses
old garden roses have become out dated.
ii) Modern Garden Roses:
Modern garden roses are developed as a result between the crosses of European Roses
x Asian Roses (China roses) and have occupied the place in Commercial gardening.
Modem garden roses includes: a) Hybrid Tea (H.T.) b) Floribunda c) Miniature
(d)Polyantha (e) Ramblers (f) Creepers (g)Shrub

Types of Roses -

1. Long stemmed roses (70-90 cm) - Large flower :-Hybrid tea

2. Medium stemmed roses (50-70 cm) - Intermediate flower :-Floribunda

3. Short stemmed roses (30-50 cm) - small flowers:- Sweet heart roses

4. Spray Roses -Spray:- Spray floribundas

5. Miniature roses- small flowered:- Sweet heart roses

Forms of Rose flowers :

1. Single : Having less than 8 petals

2. Semi double : Having 8-20 petals
 3. Double : More than 20 petals

Type :

1. Single : Petals similarly coloured throughout

2. Bi-colour : Colour of outside of each petals differ from inside.

3. Multi colour : Colour of the petals changes distinctly with age. Flower

trusses have several colours at the same time.

4. Blend : Two or more colours merge on the inside of each petals.

5. Stripped : Two or more different colours on each petals, one of

which is in the form of distinct bonds.

Varieties - The major cut flower varieties suitable for greenhouse cultivation are First
Red, Sonia, Kiss, Lambada, Konfetti, Golden Gates, Golden Time, Vivaldi, Grand Galla,
Black Magic, Cobra, Mercedez, Noblesse, Starlite, etc. Pusa Mohit - Thornless variety

Soil & Climate –

Soil :- The ideal soil for rose cultivation should be well drained, medium loam soil with
a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Heavy and saline soils are not suitable for rose cultivation.

Climate :- The ideal temperature range for rose cultivation is 15-270 C. Most
commercial rose cultivars are best grown at 15.50C night temperature. A relative
humidity of around 60 to 70 percent can be regarded as ideal for roses

Propagation - Roses are generally propagated through T-budding or shield budding.

Land and Bed Preparation -

Add well decomposed FYM @ 8-10 kg/m2. Generally in greenhouse, roses are grown on
raised beds to assist in easier movement and better drainage. Beds should be prepared
having 30-40 cm height, 90-100 cm width and length as per availability of space in the
greenhouse. The path should be 60 cm in between two raised beds.

Double row system: 50 cm between two rows & 15 cm between two plants.6-7
plants/m2 Hy. Tea: 120x120cm

Floribunda : 60x90cm

miniature: 30x60 cm
climber: 90x120cm
Planting –
shallow planting roses seedling is done. Due to shallow planting there will be faster
sprouting of roses. Excessive roots length should be cut before planting the seedling.
Immediately after planting watering is to be done. Small plant are planted in April-May
& bigger in Aug.-Sept.

Irrigation - Two most widely used system are mist and Drip irrigation.

The water requirement of rose plants depends on the types of soil, temperature,
humidity and stage of the growth. Generally a rose plant requires 7-8 litres water /m2
/day. Irrigation is done by drip irrigation system, having emitters at 30 cm apart on the
lateral line.

Fertigation - Fertilizers were applied through drip irrigation which is called

Fertigation. It is important to analyse the nutrient status of the media at regular
interval for determining the fertilizer requirement of rose plants.

Fertigation Schedule Dose (ppm)

N P K

Vegetative stage 80 50 60

Flowering and harvesting flush 100 60 80

Flowering and harvesting normal 80 50 80

Special Cultural Practices - For proper growth of rose plant and high production
special cultural practices are to be carried out as follows:

1. Bending: It is done to encourage the plant for healthy framework at the bottom
and to active more number of side shoots. Bending is also practiced for obtaining
quality flowers with long stalk length. The place to be bent should be close to the
original bush as possible (maximum 5 cm), without breaking the branches.
without bending by keeping some blind shoots on plants in standing position for
extra photosynthesis & uptake of water nutrients.
2. Bottom break : Soon after bending the first bottom break or ground shoot will
start coming from the base. These bottom breaks are most important for life
time of plants, because they will carry the production. Strong ground shoots
should be cut at 5th five pair of leaves and medium ground shoots should be cut
at 2nd or 3rd five pair of leaves.
 3. Defoliation: The removal of leaves is known as defoliation. It is done mainly to
induce certain plant species to flower or to reduce transpiration loss during
periods of stress. Defoliation may be done by removal of leaves manually or by
withholding water. The shoots are defoliated after pruning.
4. Shoot thinning: Unproductive shoots and water suckers are to be occasionally
removed for getting good quality flowers.
5. Pruning: It is recommended once a year during 2nd or 3rd week of October.
6. Pinching: Removing the terminal growing portion along with a portion of stem
is called pinching.
7. Bud capping: Bud caps are placed on the flower bud when they are of pea size.
This helps to increase the bud size and shape to meet customer demand with
required specification.
8. Pruning : For development of frame work and maximum flowers yield Light
pruning (June), Medium Pruning (Oct.), Hard pruning (Oct.)

Harvesting -

The stage of harvesting depends upon the cultivars, importer’s requirement and
distance to the market. Generally, rose flowers should be harvested at tight bud stage
when one or two petals begin unfold with the help of sharp secateure. Red and pink
cultivars are harvested when first 2 petals are beginning to unfold and calyx is reflexed
below the horizontal lane, whereas, yellow cultivars are harvested slightly earlier and
white cultivars slightly later than red and pink type cultivars. There should be 1-2
mature leaves (those with five leaflets) left on the plant after the flower has been cut.

Flower Yield -

Approx. 250-350 stems/m2 is considered to be ideal. Flower yield can be increased by

spraying BAP 50-100 ppm before flowering flush. Burning of saw-dust during winter
months in the morning hours (7-10 AM) increases flower yield and quality significantly

Post-harvest Handling –
Roses cut stems must be placed in a bucket of water inside the polyhouse immediately
after harvesting and transported to cold storage (2-4°C). The length of time depends
upon the variety and quality of the roses. The rose flowers are graded according to the
stem length and the quality of flower bud. Graded flowers are grouped together in
bunches of 10, 12, 20 or 25. A bundle of 20 stems is usually preferred. Packing with
polypropylene (24 micron) is highly effective storage technique for rose, to maintaining
post storage quality and vase life.

PLANT PROTECTION

Pest management –

Aphids (Macrosiphum rosae) :-This can be effectively controlled by spraying 0.1%

Malathion or Metasystox (0.1-0.2%) or Rogor (0.1-0.2%).

Red scale (Lindigapsis rosae) :- spraying Malathion (0.1%) or Parathion (0.25%) in

April and again in October.
Chaffer beetles (Onycetonia varsicolor) :- Monocrotophos (1ml/l) or Dimethoate (1.5
ml/l).
Disease Management -

Dieback (Diplodia rosarum)

This is a very serious disease of roses and appears after pruning. For its effective
control, the infected portion should be dehisced and burnt and the cut ends should be
painted with Chaubattia paste (4 part Copper Carbonate + 4 part Red lead + 5 parts
linseed oil) or Bordeaux paste, application of optimum dose of fertilizer and by
facilitating proper drainage or spray of 3g/ litre of Copper oxychloride (50%).

Black spot (Diplocarpon rosae)

This disease appears in during the humid months. Conspicuous circular black spot (less
than 1 cm) with fringed margins appear on either side of leaf; leaves become chlorotic,
dry up and prematurely drop. It can be easily controlled by spraying Carbendazim
(1g/litre of water) or Captan (0.2%) fungicide at fortnightly intervals.
Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae)
dusting with 80% Sulphur or spraying 0.1% Kerathane fungicide at fortnightly interval.

Physiological disorders

1. Blind wood -

The normal flowering shoot on a greenhouse rose possesses fully expanded sepals,
petals, and reproductive parts. The failure to develop a flower on the apical end of the
stem is a common occurrence. Such shoots are termed as blind wood. The sepals and
petals are present, but the reproductive parts are absent or aborted. Blind wood is
generally short and thin, but it may attain considerable length and thickness when it
develops at the top of the plant. This may be caused by low temperature, insufficient
light, chemical residues, insect, pests, fungal diseases and other factors.

2. Bull heads or malformed flowers -

The center petals of the bud remain only partly developed and the bud appears flat.
They are common on very vigorous shoots, particularly bottom breaks, and it is
possible that there is a lack of carbohydrates to develop the petals. The cause of bull
heading is yet unknown, however, thrips infestation will also cause malformed flowers.
Also at low temperature, some varieties will form bull heads.

3. Colour fading - The off-coloured flowers are seem to be a problem with some
yellow varieties. In these varieties the petals may be green or a dirty white
instead of a clear yellow. Raising the night temperature several degrees will
reduce the number of off-coloured flowers. Occasionally the pink or red
varieties develop bluish-coloured flowers. This is very often associated with use
of organic phosphate and various other kinds of insecticides.
Q 4 Write In Detail Cultivation Practices Of Carnation .

CARNATION

Botanical name : Dianthus caryophyllus Family : Caryophyllaceae

Chromosome no. (2n)- 30
Importance and Uses:

 Winter season flower Important cut flowers

 Used for bedding, pots, edging vase decoration and bouquets

Types of carnation
1.Border carnation : Large flower , double fragrant
2.Marguerite carnation: self coloured, round yr flushes, good vase life
3.Perpetual carnation :single, double, easy to cultivate

Varieties

Standard type varieties: Damingo, Master, Baltico, Algar, Fuente, Falico etc

Spray type varieties: Aveiro, Fancy, Foego, Osiris, Celebration, Abril, Belon
Variety as per colour of flowers -

Red: Scania, Tanga, Red William, Granda, Espana, Master, Killer

Pink: Pamir, Nora, Lena, Sharina, Pink Sim, candy, Manon

Yellow: Pallas, Raggio di Sole, Candy, Yellow Dusty, Murcia

White: White Sim, Roma, Candy, Calypso, Sonsara

Orange: Tangerine Sim, Orange Triumph.

Others: Charmeur, Aurthor Sim, Toledo, Solar, Laurella, Vanessa

Indian cultivars: Arka Flame and Arka Tejas

Soil and Climate:

Soil :- Light texture loam or sandy loam soil which is well drained and aerated. pH: 5.5-
6.5 Photoperiod (long days over 13 hours).

Climate :- Temperature: 10-15° C (night) & 18-24° C (day) for excellent growth.
Relative humidity: 50-60% favour growth & production. CO2 level should be 500ppm
during day time.

Preparation of Media & Bed

To create suitable growing media pH should be 5.5-6.5 with good quantity of organic
manure. It is recommended to work soil deeply upto 80-100 cm before

bedding. Best ratio of soil mixture: 50% sand, 30% loam, 20% clay is used. Soil should
be well drained. He media should be sterilized before use by steam or chemicals. Raised
bed of 30cm height, 80cm width and as per requirement length is kept. A minimum
distance in between two beds must be 50-60cm.

Propagation:- Carnation propagated by seed, cutting & layering

Planting: Deep planting of cutting should be avoided.

Best time of planting- Oct.- Nov.

Spacing - 15x 15 cm, 20 x 20cm.

Irrigation: After planting spraying of water through mist has been found to be more
effective than the surface watering. After 3 weeks of planting drip irrigation has been
given. Through drip irrigation: 4-5 lits /sq. mt. /day. Stagnation of water should be
avoided.

Nutrition Requirements: 5-10 kg FYM and 20:20:10 gm NPK per sq. mt. At the time of
planting 250:80:200:125:40 gm N, P, K, Ca, Mg per Sq. mt every year in 20-24 split
doses at 15 days interval will give good plant growth and production of quality flowers.

Special cultural practices

a) Pinching: In pinching terminal growing shoot about 2-3 cm long is removed to

overcome apical dominance and to promote side branching when the plants are at 6-8
leaf pair stage.

b) De-shooting: When the side shoots after pinching are 3-5 cm long then retain 3-5
shoots per plant in standard cultivars. When the side shoots after pinching are 3-5 cm
long then retain 6-10 shoots per plant in spray cultivars.

c) Disbudding: Disbudding is the removal of visible (5-10 mm diameter) undesirable

buds. In standard cultivars terminal bud is retained and all the lateral buds are
removed. In spray cultivars terminal bud is removed and lateral buds are retained.

d) Staking : Wire mesh, plastic nets, string or bamboo canes are used to support plants.
Wire mesh or plastic nets having inner size of 10-15 cm squares are placed on the
squares are placed on the ground in three layers, which are erected at 20, 35 and 50 cm
above the ground level with the growing plants.String or rope is erected in three rows
at the same distance along the rows.
Harvesting & Yield: Harvesting 4 months after planting Standard varieties: Tight bud
or cross bud condition 300 to 350 flowers / sq. mt /year

Spray varieties: At least two flowers are opened & other buds show colour 250 flowers
/ sq. mt /year 8-10 flowers per plant per year.

PLANT PROTECTION

Pest Management : Aphids :

Control - Spraying the plants with Thiomethoxam 1ml/litre or Imidachloprid @

2ml/litre or Asatap (Acephate) @ 0.5 to 1.0 gm/litre.

Thrips: Thrips tabaci

Control - Spraying of Fipronil 1.5 ml/lit (or) Imidachloprid 2ml/litre or Dimethoate 30
EC @ 1ml/litre.

Red spider mites- Tetranychus urticae

Control -

• Apply Abamectin (Vermitec) 1.9EC @ 0.5ml/litre

• Spray Azardiractin 50,000ppm 3ml/litre

• Discard the plant and leaf debris.

Bud borer : Helicoverpa armigera

Control -

• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis 2g/litre.

• Release 1 lakhs of Trichogramma egg parasitoid per acre.

• Set up Helilure sex pheromone trap @ 4 Nos/acre

• Spray spinosad 0.75ml/litre or Thiodicarp 0.5 ml/litre

Diseases : Fusarium wilt: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 0.1 % or Difenoconazole

@ 0.05 % or Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil application @ 25 g/m2 and foliar
application @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals or soil drenching with Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals
Alternaria leaf spot: Bacillus subtilis as soil application @ 25 g/m2 followed by foliar
application @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals

Physiological disorders :

Calyx splitting

The sepal beneath the flowers are united to form a cylindrical calyx which support the
base of petal. As the buds open and petals approach their full size the calyx may plit
down.

Causes:

1. Genetical : Epson, Palmir etc. are less prone

2.Environmental: High temp. a sharp drop in night temperature.
3.Nutritional: low, N, Boron deficiency, over feeding
4.Cultural Control: This can also be reduced by placing a rubber band or 6mm wide
clear plastic tape is used around the calyx of the flowers which are just start opening.
Spray borax @0.1% Insect pest .
Q 5 WRITE DOWN BRIEF CULTIVATION PRACTICESES OF GERBERA .
GERBERA
Botanical Name : Gerbera jamesonii

Family : Asteraceae
Origin : South Africa, America & Asia

Chrom. No. (2n) : 50

Soil and Climate: A well drained, rich, light, neutral or slightly alkaline soil is most
suitable for gerbera production. The growth of plants is adversely affected in ill-
drained soil. pH:5.5-6.

Moderate climate, Day temp: 22-25oC and night temp:12-15oC, Photoperiod:

8 hours, CO2 level: 700ppm
Variety- Amber, Winter queen , Flamingo, Dusty, Salmarosa, Valentine, etc.

Red : Ruby Red, Sangria

Yellow : Doni,Supernova, Mammut, Talasa

Rose : Rosalin, Salvadore

Pink : Pink Elegance, Marmara, Esmara

Orange : Carrera, Goliath, Marasol

Cream : Farida, Dalma, Snow Flake, Winter Queen

TNAU Varieties : YCD-1, YCD-2

Propagation- Seeds propagation, however is not always satisfactory.

Vegetative Propagation:
Division: This method involves in dividing large clumps into smaller units.

Cutting: The buds in the axils of the leaves are detached and rooted in rooting
medium. They are ready for transplanting in 2 or 3 months. Approximately 40-50
plants can be produced in 2-3 months form a single mother plant.

Bed preparation:

Soil mixture: FYM, sand, and paddy husk (2:1:1)

30 cm height, 1 mt. Width, Path distance 30-45 cm

Planting : Gerbera grows on raised beds : 30-40 cm. Row distance 30cm plant distance
Spacing : 40 x 30 cm or 30 x 30 cm
Manures and Fertilizers- 10 kg FYM ,20:20:15 gm NPK /Sq.m at the time of
planting,10:15:20 gm NPK/sq.m for three months at one month interval.

Irrigation

Drip irrigation is done once in 2 – 3 days @ 3.75 litre/drip/plant for 15 – 20 minutes.

Average water requirement is about 500 – 700 ml/day/plant.

Harvesting and Yield- Harvesting is done 3 months after planting. Crop can retain 3
- 4 years in protected condition. Harvested when outer two rows of disc floret
perpendicular to stalk.

Yield- 200 - 250 Flowers /sq.m /Year.

PLANT PROTECTION - Pests :
Aphids: Apply Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 1 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l

Whitefly: Spray Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 2 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l

Thrips: Spray Fipronil @ 2 ml/l or Dimethoate 30EC @ 2 ml/l

Red spider mite: Spray Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.4 ml/l or Propargite @ 1 ml/l

Nematode: Soil application of Bacillus subtilis (BbV 57) or Pseudomonas fluorescens

@ 2.5 kg/ha at the time of planting for the management of root knot nematode.

Diseases:

Flower bud rot: Spray copper oxychloride @ 2 g/l

Powdery mildew: Spray wettable Sulphur @ 2g/l or Azoxystrobin @ 1g/l

Bushiness: An abnormality characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and

small laminae, which gives some cultivars of gerbera a bushy appearance known as
bushiness. Nodes are not clearly distinguished and no internode elongation is seen.

Stem break : It is a common post harvest disorder in cut gerberas. This is mainly
caused by water imbalances. It could be ethylene controlled and associated with
early senescence caused by water stress.

Yellowing and purple margin : Nitrogen deficiency causes yellowing and early
senescence of leaves. Phosphorus deficiency causes pale yellow colour with purple
margin. Increase in levels of nitrogen and phosphorus were found to promote
development of suckers and improve flowering in gerbera .
Q 6 Write In Detail Cultivation of Lilium .
Botanical name : Lilium candidum, Lilium longiflorum

Family : Liliaceae
Origin:- Northern hemisphere
Chromo. No. (2n) :24

Soil: Well drained sterile medium (preferably leaf mould, cocopeat and FYM in equal
parts) with pH 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal. Fumigate the beds with Dazomet @ 30g/m2.

Climate: Liliums are best grown in green houses. Day temperature of 18-22°C and
night temperature of 10-15°C are ideal.

Varieties:
Asiatic hybrids : Dreamland (yellow), Brunello (orange), Novona (white), Pollyanna
(yellow), Yellow Giant (yellow), Vivaldi (pink), Black Out (Deep red)

Oriental hybrids: Star Gazer (Pink & white), Nerostar, Siberia, Acapulco and
Casablanca

Eastern lily (L. longiflorum): Elegant Lady, Ace, Snow Queen, White, American, Croft
and Harbor

Propagation: Liliums are commercially propagated through bulbs. A six week cold
storage period at 2o C to 5o C is needed to break dormancy.

Spacing: 20 x 15 cm, 15 x 15 cm or 15 x 10 cm
(plant density varies between 30 and 60/m2 depending on cultivar and bulb size)
Irrigation: 6- 8 litres/m2/day during summer and 5 - 6 litres/m2/day during winter
Nutrition: The following fertigation schedule can be adopted.

Nutrients Quantity (g/m2/week)

Nutrients Quantity (g/m /week)

Asiatic Oriental

Calcium Nitrate 2.5 2.5

19:19:19 0.5 0.5

Potassium Nitrate 2.2 2.3

Micronutrient 1.2 1.2

mixture

Crop support: Supporting plants with nylon mesh is advisable.

Harvest: Harvesting is done when lower most bud shows colour (colour breaking stage)
but is not open.

Crop duration:

Asiatic hybrids : 8 - 10 weeks

Oriental hybrids : 14 - 16 weeks

Yield: The average yield is 30 - 40 flower stems/m2

PLANT PROTECTION:
Pests:

Aphids: Apply Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 1 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l

Mites: Spray Wettable sulphur @ 1.5 g/l or Abamectin @ 0.4 ml/l or Propargite @ 2
ml/l.

Thrips: Spray Methyl demeton 25EC @ 2 ml/ or Dimethoate 30EC @ 2ml/l

Diseases:
Grey mould: Spray Zineb @ 2g/l

Bulb and scale rot: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 1g/l or Difenoconazole @
0.5ml/l

Foot rot & Root rot: Soil drenching with Metalaxyl @ 0.1%

Botrytis Blight: Dark brown spots on leaves, spraying of carbofuran @ 2g/lit of water
effectively control the disease.
Q 7 Write Down In Detail About Cultivation Of Orchid .
Botanical name : Dendrobium sp.

Family : Orchidaceae

Origin : South and Central America

2n= 18 to 50

Important genera:

1.Dendrobium 2. Cattleya,

3. Phalaenopsis 4. Cymbidium
Importance and Uses:

• Important cut flower, more vase life

• They exhibits wide range of diversity in form, size, colour, & texture of flower.

• On plot it remain good for 1-3 months.

• Good indoor plant, grown in garden, pots, basket etc.

• Flowers are use in special functions

Types of orchid:

1.Sympodial type: Prostate rhizome whose growth terminates periodically with an

upright pseudobulb, leaf & flowers eg Dendrobium, Cattleya,
Cymbidium

2.Monopodial type: Form aerial roots from the stem as they are produced in their
upward growth. Eg. Phalaenopsis
Varieties :- Sonia 17, Sonia 28, Emma White, Sakura Pink.
Climate
75% green shade net with 70 - 80% humidity, 18 - 28°C temperature and light
intensity of 1500-2000 foot candles is ideal for growing this tropical orchid. In high
rainfall zones, the shade net house should be provided with a rain shelter.

Growing media: Most common potting mixture consists of charcoal, broken pieces
of bricks and tiles, coconut husk and fiber.

Propagation: Division of clumps, back bulbs and tissue culture plants.

Containers and support : perforated earthen pots are ideal and the plants are
staked with bamboo sticks.
Irrigation: Mist or overhead sprinkler to provide water and to maintain humidity.

Nutrients: Foliar application of NPK 20:10:10 @ 0.2% at weekly intervals starting

from 30 days after planting.

Growth regulators Foliar application of GA3 50 ppm at bimonthly intervals starting

from 30 days after planting. Orchids need repotting regularly, usually every two
to three years.

Splitting or division of plants: Plant grown to a large clump with 2 or 3 old canes
and new shoots, - divided before repotting. Each division - at least one old cane of
two years' growth, one new shoot & some new roots.

Harvest: Dendrobium flower fully matures only 3 or 4 days after it opens.

Harvesting the spike when 75 per cent of the flowers are open and remaining buds
are unopen.

Yield: 8 - 10 spikes/plant/year .
Q 8 Brief Cultivation About Gladiolus .

Botanical Name : Gladiolus tristis

Family : Iridaceae

Origin : South Africa

Chrom. No. (2n) : 30

Queen of Bulb

The name "gladiolus" is derived from the Latin "gladius" which means word, which
refers to the leaf shape.

Importance and Uses of Gladiolus

1.Gladiolus is one of the important Bulbous plants which is valued in the gardens for
its beautiful flower spikes.
2.It is ideal as a cut flower, very good for beds, herbaceous border, for making
bouquets and does well in pots.
3.Among the different bulbous plants, the gladiolus top the list in its beauty, glamour
keeping quality, various colours and shades, shapes.

Soil and Climate:

Well drained fertile loamy soil is preferred for Gladiolus cultivation. Water logged,
heavy sticky soil will result in decaying of corms.

Site selected for gladiolus planting should have a sunny situation protected from
stormy winds. It produces bigger size flowers in areas with moderate humidity.

Varieties:- Tropic Sea, White Prosperity, Priscilla, Summer Sunshine, Pusa Swarnima,
Jackson Ville Gold, KKL.1, Archana, Basant Bahar, Indrani, Kalima, Kohra, Aarti, Arka
Kesar, Darshan, Dhiraj, Agnirekha, Archana, Bindiya, Shree Ganesh, Suchitra, Pusa
Suhagan, Sapana, Yellow stone, Hunting Song etc.
MPKV, Rahuri - Phule Ganesh, Phule Prerana, Phule Tejas, Phule Neelrekha
Propagation:

Gladiolus is propagated by Corms. A corm weighing 20-30 gm at least 4-5 cm

diameter is best suitable. It should be healthy and disease free. Conical shaped
corms preferred over flat one as it gives better flowers.Seed treatment- Mancozeb @
0.3 %
Planting:
Spacing : 45 x 15 cm on ridges and furrows or 30x20 cm in flat bed

Planting time: Oct-Nov. Shallow planting of corms i.e. at the depth of 5 to 10 cm

is essential.

Seed Rate: 1,60,000 corms per ha or 3200 kg per ha.

Nutritional Requirements: 20 tons FYM/ha, 300:200:200 kg NPK/ha ,P & K at

time of planting & dose of N is apply in 3 split doses at 2,4,6 leaf stage.

Irrigation: must not be allowed to suffer from water stress especially when
spikes are emerging. Regular irrigation at the intervals of 7 to 10 days. Over
watering should be avoided.

Cultural Practices:

Earthing up is essential after 6-8 weeks of planting. or before the emergence of

spike. But if planted as ridges such operation will not be necessary. These plants
need staking for its satisfactory growth, if not staked may fall or break by high
wind velocity. when plant will attend the height of 25 cm staking is done.

Harvesting and Yield-For internal market, they are cut when 1-2 lower most
florets on the spike have opened and for external market when the colour has
fully developed in mature unopened buds. Harvesting is done after 80-90 days
after planting.

Yield- 2-2.5 lack spikes/ha 20,000 kg corms per ha

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests -Thrips: Spray Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/l or Fenitrothion 50 EC @ 2ml/l or
Malathion 50 EC @ 2ml/l

Semi looper and Helicoverpa:

Diseases : Leaf spot: Foliar application of carbofuran @ 1g/l or Mancozeb @ 2g/l

Core or spongy rot or Storage rot: Foliar application of Benomyl @ 1 kg/ha

Bacterial scab blight and spots: Dipping the corms in 1:100 Mercuric chloride
solution for 12 hours before planting.

Blight disease can be controlled by spraying Mancozeb @ 0.2 %

Wilt : Drenching of Bavistin (0.2%) at fornight intervals controls the wilt disease.

Fluoride injury - Leaf scorch of gladioli is observed due to the presence of

fluorine compounds in the atmosphere which got accumulated on the tips of
leaves. The injury is associated with
heavy application of super phosphate.
Q 8 Brief Cultivation About Tuberose .
Botanical name : Polianthes tuberosa

Family : Amaryllidaceae

Origin : Mexico
2n : 60
Varieties

1.Single flowered: 5 petals

Calcutta single, Phule Rajani, Bangalore single, Coimbatore single

2.Semi double: 10 petals
3.Double: more than 10 petals, Pearl
4.variegated: leaves with yellow on margin
5.Variegated single: Rajat (White margin)
6.Variegated double: Dhawal (Golden margin)
7.Other: Shrungar, Prajwal, Suhasini, Vaibhav.

Importance and Uses: It is one of the important cut flowers used for vase
decoration and bouquets. The flowers stalk is 75 to 100 cm long bearing white
colour. The spikes or tuberose are used as a cut flowers due to its delightful
appearance, sweet fragrance and good keeping quality.

Soil and Climate: Medium sandy loam with good drainage is best for production of
flowers and bulbs.

For luxurious growth of the crop moderate humidity with mild temperature is
essential. Very high temperature or frost may damage the crops.

Propagation and planting: The tuberose is propagated by bulb having a diameter

of 1.5 to 2.0 cm and weight above 30 g. And healthy free of pests and diseases.
Before planting bulb should be treated with 0.1 % Carbofuran for 30 minutes.

Planting: Best time of planting- April -May . Spacing - 30 x 30 cm, 30 x 20 cm.

Seed Rate: 5000 - 6000 kg bulb /ha; 1,60,000 -2,50,000 bulbs /ha
Nutrition Requirements: 20 tonnes FYM per ha. 200:150:200 kg NPK/ha. N apply
in two split doses i.e. 45 and 90 DAP.

Micronutrients: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5% + FeSO4 0.2% + Boric acid 0.1%.
Growth regulators: Foliar application of GA3 at 50 to 100 ppm thrice at 40, 55 and
60 days after planting.
Harvesting of Flowers: 3-4 months after planting

For Cut flower-, the spikes are to be cut when the lower most 1-2 florets have
opened. Immediately after cutting the spike the base of spikes are immediately
placed in a bucket full of water.- After the harvesting of flowers, flowers are placed
in shade in wet cotton cloth or in a gunny bag.
Yield: Bulb once planted gives the commercial yield upto 3 year, 7-8 lack spikes/ ha
or 7-7.5 ton loose flower. (For preaparation of Veni, Garlands,Gajara)

PLANT PROTECTION

Pests : Thrips: Spray Dimethoate @ 1.5 ml/lit or Fipronil 5 % SC @ 1.5 ml/ lAphids:
Spary Dimethoate @ 1.5 ml/lit or Imidacloprid @ 1.5ml/l
Root knot nematode: Apply Carbofuran 3 G 1 g/plant near the root zone and
irrigate immediately to control nematode infestation.

Diseases : Basal rot (or) stem rot: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 0.1 %
Q 9 Write In Brief Cultivation Of
Chrysanthemum .

B.N.- Chrysanthemum indicum

Family: Asteraceae

Origin : Asia 2n = 18

Soil and Climate- Well drained, sandy

loam It is short day plant, it require 20 - 28
o c temperature with 70- 75 % humidity

Variety- Raja, Zipri, Sonali Tara, Yellow

Gold, Pusa Anmol, Pusa Sentevary, Arka
Swarna, Arka Ganga, Bindiya, Co-1 (Yellow
coloured ) Co-2 (Purple colour) Indira,
Ravi Kiran, Pankaj etc PKV Shubra - (PDKV
Akola) Sweet Heart .

Types of chrysanthemum

1. Incurved: These are the giant blooms of the chrysanthemum genus. The
florets (petals) loosely incurve and make fully closed centers. The lower
florets present an irregular appearance and may give a skirted effect.
2. Reflexed: The florets in this class curve downward and overlap, similar to
bird plumage. The tops of these blooms are full, but somewhat flattened.
Doreen Statham (1995) Flower Size: 4-6 inches.
3. Spider type: Spiders have long tubular ray florets which may coil or hook at
the ends. The florets may be very fine to coarse.
4. Korean single
5. Korean Double
6. Decorative: A flattened bloom with short petals. As in classes 1-3 the center
disk should not be visible. The upper florets tend to incurve, but the lower
petals generally reflex.
7. Anemone: These blooms are similar to the semi-doubles, but have a raised
cushionlike center.
8. Pompon

Propagation:

It is propagated vegetatively by suckers, terminal cutting or by micro propagation.

1. Suckers: In this method of propagation, after flowering the stem should be cut
back just above the ground level. This induces the formation of side suckers
which should be separated from the mother plant and should be planted in sand
bed. Apart from this, well rooted suckers can be directly transplanted in the field.
Generally, 1,10,000 suckers should be required to cover the 1 ha. Area. To protect
against wilt diseases, roots of the suckers should be dipped in fungicidal solution.
These suckers should be planted during rainy season at 30 cm x 30 cm spacing on
 one side of ridge. Pinching should be carried out once in a month after planting to
induce more lateral branches on the plants.
2. Terminal stem cutting: These terminal cutting should be taken from a healthy
stock plant. Length of cuttings should be about 5-7 cm. the cuttings should be
dipped in 2500 ppm IBA. These cutting should be put in sand beds in shade
conditions.

Spacing and Planting- 30 x 30 cm

Season- April- May, 1 to 1.25 lac cuttings /ha

Manures and Fertilizers- 10 to 15 ton /ha 100:50:50 kg /ha half dose of N is apply
30 DAP Micronutrients: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.25% + MgSO4 0.5%.

Biofertilizers: Soil application of 2 kg each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria per

ha at the time of planting. It is to be mixed with 100 kg of FYM and applied.

Growth regulators: Spray GA3 @ 50 ppm on 30, 45 and 60 days after planting.

Intercultural operation- Pinching, Disbudding, deshooting, staking

Pinching: Done 4 weeks after planting to induce lateral branches.
Desuckering: Remove the side suckers periodically.

Harvesting and yield- 5 - 6 months after planting, fully open flowers are harvest
70-80 quts /ha

Standard types - Flowers are harvested when 2 - 3 rows of rays florets are
perpendicular to the flower stalk.

Spray types - When 50% flowers have shown colour for distant markets; when two
flowers have opened and others have shown colour for local markets

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests : Thrips, aphids and leaf eating caterpillars: Spray Acetamiprid @ 0.3 g/l or
Indoxacarb @ 1 ml/l

Diseases :
Root rot: Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride 2.5 g/lit or Trifloxystrobin +
Tebuconazole @ 0.75 g/litre or Difenoconazole @ 0.5ml/l

Leaf spot: Foliar application of Mancozeb @ 2.5g/l or Azoxystrobin @ 1g/l

Chrysanthemum mosaic disease
1. Cuttings should be obtained from virus – free indexed stocks.
2. Removal and destruction of infected plants.
3. Destruction of the weed host.
4. Controls the vector by spraying for sucking pests and reduces the disease.
Q 10 Write In Detail About Cultivation Of Marigold .
Marigold
Botanical Name : Tagets erecta, (African Marigold)
Tagets patula (French marigold)
Family : Compositae
Origin : Mexico
Chrom. No. (2n) : 24

TYPES OF MARIGOLD
French marigold

Importance:

 Marigold is one of the most commonly grown flowers for garden decoration
and extensively used as loose flowers for making garlands for religious and
social functions.
 It has gained popularity amongst the gardeners on account of its easy culture
and wide adaptability.
 Its habit of free flowering, short duration to produce marketable flowers,
wide spectrum of attractive colours, shape, size and good keeping quality has
attracted the attention of flower growers.
 Marigolds are ideal for cut flowers, especially for making garlands. They can
be planted in the beds for mass display or grown in pots.
 The French Marigolds are suitable for hanging basket and edging.
 The demand for Marigold flowers during Dashara and Diwali is very high.
Soil and Climate: It requires well drained loamy soil. It can be grown well in hot
and dry as well as humid climate. It can not stand severe cold.

Types of Varieties of Marigold: Varieties of Marigold are grouped in two groups :

A)African Marigold: Tall growing plant / big size flowers
B)French marigold: Dwarf plant with small flowers

Varieties:

A)African Marigold : Cracker jack. Climax, Yellow supreme, Hawai, New Alaska,
Aapricot, Glitters, Happiness, Primrose, Fiesta
B)French marigold : Rusty red, Star of India, Red Bokardo, Flash, Petit spray,
Harmony, Gypsy, Lemon drops ,Pusa Basanti Gainda, Pusa Narangi Gainda
Propagation: By seed
Seed Rate: 1 to 1.5 kg per ha

Raising of Seedlings and Transplanting :

For raising seedlings, well dried flowers are crushed by hand and seeds are
broadcasted on the raised bed during May - June and watered regularly. When
seedlings will attend the age of one month or a height of 10-15 cm then those
seedlings are transplanted in well manured and fertilized bed at the spacing of 60 x
60 cm or 45 x 45 cm or 45 x 35 cm. One side planting on ridges & furrows.

Nutritional Requirements: 20 to 25 tones FYM + 25 kg N + 25 kg P + 25 kg K per

hectare 25 kg N after 30 days.
Special Culture Practice: Three weeks after transplanting earthing up is done and
then one week after earthing up or 1 month after transplanting the seedlings,
pinching is followed for bushy growth of the plant and development of lateral
branches. Pinching results into production of more number of flowers.
Irrigation: Constant moisture supply be maintained from bud formation to
harvesting of flowers.
Harvesting of Flowers: French Mangold starts flowering 1 to 1 1/2 months after
transplanting while African Marigold 1 1/2 to 2 months after transplanting of
seedlings. For Garland stalk less fully opened flowers (loose flowers) are picked,
white for vase decoration also fully opened flowers with stalk are plucked. Loose
flowers are packed in a bamboo basket, while flowers with stalk are bunched in
bundles and transported to market. From one plant near about 100 to 150 flowers
are obtained. Blooming duration is near about 3 months.
Yield: 6000 to 8000 kg flowers per ha, 100 to. 150 qtl flowers per ha.

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests:

Mealy bug -

Mealy bugs are crowdly present in young shoots, stem and leaves. Flattening and
crinkled with dark green leaves. It’s segregate honey like substances because of that
leaves are converted into black sooty mould. Apical parts of the shoots show
retarted growth.

Control -

• Spray prophenophos or dimethoate @ 2ml/litre.

• Spray Fish oil rosin soap @ 25g/litre

Thrips - Thrips tabaci - Discoloured or distorted plant tissue is clues that thrips
were present. Thrips prefer to feed in rapidly growing tissue. Damaged leaves
become papery and distorted. Infested terminals may discolour, rolled and drop
leaves prematurely. Petals may exhibit “colour break,” which is pale tissue that was
killed by thrips feeding before buds opened.

Control -

• Set up yellow sticky trap 20 per acre

• Released Amphelicies cucumeris spider parasitoid.

• Fipronil 1.5ml/litre or spiromesifen 0.75ml/litre or azardiractin 3ml/litre

Cut worms and Helicoverpa armigera
Spray spinosad 45 SC @ 0.75ml/litre. Spinosad 45 SC is quickly biodegradable and is
accepted by the importers
Bud borer - Spray Spinosad @ 0.75 ml / l

Red spider Mite - Spray Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.5 ml/l or Fenazaquin @ 2 ml/l or
Exodus (natural lactones) @ 2 ml/l

Spider - It can be controlled by spraying Kelthane 1 ml/lit of water

Diseases: Leaf spot - Foliar application of Hexaconazole @1ml/litre or Mancozeb @
2g/litre or Bavistin 1 g / lit of water
Root rot - Drench 1 g/lit of Bavisitin to control root rot
Q11 WRITE IN DETAIL CULTIVATION OF JASMINE .
B.N. : Jasminum sambac (Mogra),J. officinale (Jai),J. auriculatum (Jui)

J. grandiflorum (Chameli), J. pubescens (Kunda)

Family: Oleaceae
Origin : East indies
2n : 26
Importance:

 Jasmine flowers are white, scented and preferred for making Veni.
 Garland and Floral decoration.
 These are also used for making attar or essential oil for perfume.
 Among the various fragrant species of Jasmines - Mogra has a high commercial
value.

Soil and Climate:

It requires well drained, porous and fertile soil. It requires hot and dry climate for
higher yield. pH:6-7.
Varieties:

1.Mogra : Motia, Madanban, Ramban,, Bela, Virupakshi, Rai

2..Jui : Co-1,Mullai, Parimuiii, Large round, Short point

3.Chemali or Jai : Co-1, Coimbatore, Pink pin.

Propagation: Jasmines are generally propagated by cutting of almost mature wood and
also by layers. The best time for propagation is rainy season.

Planting: A jasmine plantation remains productive for 10-15 years. So land should be
prepared thoroughly by addition of manures. The planting is usually done in rainy
season.

Planting distance:
1. Mogra : 75 cm x 1 m

2. Jui : 1.8 m x 1.8 m

3. Chemali or Jai :1.8 m x 1.8 m

 Varieties:

1. Mogra : Motia, Madanban, Ramban,, Bela, Virupakshi, Rai

2. Jui : Co-1,Mullai, Parimuiii, Large round, Short point

3. Chemali or Jai : Co-1, Coimbatore, Pink pin.

Propagation: Jasmines are generally propagated by cutting of almost mature wood

and also by layers. The best time for propagation is rainy season.

Planting:
A jasmine plantation remains productive for 10-15 years. So land should be
prepared thoroughly by addition of manures. The planting is usually done in rainy
season.

Planting distance:

1.Mogra : 75 cm x 1 m
2.Jui : 1.8 m x 1.8 m
3.Chemali or Jai :1.8 m x 1.8 m

Irrigation: Irrigation should be given at an interval of 3-4 days till the establishment
of sampling if no rains in rainy season. Afterwards, the jasmines may be irrigated at
the interval of 15 days.

Nutrition Requirements : 15-20 ton FYM/ha + 100:50:50 kg NPK per ha. This dose
split up in 2 doses First: at the time of pruning during January-February and Second:
at the time of flower bud formation i.e. during March.

Special Cultural Practices:

1. Bahar Treatment:
Bahar treatment is essential for flowering in jasmines and accordingly
withholding of water is done for 40-50 days prior flowering or till the plant
shed its leaves and go into dormancy for rest. Withholding of water is usually
done in the month of November December. After shading of the leaves,
irrigation is started i.e. it will be started from January - February.

2. Pruning:Pruning is a regular practice of inducing flowering in Mogra. In Mogra

flowers are borne only on new growth and thus, pruning stimulates the new growth,
secondly it keeps the bushes in manageable size. For commercial crop, pruning is
usually done after 2 years of its planting and followed in the month of January -
February. Generally pruning is done 45 to 50 cm from ground level.
Harvesting of Flowers: Jasminum species start flowering from first year of planting
but commercial yield starts after second year. Mogra is having a very short post
harvest life. The unopened-fully developed flowers buds are picked very early in the
morning and transported within 2 to 3 hours, to the market. For Gajara and Veni
fully developed unopened buds are picked while for extraction of oil fully opened
flowers are picked.
Yield:- Mogra: 10-12tons/ha, Jai& Jui : 3-4 tons/ha, Kunda: 5-6 tons/ha
Q 12 Write In Detail About Cultivation Of Asparagus .
Botanical name : Asparagus officinalis
Family : Asparagaceae

Origin : South Africa

2n : 20
Plant part used : Tuberous Root

Medicinal use of Asparagus:

Asparagus has been cultivated for over 2,000 years as a vegetable and medicinal
herb. Both the roots and the shoots can be used medicinally,

1. They have a restorative and cleansing effect on the bowels, kidneys and liver.

2. The plant is antispasmodic, aperient, cardiac, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic,

sedative and tonic. The freshly expressed juice is used.

3. The root is diaphoretic, strongly diuretic and laxative.

4. An infusion is used in the treatment of jaundice and congestive torpor of the

liver.

5. The strongly diuretic action of the roots make it useful in the treatment of a
variety of urinary problems including cystitis.

6. It is also used in the treatment of cancer.

8. The roots are said to be able to lower blood pressure. The roots are harvested in
late spring, after the shoots have been cut as a food crop, and are dried for later
use.

9. The seeds possess antibiotic activity. Another report says that the plant contains
asparagusic acid which is nematocidal and is used in the treatment of
schistosomiasis.

Soil and Climate:- Plant usually grows in a variety of soils including medium black
having pH 7-8. It can be easily grown in sub-tropical & Sub-temperate agro-climatic
regions up to 1400 m.

Land Preparation
The soil is given 20-30 cm deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings after few
days. Grasses and weeds are removed. The land is properly levelled and 40-45 cms
broad ridges are prepared for plantation, leaving 15-20 cms furrow space as a
channel for irrigation.
Method of propagation: Seeds, Division 1.
Seed propagation
Seed - pre-soak for 12 hours in warm water and then sow in spring or as soon as the
seed is ripe in early autumn in a greenhouse. It usually germinates in 3 - 6 weeks at
25oC. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to
handle and grow them on in a sunny position in the greenhouse for their first winter.
Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer.

2. Vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation is by division of rhizomatous disc present at the base of the

aerial stem. The rhizomatous disc develops several vegetative buds around the
aerial shoots. The disc is divided in such a way that each piece possessed at least
two buds along with 2-3 tuberous roots. These pieces are planted conversing the
buds with 1 cm of soil followed by irrigation. The sprouting commenced in 8-10
days after plantation.

Weeding
Two weedings are carried out during the rainy months, thereafter one in next 2-3
months.

Irrigation: Irrigation is given after the rainy season is over, at the rate of two
irrigations in winter season and one per month in summer season.
Manures and Fertilisers :

The medicinal plants have to be grown without chemical fertilizers and use of
pesticides. Organic manures like, Farm Yard Manure (FYM), Vermi-Compost, Green
Manure etc. may be used as per requirement of the species.

Harvesting/Post Harvesting

The plant are harvested after 40 months in winter. The roots are dugout collected
and cleared. The roots are peeled off with the help of sharp knife immediately after
harvesting. It is observed that in case the roots are not peeled off within a few days,
it is a bit difficult to remove the skin as such. In such a condition the roots are kept in
boiling water for about 10 minutes, followed by cold-water treatment to facilitate
peeling. After removing the skin, it is cut transversely into small pieces and dried in
shade.

Yield :- Estimate yield of 5-7 tons/hectare dry roots is reported Precaution may be
taken for rodents and rats which occasionally eat tender shoots .
Q 14 Describe In Detail Cultivation Of Aloe In Brief.
ALOE

Botanical Name : Aloe vera or A. barbadensis

Family : Liliaceae

Origin : Eastern and South Africa

Chrom. no. (2n) :14
Plant Part use : Leaves, roots, seeds
Uses:

1. Anthelmintic-used for helminthiases in

children and used as purgative.
2. Used for local applications in painful inflammations, chronic ulcers and

ophthalmic
3. Juice is used for flatulence, constipation, abdominal tumors, piles, sciatica,
lumbago
4. Used for curing skin diseasesand uterus disorders.

Soil: Aloe is a hardy crop which can be grown on wide variety of soils. It growth well
in sandy coastal and loamy soils with pH up to 8.5 water logged, problematic soils
not suitable. Climate: Wide adaptability, hence cultivation is possible throughout the
country and prefers dessert and dry situations. Grown in hot and dry climate with
35-40 cm annual rainfall.

Varieties: IC- 111266, IC-111267, IC-111271, IC-111273

Propagation: Root suckers or rhizome cuttings

Planting: 15-18 cm long root suckers, rhizome cuttings are planted with a spacing of
60 x 30 cm or 60 x 45 cm and buried 2/3 portion under the ground. To get seedlings
a nursery may also be raised through seeds. One year old seedlings may be planted
in the field.

Planting: The field should be ploughed 3-4 times and soil is brought to fine tilth. 15-
20 tonnes of FYM is added to the field at the time of land preparation. 15-18 cm long
root suckers or rhizome cutting are planted in flat beds or ridge and furrows with a
spacing of 60x30cm or 60x45 cm. during planting the 2/3rd portion of
suckers/cutting is buried in the soil.
Manuring and Fertilization:
50 g N, 25 g P205, and 25 g K20 /ha.
Irrigation: Very hardy crop resistant to drought. Immediately after planting needs
one irrigation and 4-5 irrigations are given during summer at 15-20 days interval.
Harvesting: leaves are cut manual with sickle or plant are harvested with tractor
sfter 812 months after planting. Commertial yield are obtained from second year up
to five years.

Yield: Fresh leaves: 10,000-12,000 kg/ha.

Q 15 Write In Detail Cultivation About Costus .
COSTUS

Botanical name : Saussurea costus

Family : Compositae

Origin : India
2n :18

Plant part used : Roots

Medicinal use of Costus:

Roots contain Diosgenin and steroidal sapogenins

1. Costus is a commonly used medicinal herb in China and is considered to be one

of their 50 fundamental herbs.

2. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicine where it is valued mainly for its tonic,
stimulant and antiseptic properties.

3. It is said to be aphrodisiac and to be able to prevent the hair turning grey.

4. The root is anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, skin,

stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge.

5. It is used internally in the treatment of abdominal distension and pain, chest

pains due to liver problems and jaundice, gall bladder pain, constipation
associated with energy stagnation, and asthma.

7. The root is harvested in the autumn or spring and either dried for later use or
decocted for the essential oil. It is normally used with other herbs. The root is
also used in Tibetan medicine where it is considered to have an acrid, sweet and
bitter taste with a neutral potency.

8. It is used in the treatment of swelling and fullness of the stomach, blockage and
irregular menses, pulmonary disorders, difficulty in swallowing and
rotting/wasting of muscle tissues. An oil from the root is very beneficial in the
treatment of rheumatism.

9. An essential oil obtained from the roots is used medicinally, in perfumery,

incenses and as a hair rinse when it is said to darken grey hair.

10. It has a strong lingering scent. The smell is at first like violets, but as it ages it
can become more fur-like or eventually become unpleasantly goat-
like.

11. The roots are cut into lengths about 8cm long and then dried before being
exported. Smaller pieces of the root are ground into a powder and then used to
make incense sticks
12.The longer clean pieces are cut into very thin slices and then burnt at shrines or
used as a tonic in hot baths.

Climate:

A casual in irrigated areas, 2000 - 3300 metres from Pakistan to Himachel Pradesh.
Usually found in moist shady situations in Kashmir, sometimes forming the
undergrowth in birch forests. . The plant grows in temperate and sub-alpine region.
High humidity and minimum temperature 13o C is best for cultivation.
Soil: Sandy textured loam soil, rich in moisture and organic carbon is best for
germination as well as better survival of seedlings and productivity. pH- 5.7-7.5

Propagation: Seeds, stem cutting and rhizomes Commercially it is being propagated

only through rhizomes cuttings. Selection of rhizomes for planting is however
important. The rhizomes have a number of nipple shaped buds most of them being
concentrated around the stem scar and the tips. The formation of buds on the
rhizomes is poor during April. Cuttings of rhizome pieces weighing around 40 g
should be selected. Seed rate: 2000-2400 kg Rhizomes per ha
Seed: Suggest sowing the seed in a cold frame in the spring. Surface sow, or only just
cover the seed, and make sure that the compost does not dry out. Prick out the
seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them
on in the greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter. Plant them out in late
spring after the last expected frosts. Division in spring might be possible.

Planting - The seeds are sown in April or May in nursery. When the seedlings are 15
cm long, it is transplanted in field. Ridges and Furrow Spacing when rhizomes used:
50 x50 cm with 8-10 cm sowing depth.

Irrigation - The crop requires 5-6 irrigations between May-September. The land is
irrigated when seeds are sprouting.

Manures, Fertilisers: -15 tonnes/ ha FYM

45:30:30 NPK kg/ha in two spit doses
Irrigation: 2-3 irrigation per month

Harvesting/Post-Harvesting: Usually in 2-3 years well grown mature root tubers

are developed. However, yield is obtained form 3 years old crop. Root is harvested in
early September or October or early spring. The roots are cleaned with water and
dried for processing.

Yield : After 2-3 years of planting about 200-300 kg. of dry tuberous roots per
hectare can be obtained (28-30 tonnes fresh rhizomes per ha.).
Q 16 WRITE IN DETAIL ABOUT CINNAMON .
Botanical Name : Cinnamomum verum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum

Family : Lauraceae
Origin : Sri Lanka and Malabar Coast of India

Chromo. no. (2n) : 24

Plant Part use :Bark and Leaves Old Known Spice

Uses: Leaves of cinnamon also yield oil, main
constituent of which is Eugenol,
cinnamaldehyde, cinnamate, cinnamic acid. The
oil possesses strong odour. Used for digestive
system, diabetes, loss of appetite, bronchitis,
fungal infections.

Soil: The quality of the bark is greatly influenced by soil, Well-drained, . Sandy loam
soil rich in humus content is most suitable. Red dark brown soils free from rock,
gravel are also good for cinnamon cultivation.
Climate: Cinnamon requires hot and humid climate. Average temperature of 27°C
are ideal.
Varieties

• Navashree - It has high and stable regeneration capacity (6-7 shoots/year),

high yield

• Nithyashree.

• KonkanTej: Released by BSKKV Dapoli in 1992.

Variety has high volatile oil in bark (3.2%) Sweet Cinnamon and Honey
Cinnamon.
Propagation: Cinnamon is commonly propagated through seed, cuttings and air
Layers. Cinnamon flowers in January and fruits ripen during June-August. The fully
ripe fruits are either picked up from the tree or fallen ones are collected from the
ground. Seeds are. removed from fruits, washed free of pulp and sown without much
delay, as the seeds have a low viability. The seeds are sown in sand beds or
polythene bags .The seeds germinate within 10-20 days. The seedlings require
artificial shading till they become 6 months old.

Planting: Pits of 50 cm are dug at a spacing of 3 x 3 m. They are filled with compost
and-topsoil before planting. Cinnamon is planted during June-July to take advantage
of monsoon for the establishment of seedlings. One-year old seedlings are planted.
Partial shade in the initial years is advantageous for healthy and rapid growth of
plants.

Manuring and Fertilization: 1st year: 20 g N, 18 g P205, and 25 g K20/seedling.

Three years after planting: 30 kg F.Y.M., 4 kg neem cake, 150 g N, 75 g P205 and 150
g K2O per plant. The fertilizers are applied in two doses during first week of
September and in March.
Training and Pruning: When the seedlings become 2-3 years old, the shoot is cut
back to a height of 30 cm from ground level to produce side shoots. This is called
'Coppicing'.
Harvesting: Harvesting is done 2- 3 year after planting. Ideal time for harvesting
shoots is from September to November. Side shoots having finger thickness and
uniform brown colour are ideal for bark extraction. A 'test cut' can be made on the
stem with a sharp knife to judge the suitability of time of peeling. If the bark
separates easily, the cutting can be commenced immediately. The stems of 2-3 cm
diameter thickness and 1.0-1.25m length are cut close to the ground. Harvested
shoots are bundled together and transported to the pack house for further post
harvest procedures. Peeling is done with a small knife having a round edge at the
end. Harvesting and Peeling should be done on same day. Cut stem earthen up with
soil to encourage growth of new shoot.
Yield:
a. 3-4 year and onwards' - 62 to 125 kg quills/ha.

b.10-11 year and onwards - 225 to 300 kg quills/ha.

1 ton /ha leaves which yield 1 to 1.25 kg of oil are obtained per year.
Q 17 Write In Detail
Cultivation Of Periwinkle .

Botanical name : Catharanthus roseus

Origin : West indies

Chromosome no. (2n) : 16

Plant part used : Leaves, seeds, roots, flowers

Importance:

 Periwinkle is a perennial ornamental herb found throughout India on waste

lands and sandy tracts.
 It has medicinal importance owing to the presence of indole alkaloids
raubasin (ajmalicine) and serpentine in its root which have anti-fibrillic and
hypertensive properties.
 The leaves contain two alkaloids viz., Vinblastine and Vincristine which form
the constituents of patented cancer drugs and vincristine alkaloids are
distributed in different parts of the plant but the roots contain the maximum
(0.75 t to 1.20%) followed by the leaf (0.60 to 0.65%).
Uses

1. Leaves used in curing blood cancer

2. Leaves useful in treating menstrual disorders, diabetes mellitus.

3. Decoction of leaves & roots active on hypertension.

4. Roots control high blood pressure.

Botany: It is a perennial herb, often grows in garden for its pink and white flowers
which bloom throughout the year.It bears flexible long branches with simple
opposite leaves. Flowers 2-3 in cymes, axillary and terminal clusters. Fruit is a
cylindrical follicle with many black seeds.
Varieties: There are no recognized varieties but there are three local types based on
the colour of the flowers viz., alba with white flowers roseus with pink rose coloured
flowers and ocillata with white flowers having rose purple spot in the center are
recognized.
Climate and Soil: The cosmopolitan distribution of the plant shows that it has no
specific climatic requirements. Its natural environments are, however, tropical and
sub- tropical areas. A well distributed rainfall of 100 cm or more is considered ideal
for raising it as commercial crop under rainfed conditions.
Similarly, it grows on any type of soil except those which are highly alkaline
or waterlogged. It grows wild in coastal area. Light sandy soils rich in humus are
preferred for large scale cultivation of the plant. pH should be upto 8.5.
Propagation: Method of propagation: Seeds
Fresh seeds are preferable as they lose viability on long storage. 1.
Direct sowing method

About 2 to 3 kg seed is required for raising one hectare.

The seeds are mixed with sand about 10 times its weight for even distribution and
are sown during beginning of monsoon.

2. Seedling Transplanting method

Seed rate: 500 grams/ hectare.

The seeds are sown in well prepared beds during March or April in rows about 1.5
cm deep, covered with light soil and leaf mould mixture and are watered to keep the
bed moist. In about 10 days time the seeds germinate and in 2 months time (height
6-7 cm ) they become ready for transplanting. 200 square meters bed is required for
producing seedlings for one hectare.

Planting: Seedling are transplanted at a spacing of 45 cm x 30 cm or 45 cm x 45 cm

during monsoon season.

Weeding: The crop requires two weedings, the first one about 60 days after sowing
or transplanting and the second one in another 60 days.

Irrigation: The plant do not require much water as they have drought resistant
capacity. In areas, where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, no
irrigation is required, but in areas where monsoon is restricted, 4 to 5 irrigations are
required during the life of the plant to get good yield. Manuring: They are not
generally manured, however, for getting a good yield of both leaves and roots, farm
yard manure at about 15 tonnes per ha should be applied and a fertilizer mixture of
N (20 Kg), P205 (40 Kg) and K2O (40Kg) per hectare is applied as a basal dose and 6
kg N is further drilled in rows in 3 spits at thinning, 90days and 120 days after
planting

Harvesting: The crop becomes ready for harvest of roots after one year. But two leaf
strippings can be taken, the first one after 6 months and the second after 9 months of
sowing. Third stripping of leaves can also be taken when the whole plant is
harvested after one year. For seed collection, matured fruits are hand picked and
dried in shade and threshed lightly. This method ensures mature seeds with even
germination. But the usual practice is to uproot the plants, dry them in shade and
thereafter thresh lightly for seeds. The seeds obtained by this method, are not
uniform and their germination is poor.For harvesting of roots, the crop is cut about
7.5 cm above the ground and dried for stems, leaves and seeds and then the whole
field is copiously irrigated and ploughed and the roots are collected. The roots are
washed well and dried in shade and later made into bundles for marketing.
Yield: Under rainfed conditions about 0.75 tonne of roots, 1.0 tonne of stems and 2
tonnes of leaves (all dry basis) may be obtained from one hectare. But under
irrigated conditions, 1.5 tonnes each of roots and stems and 3 tonnes of leaves per
ha can be obtained.

Q 18 Write In Detailed Cultivation Isabgol .

Botanical name : Plantago ovata

Family : Plantaginaceae
Origin : West indies
Chromosome no. (2n) : 28

Plant part used : Seeds and husks

Introduction:

Isagbol or Psyllium is important for its seed and husk which have been used
in the indigenous medicine for many countries. The husk yields a colloidal mucilage
consisting mainly of xylose, arabinose and galacturonic acid.

Botany:
It is a stemless annual herb often attaining a height of 30 - 40 cm, with rosette
leaves. The plant bears erect ovoid or cylindrical spike with minute white flowers
about 45 - 68 protogynous. Fruit is capsule, each seed is encased in a thin, white,
translucent membrane, the husk, which is odourless and tasteless. Climate and soil:

It requires cool and dry weather and hence in India, the crop is grown in
winter i.e. from November - December to March-April. Humid weather at maturity
results in shattering of seeds. A light well drained sandy loam to rich loamy soil with
a pH of 7 - 8 is ideal.

Uses
1.It has the property of absorbing and retaining water (40-90%) and therefore it
works as an anti- diarrhoea drug.
2.The seed has also cooling and demulcent effect and is used in ayurvedic, unani and
allopathic medicines.
3.It is beneficial in cronic dysenteries of amoebic and bacillary origin, constipation,
also control inflammatory condition of mucocus membrane of gastro intenstinal and
urinary tracts.
4.Used as stabilizer in ice cream, as ingredient in chocolates & base for cosmetics.
Varieties:
Gujarat Agricultural University has released two improved varieties viz.,
Gujarat Isabgol - 1 and Gujarat Isabgol -2 which have a yield potential of 800 -900 kg
and 1000 kg per ha respectively. Niharika, IR-89, RRL-011, Sel-10 etc.

Climate and Soil:

 Require cool & dry weather with bright sunshine during its growth
period hence grow in winter. Strong wind, humid weather 7 rainfall at maturity
result in shettering of seeds.

Light, well drained sandy loam to loamy soil rich in organic matter
with pH of 7.08.5 is ideal.

Preparation of land:
Field must be free of weeds and clods and should have fine tilth
for good germination.The land is laid into flat beds of convenient sizes i.e. 1.0 m x 3.0
m or 2.5 m x 2.5 m
Sowing:

Fresh seeds from the preceding crop season should be sown for getting
high per cent germination. Sowing is done inNov.-Dec. The seed rate varies from 4 -
5 kg and is sown after pretreatment with thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed to protect the
seedlings from the possible damage of damping off. The seeds, being small and light
are mixed with sufficient quantity of fine sand before sowing. The seeds are sown
broadcast and are swept lightly with a broom in one direction to cover them with
some soil. Light irrigation will give to facilitate germination. Seed germinate 6-7 days
after sowing.

Weeding : Timely weeding is important to encourage good growth of the plants.

After 20-25 days of sowing, first weeding is done and 2-3 weeding are required
within 2 months of sowing.

Manuring: 25 kg N/ha and 25 kg P/ha are applied as basal dose at the last
Ploughing and another dose of 25 kg N/ha is top dressed 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation: Immediately after sowing light irrigation is essential. First irrigation
should be given with light flow of water. The seeds normally germinate in 6 - 7
days.If the germination is poor, second irrigation may be given. Later on, irrigations
are given as and when necessary.Last irrigation should be given at the time when
maximum number of spike have reached the milk stage given. Later on, irrigations
are given as and when necessary.Last irrigation should be given at the time when
maximum number of spike have reached the milk stage.

Harvesting and processing:

The crop will be ready in about 110-130 days after sowing. When mature, the crop
turns yellowish and the spike turns brownish. The seeds are shed when the spikes
are pressed even slightly. At the time of harvest, the atmosphere must be dry and
there should not be any moisture on the plant. The plants are normally cut at the
ground level or are uprooted if the soil is loose textured. The harvested plants are
threshed and winnowed, and the seeds repeatedly sifted until clean. The seeds may
be marketed whole or the husk may be sold separately. Seeds are fed to a series of
shellers, in each sheller the grinding pressure is so adjusted to remove only the husk.
This is separated by fans and sieves at each sheller and the ungrounded material is
sent to the next sheller. The husk: seed ratio is 25:75 by weight. The average yield
is about 500-1000kg/ha.
Q 20 DETAIL
CULTIVATION
ABOUT MINT.

B. N. : Mentha spp.
Family : Lamiaceae

Origin : North America

2n : 66, 72, 84, 120

Plant part used: Roots, Leaves
Uses :

1. The oil and its principle aroma compound menthol have cooling and gastro-
stimulant properties, for which it is used in pharmaceuticals in pain balms,
cough syrup, cough lozenges, tablets and oilment.
2. Oil enhances the shelf life of edible products and grains because of anti
microbial property of menthol.
3. Mint oil is extensively used in flouring toothpastes, candies, beverages,
confectioners, chewing gums, pan parag, mouth washes and betal related
products.
4. Mints are also used in shaving creams, tobacco, cigarettes, aerosols, polishes
hair lostions.
5. Mint oil is used as a soothing ingredient in cosmetics, colognes, deodorants,
aftershave lotion, perfume bases, etc.
6. Spent grass is used as a manure or mulch and also utilized in making paper
boards and paper.

Soil: Well drained, deep, Fertile Soils rich in humus having good water
holding capacity. Sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6.0-7.5. since it is shallow
feeder can not withstand the water stagnation.

Climate: Long day, temperature, annual crops grown upto 1000 m elevation in
subtropical region of North India. 1000-1200 mm rainfall well distributed all aroung
the growing season with bright sunshine during harvest is ideal for higher herbage
and oil yield. Shade and frost are unsuitable for mint.

Improved Varieties: Kosi, RRL-118/3, Himalaya, Saksham, Kushal, Gomati.

Japanese mint – MAS-1, MA-2, CIMAP/Hybrid-77, Shivalik (oil has high menthol
content-75-80%) and EC-41911 , Spear mint – MSS-1, MSS-5 and Punjab Spearmint-
1 Bergamot mint – Kiran ,Pepper mint - Kukrail

Propagation: by stolons/suckers Commertial propagation is clonally by

stolon/suckers. 400-500 kg fresh juicy stolon/suckers from 0.1 ha healthy, vigorous
plantation are enough as a planting material for 1.0 ha area.
Planting Time: Mid January- early February . Stolon of 6-10 cm length with 2-4
growing points formed during winter are planted either in flat beds or on ridges and
furrow layout at 2 cm depth at 40x10 cm, 45x15 cm spacing. Hey should be dipped
in 0.1% Captan or Bavistin solution for 2 minutes. A day temperature of 20-25o C
and light showers favours rapid growth.

Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting material get
established., Earthing up: done up to 4 months

Manuring: 20t/ha FYM, Recommended dose: 50:75:37kg NPK/ha per year: Basal
dose. Remaining 75kg N as top dressing dose splits into 3 doses.

Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. Irrigation

interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for good yield.

Harvesting: Harvesting is done at flowering stage on dry sunny days. First

harvesting is done after months with appearance of flowers and yellowing of lower
leaves. It should be done the onset of monsoon. Subsequent 2 harvests are made in
Sept. an Nov. or Dec. The crop cut 5-10 cm above the ground with sharp sickle.
Harvesting on cloudy or rainy day deceases menthol content in its oil significantly.

Yield: 25-30 tonnes of herbage/ha per year.

150-200 kg of oil /ha. Oil constituent: Menthol-70-80%

Q 21 Brief Cultivation About Lemon Grass .

LEMON GRASS

Botanical name : Cymbopogon flexuosus

Family : Graminae

Origin : India

Chrom. No. (2n) : 20

Plant part use : Leaves

Three types of lemon grasses viz.

1. East Indian lemongrass (C flexuosus): C. flexuosus grown commercially in Kerala

and nearby adjacent state, its oil is popularly known as "Cochin oil" as it is shipped
mainly through Cochin port. 90% oil is exported.
2. West Indian lemon grass (C. citrates) cultivated in West Indies
3. Jammu lemongrass (C. pendulus)
India is annually producing nearly 1000 MT per year while the world demand is
much more. Annually, we are exporting lemon grass oil in a tube of about Rs. 5
crores. Our country is facing a critical competition from Gautemaja in the
International market.

Uses of Lemon Grass:

1. The chief constituent of the oil is the citral. It is the starting material for the
preparation of important ionone viz. A - Ionone, used in flavors, cosmetics and
perfume and P - Ionone- used in the manufacture of synthetic vitamin A.
2. Oil has bactericidal, insect repellent and medicinal uses.
3. The spent grass is a source of good cattie feed and can be converted into good
silage.
4. Spent grasses are also useful for the manufacture of card boards and papers
or as fuel.
5. In culinary flavouring in alcoholic & non-alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
dessert, candy, baked foods, gelatins & pudding, meat & meat products

6. Use in preparation of soap and detergent making

Climate and Soil: Tropical plant. The plants are hardy and grow under a variety of
conditions. The most ideal conditions are a warm and humid climate with, plenty of
sunshine and rainfall of 250-280 cm per annum,

uniformly distributed. Day temp. 25-30oC is optimum for good oil production.
Regarding the soil, it can be grown from poor soils, in the hill slopes. Soil pH ranging
from 4.5 to 7.5 is ideal. As it has good soil binding nature, they can be grown as
vegetative cover over naked, eroded slopes.

Varieties of Lemon Grass: Varieties of East Indian lemongrass :

1.Sugandhi(OD-19 ): by The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Station,
Odakkali (Kerala), Odakkali, Kerala, herbage yield: 50-55 t/ha, oil: 80-85kg/ha oil
recovery:1.2-1.5% citral content:80-85% suitable to all soil types & climate

3. SD-68: by CIMAP, Lucknow using ionising radiation oil yield:375kg/ha/year Citral

content: 90-92%

3. Pragati (LS-48): by CIMAP, Lucknow

Through clonal selection from OD-19 Oil contain 63-86% citral

4. Kavery,
5. Krishna
Varieties of Jammu lemongrass 1.
RRL-16

2. Praman
3. VKP-25
4. Chirharit

Propagation: seeds, slips.

Slip propagation is better in Andhra Pradesh. Seed propagation covers larger area.
a) Seed propagation: Nursery
Seeds are formed in November - December. Seeds are collected in January -
February. Seeds are sown at 10 kg per 25 cents nursery per ha. Nursery beds are
prepared and sowing is done during April - May. After sowing nursery beds are
lightly irrigated. Seedlings will be ready in 60-75 days when hey attain 5-7 leaf stage
and height of 12-15 cm.

b) Slips: Mature clump is divided. Slips are treated for rooting. Rooted slips are used
for propagation.

Field Preparations: The land is cleared of the underground vegetations and pits of
5 cm cube are made. Splits from old clumps can also be used for propagations.
Layout: Ridges & furrow
Season: June-July
Spacing :60x45 cm.
Place 2-3 slips per hill
Manures and Fertilizers: 100:50:50 NPK kg/ha
Irrigation: only in low rainfall area one day interval upto one month after planting
and then 7-10 days interval

Harvesting : Harvest 90 days after planting and subsequently it is harvested at 50-

55 days interval. The grass is cut 10 cm above the ground level and 5-6 cuttings can
be taken in a year. Depending upon the soil and climatic conditions, the crop can be
retained in like field for 5 to 6 years. Average oil yield on 1st yr: 25 kg of oil /year /ha
on 2nd yr: 80 to 100 kg oil /year /ha Rainfed condition: 80-100 kg of oil /year /ha
Irrigated condition; 150 -200 kg of oil /year /ha Oil is extracted by steam distillation
method Oil constituents: Citral: 80-85%.
Q 22 Write Down Cultivation Practises Of Citronella .
B.N. : Java citronella : Cymbopogon winterianus

Ceylon citronella : Cymbopogon nardus

Family : Gramineae

Chrom. No. (2n) : 20

Plant part used : leaves

Uses :

1. Starting material for production of Geraniol & citronellal.

2. Perfumery, soap & cosmetics

3. Preparation of detergent, household cleaners, insecticide, polishes

4. In pharmaceuticals

5. In flavouring industries

6. As an ingredient in deodorants, mosquito repellent cream & allied products.

7. Also spent grass in paper preparation & as fuel.

Soil:
Soils rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good drainage sandy
loam should be preferred. pH: 5.0-7.5 Alkaline water logged soils are detrimental for
crop growth.

Climate:

Humid climate with warm temperature with well distributed rainfall favours growth
of Citronella. Abundant sunlight well distributed rainfall of 200-250 cm with 75-90%
RH. Under shade growth is poor.

Improved Varieties:
RRL JOR-3-1970: oil % - 46.2 % IW 31243, IW 31245 (NBPGR, Delhi)-Java
CIMAP/Bio 13 , Manjusha, Mandakini.
Propagation: Slips.

Due to irregularities in Meiosis, viable seeds are not formed. Therefore citronella is
propagating through slips, obtained by dividing healthy mature clumps. Each slip
should have 2-3 tillers. At the time of planting trim fibrous roots and leaves. 0.05 ha
of 1- 4 year old plantation is enough as planting material i.e. slips for planting in 1 ha
of main field.

Planting Time:

Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June - July

Spacing:
Transplanted on ridges and furrows.

60 x 90 cm (Plant population:18,000 plants/ha),

60 x 60 cm (Plant population: 28,000 plants/ha)

Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting material get
established. Earthing up: done up to 4 months

Manuring: Recommended dose: 200:80:80kg NPK/ha per year Usually 8-10 tons of
compost mixed with 60 kg P205 and 50 kg K20 per hectare before plantation. N
should be applied in 4 split doses.

Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. Irrigation

interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for good yield.
Harvesting:
Three cuttings may be obtained in the first year commencing 6 months after planting.
Leaf blades contain more oil than sheath and hence harvesting is done 15-20 cm
above the ground level.
Q 23 Detailed Cultivation About Cultivation Of Palmarosa .
Palmarosa

Botanical name : Cymbopogon martinii

Family : Gramineae

Origin : India

Chrom. No. (2n) : 20

Plant part used : Tender stem, leaves & flower stalk
Uses :

1. Essential oil from palmarosa is used to extract Geraniol.

2. Used for incenting soap, perfumes, toiletries and flavoring tobacco.

3. The oil impacts rose like aroma due to Geraniol which is a perfume itself
hence heavy demand.

4. It is also used as an adulterant in Turkish attar of roses.

Soil:
Fertile Soils rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good drainage
sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6-8 Sensitive to water stagnation.
Climate:
Hardy and drough resistant tropical plant. grow well in warm and humid area
receiving 100-150cm rainfall. Susceptible to frost and low temperature. Ecposure to
sunlight is essential. It does not perform well under shade condition.

Improved Varieties:
IW31244, IW3244, IW 3629, RRL(B)-77 and RRL(B)71, Trishna, Jam Rosa (RRL-82),
Vaishnavi, CIM Harsha

Propagation: by seeds and rooted Slips. First a nursery is raised. Beds are raised
well prepared and well manured.

a) By seeds:

Due to irregularities i n Meiosis, viable seeds are not formed. Therefore citronella is
propagating through slips, obtained by dividing healthy mature clumps. Each slip
should have 2-3 tillers. At the time of planting trim fibrous roots and leaves. 0.05 ha
of 1-4 year old plantation is enough as planting material i.e. slips for planting in 1 ha
of main field. Seeds @ 2.5 kg per ha is sown at 15-20 cm spaced lines. Sowing is
done during May-June. Nursery beds are irrigated daily. Germination will be
completed within 2 weeks and seedlings ready in 30-40 days (15-20 cm height).
b) By Slips:
elite clump. They are separated and planted during April - May. Ready for
transplanting after 3 months during June- July or August -September. Oil yield is

higher with clonal propagation. Per cent of establishment is higher with seedlings.

Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June - July

Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Spacing: 60 x 45 cm 60x30cm and 45

x 45cm

Weeding: Weeding is necessary

Slips: Slips are collected from for the first 2-3 months till the planting material get
established.

Earthing up: done up to 4 months

Manuring: 10t/ha FYM

Recommended dose: 20:50:40kg NPK/ha per year- Basal dose
and 40 kg/ha N for Top dressing in 4 split doses.

Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. Irrigation

interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for good yield.

Harvesting: First harvest is taken in 6 months after planting. Leaf blades contain
more oil than sheath and hence harvesting is done 15-20 cm above the ground level.
Subsequently harvest the crop at 3-4 months interval. Yield increase up to 4th year
with an economical life is 8-10 years.

Yield : Oil yield : First year: 20 kg/ha,

Second year: 60 kg/ha

Oil constituent: Geraniol-90-5%,.

Q 24 Write In Detail Cultivation Practices Of Ocimum .

Ocimum

Botanical Name : Ocimum sanctum

Family : Labiatae
Origin : India
Chrom. No. (2n) : 24
Plant part used : Leaves, Seeds and roots

Tulsi leaves contain a bright yellow volatile oil which is useful against insects and
bacterial. The principle constituents of this oil are eugenol, eugenol methyl ether
and carvacrol. The oil is reported to possess anti-bacterial properties and acts as an
insecticide. It inhibits the in vitro growth of

Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus.

Uses :

1. Oil is used for flavouring food stuffs, bekary products, confectionary,

condiments and in toiletry products like mouth washed and dental cream.

2. Anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal properties.

3. Aromatic carminative, antipyreo, expectorant, diaphoretic

4. Effective in viral encephalitis in children

5. Recognized as a febrifuge and antimalarial plant

6. Used in snake bite, mosquito bite, and scorpion sting.

7. Dropped into ear in ear ache and malarial fever.

8. Used in bronchitis, gastric disorders

9. Cures skin diseases and destroys intestinal worms.

10. Seeds used in disorders of genitourinary system, for treatment of

constipation and piles.

Soil: can grow in wide range of soil. From rich loam to poor laterite soil. Fertile Soils
rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good drainage sandy loam
should be referred. pH: 4.3-9.1.

Climate:Favourishes well under tropical and subtropical region with medium

rainfall and humid climate upto 1800 m above main sea level. Long day and high
temperature favors plant growth and higher yield. It can tolerate drought.
Types:

• Green type (Sri Tulsi)

• Purple type (Krishna Tulsi)

• Clove basil (Lavang Tulsi)

Different Ocimum species from India. (A) Ocimum basilicum, (B) Ocimum
americanum, (C) Ocimum kilimandscharicum, (D) Ocimum africanum, (E) Ocimum
santum - Shri (Ram) tulsi, (F) Ocimum adscendens, (G) Ocimum santum - Krishna
tulsi, (H) Ocimum gratissimum - Lavang tulsi, (I) Ocimum viride

Improved Varieties: RRL-OC-9, RRL-OC-11, RRL-01

The Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu has done extensive crop improvement
programme in ocimum and evolved newer promising types, which are now
recommended for commercial cultivation. The varieties are:

O. americanum – RRL02 O.
viride - RRL-08
Ogratissimum - RRL-08 O.
basilicum - RRL-07 O.
basilicum - RRL-011

Synthesized Amphidiploid of Ocimum - RRL-015

Propagation: by seeds
Generally seeds are mixed sand (1:10 proportion) and are sown in March-April in
nursery on raised beds with seed rate 125-200 gm seeds/ha. Seed germinate within
10 days and seedlings are ready for transplanting in 7 weeks or at 4-5 leaf stage
with height of 8-10cm.

Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June – July

Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Spacing:60 x 45 cm 60x60cm

Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting material get
established.

Earthing up: done up to 4 months

Manuring: 10t/ha FYM, Recommended dose: 40:40:40kg NPK/ha per year

Irrigation:

For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. Irrigation interval of 15

days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for good yield.

Harvesting:

Harvesting is done when plant is in full bloom stage and lower leaves starts turning
yellow. Crop is harvested on bright sunny day by cutting he plants 15-20 cm from
ground level. First harvest at 85-100after planting and subsequent harvests after
65-75 days intervals crops gives economical yields for 6-7 year. Yield: 15-20 tonnes
of herbage/ha, 65-70 kg of oil /ha, Whole herb contains

0.1 - 0.23% essential oil. Oil constituent: Chavicol-70-80%

Q 25 Write In Detail Cultivation Practices Of Geranium .

GERANIUM

Botanical Name : Pelargonium graveolens

Family : Geraniaceae
Origin : South Africa

2n : 22, 44, 66 & 88

Plant part : Terminal stem (with 6-12 leave)

> Chief constituents are Geraniol (68-75%) and

citronellol (23-24%)

> Oil demand is 40-50 tonnes per year.

> Internal production is only 20 tonnes. So, India import geranium oil at

higher cost.
Uses:

• Widely used in perfumery and cosmetic industries due to its agreeable and
very profound rose like odour.

• In expensive soaps, perfumes.

• Used for production of Rhodinol which forms part of most high grade perfumes.
Tannins obtained as a byproduct from stems and leaves after extraction of oil.

Types of geranium

1. Rose geranium:
2. Ornamentalgeranium:only useasornamentalplant

In rose geranium two types

1. Algerian or Tunician:
Produce dark pink flower Not suitable for wet soil Grown in Nilgiri hills
2.Bourbon or Reunion:

Produce light pink colour flower Suitable for wet soil Oil quality is superior. Grown
in Nilgiri and Annamallai hills

Varieties: Kodaikonal-1, Hemanti, Kunti, IIHR-8, Egyptian, etc.

Soil: Well drained, deep porous, slighly calcareous Good drainage. pH: 5.5-7.0

Climate : mild climate. Opt. Temp: 20-250C. Resistant to drought. Susceptible to

frost.
Propagation: Terminal Stem cutting. Period : November
Land preparation: Crop stand for 3-10 yrs so land is prepared thoroughly.

Layout: Ridges and Furrow Spacing: 60 x 60 cm Period June- July / Dec.- Jan. 30,000
cutting / ha is needed In close planting: 45 x45 cm. Maintained Plant Population:
57,000/ha gives higher herbage yield

Manuring: farm yard manure at about 10-20 tonnes per ha 40-60 Kg : N, P205
and K2O per hectare as basal dose 200 kg N: in 6 split doses for top working
Irrigation: weekly interval
Harvesting : First harvest: 4-6 months after planting

Maturity indices:
• Appearance of flowers

• Leaves turn light green in colour with lower leaves turning yellow

• Lemon like odour of leaves changes to that of rose.

Harvesting once in 3-4 months

Yield: 20-30 tonnes /ha: Herbage yield 20-30 kg/ ha: Oil yield
 Q 26 Write In Detail Cultivation Practices Of Vetiver .

VETIVER

Botanical Name : Vetiveria zizanioides

Family : Gramineae

Origin : India & Sri Lanka

Chrom. No. (2n) : 20

Plant part used : Roots

Contain : Vetiver oil

Uses:
• Vetiver oil is a perfume by itself.

• In expensive soaps, perfumes.

• Used in perfumes, soaps, attars, and skin care products.

• Tobacco, pan masala and cold beverage industries.

• Roots used with cloth in cupboard to repel insect

• Roots are cooling, bitter, stomachic, stimulate the immune system, relieve
headache, burning sensation, ulcers and blood diseases.

• Soil and water errosion

• Dry roots: mats, mattresses, fans, screens, pillows, baskets, bags etc articles

• leaves : fodder and bedding for horses and cattles, substrate for mushroom
cultivation, composting, mulching

Soil: It withstand under prolong dry spell and water stagnation. Loose well drained
sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6-8. Compact heavy soil restrict root growth
and harvest off roots is difficult..
Climate: Long day with plenty of sunlight. It prefer warm and humid area.
Cultivated in 60-400cm in South India as well as in Bharatpur area in Rajasthan
receiving scanty rain. It does not perform well under shade condition.

Improved Varieties:
1. Seeding type: growth in North India, set seed, Having superior oil aroma Eg.
Akhila, Bharatpur, Musanagar, Dharini, Gulabi, Khesai
 2. Non-seeding type: in South India, do not set seed, more root and oil yield. Eg.
Nilambur, ODV-3, Hybrid-7, Hybrid-8, CIMAP/KS-2, Sugandha, KH-8, KH-40

Propagation: tillers and slips

Tillers take long time, hence slips are preferred. Collect slips from previous crop
with rhizome portion intact having 15-20 cm aerial portion. Seeds take long time
and having dormancy of 3 months. Seeds propagation is limited to breeding purpose
only due to heterozygous nature hence slips are preferred.

Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June - July
Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Plant 2-3slips per hill Spacing:22.5x
22.5 cm (Plat population2-2.5 lack /ha), 60x25cm (Plant population 60000/ha)

Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting material get
established.

Earthing up: done up to 4 months

Manuring:10t/ha FYM

Recommended dose: 80:50:50kg NPK/ha per year- Basal dose and N in 4

split doses.

Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently.

Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is
required for good yield.

Harvesting: Roots ready for harsting 16-18 months after planting.

Maturity indices:

1. Roots should expose a hard surface when the skin is peeled off.

2. They should be thick hard long and wiry

Should give bitter taste when chewed Oil content and yield are less during rainy
season as the oil is diffused into soil. Harvesting roots during dry period is more
preferable.

Above ground portions are cut to 15-20 above the ground. Clump are
uprooted by digging forks or by disc plough. Soil I dug up to 30-40am to get 50%
roots. Clumps are then shade dried for 7-10 days to reduce moisture content, beaten
to remove adhering soil and roots are separated from the stem portion with sharp
knife. Clean the roots thoroughly in running water and send for distillation.

Yield :5-6 tonnes fresh roots per ha.

Oil yield:15-20 kg/ha, and 1-105% oil on dry weight basis. Oil
constituent: Veteverol: 65-75 %.
Q 26 Processing And Value Addition In Ornamental Crops And Write Down
Methods Of Processing .

A)DRY FLOWERS :- 'Dry flowers' refer to dried or dehydrated flowers or plant part
or botanicals (roots, leaves, stem, bark or whole plant) that can be used for
ornamental purposes. Dried flowers are also known as everlasting flowers or
dehydrated flowers.
Economic importance:

• The dry flower industry is a Rs. 100 crore industry in India and such dry
decorative materials are globally accepted as natural, eco-friendly, long lasting
and inexpensive.

• India is one of the major exporters of dried flowers to the tune of 5% world
trade in dry flowers. This industry is growing at 15% annual
growth rate.
• Easy and year-round availability of a wide range of raw materials from forests
and availability of manpower for labour intensive craft making are the reasons
for development of dry flower industry in India.

• This industry provides direct employment to around 15,000 people and

indirect employment to around 60,000 people.

The Indian dried flower export market is classified into four main product
segments as detailed below.

1. Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk.

2. Potpourri
3. Arrangements
4. Floral handicrafts

Tips for collecting plant materials for dry flower making

• Avoid collecting plants when they are wet or moist from dew.

• Use a sharp knife or pruning shears to cut flowers and plant materials.

• Select plant materials that are without insect or disease problems.

• Place stems in water while harvesting to prevent wilting. Some flowers may
hold coluor better if allowed to stand in water for a few hours.
• Start the drying process as soon as possible after cutting.
Processes in dry flower making
A) DRYING i. Air
drying

Tie the flowers in loose bunches and hang upside down until they are dry in a room with
good ventilation and darkness. It is the ideal method for seedpods, grasses and many
flowers having more cellulose material. Crisp textured flowers like Helipterum,
Helichrysum and Limonium could easily be dried either by hanging or positioning them
erect in containers for 1-2 weeks. Gomphrena flowers from half to full bloom maturity take
7-9 days for air drying and roses take 5-10 days. Acacia, amaranths, castor flowers, citrus
leaves, cockscomb, corn flower, fennel, fern, golden rod, gypsophila, grasses, herbs, ear
heads of wheat, oat and rye, hydrangea, lavender, protea, marigold, poppy seed pods,
physalis, peppers, roses, statice, thistle, yarrow and yucca can be dried by this method.

ii. Sun drying

Plant material is embedded in drying medium (sand) in a container and exposed to the sun
daily to facilitate rapid dehydration. In India, open sun drying is followed for drying many
flowers. Flowers like small zinnias, marigolds, pansies, and pompon chrysanthemum
embedded in sand upside down fashion and kept in the Sun would dry in a day or two. For
Gomphrena, Zinnia and French marigold it would take 3-4 days. Open sun drying is
followed for corn flowers, custard apple (small), Casuarina pods, mini coconut, eucalyptus,
evergreen cones, gomphrena, gourds, pomegranates, poppy pods, lotus pods, typha heads,
palm leaves, grass ear heads.

iii. Oven drying

Electrically operated hot air oven at a controlled temperature of 40-50 °C is used for drying
flowers in an embedded condition. Chrysanthemum,

dombeya, gerbera, and limonium take 48 hours at 45-49 °C, French marigold takes 72
hours, African marigold takes 96 hours and Nymphaea takes 120 hours for drying. China
aster, delphinium, rose buds and small flowers, and zinnia take 48 hours at 40 - 44 °C,
medium and large roses take 72 hours and very large flowers take 96 hours in 40 - 44 °C.

iv. Embedding method

Embedding the flowers in a granular, desiccating material is probably the most commonly
used method and many consider it the best all around method. Several materials may be
used, and they vary in cost and the results that they produce. To cover a flower, put about
an inch of desiccating material at thebottom of the container; cut the flower stem to about a
half an inch and stick this into the center of the material at the bottom to hold the flower.
Next, pour the desiccating material along the perimeter of the container, away from the
flower, building up a continuous mound of about an inch. Then tap lightly on the container
and the material will move to the flower, not altering the form of the petals. Continue
adding the material, tapping on the container, etc. until the flower is completely covered.
Lastly, add an inch of the material above the top of the flower. Sand, borax, silica gel, saw
dust, perlite and combination of these materials are used in this method. Sand and Borax
methods though relatively cheap, take longer time and labour for drying. Silica gel is the
ideal drying agent for delicate flowers such as roses, carnation, dahlia etc. It takes less time
and can be reused indefinitely after removal of moisture from the silica gel crystals by
drying them in an oven at 250 °F for 1 hour. French marigold and zinnia (half to full bloom
stage) take 4 days for drying by silica gel embedding. Wiring of flowers before drying is
essential for which 20-24 gauge florist wire is used. Chrysanthemum takes 5 days for
drying in silica gel. Ageratum, anemone, amaryllis, bleeding heart, baby's breath, bachelors
button, chrysanthemum, calendula, clematis, crocus, daffodil, dahlia, daisy, delphinium,
gloriosa lily, gaillardia, geranium, gladiolus, hyacinth, hibiscus, lily, marigold, pansy,
petunia, poinsettia, poppy, rose, salvia, snap dragon, stock, tulip, verbena and zinnia are the
flowers suitable for embedding method of drying.

v. Microwave oven drying

Electronically produced microwaves liberate moisture from organic substances by

agitating the water molecule. It is fast and the results are good. The flowers has to be
embedded in silica gel medium in a microwave safe open container along with a small cup
with water nearby. Standing time of 10 minutes to few hours is needed after the drying for
best results.

vi. Glycerin drying (glycerinization)

'Glycerinizing' is the term used in the ornamental cut flowers and foliage industry to
describe the treatment of fresh plant materials with a hygroscopic (water attracting)
chemical with the objective of retaining the suppleness of the plant materials. Foliage
treated with glycerin keeps almost indefinitely and remains pliable. Glycerin preserves
foliage by replacing the natural moisture present in the leaf with a substance that
maintains the leaf form, texture and sometimes the colour. Fresh and fairly matured foliage
is ideal for glycerining. About 50 per cent of most plant fresh weight is water, but
brittleness is usually only a problem if the water content falls below 10 per cent.

vii. Freeze drying

Freeze dried flowers are fresh flowers that have been specially dried to preserve their
natural shape, colour and beauty. Freeze drying is accomplished by a process called
sublimation. It requires a special freeze-drying machine. It involves first freezing the
flowers at (-) 10°C for at least 12 hours. A vacuum pump slowly pulls the water out of the
flowers as a vapor in one chamber, and then the vapor condenses as ice in another chamber.
Because of this process, the shape and natural color of the flower is maintained. For Roses
it takes 15 -17 days and for other flowers normally 10 - 12 days. Major flowers dried by
this method are roses, carnation, bridal bouquets etc.

viii. Press drying

Flowers and foliage are placed in-between two folds of newspaper sheets or blotting paper
and these sheets are kept one over other and corrugated boards of the same size are placed
in between the folded sheets so as to allow the water vapour to escape. The whole bundle is
then placed in the plant press, its screws tightened. After 24 hours the bundle is removed
to an electric hot air oven for 24 hours at 40-45 °C. The following flowers and foliage are
dried by this method. Flowers: Candytuft, Chrysanthemum, Euphorbia, Lantana, Larkspur,
Mussaenda, Pansy, Pentas, Rose and Verbena, and Foliage: Thuja, Taxodium, Marigold,
Grevillea, Rose, Ferns, Casuarina, Silver oak and Grasses

(B) Bleaching

Bleached ornamental plant material provides a striking contrast when arranged

with dried or dyed flowers. Bleaching also allows the use of dyes for colouring. Oxidative
(Hypochlorite, Chlorite and Peroxide) and reductive bleaching chemicals (Sulphite and
Borohydride) are used for bleaching ornamental flowers and foliage. Profitability is
depended upon attainment of high white quality and on cost efficient utilization of
expensive bleaching chemicals. Sodium Chlorite is an excellent bleaching agent because it is
relatively selective for lignin without damaging fibre. Optimum pH (4.5-3.5) and
temperature (70 °C) is to be maintained for effective chlorite action. Hydrogen Peroxide
may be more practical for some plant materials because it is less expensive.

Sodium Chlorite 10 % solution at 70 °C is ideal for complete colour removal of pink

Gomphrena flowers in to pure white flowers at 7 hours of immersion. Hydrogen peroxide
30% also takes 7 hours for complete colour removal of Gomphrena.

(3) Dyeing

Though preserving flowers with their natural colour is more appealing, some plant parts
need artificial dyeing to improve the colour. Systemic dyes are available for use. They are
acidic-anionic dyes, which are combined with water and glycerin to form a preservation
solution that is absorbed by fresh cut flowers and foliage through the stem of the plant. As
the water evaporates, it leaves behind the dye and glycerin for our desired colour.
Normally 1.5 ml to 5 ml dye/l of solution is prepared. Colour take and preservation will
take 2-8 days.
Fower arrangement is an art of arranging flowers in different styles.

Principles of flower arrangement

Emphasis / Focal point Balance Rhythm

Scale / Proportion Harmony and Unity

Emphasis / Focal point

• Central portion of arrangement from where flowers and foliage appear to be

emerging.

• Larger and brighter flowers or flowers with unique shape are suitable as focal
points.

• Focal point draws attention of viewer.

• One focal point is enough for a small arrangement while 3 or more focal

points are important for a large one.

Balance

• A balanced arrangement has a distinct focal point.

• Balance may be symmetrical (geometrical) or asymmetrical.

Scale / Proportion

Achieved by scaling the flowers from the focal point i.e. the smallest buds are

placed farthest from the focal point.

Rhythm

• Rhythm is achieved through colour and gradation (size) of flowers

• The colour may be darkest at focal point and gradually lighter at the rims.
Harmony and Unity

• Blending of all the components is called harmony

• It is created when all the parts of the design blend together to form a
single idea

• It is created by repetition of the components in the arrangements.

DISTILLATION OF ESSENTIAL OIL
1. WATER DISTILLATION
This is simple method in which plant material is distilled comes in direct contact
with boiling water in a distillation unit. This method is advantageous for certain
material when they are in powered form. But this method is not good for material
containing saponifiable or high boiling point constituents.
Delicate flowers such as roses and orange blossoms would clump together when
introduced to steam in the distillation process. The water protects the extracted oil
from overheating. The condensed liquids cool down and separate from each other.
The remaining water, which can sometimes be fragrant, is referred to by several
names including hydrolate, hydrosol, herbal water, essential water, floral water, or
herbal distillate.

Water distillation for essential oil extraction

2. STEAM DISTILLATION PROCESS

A large container called a Still, which is usually made of stainless steel, containing the plant
material has steam added to it. Through an inlet, steam is injected through the plant
material containing the desired oils, releasing the plant's aromatic molecules and turning
them into vapor. In this method steam does not penetrate the cell membranes and the
essential oil i vapouried only after diffusing out as an aqueous solution through the cell
membrane. The vaporized plant compounds travel to the condensation flask or the
Condenser. Here, two separate pipes make it possible for hot water to exit and for cold
water to enter the Condenser. This makes the vapor cool back into liquid form. The
aromatic liquid by-product drops from the Condenser and collects inside a receptacle
underneath it, which is called a Separator. Because water and oil do not mix, the essential
oil floats on top of the water. From here, it is siphoned off. Quality of oil is also good in this
method. (Some essential oils are heavier than water, such as clove essential oil, so they are
found at the bottom of the Separator.)

Steam distillation for essential oil extraction

 3. SOLVENT EXTRACTION :-
This method employs food grade solvents like
hexane and ethanol to isolate essential oils from plant material. It is best suited for
plant materials that yield low amounts of essential oil, that are largely resinous, or
that are delicate aromatics unable to withstand the pressure and distress of steam
distillation. This method also produces a finer fragrance than any type of distillation
method.
•
Through this process, the non-volatile plant material such as waxes and pigments, are also
extracted and sometimes removed through other processes. Once the plant material has
been treated with the solvent, it produces a waxy aromatic compound called a "concrete."
When this concrete substance is mixed with alcohol, the oil particles are released. The
aforementioned chemicals used in the process then remain in the oil and the oil is used in
perfumes by the perfume industry or for aromatherapy purposes.

Definitions

1. Cut Flower: Cut flowers are fresh flower harvested in clusters / spike or in
single along with their stem.

2. Economic Flowers: Economical flowers are those flower crops which are
grown on a commercial scale as field crops in certain selected areas of the State
for large supply of flowers to market.

3. Loose Flowers: The flowers which are usually harvested without stalk and
used for Gajara, Veni and Garland.

4. Floriculture: It is a aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with growing,

selling designing and arranging flowers and foliage plant.

5. Commercial Floriculture: This branch deals with the cultivation of economic

flowers like Rose, Jasmines, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, Tuberose etc.
production of cut flowers and gift plants.

6. Vase Life of Flowers: How long the flowers kept in the containers remain fresh
is referred as vase life of flowers.

7. Landscape Gardening: It consists of planning and arrangement of home

gardens. Public garden for bio – aesthetic purpose.
 8. Ornamental Horticulture: It refers to the study of various groups of
ornamental plants which are used to decorate indoor and outdoor gardens.

9. Bio-aesthetic Planning: It refers to the proper utilization of the available flora

and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings.

10.Photo Period: The duration of light during the course of day is called as

photo period.

11. Long Day Plant: The plants which require long light period combined with short dark
period to form flower bud and termed as Long day plants e.g. China aster, Calendula.

12. Short Day Plants: The plants which need short light periods combined with long dark
periods to form flower bud is known as Short day plants e.g. Cosmos, Chrysanthemum.

13. Day Neutral Plant: The plants which flower any time irrespective of the number of
dark or light period are known as day neutral plant e.g. Tuberose, Carnation, Dianthus
etc.

14. Aroid: A plant belonging to the Arum Family and including anthuriums, diefenbachias,
monsteras and philodendrons.

15. Corm: A specialized underground organ consisting of enlarged stem axis

with distinct nodes and intenodes and enclosed by dry, sale leaves.
16. Bulb: A specialized underground plant organ consisting of a greatly reduced stem
(basal plate) surrounding by fleshy, modified leaves called scales.

17. Bract: Modified leaf, often brightly coloured, which subtends a flower, or which
enfolds an inflorescence.

18. Rhizome: A rhizome is a subterranean sfem that arises from a lateral bud from the
main stem at ground level and extends underground near the surface-horizontally.

19. Tubers: Tubers are short, thickened parts of subterranean branches, which store
large quantities of plant food, mainly starch. Tubers contain buds in the axils of the reduced
leaves.

20. Sucker: Some plants have capacity to produce new stems from the adventitious
buds formed on their roots, such new growth are called suckers.
21. Garden : A garden may be defined as an area embellished with plants, a valuable
and pleasurable adjunct to a house. OR A garden or an ornamental garden is a
place where plants are arranged in an aesthetic manner.

22. Medicinal Plants : Medicinal plants are those plants rich in secondary metabolites
and are potential sources of drugs. These secondary metabolites include alkaloids,
glycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, steroids etc.3-5 in Kharif and Rs. 5-10/spike in
Rabi/Summer.

23. Essential Oil: Complex mixture of odoriferous steam volatile compounds, which are
deposited by plants in sub-cuticular spaces, granular hairs, cell organelles, excretory
cavities, canals and heart wood.

24. Dry flowers : refer to dried or dehydrated flowers or plant part or botanicals (roots,
leaves, stem, bark or whole plant) that can be used for ornamental purposes.

26. Flower bouquet is a collection of flowers in a creative arrangement. 27. Ikebana is the
Japanese art of flower arrangement.

28. Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the
micro climate surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as per the
requirement of the vegetable species grown during their period of growth.

Best of luck