INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY:

 Geology Defined:
The science of the earth as a whole; its composition, origin, structure, and history.
The science that deals with the history of the earth and its life especially as recorded in rocks.
The study of the solid matter of a celestial body (such as moon)
Explain:
 In a broadest sense, geology is the study of Earth, its interior and exterior surface; the
rocks and other materials that are around us; the processes that have resulted in the
formation of these materials, the water that flows over the surface and lies
underground.
 It is a science that deals with nature and Earth’s history. The study of rocks and stones.
The structure of a specific region of the Earth including its rocks, soils, mountains,
fossils and other features.
 Geoscience or Earth science – is the study of the structure, evolution and dynamics of
the Earth and its natural mineral and energy resources.
 Importance of Geology:
Geological knowledge not only is important because of the science in itself. But has a multitude
of practical approach. The explanation of natural resources (ores, oil, gas and water), the
understanding and prediction of natural disasters (earthquakes and tsunamis), volcanic
eruptions.

 Benefits of studying Geology:

Predicting the behaviour of Earth system and the universe
Finding adequate supplies of natural resources, such as ground water, petroleum and metals
Conserving soils and maintaining agricultural productivity
Developing natural resources in ways that safeguard the environment

 Importance of Geology to Man:

Energy sources and sustainability, climate change, the impacts of development on the
environment, water management, mineral resources and natural hazards.

 Why do we study Geology?

To make new discoveries and learn more about the world around us
Study of climate change and how society needs to change to improve the earth’s future
By switching from fossils fuels to geothermal energy and other renewable sources, we can
reduce our carbon emissions and the effects of global warming.
Understanding the mechanical properties of soils, help us evaluate risks for landslides and
identifying zones that are prone to risks
Study the movement of groundwater underneath our feet supports, drinking water protection
from pollution.

 Importance of Geologic processes on Earth

Help to create many iconic features on earth, processes such as plates tectonic, are what
shapes of the earth

 Importance of Geology in Engineering

Engineering geology helps ensure a safe and cost-effective design for construction projects.
Gathering geological information for a project site is important in the planning, design and
construction phase of an engineering project.

 Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering

Geology provides knowledge about the site used in the construction of the buildings, dams,
tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
Geology helps to identify areas susceptible to failure due to geological hazards such as
earthquake, landslides, weathering effects, etc.
 How does Geology help the Environment
Environmental geologist help prevent and prepare damage to our nation’s wetlands, streams,
rivers and shorelines.
Environmental geologist also helps to create the wetlands and stream channels to replace
those lost to development. Healthy streams and rivers support endangered salmons and other
wildlife.

 Importance of learning Geology in the Civil Engineering profession

the local geology of an area is important when planning a major construction. The full
knowledge of geology increased the strength, stability and durability of civil engineering
projects. Keywords: rocks, reservoirs, tunnel, earthquake and tsunami

 Importance of Geology in Architecture

Geology is obviously one of the most important factors in construction since construction takes
place at the surface or below the surface. Here, geology has an important influence on most
construction since it helps determine their nature, form and cost.

 Importance of Geology in Structural Engineering

To understand as it helps them properly plan a project when considering the design location
and other important geological factors
It helps ensure a safe and cost-effective design for construction projects
Gathering geological information for a project site is important in the planning, design and
construction phase of an engineering project
Conducting a detailed geological survey of an area before commencing a project will reduce the
overall cost of the project.
Concern fundamental problems in dams, bridges, and other buildings are typically directly
related to the geology of the area where they were constructed.

 The need for an understanding Geology

For quality control of construction materials such as sand and gravel or crushed rocks, an
engineer with geological background is needed
In tunneling, the knowledge of the nature of the rocks in a specific area is necessary to
determine the stability of cuts and slopes.
Geological maps also help in planning projects. If geological fractures such as faults, joints,
beds, folds or channels are encountered, suitable remedies should be incorporated. Geological
maps provide information regarding the structural disposition of rock types in a proposed area.
Topographic maps are essential for understanding the advantages and disadvantages of all
possible sites.
Hydrological maps provide information regarding the distribution of surface water channels and
the occurrence and depth contour of ground water.
Knowledge of ground water is necessary for excavation works.

 Branches of Geology:
Physical Geology – study of the surface of the earth and the processes which control its form.
Petrology – the study of rocks, and mineralogy and crystallography, dealing with minerals and
crystals.
Geochemistry – is concerned with the distribution of the elements through the earth and with
the laws, governing this distribution.
Geophysics – is the study of the physical properties of the earth and of the forces which affect
it.
Structural geology – deals with the structure of the earth and the
Stratigraphy or historical geology – the historical record preserved in the rocks of the crust.
Geochronology – study of the geological time.
Palaeonthology – deals with the remains of plants and animals preserved in the rocks.
 Palaeobotany – is the branch of palaeonthology concerned solely with fossil plants
 Micropaleontology – deals with the smaller forms of fossil life, principally with
foraminifera
 Palaeoncology – is concerned with the habitat of fossil faunas and the influence of the
environment on life in the past.
Note: The practical applications of geology have led to the study of mining geology, r the study
of mineral deposits and of the means by which they can be found, and of engineering geology.
  The science of soil mechanics deals with the behavior of unconsolidated material,
such as SAND or CLAY, under the various loads and conditions imposed by building
and engineering works.
 There is the work of water supply geologist, concerned with the distribution and use of
underground water as HYDROGEOLOGY.

 What is the main goal of engineering geology?

What is the Main Goal of Engineering Geology? Engineering geology seeks to identify
potential geologic hazards that could affect human-made structures or urban
developments.

 How does geology affect construction?

Geology is obviously one of the most important factors in construction since construction takes
place either at the surface or below the surface. Hence, geology has an important influence on
most construction operations since it helps determine their nature, form, and cost.
 ABOUT EARTH AND FORMATION OF SOIL

 Core - the inner core -- a solid rubber - purely solid - with a temperature of 8000 degrees
 Crust – about 10 to 30 to 40 miles thick -- made up of huge plates continually moving slowly -- few
inches a year -- They move because they are floating on molten, or melted, rock called magma
 Mantle – layer of different rocks – solid -- if under pressure it will move slowly and change its shape --
depth is 1,800 miles
 Outer core – liquid
Note: No scientific instrument has penetrated more than 2 or 3 miles into the earth.

 Main layers that Form the Earth:

 The Earth’s Crust is a thin hard outer shell of rock. Under the crust, there is a deep layer of hot soft
rock called the Mantle.
 The Crust and Upper Mantle can be divided into 3 layers according to their rigidity:
The Lithosphere is the upper, rigid layer of the Earth
 Consists of the crust and the top of the mantle about 100 km thick.
The asthenosphere, below the lithosphere, in the Earth’s mantle, is the hot, soft rock of the
asthenosphere:
 This boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere occurs at the point
where temperatures climb above 1300oC.
The mesosphere is the solid part of the earth’s mantle lying between the asthenosphere and
the core.
The bulk of the Earth is made from iron, oxygen, magnesium and silicon. More than 80 chemical
elements occur naturally in the Earth and its atmosphere.

 Mostly Earth is composed of three parts:

Crust
Mantle (upper and lower)
Core
 The Earth’s Crust is a thin layer of rock that floats on the mantle. It is made mostly from Oxygen and
Silicon.
Silicate minerals such as quartz, with aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
titanium and traces of 64 pother elements.
 The Upper mantle is made up of iron and magnesium silicates.
 The Lower mantle is mostly silicon and magnesium sulfides and oxides
 The core is mostly iron, with little nickel and traces of sulfur, carbon, oxygen and potassium.
The outer core is so hot (4500oC – 6000oC) that is always molten.
 The inner core is even hotter (up to 7000oC) but it stays solid because the pressure is 6000
times greater than on the surface.
 Earth’s Mass Distribution:
Inner core = 1.7% of the Earth’s mass
Outer core = 30.8%
Core – mantle boundary = 3%
Lower mantle = 49%
Upper mantle = 15%
Ocean crust = 0.099%
Continental crust = 0.374%
 Elemental Composition of the Earth’s Crust
99% of the earth’s crust by weight is made up of just
eight elements:
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminum
Iron
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium

Rock Cycle:

Three kinds of rocks:

 Igneous rocks – a fire-made -- formed from a hardening of magma

 Basalt – volcanic origin -- sometimes called traprock -- stones that are usually crushed
used for surfaces of the road
 Granite – from fire or heat -- most widely used as building stone because of strength and
endurance
 Sedimentary – “settling” -- layers of sand, gravel, mud and sediment
 (ex. Sandstone, limestone, shale)
 Metamorphic – ‘made over” -- these are stone that one time igneous or sedimentary but which were
changed into different form by forces such as heat and pressure…
 Ex.. marble, slate and quartzite.
 Marble – one of the hardest of all stones
  Limestone – one of the softest
 Slate – from layers of compressed shale and clay
 Quartzite – one of the hardest rocks

 Formation of Soil
Soil is a combination of bits of rocks, or minerals, and organic matter. The organic matter
comes from organisms both dead and alive. Dead animals, plants or leaves decay. The process
of decaying or decomposition allows important nutrients to return to the soil. A nutrient is
something that organisms need to grow or be healthy.

For this reason, many people compost. Composting adds nutrients from decaying organic
matter into the soil which allows plants to be strong. Nutrients can also be added to the soil with
chemical fertilizers or natural fertilizers. Manure, animal excrement, is a quite common natural
fertilizer. Excrement is a word for the waste from food that has gone completely through the
digestive system.