Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00751-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Rethinking the sustainability of rural water delivery

under the community ownership and management model
Godwin Kotoku1 · Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi2

Received: 1 March 2022 / Accepted: 20 August 2022 / Published online: 7 September 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
Community ownership and management (COM) is, without a doubt, a viable alternative for rural water management. How-
ever, the extent to which communities control their water supply infrastructure in terms of engaging in crucial decisions and
the performance of all stakeholders along the service delivery chain—from national to community levels—continues to be
a challenge. The goal of this research is to add to the conversation on COM by clarifying the paradigm and its implications
for the long-term viability of rural water services. It is also expected to spark debate in the rural water sector and, in turn,
influence a revision of the National Community Water and Sanitation Programme to reflect current needs. The study looked
at how the COM model of rural water provision was implemented. Using focus groups and surveys, the study used a non-
probability purposive sample technique to identify stakeholders at the regional, district, and community levels. The paper
discovers and suggests that COM has been the least responsive to rural water service sustainability. In actuality, at all stages
of the delivery chain, there is a flagrant disregard for clearly stated functions in sector manuals. Regional and district players
face logistical challenges, while community service providers struggle with governance, technical operations, and financial
management. For effective and efficient management of water systems, more needs to be done by key stakeholders, including
greater capacity support and oversight of service providers' activities, as well as engagement with partners.

Keywords Sustainability · Small town water systems · Service delivery and responsiveness · Community ownership and
management · Water sanitation and management teams · Ghana

Abbreviations NCWSP National Community Water and Sanitation

COM Community ownership and management Programme
CWSA Community Water and Sanitation Agency NCWSS National Community Water and Sanitation
DRA Demand-responsive approach Strategy
DiMES District Monitoring and Evaluation System O&M Operations and Maintenance
Das District assemblies PIM Project Implementation Manual
DOM District Operational Manual SDA Supply-driven approach
FMP Facility management plan SDG Sustainable development goal
L.I. Legislative Instrument WSMTs Water and Sanitation Management Teams
MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District
Assemblies
Introduction

Sustainability entails addressing our own demands without

* Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi jeopardising future generations' ability to meet their own
[email protected] (Brundtland 1987). Indeed, within the boundaries of a finite
Godwin Kotoku ecosystem, sustainability is defined as an efficient and equi-
[email protected] table distribution of resources intra-generationally and inter-
1 generationally, as well as the operation of socio-economic
Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Northern Region,
Tamale, Ghana activities (Stoddart et al. 2011; Mensah 2019). On the flip
2 side, sustainability is defined as a dynamic equilibrium in
Pemcoa Consult, Accra, Ghana

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the process of interaction between a population and its envi- Finally, for establishing and maintaining water service
ronment's carrying capacity, in which the population devel- delivery, institutional strengthening and human resource
ops to its full potential without causing irreversible adverse capacity development are critical (Kumasi et al. 2022). In
effects on the environment on which it depends (Ben-Eli the face of global climate change, water resources have
2015). become a finite commodity that must be wisely managed
Sustainability is commonly characterised in the context of and exploited in an environmentally sustainable manner to
the rural water sector as "whether or not anything continues satisfy the needs of current and future generations.
to work overtime," in this case, whether or not water con- The National Community Water and Sanitation Pro-
tinues to flow over time (Brikké 2002; Lockwood and Smits gramme (NCWSP) in Ghana chose the service delivery
2011). Any strategy for achieving sustainability should be method as one of its key principles to ensure that facili-
socially desired, economically viable, and environmentally ties are operated, maintained, repaired, expanded, and
sound (Thomas 2015). Certain concepts support the social, upgraded in a sustainable manner throughout their design
economic, and environmental soundness of sustainability life and beyond (CWSA 2014a). The COM, as embodied in
(Loukola and Kyllönen 2005). The factors essential to the the NCWSP, requires the division of the tasks of the Water
long-term viability of rural water systems are depicted in Sanitation and Management Teams (WSMTs) into three
Fig. 1. primary components: governance, financial, and technical,
The solution to the problem of providing safe drinking in order for systems to function sustainably. These are the
water to small communities has three equally important broad categories in which the WSMTs' functions are clas-
elements, according to the National Research Council sified. This corresponds to the three sustainability pillars.
(1997): (1) providing affordable water treatment tech- The study follows the Community Water and Sanita-
nologies, (2) creating the institutional structure necessary tion Agency (CWSA) definition of sustainability, which
to ensure the financial stability of water systems, and (3) states that a system is sustainable if it provides reliable and
improving programmes to train small system operators high-quality water in sufficient quantity over the system's
in all aspects of water system maintenance and manage- design life (CWSA 2010). To ensure sustainability, the
ment. These three factors embody the three pillars of sus- system must be adequately designed and all operational
tainability in that delivering affordable water treatment and maintenance requirements must be met, implying
technology entails a social sustainability commitment to that: (a) communities ensure the setting and payment of
provide appropriate and affordable water services to all adequate tariffs, and that the systems are managed in a
members of the community. Second, viable institutions, transparent and accountable manner; and (b) the CWSA
including competent management structures and support regional offices and Metropolitan, Municipal and District
agencies in the case of rural water, with appropriate devel- Assemblies (MMDAs) ensure effective community man-
oped capability to economically administer and operate the agement of the systems by monitoring and advising on the
systems through monies mobilised to assure sustainability. systems (CWSA 2010).

Fig. 1  Principles of sustainabil-

Systems thinking
ity source: authors’ construct
•An understanding of the environment, the economy, and society as a whole.
•The interconnections serve as the foundation for long-term sustainability.

Concern for equity and fairness

•In all decision-making processes, ensure the rights and advantages of the impoverished and
marginalised in society, as well as future generations.

Public participation
•Public access to natural resource information, as well as the right of the public to participate
in environmental decision-making.

Partnership
•All parties in the decision-making process, including government agencies, NGOs, opinion
leaders, and community members, must work together effectively.

Good governance
•In place is a transparent and accountable governance framework.

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Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164 Page 3 of 15 164

Demand‑responsive approach to rural water supply 2009). In other words, DRA enables a community to initi-
ate, select, and implement a water system that it is willing
Prior to the declaration of the UN World Water Decade and capable of maintaining. With a focus on community
(1981–1990), rural water provision was primarily based on ownership, cost recovery, and devolution of power, sus-
the supply-driven approach (SDA). Under this approach, tainability became the bedrock of this policy shift. Several
central governments were primarily responsible for rural works of literature detailing incidents of a lack of financial
water supply, and no pre-conditions were imposed on com- resources, inaccessible information on applying for a water
munities prior to safe water provision (Naiga et al. 2015). supply facility, and a lack of critical community organising
This approach reduced community members to passive skills generally support the idea that DRA implementation in
recipients of water supply facilities and observers of their Ghana's rural water supply sub-sector is lacking (Sun et al.
development. 2010; Moriarty et al. 2013; Osumanu et al. 2022).
According to Breslin (2003), the SDA was riddled with Figure 2 shows the DRA framework, which depicts the
issues that hampered the long-term viability of the model's principles of long-term water service delivery. Breslin
water supply facilities. These challenges include: (1) govern- (2003) emphasises the importance of communities demand-
ments or donors frequently identifying suitable projects with ing better services, taking the lead in the project, and choos-
little or no community involvement; (2) only one technology ing the facilities they want and how they wish to govern
option was available to communities without considering them.
their social, organisational, and technical means of sustain- This viewpoint is in line with the Community Water and
ing these technology options; (3) responsibility for water Sanitation Agency's Project Implementation Manual (PIM)
point siting was frequently dependent on local politics rather (CWSA 2014b), which emphasises the importance of putting
than water issues; and (4) communities were told to form the community at the centre of water provision.
committees of many males and females to address water While the SDA ensures that equity and the right to safe
issues. Alternatives were not considered, and as a result, the water are "guaranteed," the DRA places pre-conditions on
committees were ineffective, affecting the functionality of service provision, which runs counter to the Ghana National
water supply systems invariably (McLaughlin and Kazooba Water Policy's goals (Government of Ghana 2007). The
2015; Naiga et al. 2015). requirement of communities contributing a percentage of
The Dublin principles were critical in refocusing global capital expenses presents a considerable challenge to the
attention on water as a social and economic good. This equality principle, as community capacity varies signifi-
prompted a paradigm shift in focus from an overly supply- cantly. Mandara et al. (2013) and Chowns (2015) argued
driven model that was financially unsustainable and deprived briefly for the viability of influencing policy orientations
the poor of water to the demand-responsive approach (DRA) and sectoral reforms in developing nations, despite major
to rural water supply (World Bank 1998). Potential water differences in commitment to and capacity for DRA
infrastructure beneficiaries are involved in the process of implementation.
selecting, implementing, and ultimately financing long-term The determination of "willingness and ability to sustain
water service delivery in the DRA model (Whittington et al. water supply facilities" is a crucial element of DRA, but it

Fig. 2  Characteristics of the

DRA (adapted from Breslin Communities must initiate the
2003) process by approaching the district/
government or other agencies Communities are responsible for
the scheme’s operation and
Communities must contribute maintenance
towards their project

Demand-
Responsive
Approach

Local people must

Local capacity must be built
participate in all decision
over time to manage the
system making

Communities own the

system

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has not been effectively addressed in the Ghanaian context. delivery in Ghana under community ownership and man-
The requirement for 1-year operations and maintenance agement has become critical (COM).
(O&M) financing placed in the community bank account is
stated in the CWSA sector guidelines CWSA (2014b).
Capital cost contribution, as defined by Breslin (2003), Community ownership and management
is an important component of DRA since it reflects a com-
munity's financial and organisational capacity to maintain The National Community Water and Sanitation Pro-
its water points. In theory, it addresses two major concerns: gramme was established in Ghana as a result of the institu-
first, community interest and ownership, in that by actively tional reforms that accompanied the UN World Water Dec-
participating and contributing, communities are prioritising ade, with a strategy developed simultaneously to provide
water supply over other competing needs, and second, organ- a blueprint for its attainment. These changes resulted in
isational capacity, as evidenced by their ability to mobilise the re-alignment of major institutions in the sector, includ-
resources on their own (Cleaver and Toner 2006; Mandara ing the designation of CWSA as the agency in charge of
et al. 2013; Hope 2015). Some argue that the above-men- implementing the NCWSP in 1998 (Government of Ghana
tioned laws violate the principle of justice and keep popu- 2007; Kumasi 2019). The DRA is one of the pillars of the
lations reliant on contaminated water sources, which have NCWSP, which aims to achieve sustainable rural water
health repercussions (Fielmua 2011). supply services. As a result, DRA complements the COM
This principle of community contribution as a determi- model as a paradigm for rural water supply management
nant of willingness and ability to sustain water supply infra- in Ghana.
structure has been at the mercy of projects and politicians The MMDAs have legal ownership of rural and small
in the strict sense of the DRA. For example, the Sustainable town water delivery infrastructure, which they retain
Rural Water and Sanitation Project (2008–2015), funded in trust for the benefiting communities (CWSA 2014c;
by the World Bank's International Development Associa- Kumasi et al. 2019) (Fig. 3). COM is a technique that
tion and implemented by CWSA in six Ghanaian regions, empowers communities to campaign for water and sanita-
included a provision requiring community contributions tion services through true partnerships (Fielmua 2011).
(Kotoku 2017). The absence of this provision in all sector The DRA established the notion of communities owning
manuals of the CWSA (PIM, District Operational Manual and administering their water infrastructure, which is illus-
(DOM), National Community Water and Sanitation Strat- trated in the COM (Mulenga and Fawcett 2003). Commu-
egy (NCWSS), and Legislative Instrument (L.I.) 2007) is nity ownership and management, according to Maganga
striking. and Butterworth (2002), is a means of attaining sustain-
A distinguishing feature of the DRA that contradicts the ability through community investment and dedication to
provisions of the PIM is that users are permitted to select their programmes, specifically through village water com-
from a variety of technology options tailored to communi- mittees. According to CWSA (2014c), these local water
ties' willingness to pay (Garn 1998). The technology options committees are the Ghanaian Water and Sanitation Man-
advocated in CWSA (2010, 2014a and b) have been pre- agement Teams.
determined, and the options available to communities are RWSN (2010) observed that the assumptions underlying
based more on their settlement classification, projected the COM have often proved to be myths and are based on
population size, and the number of people served by each cultural idealisation of rural communities (Harvey and Reed
technology option than on communities' willingness and 2007). Moriarty et al. (2013) argued that, ‘not principally
ability to pay for and maintain these systems. As Mulenga because community management has failed, but because it is
and Fawcett (2003) point out, this places some constraints reaching the limits of what can be realistically achieved in an
on communities. A distinguishing feature of the DRA that approach based on informality and voluntarism’. This brings
contradicts the provisions of the PIM is that users are per- to the fore the provisions of COM concept which places this
mitted to select from a variety of options. responsibility squarely before WSMTs with some level of
The benefits of the DRA in terms of increased sustain- external support (Cleaver and Toner 2006; Mandara et al.
ability of rural water infrastructure are significant, but 2013). The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the dis-
major challenges remain in its implementation, particu- course on COM by further elucidating the paradigm and its
larly in terms of financing arrangements, institutional implications for rural water service sustainability. The paper
capacity, and political will (World Bank 2017). Despite its first examines the state and responsiveness of COM model
revolutionary status, as Whittington et al. (2009) empha- to sustainability of rural water service delivery in Central
sise, much remains to be learned about its practicality in Gonja district. Second, it explores the role and challenges
diverse cultures, particularly in Ghana. In this context, a of Water and Sanitation Management Teams in delivering
better understanding of the sustainability of rural water sustainable rural water services in the district.

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Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164 Page 5 of 15 164

Fig. 3  Institutional relation-

ships within the Community
Water and Sanitation sub-sector
Source: CWSA (2014c)

Water and sanitation management teams the WSMTs in the performance of their duties. Water service
supply is costly, necessitating the establishment of tariffs and
CWSA (2010, 2011 and 2014b) encourages communities to revenue mobilisation to manage these systems when they
own and manage their water supply infrastructure through fail. Ensuring the systems' economic viability is critical to
a gender-balanced WSMT that is in charge of mobilising their continued operation. When implemented, the system
support and action for the community's facility management must be self-sustaining. The WSMT's technical functions
plan's (FMP) O&M activities. For day-to-day operational include keeping the system running in an environmentally
tasks, the gender-balanced WSMT in charge of small town friendly manner.
systems is required to hire operating employees. Systems
manager, technical operator, accounts officer, revenue col-
lector, security workers, and vendors are examples of typical
operating staff as defined by the PIM (CWSA 2014b). Except Methodology
for security employees and vendors, the CWSA standards
stipulate that the minimum qualification for these operat- Study area
ing staff is a higher national diploma. Unlike small town
systems, handpumps are handled directly by the WSMTs The Central Gonja district, which has a population of 87,877
without the need for an operating crew. people and covers around 7555 square kilometres of territory
The WSMTs have a threefold mission: to ensure the water in northern Ghana (Fig. 4), is located in the south-western
systems' overall administrative, technical, and financial sus- section of the country (Ghana Statistical Service 2013). The
tainability to safeguard long-term water service delivery, as district has 74 handpumps, 12 small town water systems,
outlined in the CWSA—Sector Guidelines (CWSA 2010). 33 WSMTs for handpumps, and 11 WSMTs for small town
The governance challenge include putting in place a gen- systems (Kotoku et al. 2015). A total of nine WSMTs are
der-balanced WSMT that is free of political and chieftaincy directly responsible for the day-to-day operation and main-
influence and works in the best interests of the poor, vulner- tenance of the small town water systems; one WSMT has
able, and community at large in a socially acceptable man- hired a private operator, while the other has a framework
ner. The District Works Department (DWD), which is above in place but it does not meet CWSA requirements (Kotoku
the WSMTs at the district level, offers technical support to et al. 2015).

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Fig. 4  Map of Central Gonja District

Poor water quality, high non-functionality of handpumps, framework, which is based on national norms and stand-
and small town systems, all of which accounted for 53% and ards for rural water delivery (CWSA 2014d) (Table 1).
11% of the study district's difficulties, respectively (Kotoku The service provider indicators reflect how well
et al. 2015). Lack of maintenance and repair services, insuf- WSMTs adhere to the COM model's norms and stand-
ficient financial resource mobilisation for O&M, insufficient ards when performing their tasks in service operation,
monitoring support, and poor performance of WMSTs have maintenance, and administration (Kumasi et al. 2014). It
all been blamed for high breakdown rates. The district's is thought that if service providers and authorities adhere
water service delivery is low (Kotoku et al. 2015), with none to all of these norms, they would be in a good position to
of the water systems providing a basic service. deliver a long-lasting service. The interviews centred on
questioning district and community stakeholders on the
Framework for monitoring rural and small towns’ WSMTs' compliance or non-compliance with the frame-
water services work described in Table 1.

To evaluate the performance of small town WSMTs,

the study used the CSWA water service monitoring

Table 1  Service provider indicators

Indicators
Management and governance Operations Financial management

A well-composed, trained and gender-bal- Access to spare parts and technical service Positive revenue/expenditure balance
anced WSMT in place within 3 days
Up-to-date financial and operational records Routine maintenance done according to Sound financial management, accounting and
schedule auditing
No political or chieftaincy interference in At least annual water quality testing by certi- Tariff setting takes into account projected costs
WSMT activities fied institute using CWSA tariff setting guidelines

Source: adapted from CWSA (2014d)

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Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164 Page 7 of 15 164

Data collection strategy of the confidentiality of the information they provided, as

well as permission to publish research and selected verbatim
The water and sanitation management teams, the District quotes. Before a discussion, each group member signed a
Assembly (specifically the Works Department), and the consent form, which allowed participants to opt out if the
Community Water and Sanitation Agency Northern Region conditions were deemed unfavourable.
office provided primary data. We evaluated the perspectives
of stakeholders with practical experience who play signifi- Data processing and analysis
cant roles in water service delivery in the district as part
of this study to provide a relevant interpretation of COM The focus group discussion was first written down and tran-
(Table 2). The WSMTs, CWSA, and District Works Depart- scribed. Field notes documented observations made during
ment staff were identified for data collection using a non- the 'environmental scan,' as well as a snippet of information
probability purposive sampling technique. Because of its gleaned from the discussions. The responses were coded,
suitability for exploratory studies, as well as time and cost patterns were identified, and themes were generated and
constraints, non-probability sampling was chosen. carefully reviewed to ensure the data was reliable and valid.
Discussions sparked by a shortlist of themes using Using NVivo software, data were analysed based on con-
Tables 1 and 2, note-taking, observation, and tape record- tent analysis of the issues and consolidated into coherent
ing of subsequent discussions comprised qualitative data findings. The performance of the WSMTs was scored from
collection. Nonverbal data such as facial expressions, body 0 (worst case) to 100 (best case) against nine service pro-
gestures, and variations in volume, pitch, and quality of vider indicators to quantify the qualitative data (Table 1). A
voice provided more detailed description and interpretation benchmark was established for each indicator, indicating the
than verbal data alone (Nyumba et al. 2018). This enabled minimum acceptable level of performance on that indicator.
precise analysis and reporting by comparing data obtained.
The group size ranged from four to six participants, and
each discussion lasted an average of 50 min. This small size Results
allows participants to have in-depth discussions on all issues.
Data collection activities took place between May and June The purpose of this research was to examine the current
of 2017. state of COM in relation to the performance and problems
Standards of confidentiality, ethical approval, and ano- of the players involved in providing sustainable rural water
nymity were strictly followed. Participants were assured services in the Central Gonja District.

Table 2  Research strategy

Research Methods Primary Research focus area

Quantitative Surveys: 11 WSMTs were interviewed on management and governance, opera- Using the framework presented in Table 1
tions and financial management of the systems
Qualitative Survey notes: 11 WSMTs, CWSA and district staff. 11 Focused Group discus- Existence and impact of the COM
sions were held with WSMTs, one each with CWSA and the district concept
Inherent strengths and weaknesses of
COM and justification for COM
The extent of achievement of results and
impact
How to improve the concept in the face of
the SDG 6
Level and effectiveness of community
engagement
Mechanisms in place for community
participation
Provision of technical support to WSMTs
Presence of guidelines which shape and
regulate the activities of the WSMTs
Regulation of activities of the WSMTs
How to improve the performance of the
WSMTs

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Stakeholder’s responsiveness to delivering by CWSA for national-level decision-making, are almost

community ownership and management non-existent. Working gaps between CWSA and DA/
WSMTs were identified throughout the discussions. In gen-
Community water and sanitation agency eral, CWSA is consulted only when a system faces major
technical issues that necessitate their expertise. The DA,
According to the study, COM has been the pivot of rural which serves as a vital link between CWSA and the com-
water service provision for the past two decades, and as a munity, refuses to accept responsibility. In actuality, CWSA
result, CWSA, as the sector lead, formulated all of the guide- plays an important role in the retrieval of these documents
lines and by-laws governing WSMT activities. In addition, (work plan and budget). This is because such data is essen-
the agency created manuals and regulations to help with tial to keep track of the DAs and WSMTs' activities in the
the concept's implementation. The publications aimed to agency's own monitoring and evaluation database (DiMES)
influence rural water service delivery operations and act as and for investment decision-making. Given that the Agency
reference materials for all parties involved. Over the years, is in charge of compiling the country's rural water coverage
the sector documents have been updated to reflect changing estimates, greater effort is required on their part to obtain
patterns in the rural water sub-sector. The lack of review of such critical information.
the NCWSP as the policy drive in terms of its response to The clear mention of facilitation as their main role was
the demands of the sector, as aptly described in the remark a consistent thread running across the numerous accounts
below, is a significant concern they observed. of CWSA participants. Participants' narratives show that
they believe CWSA serves as a supplement to the District
“Unfortunately, after nearly 25 years of implementing
Assemblies.
the provisions of the National Community Water and
Sanitation Programme, we have made no concerted “We have worked with the districts on all of our manu-
effort to re-examine its effectiveness in sustainable als and other pertinent publications that we believe are
rural water service delivery. Systems continue to fail, important to their work. We held dissemination work-
and there are no funds available to repair them. Some shops to make the terms of these documents known
communities' populations have outgrown their sys- to interested parties. We have coordinated training
tems' capacity, yet we continue in vain to build sys- with District Officers when funding have been made
tems and hand them over to the WSMTs who, in some available for specialized community training pro-
cases, lack the technical know-how to manage such grammes. As a result, the issues extend far beyond
sophisticated systems. So, as you can see, we are back programmes and implementation. It is past time for
where we started sooner or later, and the cycle contin- us to take another look at the WSMTs” (CWSA-NR
ues unabated” (CWSA-NR FGDs, 2017). FGDs, 2017).
They believed that it was the responsibility of the districts The implementation of COM has run into problems, such
to enforce the provisions enshrined in the manuals. This, as stakeholders shirking their responsibilities at the national,
they admit, has not occurred as expected due to a number regional, and district levels, which have not been appropri-
of challenges. ately addressed. According to them, this renders the notion
First, non-compliance at the community level may be unresponsive to long-term rural water supply provision. The
due to the limited engagement of WSMTs and some District expectations of the panellists for the concept's success fall
Assemblies (DAs) in the development of sector guidelines short of what is currently happening in the industry. As it is,
and rules. The WSMTs and districts have not been invited COM cannot achieve the norms of increased service levels
to meetings for their opinion, according to the participants. advocated by the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.
As a result, well-crafted documents are produced that are
rarely representative of community circumstances. Sec- District Assembly
ond, WSMTs necessitate continual monitoring and shoring
up, which is typically lacking. Third, according to CWSA, The study discovered that the concept of communities
districts worry about a lack of logistics when it comes to actively determining and managing their water supply infra-
performing their supportive and supervisory tasks in com- structure as their property no longer holds water. Some prob-
munities. All of these issues have gone unaddressed over lems affecting the integrity of the COM concept, according
time, resulting in ineptness. to the district, are inappropriate political meddling and an
There is no structured support for WSMTs at the Agency. unstructured and non-formal recruitment procedure. The
Participants do concede, however, that they provide techni- model, according to the district, falls well short of having the
cal support to districts when needed. Annual reports from anticipated impact on community members' lives in terms of
these systems' activities, which are supposed to be received long-term rural water service delivery.

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When attempts are taken to ensure that things are done This could have a cascading effect on WSMSTs/communi-
correctly, there is a risk of becoming a target for the political ties' rural water supply operations.
party in power. The problem is that these "party boys" lack a The WSMTs had no reporting mechanism with the
good understanding of rural water supply and are unable to district. Annual budgets and work plans for water sys-
run systems properly. Due to the districts apparent untouch- tems, for example, are expected to be developed for the
ability and political parties' abuse of processes, funds gained district's review and approval. Reports on each system's
from water sales are misappropriated, records are sloppy, functionality and service levels should also be generated
and there is no accountability on their part. In anticipation and reported to the district. According to participants,
of these issues, COM offered the option of contracting the none of these things are taking place. “This has never hap-
services of private sector professionals with the necessary pened in this District, at least not while I have been here.
skills and knowledge to manage complex infrastructures. We sometimes have to chase them down to have these
The DA was concerned about a lack of qualified employ- paperwork submitted. They do not even bother to prepare
ees administering the system. They asserted that, while it! The WSMTs are mostly not fond of paperwork” (DA
CWSA has documents outlining who should serve in which FGDs, 2017).
positions on the WSMT, this provision is nullified by the For implementation purposes, the district incorporates
fact that community members must choose and elect their these plans and budgets into their Medium-Term Develop-
representatives. This method is unstructured and infor- ment Plan and Annual Action Plan. Data on functionality
mal, and it will not create the best candidates for the job. and service levels is also fed into the district's DiMES for
Concerns were also raised regarding the work's voluntary reporting to CWSA. This will ensure that WSMT opera-
nature, which makes it nearly impossible for persons with tions are properly supervised and monitored. The lack of
the required qualifications to apply. Responses also suggest this, however, has created a chasm between the district and
that a few times when people with the right skills were hired, the WSMTs.
they ended up cheating the system and abandoning the town. The district's assistance to WSMTs has primarily been on
Participants claim that there are no incentives to motivate an administrative, technical, and financial level. However,
them. the participants recognised that the support is limited due
The district argued for a well-structured WSMT recruit- to the districts' lack of logistical resources. Mpaha, Abuasi,
ing process that included individuals with the necessary and Lito, for example, have asked the district for assistance
qualifications, as indicated in O&M rules (CWSA 2010). All ranging from the purchase of pumps and overhead tanks
posts must be filled on the basis of competence and qualifi- to WSMT training. Due to fiscal concerns, the district was
cations, which must be backed up by contracts. The WSMTs, unable to give the assistance. Despite the fact that the dis-
according to participants, will no longer be in the shadows of trict budgets for this technical, administrative, and financial
politicians and traditional rulers once these are completed. support on an annual basis, funding for implementation are
There will be a higher sense of autonomy and accountabil- essentially non-existent. The meagre resources released are
ity, both of which are essential for long-term water service also inferred from responses to go into capital expenditure
performance. rather than direct support, minor and major maintenance
Trends and technologies in the rural water sub-sector are expenditure. It is indeed worth noting that the vast majority
rapidly changing and communities can no longer play the of WSMT requests to districts are for things classified as
lead role. The breadth and sophistication of these technolo- minor maintenance expenditures, which, according to the
gies, according to the panellists, are beyond the WSMTs' and CWSA DOM, must be paid by the WSMTs.
sometimes district's capacities. This, they claim, leads to a Under COM, the participants thought WSMT operations
situation in which public investments are not appropriately were ineffective. They identified a lack of water quality
managed throughout the design years. As a result, the COM monitoring and analysis, as well as a lack of routine and
model was created to work in conjunction with other meas- preventative maintenance, poor record-keeping, and poor
ures such as a thriving private sector that is responsible for revenue mobilisation, as factors hurting WSMT operations.
providing technical support. However, these provisions have While structures are in existence, it is clear from the debates
not functioned fully, accounting for the current challenges. that these structures are dysfunctional. Some suggest that
Despite the fact that the district recognises the need for the model needs to be completely overhauled to be relevant
closer coordination with CWSA as the technical wing to to current demands. This viewpoint is consistent with the
give constant monitoring support to the systems' function- CWSA's hands-on approach. As an alternative to COM, a
ing, CWSA is perceived as being remote from the district new model involving deeper and practical involvement of
and WSMTs. A discontinuity in the supply chain for COM the CWSA in the business of the water systems was pro-
was also mentioned by participants. The CWSA, the dis- posed. Participants in the district are calling for a hands-on
trict, and the communities have a strained relationship. approach led by CWSA. While district participants advocate

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for a hands-on approach led by CWSA, they were unable implementation. They described multiple problems that
to specify how CWSA's participation should be structured. occurred prior to the total shutdown, as well as community
members' unwillingness to pay for the water they obtain;
Water and sanitation management teams The WSMTs as a result, the WSMT was unable to raise cash to cover
were unable to explain COM as it was defined in the operating costs. Users feel empowered not to pay for water,
NCWSS, and instead saw it as a concept with facilities held according to the WSMTs, because WSMTs are considered
by various communities. Their responses were brief on family members.
all levels of the supply chain, from national to district and In the instance of Fulfuso, the WSMTs determined that
community. They were unaware of the importance of other important traits such as dedication and commitment to work,
stakeholders in COM. Their understanding of the concept trustworthiness, and competence were critical to the water
was restricted to system operation and maintenance. The system's long-term viability. They believed that if CWSA
inability of WSMTs to consider COM as beginning with the took on the job of recruiting staff, the right people with the
design and selection of appropriate technology solutions for necessary expertise and skill set would be put in control of
a community was a recurring theme throughout their com- the systems management.
ments. The WSMTs believe that decisions on which sys-
tems to supply, how many to give, and where to locate such
facilities are mostly made outside of their control. This is a Exploring the performance of water and sanitation
significant deviation from the concepts of COM, which calls management teams
for active community participation at all stages of project
development. Communities have become dumping grounds Except for Fufulso, operating a WSMT with a private
for water facilities as a result of their responses, which could operator in charge of day-to-day operations, the systems are
account for the management issues. None of the WSMTs all under the direct administration of WSMTs. All of the
mentioned community participation, which is an important WSMTs' water systems had at least one severe malfunction,
component of COM practise. according to the report. Table 3 shows the current state of
Some WSMTs in Sankpala, Fufulso, and Buipe were the water systems.
upbeat about COM's prospects in their communities, citing The Fufulso WSMT power transformer exploded, but
their capacity to organise resources to repair breakdowns as because the facility was within the defect's liability period,
a sign of COM’s effectiveness. it was quickly replaced. They described how they replaced
malfunctioning pumps and broken distribution lines with
“Our pumps had broken down in the past, and we pur-
internally generated resources in Buipe and Sankpala. Unlike
chased new ones. Pumps that cost around $8,571 are
the WSMTs in Mpaha and Sheri, their broken overhead
what we are talking about. It shows that, despite our
tanks and pumps were repaired with the help of a Member
problems, we are progressing” (WSMT FGDs, 2017).
of Parliament. In general, WSMTs with non-functional sys-
In the case of Sankpala, the strategy is effective because tems were concerned about their incapacity to cope with the
of their commitment to ensuring a reliable source of potable huge financial burden imposed by frequent system failures.
water. Tidrope, Kigbirpe, and Lito, on the other hand, were Figure 5 depicts the percentage of WSMTs that fulfil
undecided when asked if the model was effective. However, the standards for various service provider key performance
there are some localities in Sankpala and Buipe that are indicators (Table 1). With the exception of Fufulso, none
not provided by water. Fufulso acknowledged to produc- of the WSMTs matched all of the criteria. Several WSMTs
ing water at a lower capacity than before. The success of in Buipe and Sankpala requested that the district conduct
COM depends on the expansion of systems to give services ongoing technical and financial monitoring to keep them on
to underserved and unserved populations. Several problems their toes. Participants from Sankpala requested the DA's
were noted by Kusawgu, Kikale No. 4, Mpaha, and Abuasi, assistance in extending standpipes to various areas within
rendering the paradigm ineffectual. the village, as well as their willingness to co-finance the
extension work.
“Effective? How? Our folks do not have access to
On the other hand, Sheri, Lito, and Mpaha advocated for
water. Look at the women… they are going to gather
the rebuilding and retraining of WSMTs to keep them rel-
water from the dam, which is also frequented by ani-
evant and solve the difficulties. The WSMTs from Kigbirpe,
mals. Why are we going through this? The District
Abusai, Kikake No. 4, Kusawgu, and Tidrope were unani-
Assembly will be of no assistance to us” (WSMTs
mous in their response: the system should be managed by
FGD, 2017).
a private operator. They did not perceive the WSMTs dem-
Participants from Tidrope, Kigbirpe, and Kusawgu onstrating the expertise needed to deliver long-term water
campaigned for a private operator to fund the system's services.

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Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164 Page 11 of 15 164

Table 3  Status of small town System/Community Status Reason for Breakdown Remarks
water systems in Central Gonja
district Buipe Functioning NA
Fufulso Functioning NA
Sankpala Functioning NA
Kusawgu Broken Down Pump and overhead Tank
Sheri Functioning NA
Mpaha Functioning NA No requisite number
of management
staff
Lito Functioning NA
Tidrope Broken Down Electrical Switch
Abuasi Broken Down Pump
Kikale No. 4 Broken Down Pump
Kigbirpe Broken Down Pump

Source: Field Survey 2017

Fig. 5  Performance of WSMTs

Kigbirpe
in the Central Gonja District Financial
Kikale No. 4 Technical operations
WSMTs in Central Gonja Disrtict

Abuasi Governance/Administrative

Tidrope

Lito

Mpaha

Sheri

Kusawgu

Sankpala

Fufulso

Buipe

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Performance average Score

Discussion however, appears to be at odds with NCWSS rules requir-

ing CWSA to give technical assistance to rural communi-
The WSMTs are established by the NCWSP as conduits ties and small towns in carrying out their mandate (CWSA
between community water systems and the general pub- 2014c).
lic. They have elected community representatives who are The NCWSP's strategic framework comprises eight pil-
tasked with administering and operating water systems on lars in an attempt to move beyond sustainability rhetoric
a daily basis and on behalf of community residents. The and achieve sustainable water service delivery. These pil-
WSMTs' functions are geared to ensure that community lars outline the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders
water services are sustainable. At the pinnacle of this involved in the service delivery chain, from the national to
level are the supportive and backstopping functions of the the local. Each of the pillars is made up of multiple enti-
DA and CWSA in performance monitoring and evalua- ties that work together to achieve the NCWSP's goals of
tion, arbitration, auditing, reviewing of reports and tak- service delivery at the grassroots level (CWSA 2014c). It,
ing actions, and reporting to sector ministry among others on the other hand, falls short of defining clear rules and a
(CWSA 2010). As a result, CWSA's technical assistance useful monitoring mechanism to track the holistic approach
is primarily directed at DAs, who then assist communities to delivering on each of the pillars. In essence, attention
in implementing their O&M functions. This statement, has been concentrated on the local levels—communities and
District Assemblies—rather than the pillars at the national

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164 Page 12 of 15 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164

and regional levels. In this way, rather than the bit-part lens administered by communities (Adank et al. 2013; Cronk and
that is now employed to examine the rural water sector, it Bartram 2017; Kumasi 2018). The Fulfuso water system
should be viewed as a top-down scenario. As a result, ensur- backs up this claim.
ing that all eight pillars indicated are working properly is Lockwood and Le Gouais (2011) recognised adequate
critical to maintaining long-term water service delivery in management capability, tariff recovery, and technological
communities. backstopping as necessary for water services to be sustain-
These data corroborate the claim that WSMTs have a dif- able. The management aspect focuses on the professionalisa-
ficult time obtaining expert assistance if it is not coordinated tion of community-based management structures, as defined
at the national or subnational level or made necessary. Pro- by the following: (1) separation of service functions from
fessional support is a critical factor in the success of com- operational functions, (2) volunteerism in service provision,
munity management and service delivery, according to expe- and (3) strengthening service providers' capacity to imple-
rience (Montangero 2009). The haphazard approach with ment performance-based management and good business
which professional services are provided to these WSMTs, practises, including improving tariff collection by providing
combined with the lack of proper streamlined procedures agreed-upon levels of service to consumers.
to coordinate their services, has a negative influence on The concept of community participation in the Water,
water service delivery. The districts, on the other hand, are Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) project cycle is one of
directly responsible for enforcing the sector standards and the major assumptions supporting the demand-driven COM
by-laws. This viewpoint also supports Braimah and Kheni's paradigm of rural water supply. Community involvement,
(2013) findings that service authorities are failing to fulfil according to Phologane (2014), is a "concept designed to
their regulatory responsibilities. Furthermore, small town ensure that community members are an integral part of
water supply regulations are frequently lacking or ambigu- processes that determine their destination in relation to
ous (Adank 2013; Kumasi 2018). their development needs." The notion permits a commu-
Under COM, the WSMTs' performance is defective. The nity's skills and knowledge to be strengthened, and human
investigation also discovered that the WSMTs' operations resources to be empowered to make decisions and negotiate
are not structured in any way. WELL (1998) adds to this by about their development. The demands of the people engag-
claiming that the structure and capacity of WSMTs have an ing in community participation are critical to the project's
impact on the success of COM. As a result, this situation long-term viability. People's participation in developmen-
shows that the WSMTs have failed to do their duties. In most tal projects, as claimed by Bonye et al. (2013), can foster a
of the study area, the overall result is a mass breakdown sense of belonging and a sense of 'we feeling.' This attitude
of water supply facilities. According to the participants' fosters a sense of ownership over development programmes,
replies, the current framework cannot support rural water ensuring their long-term viability.
service provision. Braimah and Kheni (2013), Moriarty et al. The Project Implementation Manual's community
(2013), Adank et al. (2013, 2014) and Kumasi (2020) have WASH project cycle includes community engagement
all made similar observations. (CWSA 2014b). The standards place the onus on project
The existence of a properly constituted WSMT in charge implementers to actively involve communities in all WASH
of managing the system, as well as the collection of regular efforts. Every stage of the process, from promotion through
water fees, have been related to sustainability in several stud- monitoring and evaluation, should include some amount
ies (Foster 2013; Alexander et al. 2015; Fisher et al. 2015; of community participation. According to CWSA (2014b),
Behnke et al. 2017; Kumasi and Agbemor 2018). Cronk and a maximum of 2 years post-construction phase should be
Bartram (2017) found that high functionality was associated included in the project cycle in order to achieve long-term
with water consumers paying for water rather than as a result sustainability of WASH infrastructure. This time is needed
of system failure. In this view, improving the efficiency of to improve the District Works Department and WSMTs'
WSMTs in providing long-term water services to commu- capabilities in the operations, maintenance, and administra-
nities necessitates an examination of the processes and the tion of installed facilities. In this case, though, the lead role's
quality of staff assigned to such tasks. Rural water system duties must be clearly stated. Opare (2011) demonstrates that
operations demand dedicated and accountable system man- successful COM is more possible if WSMT capability is
agement and technical operators. Montgomery et al. (2009) fully established with external help before taking over man-
argue that one of the most important criteria for improv- agement of water supply systems, and if duties are assumed
ing accountability is to treat rural water as a business and progressively.
invest in building or contracting commercial operational According to Breslin (2003), under the DRA, local peo-
organisations. ple must be involved in all decision-making (on technology,
It is worth noting that studies have shown that water sys- management systems, hygiene, and payment scheme), which
tems run by private operators are more functional than those is in line with the WASH project cycle (CWSA 2014a). The

13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:164 Page 13 of 15 164

project cycle necessitates community participation at the technical and operational data, water quality testing and
local level. The premise is that by involving the community monitoring results. The WSMT should be restructured by
in all phases of the project, there will be more community the CWSA in consultation with the DA's water technical
control, which is linked to increased project effectiveness, wing into a more formalised professional unit. This redesign
as evaluated by construction quality, ongoing management, should include official employee engagement contracts that
and the benefits provided to community members (Isham explain out terms and conditions of employment, as well as
et al. 1995). Community control as espoused in the preced- a reporting system for authorities. This will likely protect
ing studies puts communities in a position where rather than the WSMTs from unwarranted meddling from traditional
passive consumers; communities can actively participate in rulers and politicians, as well as instill professionalism into
the entire process of acquisition and operation of the facili- their operations.
ties (Fielmua 2011).
Acknowledgements We offer our profound gratitude to the staff of
CWSA and Central Gonja District Assembly, Works Department, for
their invaluable contribution towards this work.
Conclusions
Funding No funding was received for conducting this study.
The paradigm has been pushed off its perch by the apparent
lack of practical execution of the principles supported by the Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are
NCWSP and other sector guides, which establish the author- available from the authors upon request.
ity relationships that exist among all COM participants.
First, functions are grossly neglected at all levels of the Declarations
delivery chain. Dereliction of duty is visible at all levels,
Conflict of interest All authors certify that they have no affiliations
from the national to the regional to the district. Both the DA with or involvement in any organisation or entity with any financial
and the WSMTs have not received enough instruction and interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials dis-
sensitisation from the CWSA. This has resulted in a situa- cussed in this manuscript.
tion where key structures along the service delivery chain
are unaware of specific obligations they are responsible for.
Second, the DAs' ability to conduct their supervisory References
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