VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSIT

Y“JNANA SANGAMA” BELAGAVI-590018

INTERNSHIP / PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE REPORT

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of Degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

ARUN MANTHALE

3GN17ME007

Internship carried out at

KG MECH

Hyderabad
Internal Guide External Guide

Prof. Priyanka Mr.Faisal

Mechanical Engineering
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College
2020-2021

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College

2019-2020

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify That The “Internship / Professional Practice Report”

submittedby Mr ARUNKUMAR (3GN17ME007), Student of Guru Nanak

Dev Engineering College, In Partial Fulfillment For The Award of Bachelor

of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of The Visvesvaraya

Technological University, Belagavi, During TheAcademic Year 2020-21.It

is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment

have been incorporated in the report . The Report The Internship

/Professional Practice has been approved as at satisfies the academic

requirements in respect Of Internship/Professional Practice prescribed for the

Said Degree.

Signature of the internal guide signature of the HOD

EXTERNAL VIVA

Name of the examiner signature with date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity, to acknowledge some o the peoples, who have

made a majorcontribution to the development of this internship The

satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any

task would be incomplete without the mentionof the people who made it

possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crowned the efforts

with success.I would like to profoundly thank Management of KG MECH and

especially very grateful to Mr.Faisal manager KG MECH Ltd. for

providing such a healthy environment for thesuccessful completion of

Internship work. I would like to express my thanks to the Principal DR. for

their encouragement that motivated me for thesuccessful completion of

Internship work. It gives me immense pleasure to thank

Miss .Priyanaka Professor and head of our Department

for her constant support and encouragement. Also, I would like to express

my deepest sense of gratitude to my Internship guide PROF.SURESH DABKE

Assistant professors, Department of automobile Engineering For his constant

support and guidance throughout the Internship work. Let, butnot the least, I

would hereby acknowledge and thank my parents who have been a source of

inspiration and also instrument in the successful completion of the Internship

work.
 Table of contents

Topics page no.

Chapter 1: Company profile ……………………………………….

Chapter 2: Introduction of HVAC………………………

Chapter 3: Ventilation System……………………

Chapter 4: HVAC Software………………

Chapter 5: HVAC Drafting………………………….

Chapter 6: Site Installation ………………………………….

Chapter 7: Quantity Survey……………………………………….

 CHAPTER-1

COMPANY PROFILE
 CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION TO HVAC

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is designed to achieve the
environmental requirements of the comfort of occupants and a process. HVAC systems are more
used in different types of buildings such as industrial, commercial, residential and institutional
buildings.

The HVAC Load Calculation Extension by Autodesk, Inc. is a commercial and industrial HVAC
(Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) load calculation software package whose
calculations are based upon the ASHRAE 2005 Fundamentals radiant time series (RTS) method.
The purpose of this software is to provide you with total cooling and heating loads for a building
so that you may properly specify the correct size HVAC equipment (whether it is a packaged
rooftop unit or a boiler). This program is geared specifically toward the HVAC engineer,
architect, design/build mechanical contractor, and building maintenance supervisor.
.
The HVAC Load Calculation Extension uses formulas from the ASHRAE (American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) Handbook of Fundamentals. This
publication compiles the fundamentals of the HVAC, such as methods for calculating peak
cooling and heating loads for buildings.

The HVAC Load Calculation Extension includes the following basic features:

1. Inputs for HVAC system characteristics such as supply cooling and heating temperatures,
ventilation rates, fan characteristics, cooling and heating set points, duct sizing, and
safety factors
2. Inputs for HVAC area (room) characteristics such as wall, window, roof, door, skylight,
and partition areas. In addition, there are inputs for # of people, electrical appliances,
infiltration, lighting, miscellaneous, exhaust, and plenum loads
3. Weather data from over 800 cities throughout the world
4. A complete u-value database for common wall, roof, window, floor, and door types
5. A complete appliance list for determining internal electrical equipment load contributions
6. Many reports including summary, detailed, psychometric, wall/window breakdown, 24-
hour load breakdown, and graphical reports
7. A feature that allows the user to export all inputs and outputs to custom Microsoft Word
and Excel documents
8. Equipment selection
 9. Support for both English (IP) and Metric (SI) units

What are the components of a HVAC system?

Heat Exchanger
Blower Motor
Combustion Chamber
Condenser Coil or Compressor
Evaporator Coil
Thermostat

Air conditioning equipment

INTRODUCTION

Air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of air to more favorable conditions.
The control of these conditions may be desirable to maintain the health and comfort of the
occupants.

TYPE OF AIR-CONDITIONING

Window air-conditioning system 2) Split air-conditioning system 3) Central air-conditioning

system 4) Package air-conditioning system.

1 Window air conditioning system

1 Window air conditioners are one of the most commonly used and cheapest type of air
conditioners.

2 Window air-conditioner units are reliable and simple-to-install solution to keep a room cool
while avoiding the costly construction of a central air system.

2 split air conditioning system

1 The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor, condenser
and expansion valve.

2 The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.

3 central air conditioning systems

1 The window and split air conditioners are used for single rooms or small office spaces.
Further, these small units cannot satisfactorily cool the large halls, auditoriums, receptions areas
etc.

2 The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings, hotels,
theaters, airports, shopping malls etc. are to be air conditioned completely.

4 Package air conditioning system

1 The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between these two
extremes. The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air conditioning
capacities up to 5 tons.

2 The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between these two
extremely The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between these
two extremes.
 Chapter-2
HVAC DESIGN

1 HEAT LOAD CALCULATION

Heat load or heat gain

A building or room gains heat from many sources. Inside occupants, computers, copiers,
machinery, and lighting all produce heat. Warm air from outside enters through open doors and
windows, or as ‘leakage’ though the structure. However the biggest source of heat is solar
radiation from the sun, beating down on the roof and walls, and pouring through the windows,
heating internal surfaces.

The sum of all these heat sources is know as the heat gain (or heat load) of the building, and is
expressed either in BTU (British Thermal Units) or Kw (Kilowatts).

For an air conditioner to cool a room or building its output must be greater than the heat gain. It
is important before purchasing an air conditioner that a heat load calculation is performed to
ensure it is big enough for the intended application.

Heat load calculations

There are several different methods of calculating the heat load for a given area:

Quick calculation for offices

For offices with average insulation and lighting, 2/3 occupants and 3/4 personal computers and a
photocopier, the following calculations will suffice:

Heat load (BTU) = Length (ft.) x Width (ft.) x Height (ft.) x 4

Heat load (BTU) = Length (m) x Width (m) x Height (m) x 141

For every additional occupant add 500 BTU.

If there are any additional significant sources of heat, for instance floor to ceiling south facing
windows, or equipment that produces lots of heat, the above method will underestimate the heat
load. In which case the following method should be used instead.

A more accurate heat load calculation for any type of room or building

The heat gain of a room or building depends on:

The size of the area being cooled
The size and position of windows, and whether they have shading
The number of occupants
Heat generated by equipment and machinery
Heat generated by lighting

By calculating the heat gain from each individual item and adding them together, an accurate
heat load figure can be determined.
Step One
Calculate the area in square feet of the space to be cooled, and multiply by 31.25
Area BTU = length (ft.) x width (ft.) x 31.25

Step Two
Calculate the heat gain through the windows. If the windows don’t have shading multiply the
result by 1.4
North window BTU = Area of North facing windows (m. sq.) x 164
If no shading, North window BTU = North window BTU x 1.4
South window BTU = Area of South facing windows (m. sq.) x 868
If no shading, South window BTU = South window BTU x 1.4

Add the results together.

Total window BTU = North window + South window

Step Three
Calculate the heat generated by occupants, allow 600 BTU per person.
Occupant BTU = number of people x 600

Step Four
calculate the heat generated by each item of machinery - copiers, computers, ovens etc. Find the
power in watts for each item, add them together and multiply by 3.4
Equipment BTU = total equipment watts x 3.4

Step Five
calculate the heat generated by lighting. Find the total wattage for all lighting and multiply by
4.25
Lighting BTU = total lighting watts x 4.25

Step Six
Add the above together to find the total heat load.
Total heat load BTU = Area BTU + Total Window BTU + Occupant BTU + Equipment
BTU + Lighting BTU

Step Seven
Divide the heat load by the cooling capacity of the air conditioning unit in BTU, to determine
how many air conditioners are needed.
Number of a/c units required = Total heat load BTU / Cooling capacity BTU

On line heat gain calculator

Manually calculating the size of air conditioner required can appear to be a complicated task. To
simplify the process we have created an on-line calculator, to access it click on the picture of a
calculator opposite.

Disclaimer.
If you have any doubts about the size of air conditioner required you should contact a reputable
air conditioning engineer.
The above methods of calculation are simplified; factors such as insulation levels and building
construction have been ignored. The above should be considered as an approximate method of
calculation only.

Selection of machine

Machine selection
Abstract the selection of appropriate machines is one of the most critical decisions in the design
and development of a successful production environment. ... This system guides the decision-
maker in selecting available machines via effective algorithms, such as the Analytic Hierarchy
Process (AHP).

Methodology

The goal of the current research is to determine the optimal type and number of machines. To
achieve the goal of the study the following assumptions have been considered:
1. Specialized workers need machines.
2. Mass production is considered.
3. Lost demands are not permitted.
4. The machine depreciation is calculated linearly.
5. Allocation of machines to the workers is based on the Man - Machine Process Chart.
6. Inflation and interest rates are considered to be the same.
7. Output components of a workstation are exactly the entrance parts of the next station.
Then, the following attributes, parameters and decision variables have identified
Attribute

Air Distribution

Introduction
 Air-distribution systems include air handlers, ductwork, and associated components for heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning buildings. They provide fresh air to maintain adequate indoor-
air quality while providing conditioned air to offset heating or cooling loads. Their many
components need to operate in unison to properly maintain desired conditions. They use
relatively large amounts of energy so applying smart operational strategies and good
maintenance practice can significantly reduce energy consumption.

Two major organizations oversee the certification process for these systems:

Air Movement and Control Association (ACMA) publications are the recognized standard for all
products related to air movement such as fans and dampers.

 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association, Inc. (SMACNA)
publications are the recognized standard for fan-casing, plenum and duct construction, and
installation.
Terminal units, the devices located near the conditioned space that regulate the temperature and/
or volume of supply air to the space are described in Operation and Maintenance of Terminal
Units.

Types of Air Distribution Systems

Air-distribution systems fall into two broad categories, constant-volume (CV) and variable-air-
volume (VAV). The following descriptions provide an overview of generic system types
commonly found in larger commercial and institutional buildings.
Constant Volume

Constant-volume systems operate at a constant airflow rate; only temperature varies to maintain
the zone set point. Constant-volume units can be used in single-zone or multizone applications.

A single-duct system provides ventilation and cooling to the conditioned space. Zones requiring
heating may have a heating component in the terminal unit while some rely on a completely
separate system for heating.

A dual-duct system uses a single fan to move air through both cooling and heating coils in the air
handler, distributing the air through separate hot and cold ducts. Depending on the zone
requirements, the air streams may either blend at a terminal mixing box or provide just cooling.

Another constant-volume system is the multizone unit. The multizone unit supplies air to several
zones from a centrally located air-handling unit. Individual zone requirements are met by mixing
cold and warm air through dampers in the air handler. The tempered air is then distributed to the
zones via single ducts.

Variable Volume

The volume of supply air from a VAV air handler varies in response to terminal units' intake of
supply air to maintain zone temperature setpoints. The supply-air fan is controlled to maintain a
static pressure setpoint in the ductwork. In response to a static pressure sensor in the duct,
supply-air volume is regulated in one of three ways: 1) bypass dampers, 2) inlet vanes either
upstream from or inside the supply fan casing, or 3) a variable-speed drive (VSD) on the fan
motor regulating the fan speed.

Variable-volume systems provide ventilation and cooling, usually through a single-duct system.
If necessary, air is heated at the terminal unit.
A variation on VAV design is the underfloor air-distribution system. Low-pressure supply air
moves from the air handler (or supply-air shaft) into an underfloor air plenum. The supply air
then moves directly though the diffusers into the conditioned space or into terminal units that
may add heat to the air before entering the conditioned space. This system uses less fan energy
than an overhead VAV system, and heating and cooling energy are reduced because the supply
air enters the conditioned space at the floor level near the occupants, not mixing with the entire
air volume in the conditioned space as with overhead VAV systems.

Air Handler Equipment Configurations

Air-handling units are characterized by how the air is driven through the tempering coils.

Draw-through units have the tempering coil(s) on the low-pressure or inlet side of the fan. The
air passes through the dampers and filter bank before entering the coils. This minimizes the
distance between the coils and the fan inlet while still providing uniform flow through the coils.
The fan then discharges the air either directly into a duct, or into a plenum with several supply
ducts attached.

Blow-through units are the opposite of the draw-through. The coils are located on the high-
pressure or outlet side of the fan. Because fan-discharge air is turbulent, the coil must be far
enough downstream from the fan to ensure sufficiently laminar air flow for effective heat
transfer. These systems are usually larger than draw-through units. Alternately, a pressure plate
(a perforated sheet-metal plate) can be installed downstream from the fan discharge to ensure
laminar air flow across the coil. This shortens the casing length but causes a significant pressure
drop in the system, increasing energy use.

Packaged Systems

Packaged systems are primarily associated with single-duct systems. They can be "off-the-shelf"
or custom built, and can have many HVAC-system components and configurations. Cooling
 components can include compressors, condensers, and evaporators. (These can also provide
heating if configured for operation as a heat pump). Separate primary heating components may
include a gas furnace or electric resistance coils.

Built-up Systems

Built-up systems tend to be physically larger than packaged systems, assembled onsite from
individual components. They typically contain a cooling coil using chilled water from a central
chiller plant. Heating, if provided, is supplied by hot water or steam coils, usually from a central
hot-water or steam boiler. Some older units have staged electric resistance heat. Built-up systems
contain at least one supply fan for moving the air through the dampers, air filters, and coils, into
the duct system.

For air-handling systems that recirculate some of the supply air (this applies to many large
package units as well), a return-air fan moves the air from the conditioned space back to the air
handler. For air-handling systems equipped with an economizer, a relief-air path is provided to
allow the extra outdoor air introduced by the economizer to exit the building and prevent
problems controlling building pressure.

Key Components of Air Distribution Systems

The key components of air distribution systems are:

 Fans
 Coils
 Filters
 Dampers
 Ducts
Fans

Fans move air by pushing it with impellers (blades) powered by a motor. Pushing the air
increases pressure which is measured in inches of water.

As the air is pressurized, it is heated by friction as it passes through the fan. More heat is added if
the fan motor is located in the air stream. The air temperature can rise from 1 to 5 or more
degrees, depending on the system operating pressure.

The most common fan designs used in HVAC systems are centrifugal and axial.

Centrifugal

With centrifugal fans, air enters the fan housing through the rotor, makes a 90° turn, is captured
by the scroll-shaped housing and fan blades, and forced through the fan discharge. Three types of
centrifugal fans are common in HVAC applications:

 Airfoil: Fans with backward-curved fans and deep airfoil blades. These are the most
efficient centrifugal fans and rotate at higher speeds.
 Backward curved: Fans with flat wheel blades that lean away from the direction the fan
is turning. This design is only slightly less efficient than the airfoil design.
 Forward curved: Fans using small blades that are curved forward in the direction of the
rotation. These are the least efficient of the three centrifugal designs and are used mainly in low-
pressure HVAC applications.
Centrifugal fan

Axial

With axial fans, air moves in a straight path through the propeller-type rotors to produce airflow.
Three types of axial fans are common in HVAC applications:

Vane axial: Fans with fixed, adjustable, or controllable-pitch blades. These are the most efficient
axial fans. Guide vanes in front of or behind the fan blades increase pressure capability and
efficiency. These are direct-drive units without fan belts. Vane axial fans are noisy and usually
require sound attenuation.

Tube axial: Fans typically used where space constraints prohibit use of a centrifugal fan.

Propeller: Fans typically used to move large volumes of air at a low increase in pressure. These
are the least efficient fan design.
Axial fan

Coils

Coils are heat exchangers that transfer energy between the supply-air stream and the energy-
transport medium: water, steam, or refrigerant.

Most coils are made of copper tubing arranged in rows, specifically designed for the amount of
energy transfer required. They may be bare tubes when differential temperatures are high, or
have extended fins where differential temperatures are lower.

Generally, to transfer more energy per cubic foot of air, more rows and fins are required. Adding
rows makes the coil "deeper" and increases the static pressure loss across the coil.

Filters

Air filters are used to prevent airborne particulates from entering and recirculating within a
building, and to protect fans, coils, other downstream equipment and the occupants. Most
contaminants in the air stream are generated internally from occupants by items such as clothing,
 paper dust, and copier toner. External contaminants also contribute particulates to the indoor
environment. For instance, engine exhaust contains a fine soot-like substance. Filters have
various levels of filtration and are classified by ASHRAE Standard 52.2 by MERV (Minimum
Efficiency Reporting Value).

Most air handlers are sized to move air at 300-600 fpm through the filter section. Higher
velocities cause particulates to blow through the filters, reducing their effectiveness. Airflow
through all filter banks should therefore be as uniform as possible to avoid creating areas of high
velocity characteristic of turbulent airflow.

There are three general types of filters:

 Fibrous medium panel: The filter medium has a viscous surface and particulates strike
the medium and stick. These range from the old standard of 30% (MERV 4) to 99.99% HEPA
filters (MERV 15 and up). Sizes vary from 12" square to 24" square.
 Renewable fibrous roll filters: These filters typically use MERV 4 filter material on
rolls. A differential-pressure sensor activates a small motor that rolls the filter across the air
stream in the air handler. This action does not replace the filter across the entire air stream but
only enough to lower the pressure drop back to an acceptable level. This creates a low (less than
design) velocity in the dirty portion and a higher (above the design) velocity through the clean
portion.
 Electronic air cleaners: These use electronic precipitation to filter the air. Particulates
are positively charged as they pass through an ionization section. These positively charged
particulates then pass through a collection section with positively DC-charged plates. The
particulates are attracted to the plates and adhere. These air cleaners produce ozone, though
rarely in concentrations that is a health hazard, when properly maintained.
Dampers

Dampers direct and control airflow through the air distribution system. They can also be installed
in certain fire-rated walls or floors for life-safety to prevent the migration of fire and smoke.
These motorized units are typically controlled by the fire-alarm system but recent advances in
the reliability of direct-digital-control (DDC) systems have allowed the HVAC DDC system to
also control life-safety systems.

Dampers are classified by blade arrangement, leakage rate, and control type.

Blade arrangement (parallel or opposed-blade): Airflow through a parallel-blade damper is

not linear with respect to the damper position. Ninety percent of the design flow-rate can be
reached with the damper at 50% open. An opposed-blade damper is much more linear, allowing
for more precise control through the entire travel of the actuator.

A variant of the parallel-blade damper is the back-draft damper. This typically operates by air
pressure and is designed to allow air movement only in one direction, such as from building
exhaust systems. These are not low-leakage dampers and can allow air to escape from a building
under certain conditions, even when the fan is off.
Opposed-blade damper (Ruskin)

Leakage rate: This typically specifies the quality of the construction: a lower leakage rate
indicates a higher-quality damper. Many energy codes now require "low-leakage" dampers in
outside-air applications for energy conservation.

Control type (modulation or two-position): Modulation dampers have actuators that respond
to a variable input from the DDC system and control airflow, typically between minimum and
maximum positions. These are used in VAV terminal units as well as air-side economizers in air
handlers.

Two-position dampers have actuators that either fully open or fully close the damper. They are
used for isolating exhaust fans from the exterior when not running. They are also used
extensively in life-safety applications for fire dampers and fire/smoke dampers.

Ducts

There are two general types of duct systems: single-duct and dual-duct. Each type can be used in
both constant- and variable-flow applications.

Ducts are usually made of galvanized steel and are commonly wrapped or lined with fiberglass
thermal insulation, both to reduce heat loss or gain through the duct walls and to prevent water
vapor from condensing on the exterior of the duct when the duct is carrying cooled air.
Insulation, particularly duct liner, also reduces duct-borne noise. Both types of insulation reduce
"breakout" noise through the duct walls.

While galvanized steel is the most common material, ducts can be manufactured from duct
board, a rigid form of fiberglass. The fiberglass provides built-in thermal insulation and the
interior surface absorbs sound, helping to quiet the operation of the HVAC system. This type of
ducting is typically used in low-pressure systems, 2" wg or less, due to the structural limitations
of the material.
 Flexible ducts, also called "flex," have a variety of material configurations, but are typically
flexible plastic over a metal wire coil to make round, flexible duct. Most often, a layer of
fiberglass insulation covers the duct, and a thin plastic layer protects the insulation. Flexible duct
is convenient for attaching supply-air outlets to the rigid ductwork. However, the pressure loss
through flex is higher than for most other types of ducts. As such, duct runs should be short, less
than about 15 feet, and as straight as possible. Kinks in flex must be avoided. The most common
use of flex is to connect ducted supply air to terminal units.

Safety Issues

Before servicing fans and associated equipment, disconnect the power supply to the motor and
accessories. Working near any operating rotating equipment is potentially hazardous. Electronic
filters may require special grounding before they can be safely serviced. Always consult
manufacturers' equipment manuals for safe maintenance practices and observe lockout/tag-out
protocols.

Energy-efficient control strategies:

 Scheduling the air-handler system: Check equipment scheduling in the DDC system or
mechanical time clocks. Equipment schedules are often "temporarily" expanded, then forgotten.
 Reset supply-air temperature: Moderate weather, typically in spring and fall, permits a
warmer supply-air setpoint for cooling and a cooler supply-air setpoint for heating.
 Widen zone-temperature dead bands: This will minimize energy use and help prevent
unnecessary "fighting" between the heating and cooling systems. It also controls instability
characterized by short-term cycling between heating and cooling modes.
 Close outside-air dampers during morning warm-up in heating season. While warming
the building before the occupants arrive, make sure the outside-air dampers are fully closed.
 Perform early-morning flush: In cooling season, precool the building with 100%
outside air (when the outside-air temperatures permit) before starting mechanical cooling.
 Employ optimum-start control: Many building DDC systems have an optimum-start
control feature which, when enabled, reduces energy use by starting the building HVAC system
just far enough before occupancy to reach the occupied setpoint when the occupants arrive.
 Reset static pressure of VAV system: The static-pressure setpoint can be automatically
reset through a zone-level control-feedback loop. This control strategy allows the supply fan to
maintain the minimum airflow needed to maintain comfortable individual zone conditions.
 Turn off heating-coil valves in the cooling season: Many air-handler preheat coils and
dual-duct hot-deck valves should be turned off in the cooling season to prevent incidental and
unnecessary heating.

Best Practices for Maintenance

Here are some suggestions for improving maintenance practices by component:

Filters: All filters are not created equal. Upgrade existing filtration systems with extended-
surface-area filters. These filters have a lower initial pressure drop, higher dust-holding
capability, and higher structural ratings. Benefits include longer change cycles and lower
pressure drops (which conserve fan energy). Filters are sometimes changed at a regular time
interval, before the end of their useful service life. Follow filter-manufacturer guidelines and use
pressure drop across the filter bank as the criterion for changing filters.
Fans: Fans typically provide years of trouble-free operation with relatively minimal
maintenance. However, this high reliability can lead to complacency, resulting in neglected
maintenance and eventual failure. Follow established preventive-maintenance protocols for
cleaning housings and fan blades, lubricating and checking seals, adjusting belts, checking
bearings and structural members, and tracking vibration.

Coils: Coil cleanliness directly effects the efficiency of heat transfer to and from the air stream,
and the performance of the entire HVAC system. A clean coil has a lower water-side and air-side
pressure drop, and thus lowers fan and pump energy consumption. Lower fan and pump energy
consumption also means reduced fan and pump heat - a parasitic load for cooling processes.
Cleaning dirty coils is often deferred because it is unpleasant and time-consuming. The best coil-
cleaning strategy is to prevent them from becoming dirty in the first place with regular filter
maintenance (coil exterior) and water treatment (coil interior).

Sensors: Clean and calibrate sensors. Trying to control an HVAC system based on false input
values from miscalibrated sensors is futile. Similarly, a clean and calibrated sensor in a bad
location will defeat an otherwise well-executed control strategy.

Ducts: Duct leakage can prevent a large percentage of supply air from reaching the intended
destination. Routinely check ductwork and access ports for leakage and insulation integrity. Flex
ducts near terminal units may become disconnected or crimped, greatly reducing airflow to the
terminal unit.

Vibration analysis: A good predictive-maintenance practice is the periodic use of vibration

analysis on large fans and motors. Vibration signatures are compared with previous readings for
indications of component degradation such as worn bearings, shaft alignment, or fan-blade
imbalance. It may be economical in large facilities to buy the equipment and train an in-house
engineer to perform this analysis. Otherwise, hire an outside contractor. The table below
provides a checklist for maintenance tasks.

Cooling Towers
V Introduction

Cooling towers are heat exchangers that use water and air to transfer heat from air-conditioning
systems to the outdoor environment. Most commonly, they are used to remove heat from
the condenser water leaving a chiller. Cooling towers are usually located on rooftops or other
outdoor sites. Because they are frequently out of sight, they are often neglected by operation-
and-maintenance technicians, resulting in lower cooling-system efficiency. This document will
help you adopt best practices for the efficient operation and maintenance of cooling towers.
Types of cooling towersThere are two basic types of cooling towers, open and closed (sometimes
called direct and indirect).

Open (Direct) Cooling Towers

Open cooling towers expose the condenser water coming from the chiller plant directly to the
atmosphere. This warm water is sprayed over a fill in the cooling tower to increase the contact
area, and air passes through the fill. Most of the heat is removed by evaporation. The cooled
water remaining after evaporation drops into the collection basin and is returned to the chiller's
condenser.
Open (direct) Cooling Tower

Closed (Indirect) Cooling Towers

A closed cooling tower circulates warm water from the chiller plant through tubes located in the
tower. In a closed tower, the cooling water does not come in contact with the outside air. Water
that circulates only within the cooling tower is sprayed over the tubes and a fan blows air across
the tubes. This cools the condenser water within the tubes, which is then recirculated to the
chiller plant.
Closed (indirect) cooling tower

Key Components of Cooling Towers

This section explains how the components of a cooling tower work together.

Water Distribution

Hot water from the chilled-water system is delivered to the top of the cooling tower by the
condenser pump through distribution piping. In an open tower, the hot water is sprayed through
nozzles onto the heat transfer medium (fill) inside the cooling tower. Some towers feed the
nozzles through pressurized piping; others use a water-distribution basin and feed the nozzles by
gravity. In a closed-loop tower, the water from the condenser loop runs through tubes in the
tower and is not exposed to the outside air. Water for cooling the tubes circulates only in the
tower.

In the open tower, a cold-water collection basin at the base of the tower gathers cool water after
it has passed through the heat transfer medium. The cool water is pumped back to the condenser
to complete the cooling-water loop. In the closed tower, the condenser water cools as it moves
through the piping in the tower and returns to the chiller plant.

Heat Transfer Medium (Fill)

Cooling towers use evaporation to release waste heat from an HVAC system. In an open tower,
hot water from the condenser is slowed down and spread out over the fill. Some of the hot water
is evaporated in the fill area, or over the closed-circuit tubes, which cools the water. Cooling
tower fill is typically arranged in packs of thin corrugated plastic sheets or as splash bars
supported in a grid pattern.

Air Flow
Large volumes of air flowing through the heat-transfer medium help increase the rate of
evaporation and the cooling capacity of the tower. The cooling-tower fans generate this airflow.
The size of the cooling-tower fan and airflow rate are selected to achieve the desired cooling at
design conditions of condenser-water temperatures, water flow rate, and wet-bulb temperature.

Cooling towers may have propeller fans or squirrel-cage blowers. Small fans may be connected
directly to the driving motor, but most designs require an intermediate speed reduction provided
by a power belt or reduction gears. The fan and drive system operate in conjunction with the
control system to control start/stop and speed. Variable-speed drives (VSDs), when added to the
fan motors, control fan speed and more precisely regulate the temperature of the water as it
leaves the tower.

Drift Eliminator

As air moves through the fill, small droplets of cooling water become entrained and can exit the
cooling tower as carry-over or drift. Devices called drift eliminators remove carry-over water
droplets. Cooling-tower drift becomes annoying when the droplets fall on people and surfaces
downwind from the cooling tower. Efficient drift eliminators virtually eliminate drift from the air
stream.

Safety Issues

Water Treatment

Cooling-tower water must be regularly treated, generally with chemicals, to prevent the growth
of harmful bacteria, minimize corrosion, and inhibit the buildup of scale (mineral deposits) on
the fill.

Maintenance Personnel

Cooling towers are often placed in precarious locations, and inspection ports can be located in
awkward or exposed locations. This can create a hazardous working environment. Be sure to
implement adequate fall-prevention measures and procedures. In addition, always follow lock-
out and tag-out safety procedures.

Optimizing a chilled-water hydronic system

Case study for Hydronic system control optimization in HVAC system

A leading technology R&D institution in Taiwan, the Industrial Technology Research Institute
(ITRI), was facing some HVAC challenges; the requirement for the room temperature of their
laboratories to be more accurately controlled and to reduce energy consumption after the
installation of a Magnetic Bearing Centrifugal Chiller.

The most straightforward way to save energy is to renovate the HVAC system with new highly
efficient equipment, however, what if instead we could optimize the existing equipment to
operate in a highly efficient condition?
With the help of our hydronic experts, a full system audit was performed to determine how to
tackle these challenges and optimize the hydronic system to run the full air conditioning system
in the required energy-efficient condition.
 Hydraulic System Architecture: Chilled Water

Chilled Water
Chilled water typically has a supply temperature of between 42°F and 48°F. Historically, the
return temperature was often chosen to be 10°F above the flow temperature. With the higher cost
of fuel and the concern over energy usage, it is usually cost effective to design for a higher
difference of 15°F or even 20°F. The higher return temperatures require larger coils, and create
challenges when high dehumidification is required.
On the other hand, doubling the temperature difference halves the volume flow, and,
consequently, reduces the purchase cost of piping and pumps, as well as substantially reducing
ongoing pumping power costs.
With a flow temperature in the range 42°F to 48°F, the piping must be insulated to reduce heat
gain and avoid condensation. The insulation requires a moisture barrier on the outside to prevent
condensation on the pipe.
Chillers, the refrigeration equipment used to produce chilled water, mostly use a direct
expansion evaporator. Therefore, the flow must be maintained fairly constant to prevent the
possibility of freezing the water. The chiller

requires constant flow but it would be both convenient and economical to have variable flow to
the loads. To achieve this, the chiller and loads can be hydraulically “decoupled.” Decoupled, in
this context, means that the flows in the chiller circuit do not influence flows in the load circuit.
Conversely, changes in the flows in the load circuit do not affect the chiller circuit.
A diagram of two chillers and loads is shown in Figure 9.11. The two chillers are piped in
parallel in their own independent pipe loop, shown bold in the Figure. The chiller loop can run
even if the distribution pumps are off. Similarly, the distribution loop can run with the chiller
pumps off. The short section of shared pipe allows both loops to operate independently of each
other, decoupled.

Schematic of a typical chilled-water system.

Context 1

... systems account for about 32% of the energy used in the commercial buildings [1]. Figure 1
shows the schematic of typical chilled-water ventilation and air-conditioning system for
commercial buildings with three main components: air handling unit, chiller and cooling tower.
The power consumption of such system is mainly from the chiller compressor and the cooling
tower fan. ...

Context 2

C in 3000 seconds starting from t = 60000 second. The static maps of the two conditions are
shown in Fig. 10, with the optimal point being (250.351 Hz, 231174 W) for the first condition,
and (179.345 Hz , 86527.3 W) for the second condition, respectively. The first condition is the
same as the previous case of fixed ...C to 10 ... ESC controller is then tested with a ramp change
in the evaporator inlet water temperature T EW (e.g. due to a load reduction) from 12
Context 3

... Fig. 11, the ESC searched average steady-state fan speed and power consumption of the
second condition is about 182.714 Hz and 86538.4 W, respectively, differing from the estimated
optimum by only 1.88% and 0.013%, respectively. The power output settles within ±1% of its
steady state in about 13735 second. Also, as marked in Fig. 10, if the ...

Context 4

... Fig. 11, the ESC searched average steady-state fan speed and power consumption of the
second condition is about 182.714 Hz and 86538.4 W, respectively, differing from the estimated
optimum by only 1.88% and 0.013%, respectively. The power output settles within ±1% of its
steady state in about 13735 second. Also, as marked in Fig. 10, if the fan speed remained
unchanged during the ramp change, the system would operate at point A, which consumes
91759.1W. Therefore, ESC adapts the system operation with power saving of 5231.8W (5.7%).
The effectiveness of the back-calculation anti-windup ESC is verified by simulation. The
maximum fan speed is set at 290 Hz. The plant ...

Context 5

C in 5000 seconds. At 125000 sec, another 5000 sec ramp change brings T EW back to 12 o C.
Figure 12 shows the integral windup problem of the standard ESC with actuator saturation. In the
upper subplot, the optimum is successfully achieved by ESC search before the first ramp change.
...... 60000 seconds, T EW ramps up to 13

Context 6

Back-calculation based anti-windup ESC scheme is applied to the same case. In Fig. 13, the
anti-windup ESC responds to the system condition change when the second ramp change of EW
T starts and converges to the new optimum successfully. The simulation results show that the
modified anti-windup ESC scheme could effectively solve the potential integral windup problem
caused by system actuator satu
An open piping system is one in which a part of the atmosphere, such as a cooling tower or
pond, air washer, open storage tank, or a similar device . A system with an open
 CHAPTER-3

Ventilation system

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. ... Mechanical ventilation
systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a building), exhaust fans (which
draw air out of building and thereby cause equal ventilation flow into a building), or a
combination of both.

Types of Ventilation Systems

Exhaust Ventilation Systems

Exhaust ventilation systems work by depressurizing the building. By reducing the inside air
pressure below the outdoor air pressure, they extract indoor air from a house while make-up air
infiltrates through leaks in the building shell and through intentional, passive vents.
Exhaust Ventilation System

Exhaust ventilation systems are most applicable in cold climates. In climates with warm, humid
summers, depressurization can draw moist air into building wall cavities, where it may condense
and cause moisture damage.

Exhaust ventilation systems are relatively simple and inexpensive to install. Typically, an
exhaust ventilation system is composed of a single fan connected to a centrally located, single
exhaust point in the house.

A preferable option is to connect the fan to ducts from several rooms (especially rooms where
pollutants tend to be generated, such as bathrooms). Adjustable, passive vents through windows
or walls can be installed to introduce fresh air rather than rely on leaks in the building envelope.
However, passive vents may be ineffective because larger pressure differences than those
induced by the ventilation fan may be needed for them to work properly.

Spot ventilation exhaust fans installed in the bathroom but operated continuously represent an
exhaust ventilation system in its simplest form.

One concern with exhaust ventilation systems is that they may draw pollutants, along with fresh
air, into the house. For example, in addition to drawing in fresh outdoor air, they may draw in the
following:

This can especially be of concern when bath fans, range fans, and clothes dryers (which also
depressurize the home while they operate) are run when an exhaust ventilation system is also
operating.

Exhaust ventilation systems can also contribute to higher heating and cooling costs compared
with energy recovery ventilation systems because exhaust systems do not temper or remove
moisture from the make-up air before it enters the house. Information courtesy of the EERE
Supply Ventilation Systems
Supply ventilation systems work by pressurizing the building. They use a fan to force outside air
into the building while air leaks out of the building through holes in the shell, bath- and range-
fan ducts, and intentional vents.

Supply Ventilation System

As with exhaust ventilation systems, supply ventilation systems are relatively simple and
inexpensive to install. A typical system has a fan and duct system that introduces fresh air into
usually one—but preferably several—rooms that residents occupy most (for example, bedrooms,
living room, kitchen). This system may include adjustable window or wall vents in other rooms.

Supply ventilation systems allow better control of the air that enters the house than do exhaust
ventilation systems. By pressurizing the house, these systems discourage the entry of pollutants
from outside and prevent backdrafting of combustion gases from fireplaces and appliances. They
also allow air introduced into the house to be filtered to remove pollen and dust or to be
dehumidified.
Supply ventilation systems work best in hot or mixed climates. Because they pressurize the
house, they have the potential to cause moisture problems in cold climates.

In winter, the supply ventilation system causes warm interior air to leak through random
openings in the exterior wall and ceiling. If the interior air is humid enough, some moisture may
condense in the attic or parts of the exterior wall, where it can promote mold, mildew, and decay.

Like exhaust ventilation systems, supply ventilation systems do not temper or remove moisture
from the air before it enters the house. Thus, they may contribute to higher heating and cooling
costs compared with energy recovery ventilation systems. Because air is introduced in the house
at discrete locations, outdoor air may need to be mixed with indoor air before delivery to avoid
cold air drafts in winter. An in-line duct heater is another option, but it will increase operating
costs.

Balanced Ventilation Systems

Balanced ventilation systems, if properly designed and installed, neither pressurizes nor
depressurize a house. Rather, they introduce and exhaust approximately equal quantities of fresh
outside air and polluted inside air, respectively. A balanced ventilation system usually has two
fans and two duct systems. It facilitates good distribution of fresh air by placing supply and
exhaust vents in appropriate places.
 CHAPTER-4
HVAC SOFTWARE

HVAC Software basics | HVAC Software Features, benefits

Balanced Ventilation System

A typical balanced ventilation system is designed to supply fresh air to bedrooms and common
rooms where people spend the most time. It also exhausts air from rooms where moisture and
pollutants are most often generated, such as the kitchen, bathrooms, and the laundry room.

Like both supply and exhaust systems, balanced ventilation systems do not temper or remove
moisture from the air before it enters the house.
They do, however, use filters to remove dust and pollen from outside air before introducing it
into the house.

Also, like supply ventilation systems, outdoor air may need to be mixed with indoor air before
delivery to avoid cold air drafts in the winter. This may contribute to higher heating and cooling
costs.

Balanced ventilation systems are appropriate for all climates; however, because they require two
duct and fan systems, they are usually more expensive to install and operate than supply or
exhaust systems.

Energy Recovery Systems

Energy recovery ventilation systems usually cost more to install than other ventilation systems.
In general, simplicity is key to a cost-effective installation. To save on installation costs, many
systems share existing ductwork.
Complex systems are not only more expensive to install, but often they are also more
maintenance intensive and consume more electric power. For most houses, attempting to recover
all of the energy in the exhaust air will probably not be worth the additional cost. Also, these
types of ventilation systems are still not very common. Only some HVAC contractors have
enough technical expertise and experience to install them.
In general, you want to have a supply and return duct for each bedroom and for each common
living area. Duct runs should be as short and straight as possible. The correct size duct is
necessary to minimize pressure drops in the system and thus improve performance. Insulate
ducts located in unheated spaces, and seal all joints with duct mastic.
Also, energy recovery ventilation systems operated in cold climates must have devices to help
prevent freezing and frost formation. Very cold supply air can cause frost formation in the heat
exchanger, which can damage it. Frost buildup also reduces ventilation effectiveness.
In addition, energy recovery ventilation systems need to be cleaned regularly to prevent
deterioration of ventilation rates and heat recovery, and to prevent mold and bacteria from
forming on heat exchanger surfaces.
HVAC Software basics | HVAC Software Features, benefits
HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning. The system is used in indoor and
outdoor systems in order to provide thermal comfort and good air quality for the human beings.
HVAC systems have been designed based on principles of heat transfer, thermo-dynamics and
fluid mechanics.

HVAC software is a tool used by everyone involved in HVAC companies from employees,
managers, contractors to owners. The software includes schedule of tasks, dispatch of tasks,
invoicing, sales and marketing, reporting and more. The software helps in growing and managing
the HVAC business. The software helps technicians to ramp up fast to enable greater customer
satisfaction. This helps in generating more tickets by improving efficiency.

Features of HVAC Software

Following are the features of HVAC Software.

• The HVAC software in the form of app should be available for android and iOS compatible
mobile phones. The laptop version of software should be compatible with latest version of
windows operating system.
• The HVAC software should work in laptops and tablet computers.
• It should support tracking, scheduling, dispatching, invoicing, marketing, report generation
• The software should integrate with other apps or software’s such as QuickBooks.
• It should support customer relationship management (CRM).
• It should support calendar and job management.
Benefits or Advantages of HVAC Software

Following are the benefits or advantages of HVAC Software:

➨Increases efficiency of delivery and hence technicians feel comfortable to handle the tasks.
➨Increases more revenue for the businesses by completing before time and by pulling more
work.
➨Allows managers to know status of various tasks performed by various teams. This helps them
speed up lagging tasks by streamlining various operations in order to win customer satisfaction
and to increase the revenue.
 CHAPTER-5
HVAC DRAFTING

HVAC Design Drafting And How It Is Beneficial.

HVAC Design and Drafting is the procedure of putting heating and ventilation systems into building
design plans. There is a great deal of knowledge needed to do this job properly, so it is crucial a
design firm need extremely trained architectural draftsman.

Older building design plans were carried out with paper and pencil, and one thing that a drafting
service are able to do is convert those designs to CAD drawings. Tesla CAD Solutions established in
Melbourne in Australia is amongst the best firms offering this conversion service. The key reason
that companies would want to convert their old drawings is usually that they plan on making
alterations to the structure. Any remodeling or additional projects could possibly be done much more
proficiently if the new design plans could be accomplished with CAD.

Deadlines are a substantial aspect of any building design, and Tesla’s HVAC Drafters are qualified
personnel in this area as well. We have essentially the most technically trained architectural
draftsmen in the industry. When we undertake a project, we ensure that we have the right people
allotted to it to perform the job on time. The workforce at Tesla can also offer the best quality
product at a lower price than any other company. Heating and cooling costs can be a significant
expense for a company, and acquiring the most efficient design plans will save money over the long
term.

HVAC Drafting Services is an art, and primarily the most knowledgeable people can accomplish it
the right way. The process of designing a ventilation system is what enables people to work in a safe
environment within any building. The HVAC Drafting Services system handles the air flow,
temperature and humidity. These are definitely all factors in acquiring healthy air quality on a daily
basis for all individuals within a large structure. We at Tesla have the practical experience and
knowledge that is necessary to finish design plans in a timely and economical manner.
Architectural CAD Drafting Services Structures

August 21, 2013

Modern high-rise structures possess extremely complex designs, and Architectural CAD Drafting
Services play an extremely vital role in aiding the design and construction processes.

Each stage of a high-rise structure’s construction possesses its own complexities, and Architectural
CAD drafting Services have to be at their perfect all the time. A high-rise structure is certainly one,
which is high enough to necessitate the system of a mechanical vertical transportation, elevators
being the most desired of these systems.
Architectural CAD Drafting Services

As the urbanization turned out to be a regular feature throughout the late nineteenth century and land
became popular, designers assumed it prudent to design structures that rose vertically instead of
spread horizontally, and gradually the skyscrapers became the standard.

Skyscrapers needed complex steel structural frames to withstand the enormous shear forces, and
enormous concrete foundations, mostly piers, piles or caissons, to assist the huge gravitational loads
exerted by the structures above. The columns and beams, the load bearing shear walls or the cross-
bracings, the non-load bearing curtain walls, the joining members such as mullions and mentions,
and the distinct services create the high-rise buildings an issue for the architectural CAD drafting
services.

The modern CAD softwares have already been an awesome help to the designers and have made the
work of playing with diverse forms and structural options incredibly easier and more interesting.
Designing a complex bundle-tube system could be extremely difficult without the aid of CAD
software.

A high-rise structure such as a skyscraper has distinct design elements and designers generally found
only at the last instance or during the construction stage that particular elements could not fit, or were
in conflict with each other. The architectural CAD drafting services can now conveniently notice
such conflicting elements throughout the design process itself as 3D CAD solid models offer realistic
views of the structure and such anomalies can be rectified much before it is too late.

Exclusive skyscraper buildings were also designed as well as built even before CAD softwares
evolve into a regular feature, but Architectural CAD drafting services provide more freedom and
flexibility for designing further complex and aesthetically higher buildings in the modern era.
3D Architectural Visualization
August 15, 2013

Visualization is essentially the process of mentally enacting events, places and different scenarios.
You can now create imagery that precisely reflects the things you have planned in advance of the
start of construction. This is known as 3D architectural visualization. This is a significant illustration
pertaining to the advancement of computing technology and its impact on our everyday life.

Architectural visualization is now utilized by a great number of architects to develop a realistic

picture of their much anticipated design for the clients. It is also utilized by many builders to attract
new clients and publicize their far finished building.

However, developing Architectural Visualization is not everybody’s cup of tea and requires
specialization. You absolutely need necessary evaluation and floor plan prior to starting the
entire process of 3D architectural visualization. In case you are building design for your building’s
interior you need to consider the light intensity, its reflection as well as effect of shadows.
 Building Information Modeling Services

BIM or Building Information modeling is a technology that facilitates developing structural designs.
It offers a virtual representation of any architectural, mechanical, or other design project utilizing
technical data. BIM Services is essential and necessary for Architects, Engineers, building
Contractors, Structural Engineers to name a few for accurate digital representation of a project.

BIM for Architectural and Structural Domains:

Architects could use building information modeling to generate infrastructure models such as houses,
apartments, resorts, commercial buildings in 3D, 4D, and 5D. The software benefits them in paying
keen attention to the most miniscule detail like geometry, visual appeal, and spatial
allocations. Structural Engineers utilize building information modeling to draw foundation,
elevation, beams included in structural plans. They can enhance construction durability, accuracy,
and ensure the project is sustainable. While the software assists in minute detailing, it can also be
utilized for detecting anomalies in the plan, and evaluating expenditure for the project.
Chemical, electrical, and plumbing professionals could utilize BIM technology to draft all
information associated with designing mechanical, electrical, or plumbing systems. The technology
aids in modeling structural components of a system consisting of pipe, vents, air-conditioning
systems, parts of an engine etc.

Digital representation of a project utilizing building information modeling is developed with physical
and technical data provided by Architects, structural Engineers, or Contractors. The data also consists
of materials which need to be employed for construction, which will be represented in the virtual
model. This way, design professionals will be empowered with material analysis that can be used for
drawing up expenditure plans.

Building information modeling can assist in detecting defects in design thereby minimizing errors in
the process of construction. As the model is a virtual representation, the software aids in identifying
collisions which can be eliminated in design ensuring that the construction process is flawless.

BIM technology minimizes the time and efforts spent in executing manual measurements to build a
model. It is simple to record data, draw up a virtual model, as well as use it for scale-up purposes.
The efficiency is enhanced tremendously by reducing flaws in design using clash detection that
decreases expenses. Since the design also consists of materials used in the project, construction
professionals can perform an efficient and accurate cost plan. Frequent updates from construction
process enable you to update the BIM design to make alterations in the cost plan and analyze the
expenses needed to complete a specific project.

The technology of building information modeling increases the efficiency of the construction and
design process. It resolves numerous issues which are linked to demolition, design, waste removal,
planning, scheduling, as well as some other aspects that are involved with construction. As the
models are versatile for alterations, BIM allows construction professionals to refine their design to
the largest extent. BIM services empower design experts with the potential to create flawless designs
that assist in constructing sustainable, economic, and eco-friendly buildings.
 CHAPTER-6
Site Installation

Installation Works means, as the context so requires collectively, all works which the
Contractor is to carry out at the beginning of the Contract Period to install the Goods in
accordance with the Specification and the Tender; or where there are a series of works to be
carried out during the Contract Period to install .

Types

 Attended installation. On Windows systems, this is the most common form

of installation. ...
 Silent installation. ...
 Unattended installation. ...
 Headless installation. ...
 Scheduled or automated installation. ...
 Clean installation. ...
 Network installation. ...
 Bootstrapped.

Architecture and Implementation Aspects

In this chapter, a brief overview of the evolution of Radio Access Network (RAN) architectures
is given and two new functional splits of the 5G RAN architecture are explained. The higher
layer split provides a new split between dedicated hardware and cloud implementation, and the
lower layer split drastically reduces the front haul bitrates for advanced antenna system (AAS)
products. The eCPRI protocol supports lower layer splits. The lower layer split is a key part of an
efficient solution for AAS. To make a split in the middle of the physical layer is nontrivial and
lot of care must be taken when handling the trade-offs between front haul bitrates, complexity,
and performance. Different product types will also benefit from different splits. It is shown that
mid-band AAS products, especially, benefit from moving a significant part of the uplink
baseband processing to the radio unit in order to obtain a good trade-off between performance,
front haul bitrates, and complexity. From a practical point of view, installation of AAS products
at the radio site is a real challenge for many mobile network operators. The masts and towers are
already crowded, and adding more units might not be possible. This drives the need to develop
both multiband products and AAS products with a combination of active and passive antennas. A
few specific technical challenges with AAS are highlighted, phase noise at high-band, mutual
coupling between antenna elements, and the requirements on phase and amplitude alignment.
When determining the alignment requirements, it is important to consider what type of
beamforming should be supported and formulate independent requirements for the three
alignment requirements, namely, receiver alignment, transmitter alignment, and the receiver-to-
transmitter alignment.
In order to facilitate new products on an already busy radio site, one can design products
supporting multi-band operation, thereby avoiding the need to have one physical box per
frequency band.

Another possibility is to also add passive antennas to the AAS product. That is, for some
frequency bands, the AAS product provides RF ports to which external radio units can be
connected. In this way, existing passive antennas can be removed, and the new AAS product will
both provide the passive antennas for the existing radio units and provide radio functionality and
the antennas for the new frequency bands, and in this way provide more frequency bands without
adding more physical units to the radio site.
 CHAPTER-7
Quantity survey
As the Building and construction sector grows, the need for skilled quantity surveyors to meet
quality construction works standards is growing.

Our National Diploma in Quantity Surveying course gives students a detailed understanding of
the building industry and thorough preparation for a future career in surveying.

This Diploma is intended to equip students with knowledge and skills in measurements,
estimating and costing of building and civil engineering works.

Students learn practical skills relevant to current construction management that gives them an
advantage in the Job market since they work closely with our Architecture, Interior Design and
Building & Construction students.

For successful completion of the course, each student must go through industrial attachment in
relevant fields. This attachment is supervised and graded by one of our lecturers.
References

Colen, Harold R. 1990. HVAC Systems Evaluation, Kingston, MA: R.S. Means Company, Inc.

ASHRAE Handbook 2000, Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Systems and Equipment,
Atlanta, GA, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

Pacific Gas and Electric Company 1997, Central HVAC Systems and Applications in
Commercial Facilities, Pacific Gas and Electric Company.

FEMP O&M Best Practices Guide 2.0, July 2004

FEMP Continuous Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy Managers, October 2002

Healthcare Energy Guidebook, American Society for Healthcare Engineering, December 2003.

Building Performance Services, Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, 2003.