Apatite Thermochronology in Modern Geology-Flisker-2009

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Apatite thermochronology in modern geology

F. LISKER1*, B. VENTURA1 & U. A. GLASMACHER2
1
Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Universität Bremen, PF 330440, 28334 Bremen, Germany
2
Institut für Geowissenschaften, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer
Feld 234, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
*Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected])
Abstract: Fission-track and (U–Th–Sm)/He thermochronology on apatites are radiometric dating

methods that refer to thermal histories of rocks within the temperature range of 408–125 8C. Their
introduction into geological research contributed to the development of new concepts to interpreting
time-temperature constraints and substantially improved the understanding of cooling processes
within the uppermost crust. Present geological applications of apatite thermochronological
methods include absolute dating of rocks and tectonic processes, investigation of denudation
histories and long-term landscape evolution of various geological settings, and basin analysis.
Thermochronology may be described as the the analysis of radiation damage trails (‘fission
quantitative study of the thermal histories of rocks tracks’) in uranium-bearing, non-conductive
using temperature-sensitive radiometric dating minerals and glasses. It is routinely applied on the
methods such as 40Ar/39Ar and K –Ar, fission minerals apatite, zircon and titanite. Fission tracks
track, and (U –Th)/He (Berger & York 1981). are produced continuously through geological time
Amongst these different methods, apatite fission as a result of the spontaneous fission of 238U
track (AFT) and apatite (U –Th –Sm)/He (AHe) atoms. They are submicroscopic features with an
are now, perhaps, the most widely used thermo- initial width of approximately 10 nm and a length
chronometers as they are the most sensitive to low of up to 20 mm (Paul & Fitzgerald 1992) that can
temperatures (typically between 40 and c. 125 8C be revealed by chemical etching. Crucially, fission
for durations of heating and cooling in excess of tracks are semi-stable features that can self-repair
106 years), ideal for investigating the tectonic and (shorten and eventually disappear) by a process
climate-driven surficial interactions that take place known as annealing at a rate that is a function of
within the top few (,5 km) kilometres of the both time and temperature. The extent of any track
Earth’s crust. These processes govern landscape evo- shortening (exposure to elevated temperatures) in
lution, influence climate and generate the natural a sample can be quantified by examining the distri-
resources essential to the wellbeing of mankind. bution of fission-track lengths.
This introductory chapter provides a brief The determination of a fission-track age (a number
overview of apatite thermochronology and its appli- that relates to the observable track density) depends
cation to geological studies. We focus on three on the same general equation as any radioactive
topics: (1) methodological developments; (2) con- decay scheme: it requires an estimate of the relative
cepts and strategies for the interpretation of thermo- abundance of the parent isotope and of the daughter
chronological data; and (3) applications to various product. However, unlike most methods of radio-
geodynamic settings. For more detailed insights metric dating, it measures the effect, rather than the
on apatite thermochronology the reader is referred product, of a radioactive decay scheme, that is it
to published reviews by Green et al. (1986, refers to the number of 238U atoms and the number
1989b), Laslett et al. (1987), Duddy et al. (1988), of spontaneous fission tracks per unit volume. This
Wagner & Van den Haute (1992), R. W. Brown fission-track density is obtained by counting the
et al. (1994), Gallagher et al. (1998), Gleadow number of spontaneous tracks intersecting a polished
et al. (2002), Ehlers & Farley (2003) and Reiners internal surface of a mineral grain viewed under high
& Brandon (2006). magnification (1000–1250) using an optical
microscope. Depending on the sample and aims of
the study, a typical fission-track sample age consists
Fission-track thermochronology of a weighted mean of 20–100 single-grain ages.
Basics of the method Further details and background information on prac-
tical aspects of fission-track age determination are
Fission-track thermochronology/-chronometry (for provided by, for example, Fleischer et al. (1975),
differentiation cf. Reiners et al. 2005) is based on Naeser (1979) and Donelick et al. (2005).
From: LISKER , F., VENTURA , B. & GLASMACHER , U. A. (eds) Thermochronological Methods: From Palaeotemperature
Constraints to Landscape Evolution Models. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 324, 1– 23.
DOI: 10.1144/SP324.1 0305-8719/09/$15.00 # Geological Society of London 2009.
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Leeds on August 5, 2016
2 F. LISKER ET AL.
An important dimension to fission-track thermo- there is significant (or over-) dispersion within the
chronology is the semi-stable nature of tracks, population of single-grain ages. Green pointed out
whereby annealing can change the significance of that where there is evidence for heterogeneity
a measured age. The observable density of spon- (extra Poissonian variation) within a dataset,
taneous tracks in a sample (age) is a function of detected by statistical tests such as x2 (Galbraith
track length (probability of intersecting the plane 1981), the conventional pooled age, based on the
of observation). All newly formed tracks in apatite ratio of the number of spontaneous and induced
have a length of approximately 16 mm (c. 11 mm tracks (Ns/Ni), with its Poisson standard error,
in zircon). If a sample (e.g. a volcanic apatite) was becomes meaningless. An alternative approach
created at 10 Ma and then resided at low tempera- based on the mean of ratios of individual track den-
tures (,40 8C), the population of tracks reduces in sities (rs/ri) was used to give a larger estimate of the
length to a mean value of approximately 15 mm error to allow for an extra-Poisson component in the
causing an insignificant (not resolvable) reduction dispersion of single-grain ages, but this approach
in track density and a measured age within an implied a sample should have a single age. In
error of 10 Ma. However, if, during its history, the reality, there are a number of different causes of het-
same sample experienced elevated temperatures erogeneity within a dataset (beyond a bad exper-
(but not sufficient to cause total resetting) in its iment), such as variable responses to partial
history there will be significant track shortening to resetting due to variations in apatite grain compo-
a level defined by the maximum heating. This will sition (see later) and/or a range of provenance
cause a reduction in observable track density and, ages. Thus, it is important to assess to what the over-
therefore, measurable age. dispersion is due rather than make to allowance for
it with larger errors.
In 1984 Hurford et al. proposed the use of prob-
Some milestones in the evolution of the ability density diagrams, a type of continuous histo-
fission-track method gram that plots each grain-age error as a Gaussian
density function, as a way of visualizing a mixed
Despite early recognition of fission tracks age dataset. However, this type of approach can
(Baumhauer 1894; Silk & Barnes 1959), it was not obscure useful information by inappropriately
until the early 1960s that their application to geo- weighting it with poor information (i.e. an overlap
logical dating was first proposed (Price & Walker effect associated with broad, imprecise, peaks). To
1963) and subsequently developed (Wagner 1966; overcome this problem Galbraith developed the
Gentner et al. 1967; Naeser 1967). Early dating radial plot (Galbraith 1988, 1990) (Fig. 1), which
studies were tasked with finding practical ways to is now routinely used across the chronological com-
etch tracks, measure uranium contents that mirror munity. Coupled to this development Galbraith &
the dated grain and define the time –temperature Laslett (1993) also produced the widely adopted
stability fields of fission tracks in different uranium- random effects model that gives a central age esti-
bearing minerals, tektites and glasses. Studies mate of the population of grains ages with a relative
conducted between 1970 and 1983 highlighted the standard deviation of the population of ages known
fundamental issues that needed to be resolved in as the age dispersion (normally expressed as a per-
order to enable routine and accurate age determi- centage variation).
nation. Foremost was a lack of consensus on the Having established protocols to measure fission-
value of the spontaneous fission decay constant for track ages and assess data quality and structure, the
238
U, to be used in the equation for age calculation. next major developments were related to under-
In order to circumvent this and other fundamental standing the significance of the determined ages.
problems associated with the measurement of Whilst track-length measurement had been used to
neutron fluence, Hurford & Green (1983) advanced detect track annealing more or less since the
a suggestion made by Fleischer and Hart at a methods inception, it was not until the mid 1980s
meeting in Austria in 1971 for a comparative that studies demonstrated the utility of such data.
approach to AFT dating through the use of a propor- Advances included moving away from using semi-
tionality constant. The resultant ‘Zeta’ calibration tracks (projected track) to length measurement
method (Hurford & Green 1983) has become the based on surface-parallel confined tracks. Although
standard approach to fission-track age determination more numerous, semi-tracks contain less infor-
(Hurford 1990). mation and have significant sources of bias, particu-
Until 1980 most fission-track ages were calcu- larly towards longer lengths (Laslett et al. 1994). A
lated using a pooled age, based on the ratio of total key paper by Gleadow et al. (1986b) demonstrated
counts of spontaneous and induced tracks. the utility of confined track measurement and laid
However, Green (1981) highlighted the need for an the foundation for data interpretation based on
alternative method for calculating an age when thermal history.
APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 3
Annealing studies recognized that track fading

in apatite is not only governed by temperature, but
also by heating duration, chemical composition
and crystallographic orientation. Early descriptions
of time-dependence on annealing were presented
as Arrhenius plots, which generally had a fanning
like form. Green et al. (1985) noted that fanning
plots were probably the result of variable apatite
grain composition, such that in effect these
fanning plots were no more than a series of overlap-
ping parallel plots. A series of isothermal fission-
track annealing studies on apatites (Green et al.
1986; Crowley et al. 1990; Carlson et al. 1999;
Barbarand et al. 2003) showed that substitution of
fluoride and hydroxide ions by chloride ions
appears to induce the greatest effects, although
other substitutions on the halogen site can also
Fig. 1. Radial plots were designed to graphically display have an influence but have proven much harder to
single-grain age estimates, taking into account different deconvolve from laboratory timescale track-
standard errors (Galbraith 1988, 1990; example from
annealing experiments (O’Sullivan & Parrish
Ventura et al. 2009). Single-grain ages (z) with standard
error, s, are plotted (point x, y) according to x (precision) 1995; Carlson et al. 1999). As a consequence of
¼ 1/s and y (standard estimate) ¼ (z 2 z0)/s, where these studies, AFT data interpretation generally
z0 is the central age. The error attached to each point is takes into account grain composition either by
standardized on the y-scale. The value of the age (z) direct measurement of the Cl-content [generally
and the 2s uncertainty can be read off the z-scale by by electron probe micro-analyser (EPMA)] or by
extrapolating lines from point 0, 0 through the plotted assessing grain bulk composition by measuring
age (point x, y) and projecting onto the radial age axis. the solubility of apatite through the c-axis
parallel length of track etch pits (Dpar w of Donelick
Contrary to other radiometric dating methods 1991; Burtner et al. 1994; cf. also Murrell et al.
where the measured age equates to the time a 2009). Green & Durrani (1977) first described the
sampled cooled below its closure temperature, the influence of the crystallographic orientation of
fission-track age records cooling through a tempera- spontaneous fission tracks on the annealing of
ture interval between total resetting of fission tracks those tracks. Tracks orthogonal to the c-axis
and relative stability, known as the partial annealing anneal more rapidly than tracks parallel to the
zone or PAZ (Wagner 1979). The temperatures c-axis (Green 1988). This anisotropy increases
relating to the PAZ were defined by systematic with annealing (Green 1981; Laslett et al. 1984;
investigation of the annealing of fission tracks Donelick et al. 1990; Galbraith et al. 1990;
across laboratory and geological timescales, moni- Donelick 1991).
tored by changes in confined track-length distri- The developments outlined above (and many
bution (Green & Durrani 1977; Gleadow & Duddy others not cited) have helped establish AFT analysis
1981; Laslett et al. 1982, 1987; Gleadow et al. as a routinely used tool in geological studies,
1986a; Green et al. 1986, 1989a, b; Duddy et al. examples of which are published in this Special
1988; Green 1988; Crowley et al. 1991; Carlson Publication. Methodological developments con-
et al. 1999; Barbarand et al. 2003). Quantification tinue and it is now possible, following marked
of the time– temperature conditions that control improvements in the precision of laser ablation
the annealing of fission tracks in apatite provide inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
the means to interpret fission track-ages by link- (LA-ICP-MS) technology, to make direct measure-
ing the level of track-length shortening and ments of uranium content within the counted grains
density (age) reduction to sample thermal history of apatite, providing a fast and precise alternative to
(e.g. Gleadow et al. 1986b). Typical temperature neutron irradiation (e.g. Hasebe et al. 2004, 2009).
ranges for the PAZ for heating durations of A further advance is the arrival of a functioning
107 Ma are 60–110 8C for fluorapatite (e.g. system for automatically determining the fission-
Gleadow & Duddy 1981), 170 –330 8C for zircon track density and measuring fission-track lengths
(Zaun & Wagner 1985; Yamada et al. 1995) and (Gleadow et al. 2009). This will not only increase
265 –310 8C for titanite (Coyle & Wagner 1998). speed and reliability of data acquisition, but also
Above the upper-temperature values fission tracks provides new options, especially with respect to
undergo total annealing, which removes all traces the size (quality) of density and track length
of fission tracks from the host crystal lattice. datasets.
4 F. LISKER ET AL.
(U– Th – Sm)/He thermochronology He dating, whereas He implantation needs to be

considered if dealing with low U –Th –Sm phases.
The last decade has seen the extension of low- Therefore, Farley et al. (1996) propose a correction
temperature studies to include AHe dating. Radio- for these effects either numerically by correcting the
active decay of the elements uranium and thorium measured He ages against the specific a retentivity
to stable helium represents one of the earliest (FT) or by removal of the outer rim of the crystal
radiometric schemes available to geologists to (by chemical dissolution or mechanical abrasion)
investigate the ages of rocks and minerals (Ruther- prior to dating. While correcting for a ejection
ford 1905). Despite initial promise (e.g. Keevil has become a routinely performed practice in
1943), the (U –Th)/He method was discounted as recent years, Spiegel et al. (2009) demonstrate the
a dating technique until Lippolt et al. (1982) pro- potential for possible overcorrection, indicating
posed its application as a low-temperature thermo- that abrading the outer rim of a crystal may be
chronological tool. Zeitler et al. (1987) followed favourable. However, mechanical abrasion may
Lippolt et al.’s suggestion that, rather than defining lead to erroneous ages when crystals are strongly
a sample’s age (implicitly its formation age), (U – zoned with respect to uranium and thorium (Farley
Th)/He data provide useful constraints on the et al. 1996). In this case, a U –Th –Sm zonation-
sample’s thermal history, similar to AFT analysis, dependent a correction, as proposed by Hourigan
and further developed the technique. Fundamental et al. (2005), needs to be applied.
experimental work by Farley and co-workers at Usually, an apatite TC in the range of 70 + 7 8C
Caltech through the 1990s resulted in the develop- (for a monotonic cooling rate of 10 8C Ma21, a
ment of accurate and precise instrumentation subgrain domain size .60 mm, an activation
for the extraction and measurement of helium. In energy of about 36 kcal mol21 and a log (D0) of
practice, an AHe age is obtained by measuring 7.7 + 0.6 cm2 s21), and a He partial retention zone
radiogenic 4He trapped in apatite grains by laser or of between 40 and 75 8C, are assumed. The He pro-
furnace outgassing, and then measuring the relative duction– diffusion model relies on homogenous
amounts of uranium and thorium in the sample by distribution of U, Th and Sm in secular equilibrium,
solution ICP-MS. A careful selection of inclusion He loss confined to volume diffusion, and spherical
and crack-free idiomorphic apatite crystals with diffusion geometry. Meesters & Dunai (2002a, b)
homogeneous U, Th and Sm distribution is essential generalized a production–diffusion equation to dif-
for this procedure. fusion domains of various shapes and arbitrary
AHe thermochronology relies on the accumu- cooling histories. Their set of equations allows a
lation of 4He during the a-disintegration of 238U, ejection corrected ages to be calculated and
235
U, 232Th, their daughter products and 147Sm. accounts for the non-homogeneous distribution of
The closure temperature (TC) of mineral grains is U, Th and Sm.
dependent on activation energy, a geometry factor Preliminary studies on the applicability of
for the crystal shape, thermal diffusivity (D0), the (U –Th)/He thermochronology on zircon and tita-
length of the average diffusion pathway from the nite suggest closure temperatures about 80 and
interior to the surface of the grain and the cooling 130 8C higher than for apatite. These systems have
rate at closure temperature. In addition, 4He diffu- the potential to close the gap between the various
sion in apatite is impeded by radiation-induced mineral diffusion temperatures of the 40Ar/39Ar
damage to the apatite structure. Therefore, the kin- thermochronological system, and the zircon and
etics is an evolving function of time. The 4He titanite fission-track annealing temperatures on one
production– diffusion model predicts that the effec- side, and AFT and AHe on the other side (e.g. Farley
tive 4He closure temperature of apatite will vary with 2002; Reiners & Brandon 2006; Dobson et al.
cooling rate and effective U- and Th-concentration, 2009). Moreover, (U–Th)/He analysis of magnetite
and may differ from the commonly assumed TC of (TC: 200 8C/10 Ma) opens new perspectives for
75 8C Ma21 by up to +15 8C (e.g. Farley et al. dating volcanic rocks (Blackburn et al. 2007).
1996; Wolf et al. 1996, 1998; Farley 2000, 2002;
Shuster et al. 2006; Flowers et al. 2009; Shuster &
Farley 2009). During radioactive decay alpha Modelling of low-temperature
(a)-particles are emitted with high kinetic energy
and travel significant distances. This poses a compli-
thermochronological data
cation for the He dating method, as a-particles may Recovery of thermal history information from AFT
be ejected out of the crystal being dated or injected and AHe datasets is contingent upon a quantitative
from the surrounding mineral grains. understanding of how the combination of time and
Farley et al. (1996) and Reiners et al. (2004) temperature controls fission-track annealing and
pointed out that implantation or ejection of helium diffusion. Early attempts to use AFT
a-particles may generally obscure (U –Th– Sm)/ data to track cooling were based on qualitative
indicators (e.g. Wagner & Reimer 1972; Gleadow Carlo (MCMC) methods to address the problem of
et al. 1986a, b): samples with a single population characterizing uncertainties in modelled thermal
of long track lengths indicate rapid cooling in con- histories in two and three dimensions (2D and 3D)
trast to slower and/or stepped cooling paths, (e.g. Stephenson et al. 2006).
which result in shorter and/or more complex
length distributions. However, this type of approach
limits interpretation to relative rates of cooling and Some concepts in apatite
provides no constraints on timing or temperatures. thermochronology
With the advent of annealing studies, algorithms
were formulated to describe the time–temperature Methodological advancements were accompanied
dependencies of track annealing. The models by the development of new strategies for the
based on laboratory experiments were extrapolated interpretation of thermochronological data, as the
to geological timescales and verified against well- derivation of time– temperature constraints and the
constrained data from the geological record. The conversion of temperature information into geologi-
first and, previously, most widely used model cal and geomorphological processes.
(Laslett et al. 1987) describes the annealing behav-
iour of a single type of apatite (Durango). With the Fission-track age types
realization that annealing is also influenced by grain
composition, new experiments extended the anneal- An important part of fission-track thermochronol-
ing database. Carlson et al. (1999) published the first ogy relates to using the distribution of measured
multi-kinetic annealing model. In 2007 this model track lengths in a sample to determine whether the
was updated to include the dataset of Barbarand measured age directly records an ‘event’ or a more
et al. (2003) and improved data-fitting techniques. complex thermal history. Early on in the AFT
The new multi-kinetic model, now in wide use, is methods developmental history Günther Wagner
based on 579 experiments and 26 compositionally suggested a classification of AFT ‘ages’ as event
different types of apatite (Ketcham et al. 2007). ages, cooling ages and mixed ages based on
Equipped with quantitative descriptions of track sample thermal history (Wagner 1972).
annealing it is possible to extract sample thermal According to this concept, an event age refers to a
histories by using forward or data inversion model- rock that cools rapidly through the PAZ (e.g. a volca-
ling techniques. Early programs focused on forward nic rock) and resides at low, near-surface, tempera-
modelling data to check annealing models against tures thereafter. The AFT age is essentially
well-constrained geological examples (e.g. Green identical to the age of entrance into the PAZ, and is
et al. 1989b) and as a guide to the interpretation of associated with a narrow distribution of track
real samples (e.g. Willett 1992). However, forward lengths about a mean value of 15 mm. Slow linear
modelling is not a very efficient means of finding cooling of a sample through the PAZ produces a
solutions for unknown or poorly constrained cooling age that is significantly younger than the
samples and, since there is no unique solution to a entrance into the PAZ, with a broader and shorter
given dataset, such an approach is open to user track-length distribution. Such a pattern is relatively
bias. Data-driven inverse modelling helps to common in old basement terrains that have under-
reduce this bias. Most commonly adopted and pub- gone cooling over very long periods of geological
licly available AFT modelling programs are Monte time. Mixed ages refer to an at least two-stage
Trax (Gallagher 1995, designed for Apple Mac- cooling history, in which the first generation of
intosh), AFTINV (Issler 1996; Willet 1997), AFT- tracks resides at relative higher temperatures within
Solve (Ketcham et al. 2000) and HeFTy (Ketcham the PAZ, prior to final cooling to lower temperatures.
2005, all Windows). These programs differ in mod- The resulting track-length distribution in such cases
elling approach (Monte Carlo and/or genetic algor- is typically bimodal with a short peak representing
ithm), annealing models, input parameters and the higher temperature tracks and a second, long
statistical tests to evaluate the level of fit between peak being added after final cooling. Crucially,
model results and observed data (cf. Ehlers et al. both cooling and mixed ages have no direct signifi-
2005; Ketcham 2005). Some of the modelling cance in terms of the timing of any geological event.
programs refer only to AFT data, whilst others
derive cooling histories from combined AFT, AHe Uplift, exhumation and denudation
and VR data (e.g. HeFTy). DECOMP (Meesters &
Dunai 2002a, b) is a popular program to model With the availability of low-temperature chrono-
thermal histories from AHe data. Most recent devel- logical data, the resolution of cooling events
opments in modelling include a strategy for model- improved considerably, and it became possible to
ling sample thermal histories jointly (Gallagher analyse increasingly younger and shallower pro-
et al. 2005) and the use of Markov Chain Monte cesses. Early AFT studies usually interpreted
6 F. LISKER ET AL.
Fig. 2. Sketch illustrating the relationship between surface uplift, crustal (rock) uplift and denudation (see the text for
definitions). Abbreviations: h, elevation; R, rock; S, surface; t, time.
cooling patterns in terms of ‘uplift and erosion’. Vertical profiles

However, as this interpretation implicitly assumes
that ‘uplift’ will always be matched by an equivalent Much more information than for a single sample
amount of ‘erosion’ (cf. Parrish 1983), a much more alone is available when a suite of samples in a
precise usage of terminology was required. Terms vertical profile can be analysed, such as may be
like denudation, erosion, exhumation and uplift obtained by sampling from a deep drill hole or
(surface, crustal and rock uplift) were (re-) defined over a significant range of vertical relief. Such ver-
by England & Molnar (1990), and explained tical arrays are collected across the thermal gradient
further by Summerfield (1991), Summerfield & through which the samples have cooled. A con-
Brown (1998) and Ring et al. (1999) (Fig. 2). sequence of fission-track annealing/helium diffu-
According to these definitions, surface uplift sion is that AFT and AHe ages gradually decrease
refers to changes in the elevation of a surface. It is from some observed value at the Earth’s surface to
equal to rock uplift minus exhumation. Crustal an apparent value of zero at the depth where no
(rock/bedrock) uplift refers to changes in the verti- fission tracks/He are retained (Wagner & Reimer
cal position of rocks with respect to a fixed reference 1972).
frame, such as the geoid. The decrease in the AFT age with depth, and the
Denudation and exhumation both result from the associated variation of the length distribution, often
removal of material from a region or point, respect- deviate from a simple, linear pattern. Gleadow &
ively, on the Earth’s surface. Whereas exhumation Fitzgerald (1987) recognized that the exposed base
refers to the unroofing of a point (a single sample of a fossil (exhumed) PAZ within a vertical
or a vertical rock section), denudation applies to sample profile produces a characteristic change in
an area (cf. Ahnert 2003; see Summerfield & the regression of the age–elevation plot. Both the
Brown 1998). Reference frame for both is the geo- onset as well as the amount of cooling can be
metry of the past land surface. Denudation can derived from this break in slope (Fig. 3). The age
occur in response to erosion and/or tectonics (e.g. of the break in slope approximates the initiation of
Ring et al. 1999). Erosion describes the removal the last cooling below about 100 8C. Samples from
of weathered products by geomorphic agents. Tec- below this break contain only tracks accumulated
tonic denudation typically occurs through processes during and after this cooling stage. In contrast,
of extension and normal faulting, and it can result in samples above the break in slope contain two gener-
the rapid removal of large rock volumes. Ductile ations of tracks, one from before and one from after
crustal thinning as a third mode of denudation is the onset of final cooling. The amount of cooling
not applicable for the uppermost crustal level and and exhumation can thus be obtained from the
related processes. elevation of the break in slope within a vertical
Thermal histories modelled from thermochrono- AFT (or, similarly, an AHe) profile. The actual
logical data, and potentially supplemented by infor- shape of the age–elevation plot, and the trend of
mation from vertical profiles, can be converted into the track-length distributions with elevation, will
an amount of denudation by using a value (measured depend on the geothermal gradient, and on the
or inferred) for the local geothermal gradient and amount and rate of exhumation (R. W. Brown
taking into account average surface temperature. et al. 1994).
Fig. 3. The concept of an exhumed PAZ (adapted from Fitzgerald et al. 1995; Gallagher et al. 1998). The left panel
illustrates the pre-denudation apatite fission-track age crustal profile, with the initial age as t0. Denudation at time t1
exposes different levels of this pre-cooling profile, while the deeper samples begin to retain tracks (central panel). The
right panel shows the expected trend in the fission-track data with respect to elevation, that is age increases. The length
distribution has two components: tracks formed prior to cooling (dark shading) and those formed after cooling (light
shading). The latter are all long, and the composite length distribution depends on the relative proportion of these two
components. Only the data below the break in slope (marked by an asterisk) provide the timing for the onset of the
cooling/denudation event.
Another advantage of analysing vertical AFT elevation. Palaeogeothermal gradients are not
profiles is the possibility of calculating the palaeo- only invaluable for estimating burial depths and
geothermal gradient that existed prior to the onset amounts of denudation, but also bear important con-
of cooling (Gleadow & Duddy 1981; Bray et al. straints on modes and mechanisms of the related
1992). The palaeogeothermal gradient can be deter- processes (e.g. rifting). A comparison of the palaeo-
mined by weighted least-squares regression of mod- geothermal gradient with a recent one allows the
elled maximum palaeotemperatures against sample cause of high palaeotemperatures, and the cause of
8 F. LISKER ET AL.
the subsequent cooling to the present temperatures, interpretations. Detailed thermal modelling studies
to be determined. by Braun (2002) show how variable thermal struc-
ture can bias the interpretation of low-temperature
Thermochronological data patterns thermochronological data.
Thermochronological transects (horizontal profiles) Landscape evolution modelling. Much effort has
across geological units or structures, or regional pat- been devoted recently to understand the coupling
terns of the AFT parameters, often allow exhuma- between tectonic and surface processes in the for-
tion trends to be detected or distinct igneous or mation of recent topography (e.g. Braun 2002;
tectonic events to be verified. Before modelling pro- Burbank & Anderson 2001; Burbank 2002; Ehlers
grams were available, the characteristic relationship & Farley 2003; Braun et al. 2006). Quantification
between AFT ages, track-length distributions and of the rate at which landforms adapt to a changing
thermal history was used to qualitatively constrain tectonic, heat flow and climate environment (i.e.
amount and timing of cooling (denudation) on a ‘dynamic topography evolution’) are performed by
regional scale. A plot of AFT age against mean combining geomorphological analytical work, low-
track length of an area that has undergone cooling temperature thermochronological data and 3D ther-
shows a characteristic ‘banana’ or ‘boomerang’ mokinematic modelling. Thermokinematic model-
shape that results from the mixing of two cooling ling with the 3D finite-element computer code
components (Green 1986). In such plots, the Pecube (Braun 2003, 2005) predicts time–tempera-
longest mean track lengths are preserved in ture (t–T ) paths for all rock particles that, at the end
samples that experienced rapid cooling without sub- of the computations, occupy the locations of the
sequent reheating. Between the two end points of a nodes at the surface of the finite-element mesh.
boomerang there exists a series of transitional From the t– T paths, apparent AHe and AFT ages
bimodal track-length distributions where the abun- are generated by varying topography, erosion
dance of inherited annealed tracks becomes rates, uplift rates and heat flow values. Thus,
reduced in favour of newly formed tracks while Pecube allows an overall uplift rate to be created
the AFT ages of the samples decrease. or a block of infinite space, which is bordered by
normal faults and/or thrusts, to be defined. When
Apatite thermochrononology and topography movement is localized at the faults or thrusts,
computer-code-generated age data are subsequently
Topographic effects and fast rates of cooling. The compared with the determined real thermochronolo-
temptation to collect vertical profiles in active gical age data. As a result, it is now possible to
mountain belts where there is considerable relief match age data with geomorphological results and
can introduce a number of interpretative problems cosmogenic nuclide-based age dating in order to
for thermochronological data, especially if test landscape evolution models by processing
measured ages are young (,5 Ma). Young AFT different timescale resolutions.
(or AHe) ages require rapid rates of cooling and
high rates of rock uplift and exhumation, but the Detrital thermochronology
calculation of true exhumation rates in such young
samples is problematic owing to the combined influ- The ‘standard’ approach to deriving an AFT age is
ences of topographic wavelength and thermal typically based on the measurement of the track
advection. High rates of rock uplift cause pertur- density (age) for 20–30 (more if track densities
bation of upper-crust thermal structure as heat is are low) single-grain ages. Detrital thermochronol-
advected at rates that exceed normal heat loss by ogy requires 50– 120 grains per sample to enable
conduction, driving isotherms closer to the Earth’s statistical deconvolution into source-age com-
surface (e.g. modelling studies of Stüwe et al. ponents. Depending on the objectives of the study,
1994; Mancktelow & Grasemann 1997; cf. also up to 117 grains should be dated if the analyst
Wang & Zhou 2009). Depending on wavelength wants to ensure that no fraction of the dated popu-
and amplitude (height), the underlying thermal lation comprising more than 0.05 of the total is
structure can undulate with the topography, missed at the 95% confidence level (Vermeesch
causing the distance between closure isotherm and 2004). Once the desired numbers of grains have
surface to vary with sample location. For example, been counted, the dataset can be divided into princi-
beneath valley floors (lowest elevation samples) pal age components. Binomfit is a freeware program
the depth to the PAZ will be less than beneath topo- written by Mark Brandon that calculates ages and
graphic ridges, that is the geothermal gradients will uncertainties for mixed distributions of fission-track
vary with location. Failure to take this effect into grain ages. It uses an algorithm based on the
account when constructing age– elevation plots to decomposition method of Galbraith & Green
determine exhumation rates can lead to incorrect (1990). Age components are compared with the
age patterns of the hinterland and correlated with sediment as the basin evolves (Fig. 4). Whereas
specific source areas (e.g. Brandon 1996; Bernet & zircons provide excellent provenance indicators
Spiegel 2004; Bernet & Garver 2005). (e.g. Hurford & Carter 1991; Garver & Brandon
Detrital thermochronology is routinely used in 1994; Garver et al. 1999), the use of apatite for
provenance analysis, and for denudation and land- source-rock information is restricted to shallow
scape evolution studies (e.g. Hurford & Carter basins (typically less than c. 2 km of burial) and
1991; Garver et al. 1999; Bernet et al. 2006). Specific drainage systems (e.g. Corrigan & Crowley 1992;
tectonic and geomorphological applications include Lonergan & Johnson 1998; Malusà et al. 2009).
dating of hinterland uplift to reconstruct early Detrital analyses often combine thermochronologi-
exhumation rates in active orogenic belts, determin- cal and geochronological data (U –Pb dating of
ing sediment-source regions, and reconstructing zircon, 40Ar/39Ar dating of white mica), heavy
(palaeo-) drainage systems. A particularly useful mineral assemblages, grain size/shapes (zircon
interpretative method is to plot the lag time (or typology), and isotope signatures of detrital min-
erosion– transport interval) between sediment depo- erals (e.g. Dunkl et al. 2001; Carter & Foster
sition age and youngest detrital exhumation age. This 2009). The amount of provenance information can
provides key information on exhumation history, and be increased by using double or triple dating tech-
conceptually it is possible to use the lag time to niques that involve more than one dating method
monitor the evolution of a mountain belt as it on the same mineral grain, for example combined
passes from growth stages (decreasing lag times) U –Pb or 40Ar/39Ar and AFT dating (Carter &
into topographic and exhumation steady state (con- Moss 1999; Carrapa et al. 2009) and/or AHe
stant lag time) into orogenic decay (increasing lag dating (Rahl et al. 2003). A detrital dating technique
time). Other provenance applications include con- that utilizes petrographic information is fission-
straining minimum depositional ages of sediments track analysis of single pebbles or pebble popu-
and the correlation of stratigraphic horizons. lations using conglomerates from foreland basin
Most sediment is derived from the erosion of deposits (Spiegel et al. 2001; Dunkl et al. 2009).
pre-existing rocks, and therefore detrital apatite
and zircon grains may contain tracks that accumu-
lated in the original source rock. Weathering and Applications
physical erosion do not affect the retention and stab-
ility of fission tracks (Gleadow & Lovering 1974), Application of low-temperature thermochronology
but the preservation of provenance-related tracks is not confined to the obvious, immediate purpose
does depend on the temperature history experienced of dating rock formations, as this is rarely possible
by eroding source regions and subsequently by the due to thermal resetting. Much more powerful
Fig. 4. Cartoon to show the relationship between the progressive exhumation of a source region and deposition of
the eroded exhumation record in an adjacent sedimentary basin (modified after Garver et al. 1999). The time slices
(t1 – t3) correspond to three progressive and continuous intervals of erosion and deposition. Subsequently, a
‘stratigraphy’ of apatite fission-track ages develops within the basin, which is the inverse of the source-region
exhumation age trend. It should be noted that with progressive burial, sediments may be heated sufficiently to cause
annealing of the inherited AFT provenance records. Rarely is such burial-related heating sufficient to reset fission tracks
in detrital zircons and titanites. Also, note how topography may cause the upwarping of the lower temperature isotherms.
10 F. LISKER ET AL.
(and more widely used) are the applications that Denudation and long-term landscape
exploit thermal resetting to reconstruct rock exhu- evolution studies
mation histories. The main fields of application of
AFT and AHe thermochronology include prove- Denudation and long-term landscape evolution
nance studies, thermal history analysis of sedimen- studies represent the most common and broadest
tary basins, the evolution of orogenic mountain field of applied low-temperature thermochronology.
belts and applications in non-orogenic settings. Studies range from compressional to extensional
Recent work in these areas has focused on the coup- settings and ‘stable’ cratonic interiors.
ling between climate and tectonics (e.g. Koons
1989; Willet 1999; Beaumont et al. 2000), and ther- Orogenic belts. Orogenic mountain ranges are
mochronlogical datasets have been used to evaluate characterized by substantial relief and immense
the role of climatically driven erosion as a com- uplift/denudation rates, resulting in large-scale
ponent of exhumation (Blythe & Kleinspehn 1998; advective transfer of heat and increased thermal gra-
Reiners & Brandon 2006). dient. The obvious correlation between exhumation
Fission-track and (U– Th–Sm)/He data are and cooling predetermined this setting for an early
often combined with other sources of data such as application of thermochronological research, and
thermochronology and geochronological dating to expanded the scope of the method(s) from a purely
constrain higher temperature histories and/or ‘age determination’ approach to a unique thermo-
rock formation age (e.g. 40Ar/39Ar and K –Ar: tectonic tool. Wagner (1968) and Wagner &
Daszinnies et al. 2009; De Grave et al. 2009), and Reimer (1972) first used AFT data to provide esti-
terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide dating to compare mates of the time and rates at which rocks approach
with more recent erosion rates (e.g. Cockburn the surface and cool as a result of ‘uplift and
et al. 2000; Kuhlemann et al. 2009). In addition, erosion’. At present, low-temperature thermochro-
interpretations increasingly integrate data from nology is the most efficient method to quantify
stratigraphic archives, geomorphology, structural denudation rates on geological timescales. Changes
geology, remote sensing, petrology, fluid inclusion in erosion rates with time can be constrained using
analysis, vitrinite reflectance, clay mineralogy, con- multiple chronometers with different closure temp-
odont colour alteration, zircon typology and seismic eratures on the same rock sample, or from the distri-
data. These multi-method approaches strengthen the bution of cooling ages from a single system along a
interpretation of AFT and AHe data, and help to vertical transect. Spatial –temporal patterns of ther-
extend geological histories through time. mochronometrically determined erosion rates help
to constrain the flow of material through orogenic
Absolute dating wedges, orogenic growth and decay cycles, palaeo-
relief, and relationships with structural, geomorpho-
Owing to fission-track annealing and He diffusion at logical or climatic features (cf. Reiners & Brandon
relatively low temperatures, geological events can 2006). Subsequent to the first apatite thermochrono-
be dated in well-defined settings, when rocks very logical works in the Alps (e.g. Schaer et al. 1975;
rapidly passed the PAZ and/or partial retention Wagner et al. 1979; Grundmann & Morteani
zone and resided at the surface or at a very shallow- 1985; Hurford 1986; Hurford et al. 1991), most of
crustal level thereafter. Rapid cooling to low temp- the world’s young orogenic belts were studied
eratures mainly occurs subsequent to volcanic or (e.g. Parrish 1983; Seward & Tulloch 1991; Corri-
hydrothermal activity (Duddy et al. 1998), dyke gan & Crowley 1992; Hendrix et al. 1994; Blythe
emplacement, faulting and friction or meteorite et al. 1996; O’Sullivan & Currie 1996; Sorkhabi
impacts (e.g. Miller & Wagner 1979). For these et al. 1996; Dunkl & Demény 1997; Kamp 1997;
cases, thermochronological ages are more or less Sanders et al. 1999; Fayon et al. 2001; Spiegel
identical to those obtained by conventional radio- et al. 2001; Glasmacher et al. 2002b; Reiners
metric techniques, and can be used directly as dis- et al. 2002; Thomson 2002; Willet et al. 2003; Van
crete time constraints. Fission-track analysis is der Beek et al. 2006; Gibson et al. 2007; Vincent
also used as a conventional method for dating et al. 2007; Glotzbach et al. 2008, 2009; del Rı́o
glasses (e.g. Fleischer & Price 1964; Bigazzi & De et al. 2009; Ruiz et al. 2009).
Michele 1996), and has been applied to date stone
tools and fossils (e.g. Morwood et al. 1998). More- Continental rifts and passive continental margins.
over, both fission-track and (U –Th)/He techniques Continental rifts are elongated tectonic depressions
have been used successfully to date the formation of that result from extension and crustal thinning
supergene minerals such as some phosphates or caused either by a regional extensional stress field
vanadates, hematite, goethite, limonite, manganese or in response to asthenospheric upwelling (cf.
oxides and carbonate minerals (e.g. Bender 1973; Olsen 1995; Ziegler & Cloething 2004). Continental
Lippolt et al. 1995; Shuster et al. 2005; Boni et al. separation and the onset of sea-floor spreading mark
2007; Copeland et al. 2007). the transition from a continental rift into a passive
margin. Consequently, the general morphotectonic However, thermochronological studies conducted

evolution and appearance of rifts and passive during the last two decades on different cratons
margins is similar. In detail, the style of lithospheric revealed that throughout the Phanerozoic many of
extension, geometry of rifting, rate and amount of these ancient terrains have experienced discrete
extension are influenced by local crust rheology episodes of kilometre-scale crustal erosion (e.g.
coupled to erosion, which in turn is influenced by Crowley et al. 1986; Wagner 1990; Noble et al.
pre-existing morphology, rift-related magmatism, 1997; Harman et al. 1998; Cederbom et al. 2000;
local drainage and climate (e.g. Gilchrist & Sum- Bojar et al. 2002; Glasmacher et al. 2002a; Kohn
merfield 1990; Kooi & Beaumont 1994; Olsen et al. 2002; Belton et al. 2004; Lorencak et al.
1995; O’Sullivan & Brown 1998; Ziegler & 2004; Soderlund et al. 2005; Flowers et al. 2006).
Cloething 2004). Deconvolving these different con- On the other hand, cratonic areas often show appar-
trols has been the focus of AFT and AHe studies. ent inconsistencies between AFT and AHe ages.
Apatite thermochronological studies have been These crossover ages are discussed controversially
reported from most of the world’s continental-size as either resulting from non-thermal radiation-
rift structures and highly extended terranes (for an enhanced annealing of fission tracks (e.g. Hendriks
overview cf. Stockli 2005) including the West & Redfield 2005) or reflecting the dependency of
Antarctic Rift System (e.g. Gleadow et al. 1984; He retention properties from the chemical compo-
Fitzgerald & Gleadow 1988; Fitzgerald 1992, sition of apatites (e.g. Green et al. 2006; Kohn
1994; Foster & Gleadow 1992a; Balestrieri et al. et al. 2009).
1994; Fitzgerald & Stump 1997; Lisker 2002; Fitz-
gerald et al. 2006), the East African Rift System
(e.g. Kohn & Eyal 1981; Omar et al. 1989; Foster
Basin analysis
& Gleadow 1993, 1996; Van Der Beek et al. Sedimentary basins are major archives of geological
1998; Feinstein et al. 1996; Kohn et al. 1997; Bales- history related either directly to the evolution of the
trieri et al. 2005; Spiegel et al. 2007), and the Basin basin itself (e.g. subsidence history, tectonics,
and Range Province (e.g. Armstrong et al. 2003; climate, sea-level change) and/ or indirectly to the
House et al. 2003; Colgan et al. 2006), as well as geological history of the sediment-source regions
many other continental extension zones (e.g. (e.g. provenance information, palaeo-basement,
Rohrmann et al. 1994; Van der Beek et al. 1996; geomorphology, tectonics). Traditionally, the burial
Lisker & Fachmann 2001; Emmel et al. 2009). and deposition history of basin sediments is deter-
Two studies on the influence of heat-flow variation mined by investigation of the sedimentology and
across major rifts were published by Gallagher deposition ages derived from biostratigraphy, com-
et al. (1994) and Lisker et al. (2003). bined with structural and geophysical datasets.
Gallagher & Brown (1997) demonstrated how However, establishing the timing of maximum
AFT data are used to study the evolution of rift- depths of burial, and the timing and extent of uplifts,
margin topography (linked to isostatic-flexural is often hard to recover owing to stratigraphic gaps,
responses to erosional unloading) and to test the poor biostratigraphic control and sediment types.
different geomorphic models of passive margin In this regard, AFT chronology has proven a valu-
evolution. Most passive rift margins of the major able tool.
continents have been extensively studied by Thermochronology becomes most useful when a
apatite thermochronology, with a wealth of papers basin has undergone a period of uplift or inversion,
detailing different aspects of their evolution. These during which a section of strata has been removed
studies include Moore et al. (1986), Brown et al. by erosion (e.g. Kamp & Green 1990; Bray et al.
(1990, 2002), Dumitru (1991), Kalaswad et al. 1992; Green et al. 1995). Specific information
(1993), Gallagher et al. (1994), Gallagher & gained from thermochronological data include
Brown (1999), Carter et al. (2000), Johnson & estimates of maximum palaeotemperatures, calcu-
Gallagher (2000), O’Sullivan et al. (2000), Persano lations of palaeogeothermal gradients and palaeo-
et al. (2002), Gunnell et al. (2003), Seward et al. heat flow, style (fast/slow) and time of cooling
(2004), Japsen et al. (2006), Raab et al. (2005), from maximum palaeotemperatures, characteriz-
Emmel et al. (2006, 2007) and Kounov et al. ation of mechanisms of heating and cooling, quanti-
2009). Transform margins have seen comparatively fication of missing sections, stratigraphic dating,
little study, with published work confined to the sediment provenance, and evaluation of hydro-
Ghana margin (Clift et al. 1997; Bouillin et al. carbon maturation (Gleadow et al. 1983; Green
1997; Bigot-Cormier et al. 2005). et al. 1989a; Kamp & Green 1990; Duane &
Brown 1991; Mitchell 1997; Logan & Duddy 1998).
Cratons. Cratonic interiors were traditionally con- Particularly useful in basin analysis is the
sidered as tectonically and thermally stable features. integration of thermochronological data with
They are characterized by extensive surfaces of maximum palaeotemperature indicators (Fig. 5),
minimal relief that infer low rates of erosion. like vitrinite reflectance (VR) and illite crystallinity
12 F. LISKER ET AL.
Fig. 5. Schematic to show how the thermal history of a sedimentary basin can be recovered by integration of data from
multiple palaeothermometers and chronometers. Illite data constrain the burial or heating phase of a basin’s thermal
history, VR records maximum temperature, and combined apatite thermochronology constrains the timing of cooling
and subsequent denudation (modified after Pevear 1999).
(e.g. Bray et al. 1992; Pagel et al. 1997; Duddy et al. disrupted across tectonic structures. Such offsets
1998; Mathiesen et al. 2000; Ventura et al. 2001; in the palaeo-isotherm/-depth stratigraphy can be
Arne et al. 2002; Osadetz et al. 2002; Tingate & used to determine relative uplift between different
Duddy 2002). VR is the measure of the coalification blocks and the amount of throw on bounding
rank of organic matter, and it is mainly dependent faults (Fitzgerald & Gleadow 1988, 1990; Dumitru
on temperature and time (Burnham & Sweeney 1991; Foster & Gleadow 1992a, b, 1996; Fitzgerald
1989). VR data provide a direct estimation of et al. 1993; O’Sullivan et al. 1995, 2000; Johnson
maximum palaeotemperatures across the same 1997; Rahn et al. 1997; Wagner et al. 1997;
temperature range as annealing in fission tracks in Thomson 1998; Kohn et al. 1999; Redfield et al.
apatite, which enables the thermal history model- 2007; Ventura et al. 2009; Xu et al. 2009). More-
ling of joint VR and AFT datasets to provide a over, the timing of tectonic activity may be deter-
more robust constraint on temperature –time his- mined by the direct dating of faults, lineaments or
tories. Basin modelling using combined thermo- pseudotachylites (Harman et al. 1998; O’Sullivan
chronological and VR constraints has become a et al. 1998; Raab et al. 2002, 2009; Zwingmann &
routine, and is a valuable tool in the hydrocarbon Mancktelow 2004; Tagami 2005; Timar-Geng
exploration industry (Gleadow et al. 1983; Green et al. 2009; Yamada et al. 2009).
et al. 2002; Emmerich et al. 2005; Underdown
et al. 2007). Also of economic relevance is the
application of apatite thermochronology to the
Summary
exploration of hydrothermal ore deposits (cf.
McInnes et al. 2005). As can be seen from the papers contained in this
Special Publication, apatite thermochronology has
Tectonic processes grown to become a reliable and routinely used
method to helping in solving a diverse range of
Thermochronological methods can be used to detect geological problems. Although mature, the method
tectonic activities in two ways. In areas of substan- continues to undergo developments. Over the last
tial block uplift, thermochronological ages may be decade there have been considerable improvements
in AFT methodology and data interpretation, but landscape: implications for the tectonic and geo-
there is still scope for further advances. Future morphic stability of cratonic interiors. Earth and
studies to refine models of track annealing in Planetary Science Letters, 219, 21– 34.
apatite may shift away from laboratory-based B ENDER , M. 1973. Helium–uranium dating of corals.
Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta, 37, 1229–1247.
experimentation to well-constrained geological B ERGER , G. W. & Y ORK , D. 1981. Geothermometry from
experiments (e.g. Spiegel et al. 2007) and molecular dating experiments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica
dynamic simulations (Rabone et al. 2008). Further Acta, 45, 795 –811.
work will also need to be carried out on under- B ERNET , M. & G ARVER , J. I. 2005. Fission-track analysis
standing the controls on annealing in zircons and of detrital zircon. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geo-
titanites, as well as the establishment of new fission- chemistry, 58, 205– 237.
track mineral dating systems (e.g. monazite, merril- B ERNET , M. & S PIEGEL , C. 2004. Introduction: detrital
lite: cf. Wagner & Van den Haute 1992; Gleadow thermochronology. In: B ERNET , M. & S PIEGEL , C.
et al. 2002). (eds) Detrital Thermochronology – Provenance
Analysis, Exhumation, and Landscape Evolution of
Mountain Belts. Geological Society of America,
We are very grateful to A. Carter and F. Stuart for construc-
Special Paper, 378, 1– 6.
tive reviews of the manuscript.
B ERNET , M., V AN DER B EEK , P., P IK , R., H UYGHE , P.,
M UGNIER , J.-L., L ABRIN , E. & S ZULC , A. 2006.
Miocene to Recent exhumation of the central Himalaya
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Apatite thermochronology in modern geology

Abstract: Fission-track and (U–Th–Sm)/He thermochronology on apatites are radiometric dating

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 3

Annealing studies recognized that track fading

(U– Th – Sm)/He thermochronology He dating, whereas He implantation needs to be

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 5

cooling patterns in terms of ‘uplift and erosion’. Vertical profiles

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 7

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 9

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 11

margin. Consequently, the general morphotectonic However, thermochronological studies conducted

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 13

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 15

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 17

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 19

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 21

APATITE THERMOCHRONOLOGY IN MODERN GEOLOGY 23

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