MATERIAL NAME - used to select the material for a generic layers with standard thickness and

construction. properties.
- Walls separating the house from an attached
THICKNESS -Some materials, such as three-coat stucco,
unconditioned attic or garage are modeled as
are defined with a specific thickness (not editable by the
interior walls with unconditioned space as the
compliance user). The thickness of other materials, such
adjacent zone, which the compliance manager
as softwood used for framing, is selected by the
recognizes as a demising wall. Floors over a
compliance user based on the construction of the
garage are modeled as floor over exterior. The
building.
exterior walls, floor, ceiling/roof of the
CONDUCTIVITY -is the steady state heat flow per square garageare modeled as part of the
foot, per foot of thickness, or per degree Fahrenheit unconditioned garage zone.
temperature difference.
“+ STANDARD DESIGN - The compliance software
-used in simulating the heat flow in the assembles a construction that meets the prescriptive
construction. standards for each user-defined construction or
assembly.
COEFFICIENT FOR TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT OF
CONDUCTIVITY -The conductivity of insulation materials “+ VERIFICATION AND REPORTING
varies with their temperature according to the
All proposed constructions, including insulation, frame
coefficient listed. Other materials have a coefficient of
type, frame size, and exterior finish or exterior
zero (0) and their conductivity does not vary with
condition are listed on the CF1R. Non-standard framing
temperature.
(e.g., 24” on center wall framing, advanced wall
SPECIFIC HEAT -is the amount of heat in British thermal framing) is reported as a special feature.
units (Btu) it takes to raise the temperature of one
SELECTING THE RIGHT EXTERIOR MATERIAL FOR YOUR
pound of the material one degree Fahrenheit.
CUSTOM HOME
DENSITY- weight in pounds per cubic foot of a material
1. Architectural Style -narrow down your options for
R-VALUE PER INCH- the R-value is the resistance to heat exterior materials based on what is authentic and
flow for a 1-inch thick layer. appropriate to that particular style.
2. Energy Efficiency -If you are interested in saving on
CONSTRUCTIONS are defined by the compliance user your energy bill, choose materials with the
for use in defining the building. appropriate insulation properties.
For framed constructions there is a FRAMING LAYER 3. Deed Restrictions, Covenants, and HOA Guidelines
that has parallel paths for the framing and the cavity -In some locations, your selection of exterior design
between the framing members. and materials is dictated by a deed restriction,
covenant, or HOA guidelines.
COMPLIANCE MANAGER calculates a winter design U-  Deed restrictions are agreements that restrict the
factor that is compared to a construction that meets the use of a piece of real estate that are contained,
prescriptive standard. unsurprisingly, in the property deed.
U-FACTOR is displayed as an aid to the user. The  Covenants are legal contracts that spell out what
CALCULATIONS USED IN THE ENERGY SIMULATION are you may and may not do to the exterior of your
based on each individual layer and framing rather than home. Covenants are typically found in the HOA
the Ufactor. terms rather than the property deed.
 HOA guidelines are put into place to preserve a
CONSTRUCTION LAYERS: certain level of uniformity within development or
“+ PROPOSED DESIGN community.
4. Local Building Code - restrict materials based on
- The USER defines a construction for each their history of fire-resistance or durabilityagainst
surface type included in the proposed design. prevailing weather or seismic conditions.
Any variation in insulation R-value, framing size 5. Weather and Environment -The exterior materials of
or spacing, interior or exterior sheathing or a home are its first defense against extreme weather
interior or exterior finish requires the user to events suchas ice and snow, driving rain, or high
define a different construction. Insulation R- winds.
values are based on manufacturer-rated 6. Impact on Insurance -Insurance companies may have
properties rounded to the nearest whole R- restrictions on the type of material used on the roof
value. Layers such as sheetrock, wood andexterior to mitigate expensive replacement and
sheathing, stucco and carpet whose properties repair after damage or to limit the spread of fire.
are not compliance variables are included as
 TYPES OF EXTERIOR MATERIALS The backer panel is made of sustainably harvested
1. Stucco wood and finished with low VOC-resin. The tiles are
- used for centuries and provides a distinct easily cut and installed using adhesive and nails.
appearance to your home. 2. Tilesmade from Leather Scraps
- homes with stucco exteriors are designed for Epitomizing luxury and elegance, leather has
Modern or Mediterranean architectural styles. been used for a long time as a building material
- Traditional stucco is cement-based plaster for niche interiors owing to the richness and
containing sand and limestone and is applied to a glamorous feel it gives. These are cheaper and
mesh screen, wood, or masonry walls in multiple easy to install.
layers. The outermost coat is the desired final 3. Fabric Wall Panels
color. Stucco can be painted but adds to the Fabric panels constitute of a panel of wood that
required maintenance of the home. is padded with batting and foam, covered over
2. Wood Siding with a fabric. Fabric Wall Panels have an
-is a beautiful, time-honored exterior material additional advantage over and above the
available in a variety of woods including pine, fir, aesthetics that they provide, as they are
spruce, redwood, cedar, and cypress. You can also capable of controlling reflection and
select an engineered wood, which incorporates real reverberation of sound, thereby providing an
wood but is more durable, pre-treated against acoustic solution. Fabric wall panels make a
termites and rot, as well as easy and less costly to room look warm and cozy.
install. 4. Laser Cut Sheet Metal Panels
- creates a timeless, natural appearance. can be installed in an outdoor setting as a
3. Concrete Fiber shading device, making them not only
- is made of concrete mixed with wood fiber and functionally viable, but also aesthetical as they
designed to mimic real wood. Fiber cement can also can enhance the spatial quality of the space by
be designed to look like stucco or masonry. casting artistic shadows as the natural light
- Hardicrete, HardiPlank, and HardiBoard are moves through the laser cut patterns. Other
brand names for concrete fiber siding. The applications include handrail screens, window
material provides sustainability by limiting screens, partitions etc.
deforestation and is exceptionally 5. Bronze Art Tiles Bronze
weatherproof. has been used for over hundreds of years to
- it is not as recyclable as wood is. create timeless pieces of art and architecture.
4. Brick They are impervious to heat and can withstand
-Solid brick imparts a very traditional look to a home. any kind of weather.
Most solid brick homes have only a single layer of 6. Laminated Resin
brick over a wood frame. Laminated Resin is a transparent resin that is
5. Stone and Cast Stone formulated to remain water clear even when it
- Incorporating stone into the exterior of your is catalyzed. Laminated Resin is not prone to
home adds significant dimension and texture. yellowing at all and is extremely easy to use,
- For a more organic natural look, consider using allowing easy flow and fast air bubble release. It
chop stone. For a cleaner, more is an ideal solution for applications that require
modernaesthetic, go with cut stone. a glass exterior.
- Cast stone is a faux stone product developed to 7. Eco Resin
look like stone at a lower cost. It is easier to Eco Resin is an environment-friendly resin that
control the shape and color of cast stone, which is formulated to complement carbon, fiberglass
sometimes makes it an attractive complement and other laminating materials. Made out of
to stone exteriors. Cast stone can last 30 to 50 natural plants and vegetable extracts, it is
years. clearly a sustainable substitute for polyester
6. Metal resin. It is almost odorless and can be used
- Metal siding is a versatile material that can be safely in almost any working environment.
manufactured to appear like any other siding 8. Strand Woven Bamboo Flooring
material. Typically created from steel or Hardwoods are vulnerable to weathering and
aluminum, metal siding comes in a variety of wear and tear.Strand woven bamboo flooring is
colors, textures, and shapes. much more durable than vertical or horizontal
bamboo flooring because the crosshatched
strands act in correspondence to keep the
SELECTING THE RIGHT INTERIOR MATERIAL
individual components of the material intact.
TYPES OF INTERIOR DESIGN

1. Coco Tiles -are made of coconut shells. The tiles

come in intricate basket weave or scalloped designs.
9. Cork Flooring Finishing Materials Proper VS Structural Finishing
It is a green resource that is renewable and can Materials
be used without contributing to deforestation.
1. Finishing Materials Proper — used mainly to form
Benefits include aesthetic appeal, good
decorative and protective coatings
insulation properties,soft texture, tends to repel
2. Structural Finishing Materials — also perform the
pests and dust, and installation is very easy.
functions of enclosing members and components of
10. Resin Wicker
such members
is the man-made version of natural wicker that
is made out of a synthetic material, mostly The most important finishing materials are:
polyethylene. It is lightweight and easy to move;
affordable; comfortable as it does not have any 1. Natural stone
sharp edges, weather resistant, resistant to pool - Traditional finishing material
water and chlorine, and available in a wide - Durable and has an attractive appearance
range of styles and colors. - Are used for exterior and interior facings on
walls and for floor covering (theaters, hotels,
FINISHES and subway station)
- Used in the form of decorative chips to finish
 used in the final part of the construction or
the surfaces of concrete and reinforced-
manufacturing process
concrete parts and units
 Can protect the element they finish from
- Products are produced from granite, syenite,
impact, water, corrosion, frost, abrasion and so
gabbro, limestone, marble and quartzite.
on
 Ceramics — most widely used artificial stone
 They can be decorative
finishing materials. Common inresidential and
 They play an important role in regulating indoor
public buildings for exterior and interior
temperature and humidity.
finishes.
 Finishing operations are carried out in the right
sequence.
2. Glass
 Care is taken to prevent damage. – Is a wide field, no limits to the imagination
 Depending on the type of building project, the – Can be finished in many different ways
methods of finishes varies to consider the  *Glass milling — a craftsman technique for
applicable interior and exterior design. glass finishing
 Before selecting a finish, thought must be given  The type of glass finishing depends on the
to many factors such as: intended use. Disadvantage: Glass finishing
- Appearance - Fire criteria damage the surface of the glass.
- Durability
- Relationship to mechanical and electrical Types of Glass Finishes
services
1. Frosted Glass >
- Maintenance - Changeability
- has a cloudy, foggy appearance
- Acoustic criteria - Cost
- can be used for conference room walls, exterior
- Toxic emissions from interior materials
windows of an office, decorative signs on the
2 types of Finish for Buildings exterior of building and glass partitions in a
restaurant
1. Applied Finish —a finish which is applied on site 2. Satin Glass
2. Self-Finish/Inherent Finish — a finish which is - almost the same as frosted glass; different
inherent in the material and does not have to appearance.
be specially applied on site. - looks smooth and silky
4 Main Building Components Finishes - less shiny and more matte in appearance
- can be use for partition walls at banks, glass
1. Floor Finishes paneled doors, fitting rooms, and partitions at
2. Wall Finishes car dealerships
3. Ceilings Finishes 3. Reflective Glass
4. Roof Finishes - plain, clear or tinted glass that has a metallic
Finishing Material coating on one side
- can act like a one-way mirror
- Used to improve the service and decorative - works on both the interior and exterior
qualities of buildings and structures buildings
- Protects structural members from atmospheric - can be use in stores, tall buildings and small
and other effects office spaces
- Usually designed for interior and/or exterior finishing
 4. Tinted Glass
- comes in a rainbow of hues as well as dark hues
2. Brushed —a matte finish
- can increase privacy, filters out sunlight and
- looks as if it has been smoothed with a
minimizes heat gain
paintbrush
- can be use as part of mural, an accent wall, in
- leaves faint brushstrokes mark
an office that gets too much sun and in a store
3. Hammered — has many small indents adding
that gets a lot of sunlight
surface texture
------------------------------------------------------------ 4. Polished — creates a reflective, mirror-like
surface
3. Decorative concrete and mortars
- acommon stainless-steel finish
- Used extensively in the factory finishing of
5. Satin — similar to brushed metals but does not
structural members for fully prefabricated
have brushstrokes marks
buildings
- the sheen is between matte and polished
- The use for exterior and interior finishes during
5. Wood
construction is unlikely unlimited
- Involves the application of a protective layer to
4. Metals
bare wood
- Used in modern construction mainly for
- Sanding, planning, and scarping can help
finishing unique buildings and structures
eliminate surface imperfections by softening
- Used mainly in the form of small items for
and smoothening the wood
finishing the entrances and interiors of buildings
- Decorative plywood, veneer, parquet,
chipboard, fiberboard, and such articles as
5 Most Common Metals
railings, plinths, and finish casings
- Notable for their excellent appearance and
1. Aluminum
service qualities
- has a dull silver finish
- Service life: Increases by treating with wood
- lighter in weight and more affordable
preservatives and by applying paint and varnish
- does not rust but it oxidizes which creates a
coatings
chalky white residue
6. Wallpapers
- most often used in outdoor furniture
- A thick decorative paper applied to walls with
2. Stainless Steel
glue
- found in furniture and fixtures throughout the
- Widely used for interior finishes
home
- Low cost and labor requirement
- does not rust, oxidize or corrode and is low-
7. Plastic
maintenance
- Characterized by broad range of colors, a
- much stronger than aluminum
variety of product shapes, excellentsanitary and
3. Wrought Iron
hygienic qualities, and good corrosion
- refers to the metal that has been hammered or
resistance
bent into shape
- Used infrequently for exterior facings (mainly
- corrosion-resistant and durable
for small structures)
- commonly used to make fireplace accessories,
- Service life: Shorter service life than ceramics or
outdoor furniture, pot
glass finishing materials
- racks, rustic beds, and more
8. Paint and Varnish
4. Brass
- Intended mainly for painting operations
- amix of copper and zinc alloys
- Have become widespread in modern
- can be made in various colors such as red,
construction
yellow, gold, bronze and
- Makes a possible substantial reduction in the
- brown
labor-intensiveness of finishingoperations and
- typically, corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial
an improvement in the protective and
5. Copper decorative properties ofstructure
- reddish orange in color FLOOR FINISHES
- found on all types of décor and fixtures
- Is the ultimate top layer of all the flooring layers
- corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial

5 Common Types of Metal Finishes

1. Antiqued — creates a surface roughness that

appears to stand the test of time
 Factors to consider when choosing floor finishes  Painting
 Dry Linings
- Type of base
 Molding
- Room usage
 Architraves
- Degree of comfort required
- Maintenance  Natural stone
- Cost  Ledgestone
- Appearance  Aluminum cladding
- Safety CEILING FINISHES — Provides a decorative skin to
- Individual preference conceal building components
A good finishing will have the following Factors to consider when choosing ceiling finishes
characteristics:
 Type of floor structure
- Look attractive/beautiful  Appearance
- Comfortable and safe
 Durability
- Long lasting and able to prevent high
 Safety to occupants
temperature, fungi and chemical corrosion
 The location of mechanical services/equipment
Here are the types of floor finishes and the materials  Fire resistance
used:  Life span
 Economy
- Bricks/Pavers
 Function of the building
- Stone
 Need for acoustic elements
- Rendering
- Tiling (ceramic, porcelain, granite, marble) Here are the types of ceilings finishes and the materials
- Wood floor covering (laminated flooring, wood used:
parquet, engineered wood)
- Terrazzo  Plaster Board
- Asphalt  Plaster Board cove molding
- Rubber  Steel Lathing
- Linoleum sheet  Plastering
- Glass floor covering  Ceiling linings
- Concrete floor covering  Ceiling tiles
- Mosaic floor covering  Spray plaster
- Cork floor covering  Ceiling papers
- Magnesite floor covering  Timber Cladding
- Vinyl asbestos tiles  Expanded Polystyrene Tiles
- Carpets  PVC Cladding
 Ceiling Painting
WALL FINISHES ROOF FINISHES
- A finish given to walls to enhance the interior Here are the types of roof finishes and the
and exterior look of the structure materials used:
- Provide a decorative skin to conceal building
components  Corrugated steel
 Profiled light aluminum
Factors to consider when choosing wall finishes  Wood shingles
- Room usage  Concrete tiles
- Degree of comfort required  Clay tiles
- Maintenance  Glazed
- Cost  Lightweight metallic
- Suitability of decoration  Synthetic slates/tiles
- Fire protection  Natural slates
 Artificial mineral fiber
Here are the types of wall finishes and the materials
 Cement slates
used:
 Titanium-cladding pane
 Plastering
 Tiling
 Skirting
 Wallpaper
Products - parts of the superstructure are much lengthier
than the parts of the substructure.
Building products

 pre-fabricated structures used in construction.

 are processed, finished items that are offered
for sale.
 they are manufactured combinations of
materials and perhaps other products,
processed to create items such as doors,
windows, light fittings, cabinets and so on.
 are also assembled in warehouses so the
project team only needs to fit them in the
building.
 are generally distinguished from ‘materials’
which are raw, unprocessed substances such as
sand, salt, and so on, and from ‘services’ which
are _ activities such as consultation,
maintenance, installation, or sometimes the
provision of accommodation.
 Advantage: Makes the job of the project team
faster and easier while minimizing waste on the
construction site.

BUILDING COMPONENTS

Plinth- The portion of the wall between the ground

level and the ground floor level

- usually of stone masonry

- At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is
Two major components of buildings provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain
concrete course.
 SUBSTRUCTURE- is the part of the building that - function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor
is underneath the ground above ground level, free of dampness.
- transfer the loads of the superstructure to the - It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm
soil that is underneath. above the road level, so that connections to
- made from plain cement concrete or reinforced underground drainage system can be made.
cement concrete. - resists entry of rainwater and insects inside the
- Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or building.
additional concrete is added until it all reaches - General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm.
the plinth level. It is necessary for a damp-proof
course to be laid on top, so that moisture WALLS- are building blocks of bricks or stones.
doesn’t penetrate any part of the substructure
- divide the building space into various support
space slabs into various beams and rooms.
 SUPERSTRUCTURE- everything that is above
- provide privacy and protection against heat,
ground.
cold, rain, noise, dust winds.
- superstructure of a building is where people will
- can be Brick masonry walls and Stone masonry
spend most of their time.
walls.
- area includes the first and second floors inside a
- Furthermore, walls perform the ff. functions
home and any number of floors in larger
(a) It encloses building area into different
buildings.
compartments and provides privacy.
- includes beams, columns, finishes, windows,
(b) it provides safety from burglary and insects.
doors, the roof, floors, and anything else.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool
in summer
Columns - vertical members along which beams and There are also different types of windows such as:
slab /roof is supported.
- Fixed - Metal
- Shape can be square, rectangular, and circular. - Pivoted - Bay
- Double Hung - Corner window
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load
- sliding - Dormer window
of the structure vertically downwards to transfer it to
- Casement - Gable window
foundation.
- Sash - Lantern
Sills- 50 mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course - Louvered - Skylight
provided over the masonry where window frame is
Floors - important component of a building
placed
- give working/useful area for the occupants.
Lintels -- are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over
- The ground floor is prepared by filling brick
the door and window openings to transfer the load
bats, waste stones, gravel and well compacted
transversely so as to see that door or window frame is
with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top.
not stressed unduly.
A lean concrete of 1 : 4: 8, 100 mm thick is laid.
- width of lintels is equal to the width of wall On this a damp proof course may be provided.
while thickness to be provided depends upon Then floor finishing is done as per the
the opening size. requirement of the owner.
- Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is
Chajja -- is the projection given outside the wall to with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished
protect doors and windows from the rain. with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is
- usually made with R.C.C. mosaic or marble finishing. Other floors are
- projection varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. usually of R.C.C. finished as per the
requirements of the owner
Door - give access to different rooms in the building and
to deny the access whenever necessary. Roof - top most portion of the building which provide
top cover to the building.
- give access to different rooms in the building
and to deny the access whenever necessary. - should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and
- size of the door should be of such dimension as A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they
will facilitate the movement of the largest do not give provision for the construction of
object likely to use the door. additional floor.
- provide a connecting link between rooms, Tiled roof give good thermal protection.
allowing free movement from to room-to-room. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors.
Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants.
Windows - provided to get light and ventilation in Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat
the building. roofs.
- located at a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the Step, stairs and Lifts
floor level.
- hot and humid regions, the window area should STEPS give convenient access from ground level to
be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. ground floor level. They are required at doors in the
- for every 30 m3 of inside volume there should outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is
be 1 m2 window opening. ideal size for steps.
- opening provides in walls. - Number of steps required depends upon the
Doors and windows provide lighting, smooth sound difference in the levels of the ground and the
of outsides places and ventilation. floor.
- give access from floor to floor. They should
Considering Material Used consist of steps of uniform sizes. In all public
- Wooden Door buildings lifts are to be provided for the
- Metal Door conveniences of old and disabled persons.
- UPVC Door In hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in
Considering the Mechanism & Usage residential flats maximum floors permitted without lifts
is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size
- Sliding Door of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak
- Composite Door hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to 20 persons.
- Swinging Door
- Revolving Door
- Folding Door
FOUNDATION Types of Shallow Foundation are:
- Spread or Isolated Footing;
- the most important part of the building.
- Strip Foundation;
Building activity starts with digging the ground
- Mat or Raft Foundation;
for foundation and then building it.
- Combined Foundation.
- It is the lower most part of the building.
1. Isolated Spread Footing
- transfers the load of the building to the ground.
- most widely recognized and most straightforward
- defined as that part of the structure that
shallow foundation type, as this is the most
transfers the load from the structure
economical type.
constructed on it as well as its weight over a
- typically utilized for shallow establishments to
large area of soil in such a way that the amount
convey and spread concentrated burdens caused,
does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity
for instance, by pillars or columns. They are
of the soil and the settlement of the whole
generally used for ordinary buildings (Typically up
structure remains within a tolerable limit.
to five stories).
Foundation is the part of a structure on which
Isolated footing comprises a foundation directly
the building stands. The solid ground on which
at the base of the segment. Generally, every
it rests is known as foundation bed.
section has its footing. They straightforwardly
- Its main functions and requirements are:
transfer the loads from the column to the soil. It
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil
might be rectangular, square, or roundabout. It
evenly andsafely.
can comprise both reinforced or non-reinforced
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that
material. For the non-reinforced footing,
under lateral loads building will not move.
however, the stature of the footing has to be
(c) It prevents the building from overturning
more prominent to give the vital spreading of
due to lateral forces.
the load. They should possibly be utilized when
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of
it is sure beyond a shadow of a doubt that no
super structure.
differing settlements will happen under the
whole structure.
TWO CATEGORIES OF FOUNDATION
Spread footings are inadmissible for the
The terms Shallow and Deep Foundation refer
orientation of large loads. It is given to lessen
to the depth of the soil at which it is placed.
the twisting minutes and shearing powers in
SHALLOW FOUNDATION- used for small and light their primary areas.
buildings for e.g. a small or medium size houses, small The size of the footing can be roughly calculated
shopping centers, etc. by dividing the total load at the column base
by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil
- can be made in depth of as little as 3ft (1m)
- if the width of the foundation is greater than The followings are the types of spread footing
the depth
- Single pad footing.
- Often called footings, are situated beneath the
- Stepped footing for a column.
lowest part of the structure. A footing is the
- Sloped footing for a column.
first constructed element of a structure which is
- Wall footing without step
built after excavating the ground.
- Stepped footing for walls
- are commonly used as they are the most
- Grillage foundation.
economical foundation system and are
relatively easy to construct.
Design Requirements
Shallow foundations must meet certain
design requirements:
- Safety against bearing capacity, i.e., shear
strength exceedance of the underlying soil;
- Control of the excessive settlements that can be
damaging to the overlying structure, or affect
functionality.
- As the shallow foundation depth is low and it is
economical, it is the most popular type of
foundation for lightweight structures. Several
To decide when to use shallow foundations, it is
types of shallow foundations are discussed
necessary to know when it is economical.
below
 It is economical when: - When the column is close to the property line
and the isolated footing would cross the
- The load of the structure is relatively low
property line or become eccentric.
- Columns are not closely placed.
- Dimensions of one side of the footing are
- The bearing capacity of the soil is high at a
restricted to some lower value.
shallow depth

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

- also known as continuous footing.
- used to distribute loads of structural or non-
structural load-bearing walls to the ground in
such a way that the load-bearing limit of the soil
isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction
of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is
usually 2-3 times the width of the wall.
- The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along
the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced
concrete, etc. are used for the construction of
wall foundations.
- On account of block walls, the footing
comprises a few courses of bricks, the least 4. Raft or Mat Foundation
course being generally double the - are used where other shallow or pile
expansiveness of the wall above. foundations are not suitable.
- On account of stone masonry walls, the - also recommended in situations where the
counterbalances could be 15 cm, with the bearing capacity of the soil is inadequate, the
statues of the course as 30 cm. Along these load of the structure is to be distributed over a
lines, the size of footings is marginally more large area or structure is subjected continuously
than that of the block divider footings. to shocks or jerks
- If the heap on the wall is substantial or the soil - consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam
is of low bearing limit, this reinforced concrete slab placed over the entire area of the
foundation type can be given structure. In this type, the whole basement
floor slab acts as the foundation. The total load
Wall footing is economical when:
of the structure is spread evenly over the entire
- Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude area of the structure.
- It is placed on dense sand and gravel. - is called raft because, in this case, the building
3. Combined Footing seems like a vessel that floats on a sea of soil
- very similar to the isolated footing.
Raft foundations are economic when:
- Provided When the columns of the structure are
carefully placed, or the bearing capacity of the - The soil is weak and the load has to be spread
soil is low and their footing overlap each other over a large area.
- It is fundamentally a blend of different footings, - The structure includes a basement.
which uses the properties of various balances in - Columns are closely placed.
a single footing dependent on the necessity of - Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
the structure. - Differential settlement is to be prevented.
- Are foundations which are made common to
more than one column
- There are different types of combined footing,
including slab type, slab and beam type,
rectangular, raft, and strap beam type. They
may be square, tee-shaped, or trapezoidal. The
main objective is the uniform distribution of
loads under the entire area of footing, for this is
necessary to coincide with the center of gravity
of the footing area with the center of gravity of
the total loads

Combined foundations are economic when:

- The columns are placed close to each other

DEEP FOUNDATION- used for heavy and large buildings - In the case of bridges, when the scouring is
for e.g. tall buildings, huge shopping malls, large more in the river bed.
hospitals, and universities, etc. - It can again be classified based on its material
and its mechanism of load transfer or function.
- made at depth of 60-200ft (20-65m).
Several types of pile foundations are shown in
- smaller than the depth of the foundation
the following chart.
- type of foundation which is placed at a greater
depth below the ground surface and transfers
2. Pier Foundation
structure loads to the earth at depth. The depth
Pier is an underground structure that transmits
to width ratio of such a foundation is usually
a more massive load, which cannot be carried
greater than 4 to 5.
by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than
Types of Deep Foundation.
piles. The pier foundation is generally utilized in multi-
The followings are the types of deep story structures. Since the base region is determined by
foundation. the plan strategy for the regular establishment, the
single pier load test is wiped out. Along these lines, it is
1. Pile Foundation - common type of deep foundation. increasingly well known under tight conditions.
They are used to reduce cost, and when as per soil
condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member
loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of that transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil
shallow foundations. by end bearing. Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by
bearing and by not skin friction.
The followings are the types of pile foundations.
Pier Foundation is economic when:
Based on Function or Use
- Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock
- Sheet Piles layer at the top.
- Load Bearing Piles - The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the
- End Bearing Piles bearing pile.
- Friction Piles - When a heavy load is to be transferred to the
- Soil Compactor Piles soil.
Based on Materials and Construction Method Pier foundation has many advantages:
- Timber Piles mage - It has a broad scope of assortment with regards
- Concrete Piles to structure. There are different materials we
- Steel Piles can here to build a stylish view, and it stays in
- Composite Pile our spending limit.
Pile- is a slender member with a small cross-sectional - It sets aside cash and time as it doesn't require
area compared to its length. broad removal of a ton of cement.
- Bearing limits can increment by under-reaming
- used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper the base.
soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of - Along with the advantages, it has a few
soil near the surface is relatively low. disadvantages as well:
- transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. - If one post or dock is harmed, it can prompt
Piles are also used to resist structures against critical harm to the general establishment.
uplift and provide structures stability against - It can be vitality wasteful if not protected
lateral and overturning forces. appropriately.
Pile foundations are economic when - Floors must be intensely, vigorously protected,
and shielded from critters.
- Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater 3. Caisson Foundation
depth. - is a watertight retaining structure used as a
- When there are chances of construction of bridge pier, construction of the dam, etc. It is
irrigation canals in the nearby area. generally used in structures that require
- When it is very expensive to provide raft or foundation beneath a river or similar water
grillage. bodies.
- When the foundation is subjected to a heavily - The reason for choosing the caisson is that it
concentrated load. can be floated to the desired location and then
- In marshy places. sunk into place.
- When the topsoil layer is compressible in - foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder
nature. depressed into the soil up to the desired level
 and then filled with concrete, which ultimately Why There Are Different Types of Footing
converts to a foundation.
As we know that there are different types of soil, and
- mostly used as bridge piers.
the bearing capacity of the soil is different for each type
- are sensitive to construction procedures and
of soil. Depending on the soil profile, size, and load of
lack construction expertise.
the structure, engineers chose different kinds of
foundation.

There are several types of caisson foundations. Environmental impact of construction materials

- Box Caissons. Annually three billion metric tons of raw

- Floating Caissons. materials are consumed to manufacture building
- Pneumatic Caissons. materials and products. The building industry is the
- Open Caissons. second largest consumer of raw materials, after the
- Sheeted Caissons food industry.
- Excavated Caissons.
Obtaining and processing materials
Caisson foundations are economic when:
Obtaining and processing materials can affect
- The pile cap requirement is to be minimized. the environment in three main ways:
- Noise and vibration needed to be reduced.
1. Extraction
- It has to be placed beneath water bodies
2. Processing
- Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is
3. Transportation
required.
Extraction - This requires heavy plant which consumes
To conclude, the foundation is a structural supporting
energy and produces noise, dust and exhaust fumes,
member that transfers the total load form slab, beam,
which leads to climate change. This process also causes
column, wall, etc. The main objective of the foundation
a permanent change to the landscape and
is to provide stability to the total structure and safely
stone/aggregate quarrying
transfer the total load from the structure to the soil at
an optimum cost. Processing- Processing material like iron ore requires
energy consuming plant, noise and dust and the
creation of waste product like slag. Air Pollution leads to
the greenhouse effect and climate change.

Transportation - Once processed, the materials will

need to be transported to the location which they are
to be used, using petrol and creating exhaust fumes,
which in turn causes climate change.

Materials used in construction and their

specific environmental problems

Timber - is a renewable material (especially softwood).

Relatively low energy used in the logging and sawing
process and high transportation costs.

- Deforestation
- Lost of animal habitat Metals

Metals are non renewable. Extraction and processing

uses huge amounts of energy, causes air pollution and
creates waste products, and changes the landscape.

- Climate change
- Physical disturbance
 Asphalt Paving

Concrete - Asphalt is crushed and recycled back into new

asphalt. Recycled asphalt paving can be used for
Cement is non renewable. Made from
paved road.
limestone, chalk, clay, aggregate and gypsum. These
raw materials must be mined then processed, which Land Clearing Residuals
requires a huge amount of energy. It is estimated that
- Trees and brush can be recycled as compost or
8% of the total worldwide human generated CO2
mulch; soil can be reused as fill and cover.
originated from cement production.
Wood
- Water pollution
- Air pollution - Reuse timbers, large dimension lumber,
- Climate change plywood, flooring, molding, lumber longer than
6 feet. Clean untreated wood can be recycled,
Embodied energy
re-milled into flooring or chipped/ground to
The energy required to produce and transport materials make engineered board or boiler fuel.
is known as the “embodied energy”

Gypsum Wallboard

- Remove and recycle gypsum drywall. Markets

include new drywall manufacture, cement
manufacture, and agriculture. Unused drywall
can be returned to a supplier, donated, or sold

Demolished Buildings

REUSE & RECYCLE OF CONSTRUCTION - Reuse large portions of existing structures

MATERIALSIntroduction during demolition, renovation or
redevelopment. Extending the life cycle of
- Construction waste recycling is the separation existing building stock will conserve resources,
and recycling of recoverable waste materials retain cultural resources, reduce waste, and
generated during construction and remodeling. reduce environmental impacts of new buildings.
- Construction by nature is not an eco-friendly
activity. Metals

Need for Adoption of Proper Methods of Recycling - Common metals include steel, aluminum, and
copper. Metals are melted down and reformed
- Itreduces the demand on new resources. into metal products.
- Cuts down the cost and effort of transport and
production. Concrete
- Use waste which would otherwise be lost to - Itis crushed, the reinforcement bar is removed,
landfill sites. and the material is screened for size. Market
Viable Technology on Construction Waste Recycling outlets for recycled concrete includes road
base, general fill, pavement aggregate, and
- When considering a recyclable material, three drainage media.
major areas need to be taken in to account as
1. Economy Bricks
2. Compatibility with other materials - Recycle clean bricks by crushing material.
3. Material properties Market outlets for recycled bricks include
Commonly Recovered Construction Materials aggregate, drainage media, and general fill

- Asphalt Paving Roofing (non-asphalt shingles)

- Land Clearing Residuals - Reuse sheathing, terracotta, slate, or untreated
- Wood cedar tiles and other metal materials can also
- Gypsum Wallboard be recycled.
- Demolished Buildings
- Metals
- Concrete
- Roofing (non-asphalt shingles) Bricks
 Benefits of Reusing & Recycling Construction
Materials

- Reduces the production of greenhouse gas

emissions and other pollutants by reducing the
need to extract raw materials and ship new
materials from long distances.
- Conserve landfill space, reduces the need for
new landfills and their associated cost.
- Saves energy and reduces the environmental
impact of producing new materials.
- Creates employment opportunities and
economic activities in recycling industries.
- Saves money and cost of materials.

Barriers in Promoting the Use of Recycled Materials

- Lack of appropriately located recycling facilities.
- Absence of appropriate technology.
- Lack of awareness.
- Poor source separation practices at job sites.

How to get start for it......

- Developing market for recycled products.

- Public education, training and technical
assistance.
- Additional policy recommendations.
- Promoting reuse and recycling of construction
materials