Metrology and Machine Tools

(Module 2)
 Module 2
Milling operations:- different types milling machines - Different
methods of milling - nomenclature of milling cutters – cutting forces
in milling – different types of milling cutters – attachments for
milling:-vertical milling and universal milling attachment, high
speed milling attachment, rack milling and slot attachments, parking
bracket, rotary table, universal dividing head, vices, arbors, adaptors
and collet chucks – tool materials and surface roughness obtainable
in milling
machining centers: applications and advantages
Grinding:- types of machines - Grinding mechanisms:- grinding
debris, grinding force power, specific energy - Grinding wheels:-
different types of abrasives, grain size, different types of bond,
grade, structure – marking system of grinding wheels - Grinding
fluids – Truing and dressing of grinding wheels - Grinding
temperature, thermal damage and surface roughness obtainable.
 Module 2
Horning: Types of machines, methods of honing – types honing
stones – honing conditions - cutting fluids - surface roughness
obtainable
Lapping: - types of hand lapping - types of lapping machines -
surface roughness obtainable
Burnishing:- processes and surface roughness obtainable.
 Milling
Milling includes a number of highly versatile machining operations
taking place in a variety of configurations (Fig. 24.2) with the use of a
milling cutter-a multi tooth tool that produces a number of chips in one
revolution.

1.1. Peripheral Milling

In peripheral milling (also called plain milling), the axis of cutter
rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface, as shown in Fig. 24.2a.
The cutter body, which generally is made of high-speed steel, has a
number of teeth along its circumference; each tooth acts like a single-
point cutting tool. When the cutter is longer than the width of the cut,
the process is called slab milling.
 Milling
Cutters for peripheral milling may have straight or helical teeth (as
shown in Fig. 24.2a), resulting in orthogonal or oblique cutting action,
respectively. Helical teeth generally are preferred over straight teeth
because the tooth is partially engaged with the workpiece as it rotates.
Consequently, the cutting force and the torque on the cutter are lower,
resulting in a smoother operation and reduced chatter.
Conventional Milling and Climb Milling.
Note in Fig. 24.3a that the cutter rotation can be either clockwise or
counter-clockwise; this is significant in the operation.
In conventional milling (also called up milling), the maximum chip
thickness is at the end of the cut as the tooth leaves the workpiece
surface. The advantages to conventional milling are that (a) tooth
engagement is not a function of workpiece surface characteristics and
(b) contamination or scale (oxide layer) on the surface does not
adversely affect tool life. This is the more common method of milling.
The cutting process is smooth, provided that the cutter teeth are sharp.
Otherwise, the tooth will rub against and smear the surface for some
 Milling

FIGURE 24.3 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and

climb milling. (b) Slabmilling operation showing depth of cut, d; feed
per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc; and workpiece speed, v (c) Schematic
illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth of cut.
distance before it begins to cut. Also, there may be a tendency for the
tool to chatter, and the workpiece has a tendency to be pulled upward
(because of the cutter rotation direction), necessitating proper clamping.

Manufacturing, Engineering and Technology si 6th edition - Serope Kalpakjian, Stephen Schmid
 Milling
In climb milling (also called down milling), cutting starts at the surface
of the workpiece where the chip is thickest. The advantage is that the
downward component of the cutting force holds the workpiece in place,
particularly for slender parts. However, because of the resulting impact
forces when the teeth engage the workpiece, this operation must have a
rigid work-holding setup, and gear backlash must be eliminated in the
table feed mechanism. Climb milling is not suitable for the machining
of workpieces having surface scale, such as hot-worked metals,
forgings, and castings. The scale is hard and abrasive and causes
excessive wear and damage to the cutter teeth, thus shortening tool life.

Milling Parameters. The cutting speed, V, in peripheral milling is the

surface speed of the cutter, or
V = πDN
where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter
(Fig. 24.4).
 Milling
Note that the thickness of the chip in slab milling varies along its length
because of the relative longitudinal motion between the cutter and the
workpiece. For a straight-tooth cutter, the approximate undeformed chip
thickness (chip depth of cut), tc, can be calculated from the equation.

FIGURE 24.4 (a) Face-milling operation, showing action of an insert; (b)

climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
 Milling
where f is the feed per tooth of the cutter-that is, the distance the
workpiece travels per tooth of the cutter, in mm/tooth-and d' is the
depth of cut. As tc becomes larger, the force on the cutter tooth
increases.
Feed per tooth is determined from the equation
where v is the linear speed (feed rate) of the workpiece and n is the
number of teeth on the cutter periphery. The dimensional accuracy of
this equation can be checked by using appropriate units for the
individual terms; for instance,

where l is the length of the workpiece (Fig. 24.3c) and lc is the

horizontal extent of the cutter’s first contact with the workpiece. Based
on the assumption that lc << l (although this generally is not the case),
the material-removal rate (MRR) is
 Milling

where w is the width of the cut, which in slab

milling is the same as the width of the workpiece.
Summary of Peripheral Milling Parameters and Formulas
 Milling
The power requirement in peripheral milling can be measured and
calculated, but the forces acting on the cutter (tangential, radial, and
axial) are difficult to calculate because of the numerous variables
involved, many pertaining to the cutting-tool geometry. These forces can
be measured experimentally for a variety of conditions, and the torque on
the cutter spindle can be calculated from the power. Although the torque
is the product of the tangential force on the cutter and the cutter’s radius,
the tangential force per tooth will depend on how many teeth are engaged
during the cut.
Problem .I Material-removal Rate, Power, Torque, and Cutting Time in
Slab Milling
A slab-milling operation is being carried out on a 300-mm-long, 100-
mm-wide annealed mild-steel block at a feed f = 0.25 mrn/tooth and a
depth of cut d = 3.0 mm. The cutter is D = 50 mm in diameter, has 20
straight teeth, rotates at N = 100 rpm, and, by definition, is wider than
the block to be machined, Calculate the material-removal rate, estimate
the power and torque required for this operation, and calculate the
cutting time.
 Milling
Solution
From the information given, the linear speed of the workpiece, v, can be
calculated from

Since the workpiece is annealed mild steel, let’s estimate the unit
power from Table as 3 W s/mm3. Hence, the power required can be
estimated as
The torque acting on the cutter spindle also can be calculated by noting
that power is the product of torque and the spindle rotational speed (in
radians per unit time). Therefore,

The cutting time , in which the quantity lc can be shown, from simple
geometric relationships and for D >> d, to be approximately equal to
cutting time is
Milling
 Milling
Face Milling
In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of
rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface (Fig. 24.2b) and removes
material in the manner shown in Fig. 24.4a. The cutter rotates at a
rotational speed N, and the workpiece moves along a straight path at a
linear speed v. When the cutter rotation is as shown in Fig. 24.4b, the
operation is climb milling; when it is in the opposite direction (Fig.
24.4c), the operation is conventional milling. The cutting teeth, such as
carbide inserts, are mounted on the cutter body as shown in Fig. 24.5.
Because of the relative motion between the cutter teeth and the
workpiece, face milling leaves feed marks on the machined surface (Fig.
24.6). Note that the surface roughness of the workpiece depends on the
corner geometry of the insert and the feed per tooth.
The terminology for a face-milling cutter, as well as the various angles,
is shown in Fig. 24.7.
 Milling

FIG 24.5 A face-

milling cutter with
indexable inserts.

FIG 24.6 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert

shape on feed marks on a facemilled surface: (a) small
corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (C) Wiper,
consisting of a small radius followed by a large radius,
resulting in smoother feed marks. id) Feed marks due
to various insert shapes.
 Milling

FIG 24.7 Terminology for a face-milling

cutter.

FIGURE 24.8 The effect of the lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as the
lead angle increases, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The
edges of the insert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length increase.

As can be seen from the side view of the insert in Fig. 24.8, thelead angle
of the insert in face milling has a direct influence on the andefowned
chip thickness, as it does in turning operations. As the lead angle
(positive, as shown in Fig. 24.8b) increases, the undeformed chip
thickness decreases (as does chip thickness), and the length of contact
(and hence chip width) increases. The lead angle also influences the
forces in milling. It can be seen that as the lead angle decreases, there is a
 Milling

FIG 24.7 Terminology for a face-milling

cutter.

FIGURE 24.8 The effect of the lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as the
lead angle increases, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The
edges of the insert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length increase.

smaller vertical-force component (axial force on the cutter spindle). The

lead angles for most face-milling cutters typically range from 0° to 45°.
Note in Fig. 24.8 that the cross-sectional area of the undeformed chip
remains constant.
In a typical face-milling operation, the ratio of the cutter diameter, D, to
the width of cut, w, should be no less than 3:2.
 Milling

FIGURE 24.9 (a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as they first engage the
workpiece in face milling. (b) Insert positions towards the end of cut. (c) Examples of
exit angles of the insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable
(zero angle) positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page and
rotates clockwise.
 Milling
Problem.2 Material-removl Rate, Power Required, and Cutting Time
in Face Milling
Refer to Fig. 24.4 and assume that D = 150 mm, w = 60 mm, I = 500
mm, d = 3 mm,v = 0.6 m/min, and N = 100 rpm. The cutter has 10
inserts, and the workpiece material is a high-strength aluminum alloy.
Calculate the material-removal rate, cutting time, and feed per tooth,
and estimate the power required.
Solution
First we note that the cross section of the cut is wd = (60)(3) = 180
mm2. Then, noting that the workpiece speed, v , is 0.6 m/min = 600
mm/min, the material-removal rate (MRR) can be calculated as

The cutting time is given by

Note from Fig. 24.4 that, for this problem,

lc = D/2 = 75 mm. The cutting time is then
 Milling

The feed per tooth can be obtained from Eq. Observing that N == 100
rpm = 1.67 rev/s, we find that

For this material, let’s estimate the unit power from Table to be 1.1 W '
s/mm3. Thus, the power is

3 End Milling
End milling is an important and common
machining operation because of its versatility and
capability to produce various profiles and curved
surfaces. The cutter, called an end mill (Fig.24.2c)
has either a straight shank (for small cutter sizes)
or a tapered shank (for larger sizes) and is
mounted into the spindle of the milling machine.
Fig. 24.2c
 Milling
End mills may be made of high-speed steels or with carbide inserts,
similar to those for face milling. The cutter usually rotates on an axis
perpendicular to the workpiece surface, and it also can be tilted to
conform to machine-tapered or curved surfaces.
End mills are available with hemispherical ends
(bull nose mills) for the production of sculptured
surfaces, such as on dies and molds. Hollow end
mills have internal cutting teeth and are used to
machine the cylindrical surfaces of solid, round
workpieces. End milling can produce a variety
of surfaces at any depth, such as curved,
stepped, and pocketed (Fig. 24.2d). The cutter Fig. 24.2d
can remove material on both its end and its
cylindrical cutting edges, as can be seen in Fig.
24.2c.
 Milling
High-speed End Milling.
High-speed machining and its applicationsare described in Section 25.5.
High-speed end milling has become an important process with numerous
applications, such as the milling of large aluminum-alloy aerospace
components and honeycomb structures with spindle speeds in the range
from 20,000 to 60,000 rpm. The machines must have high stiffness and
accuracy, usually requiring hydrostatic or air bearings, as well as high-
quality work-holding devices. The spindles have a rotational accuracy of
10 µm; thus, the workpiece surface is also very accurate. At such high
rates of material removal, chip collection and disposal can be a
significant problem
The production of cavities in
metalworking dies (die sinking)-such
as in forging or in sheet-metal FIGURE 24.4
Ball nose end
forming-also is done by high-speed mills
end milling, often using TiAlN-coated
ball nose end mills (Fig. 2410).
 Other Milling Operations & Milling cutters

Several other milling operations

and cutters are used to machine
workpieces. In straddle milling,
two ormore cutters are mounted
on an arbor and are used to
machine two parallel surfaces on
the workpiece (Fig. 24.l1a).
Form milling produces curved
profiles using cutters that have
specially shaped teeth (Fig.
24.11b). Such cutters are also FIG 24.11 Cutters for (a) straddle
used for cutting gear teeth. milling, (b) form milling, (c)
Slotting and slitting operations slotring, and (d) slitting with a
are performed with circular milling cutter.
cutters, as shown in Figs. 24.11c
and d, respectively.
 Other Milling Operations & Milling cutters
T-slot cutters are used to mill T-
slots, such as those found in
machine-tool worktables for
clamping workpieces. As shown in
Fig. 24.12a, a slot is first milled
with an end mill; then the cutter
machines the complete profile of
the T-slot in one pass.
FIG 24.l2 (a) T-slot cutting with
a milling cutter. (b) A Shell Mill

Key seat cutters are used to make the semicylindrical (or Woodruff) key
seats for shafts. Angle milling cutters (single-angle or double-angle) are
used to produce tapered surfaces with various angles. Shell mills (Fig.
24.12b) are hollow inside and are mounted on a shank; this allows the
same shank to be used for different-sized cutters. The use of shell mills
is similar to that of end mills.
 Other Milling Operations & Milling cutters
The use of shell mills is similar to that of end
mills. Milling with a single cutting tooth
mounted on a high-speed spindle is known as
fly cutting; generally, it is used in simple face-
milling and boring operations. This tool can be
shaped as a single-point cutting tool and can be
placed in various radial positions on the spindle
in an arrangement similar to that shown in Fig.
Toolholders
Milling cutters are classified as either arbor cutters or shank cutters.
Arbor cutters are mounted on an arbor (see Figs. 24.11 and 24.15a), for
operations such as peripheral, face, straddle, and form milling. In shank-
type cutters, the cutter and the shank are made in one piece-the most
common examples being end mills. Small end mills have straight shanks,
but larger end mills have tapered shanks for better mounting in the
machine spindle in order to resist the higher forces and torque involved
during cutting. Cutters with straight shanks are mounted in collet chucks
or special end-
 Milling Machines
Because they are capable of performing a variety of cutting operations,
milling machines are among the most versatile and useful machine
tools. Note, however, that many of these machines and operations are
now being replaced with computer controls and machining centers.
Inexpensive, manually controlled machines are still widely used,
especially for small production runs.

FIG 24.l5 Schematic illustration of (al a horizontal-spindle column-

and-knee-type milling machine and (b) vertical-spindle column-and-
knee-type milling machine.
 Milling Machines
Column-and-knee-type Machines
Used for general-purpose milling operations, column-and-knee-type
machines are the most common milling machines. The spindle on
which the milling cutter is mounted may be horizontal (Fig. 24.l5a) for
peripheral milling or vertical for face and end milling, boring, and
drilling operations (Fig. 24.15 b). The basic components of these
machines are as follows:
° Worktable: on which the workpiece is clamped using T-slots. The
table moves longitudinally relative to the saddle.
° Saddle: supports the table and can move in the transverse direction.
° Knee: supports the saddle and gives the table vertical movement so
that the depth of cut can be adjusted and workpieces with various
heights can be accommodated.
° Overarm: used on horizontal machines; it is adjustable to
accommodate different arbor lengths.
° Head: contains the spindle and cutter holders. In vertical machines,
the head may be fixed or can be adjusted vertically, and it can be
 Milling Machines
swiveled in a vertical plane on the column for cutting tapered surfaces.

Plain milling machines have three axes of movement, with the motion
usually imparted manually or by power. In universal column-and-knee
milling machines, the table can be swiveled on a horizontal plane. In
this way, complex shapes (such as helical grooves at various angles)
can be machined to produce parts such as gears, drills, taps, and
cutters.
Bed-type Milling Machines.
In hed-type machines, the worktable
is mounted directly on the bed,
which replaces the knee and can
move only longitudinally (Fig.
24.16). These machines are not as
versatile as other types, but they
have high stiffness and typically are FIG 24.16 Schematic illustration
used for high- production work. of a bed-type milling machine.
 Milling Machines
The spindles may be horizontal or vertical and of duplex or triplex types
(with two or three spindles, respectively), for the simultaneous
machining of two or three Workpiece surfaces.
Other Types of Milling Machines.
Several other types of milling machines are available.
Planer-type milling machines, which are similar to bed-type machines,
are equipped with several heads and cutters to mill different surfaces.
They are used for heavy workpieces and are more efficient than simple
planers when used for similar purposes.
Rotary-table machines are similar to vertical milling machines and are
equipped with one or more heads for face-milling operations.
 Milling Machines
Milling machines have been rapidly replaced by computer numerical-
control (CNC) machines for all but the lowest production quantities.
These machines are versatile and capable of milling, drilling, boring,
and tapping with repetitive accuracy (Fig. 24.17). Also available are
prohle milling machines, which have five axes of movement (Fig.
24.18); note the three linear and two angular movements of the
machine components.

FIGURE 24.I8 Schematic illustration of FIGURE 24.11 A computer numerical-

a five-axis profile milling machine. Note control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling
that there are three principal linear and machine. This machine is one of the most
two angular movements of machine versatile machine tools.
 Fixture
A device which clamps work during machining. Usually designed for
a specific part or family of parts. The primary purpose of a fixture is
to clamp the workpiece.
General purpose components ( clamps, build-up blocks, locating pins,
angle plates, etc.) which are assembled into specific fixturing
arrangements for a specific job. All components are reusable.
 Standard Fixture
•Vises
•Clamps
•3,4,or 6 Jaw Chucks
•Collets
•Magnetic & Vacuum
Chucks
Fixture- Design Criteria

Indexing Fixtures
Economical Considerations for
Special Fixtures
1.Cost of tooling
2.Savings in machine set-up time
3.Number of units which will be
produced using the fixture
4.Overall savings
Reduced cycle times
Improved quality
Reduced operator interaction
Improved quality
Reduced operator interaction
 Vertical Milling Attachment
This attachment converts the horizontal spindle of a horizontal milling
machine to a vertical spindle. It is clamped to the column and driven
from the horizontal spindle. It incorporates provisions for setting the
head at any angle, from the vertical to the horizontal, in a plane at right
angles to the machine spindle. End milling and face milling are more
easily accomplished with this attachment, because the cutter and the
surface being cut are in plain view.
 Unversal Milling Attachment
This device is similar to the vertical spindle attachment but is more
versatile. The butterhead can be swiveled to any angle in any plane,
whereas the vertical spindle attachment only rotates in one place from
horizontal to vertical.
 High-Speed Milling Attachment
The rate of spindle speed of the milling machine may be increased
from 1 1/2 to 6 times by using the high-speed milling attachment. This
attachment is essential when using cutters and twist drills which must
be driven at a high rate of speed in order to obtain an efficient surface
speed. The attachment is clamped to the column of the machine and is
driven by a set of gears from the milling machine spindle.
 Rack Milling Attachments
A rack milling attachment is
bolted to the face of the column
and is used for cutting rack teeth
on a job mounted on the table.
The attachment consisting of a
gear train enables the spindle
axis to be oriented at rightly
angles to the machine spindle. In
a horizontal plan. The successive
rack teeth are cut by using a rack
indexing attachment. The slanted
rack teeth or skew rake may be
machined when the attachment is
mounted on universal milling
when the table may be swiveled
to the required helix angle
 Slot attachments
A slotting attachment converts the rotary motion of the spindle into
reciprocating motion of the ram by means of an eccentric or crank
housed with in the attachment, thus a milling machine can be converted
into a slotter by accepting a single point slotted tool at the bottom end of
the ram and is conveniently used for cutting internal or external key
ways, spines, etc. The attachment is bolted on the face of the column and
can also be swiveled at an angle for machining angular surfaces. The
length of stroke of the ram can also be adjusted.
• It’s used for cutting at
any angle in vertical
plane to produce key
ways , slots and
corners.
• It’s provide
reciprocating drive for
single point cutting
tool.
 Rotary Table or Circular Milling Attachment
This attachment consists of a circular worktable containing T-slots for
mounting workplaces. The circular table revolves on a base attached to
the milling machine worktable. The attachment can be either hand or
power driven, being connected to the table drive shaft if power driven. It
may be used for milling circles, angular indexing, arcs, segments,
circular slots, grooves, and radii, as well as for slotting internal and
external gears. The table of the attachment is divided in degrees (Fig).

Parking Bracket
To facilitate easy availability of various attachment near the machine a
parking bracket can be provided on the side of the column of the
machine. The attachment can be kept mounted on this parking bracket
and used on the machine when required.
 Universal Dividing Head
The function of the dividing or indexing head is to equally space the
required amount of grooves to be cut into a component. An example
would be a gear or a shaft with a spline at the end. With the right
attachments a dividing head can be connected to a universal milling
machine's table screw, enabling it to rotate as the table moves along its
sideways axis. An almost similar device to a dividing head is a rotary
table. Another name for the Universal Dividing Head is the Universal
Indexing Head.
 Arbors
Milling machine arbors are made in various lengths and in standard
diameters of 7/8,1,1 1/4, and 1 1/2 inch. The shank is made to fit the
taper hole in the spindle while the other end is threaded.

Figure 8-11 Standard

Milling Machine Arbor

Arbor Installation
 Arbors
The milling machine spindle may be self-holding or
self releasing. The self-holding taper is held in the
spindle by the high wedging force. The spindle
taper in most milling machines is self-releasing;
tooling must be held in place by a draw bolt
extending through the center of the spindle.
The Standard Milling Machine Taper is used on
most machines of recent manufacture. See
Figure 8-11. These tapers are identified by the Tapers Used
number 30, 40, 50, or 60. Number 50 is the most commonly used size on
all modern machines.
Standard Milling Machine Arbor
The standard milling machine arbor has a tapered, cylindrical shaft with
a standard milling taper on the driving end and a threaded portion on the
opposite end to receive the arbor nut. One or more milling cutters may be
placed on the straight cylindrical portion of the arbor and held in position
by sleeves and the arbor nut.
 Arbors
The standard milling machine arbor is usually splined and keys are used
to lock each cutter to the arbor shaft. These arbors are supplied in three
styles, various lengths and, standard diameters.
The most common way to fasten the arbor in the milling machine
spindle is to use a draw bar. The bar threads into the taper shank of the
arbor to draw the taper into the spindle and hold it in place. Arbors
secured in this manner are removed by backing out the draw bar and
tapping the end of the bar to loosen the taper.
The end of the arbor opposite the taper is supported by the arbor
supports of the milling machine. One or more supports reused
depending on the length of the arbor and the degree of rigidity required.
The end may be supported by a lathe center bearing against the arbor
nut or by a bearing surface of the arbor fitting inside a bushing of the
arbor support.

Typical milling
arbor
arbor variation
 Adaptors
Spindle Adapters
A spindle adapter is a form of a collet having a
standardized spindle end. They are available in a
wide variety of sizes to accept cutters that cannot be
mounted on arbors. They are made with either the
Morse taper shank or the Brown and Sharpe taper
with tang having a standard spindle end (Figure 8-
16). Milling machine adapter

Chuck Adapter
A chuck adapter (Figure 8-17) is used to attach
chucks to milling machines having a standard
spindle end. The collet holder is sometimes
referred to as a collet chuck. Various forms of
chucks can be fitted to milling machines spindles Chuck adapter
for holding drills, reamers, and small cutters for
special operations.
 Adaptors
Quick-Change Tooling
The quick-change adapter mounted on the
spindle nose is used to speed up tool changing.
Tool changing with this system allows you to
set up a number of milling operations such as
drilling, end milling, and boring without
changing the setup of the part being machined.
The tool holders are mounted and removed Quick Change adaptors and
from a master holder mounted to the machine tool holders
spindle by means of a clamping ring (Figure 8-
18).
 Collet Chucks
A collet is a form of a sleeve bushing for
reducing the size of the hole in the milling
machine spindle so that small shank tools
can be fitted into large spindle recesses
(Figure 8-15). They are made in several
forms, similar to drilling machine sockets
and sleeves, except that their tapers are not collets
alike.
The chuck is supplied with a set of spring
collets in various sizes.

The cutter (d) is inserted into the collate

and then the nut is tightened ,using the
special spanner supplied with the chuck.
 Collet Chucks
It is used to reduce the internal taper in the
work spindle,so that it fits on required arbor
or cutter.

This type of adapter with Morse taper and

flat tong is used for holding taper shank and
mill with tong.
SELF-LOCKING CHUCK
The cutter is provided with pitch thread at
the end of cutter shank.
General Recommendations for Milling Operations
Surface roughness obtainable in milling
Surface roughness obtainable in milling
 Machining centers: applications and advantages
Manufacture of prismatic components like gear boxes, bulkheads,
frames, brackets, casings, covers etc require milling, boring, drilling,
tapping and many other related machining operations to be performed.
Machining centres are very important types of CNC machine tools and
are multifunction machines equipped with automatic tool changers and
are capable of carrying out milling, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring,
counter boring and allied operations without operator intervention for
change of tools.
An indexable tool magazine, which can store several tools,
characterizes a machining centre. The tool magazine may carry 16 to
100 tools depending upon its capacity. An automatic tool changer
(ATC) is provided to pick up the programmed tool from the tool
magazine and mount it on the spindle. The removed tool is put back
into the magazine and the ATC picks up the next tool. The ATC is thus
ready with the tool for the next operation and awaits the current
operation to be over to replace the tool.
 Machining centers: applications and advantages
Machining centres are often provided with two or more work tables
called pallets. In a 2-pallet machine while the job on one pallet is being
machined, the operator can set up the next job on the free pallet. The
automatic pallet changer (APC) then moves away the pallet with the
finished job from the working zone and moves the other pallet with the
new workpiece to the working zone. The machining operation on the
new workpiece begins with a lapse of only a few minutes.
The operator can now unload the finished job from the first pallet and
set up a new workpiece on it without interruption of the machining
operations.

Machining centres are classified according to the spindle configuration

as:
a. Horizontal spindle machining centres
b. Vertical spindle machining centres
c. Universal machining centres
 Horizontal spindle machining centres
Horizontal spindle machining centres are
generally single spindle machines with
automatic tool changers. Some exceptions
are machines with turret type tool
magazine, combination horizontal/vertical
spindles etc. Horizontal spindle machining
centres are generally bed type machines.
In this type of machining X-axis table or column provides traverse and
spindle head provides Y-axis traverse. The saddle or column, or
headstock or spindle head provides the Z-
axis traverse. These machines are invariably used with a rotary indexing
table to facilitate multiphase machining at different angles in a single
setup. The axis of rotary table is parallel to Y-axis and is called ‘B’ axis.
The rotation of the table can be used for machining contours on surfaces
of workpieces located on the rotary table, if CNC control is available for
B-axis. The provision of B-axis enables the machining of all the four
sides of the component in one set up.
Horizontal spindle machining centres
 Vertical spindle machining centres
Vertical spindle machining centres are also
bed type machines with:
1. Single spindle and automatic tool changers
2. Multi spindle with turret head (Turret
machining centres)
X-axis traverse provided by table or column
Y-axis traverse provided by the saddle or the
column or ram
Z-axis traverse provided by the headstock
Vertical spindle machines are not suitable for
large widths as this increases the throat
distance. For very large widths horizontal
spindle configuration or bridge type
configuration (double column planer type) is
used.
 Universal machining centres
These are similar to horizontal
machining centres but with the spindle
axis capable of tilting from horizontal to
the vertical position continuously under
computer control. This constitutes the
fifth axis of the machine. In some cases
tilting of the table instead of the spindle
provides the movement. Such machines
facilitate access to the top surface of
workpiece mounted on a horizontal
machining centre so that all the five
sides of a component can be machined
in a single set up. The fifth axis facility
is essential for machining of some
components, which require the cutter
axis to be perpendicular to the surface
being machined.
 Machining centres
Machining centres can be easily integrated into a flexible work cell.
Provision of bi-directional random memory tool magazines, automatic
tool offset measurement, magazine changers, advanced tool
management techniques, tool breakage detection techniques, rail
guided work transport, palletizing stations, in-process gauging, devices
for automatic workpiece loading and unloading etc., are useful options
to improve productivity and to realize flexibility in operation and to
achieve unmanned operation of machining centres.
Fields of Application
Machine Tool Industry High Speed Machining
Aeronautic , Aerospace Die & Mould Industry
Automobile Industry
Job Shop Industry
Hydraulic
Motor Industry
Electric Industry
Toolroom
 Machining centers: applications and advantages
Advantages
1.Before the introduction of machining centres, these machining
operations had to be carried out on different machines resulting in
considerable lead time for production.
2. Tool changing is carried out using an automatic tool changer and is
accomplished in 0.5 to 6 seconds depending upon the machine.
3.There are machining centres with six, eight or more pallets.
Workpieces can be set up in all pallets and the machine can be
programmed to accept a new pallet when work on the previous pallet is
completed. The workpieces may be different and may require different
part programs. The supervisory computer will do the selection of the
right program. Thus the two major sources of non-productive time (tool
change and setting up the workpiece) are reduced to very low values.
This enables machining centres to have high productivity as well as
considerable reduction in the lead-time of production of complex
components. This also reduces work in process (WIP) appreciably.
 Grinding
Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an individual abrasive grain
as the cutting tool (Fig. 26.8a). The major differences between the action
of an abrasive grain and that of a single-point cutting tool can be
summarized as follows:
•The individual abrasive grains have irregular shapes and are spaced
randomly along the periphery of the wheel (Fig. 26.9).

FIGURE 26.8 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive

grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed
circle is 0.065 mm in diameter. (b) Schematic illustration of chip
formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake
angle of the grain and the small shear angle.
 Grinding
•The average rake angle of the grains is highly negative, typically -60° or
evenless.Consequently, grinding chips undergo much larger plastic
deformation than they do in other machining processes.
•The radial positions of the grains over the peripheral surface of a wheel
vary;thus, not all grains are active during grinding.
•Surface speeds (i.e., cutting speeds) in grinding are very high, typically
20 to 30 m/s, and may be as high as 150 m/s in high-speed grinding
using specially designed and manufactured wheels.

FIG 26.9 The surface of a grinding wheel FIG 26.10 Schematic illustration of the
(A46-JSV), showing abrasive grains, wheel surface-grinding process, showing
porosity, wear flats on grains, and metal chips various process variables. The figure
from the workpiece adhering to the grains. depicts conventional (up) grinding.
 Grinding
The grinding process and its parameters can be observed best in the
surface grinding operation shown schematically in Fig. 26.10. A straight
grinding wheel with a diameter D removes a layer of metal at a depth d
(wheel depth of cut). An individual grain on the periphery of the wheel
moves at a tangential velocity V, while the workpiece moves at a velocity
v . Each abrasive grain removes a small chip, which has an undeformed
thickness (grain depth of cut), t, and an undeformed length l.
From geometric relationships, it can be shown that the undeformed chip
length, l, in surface grinding (Fig. 26.10) is approximated by the equation

and the undeformed chip thickness, t, by the equation

Where C is the number of cutting points per unit area of the periphery of
the Wheel; generally, C is estimated to be in the range from 0.1 to 10 per
mm2. The quantity r is the ratio of chip width to average undeformed
chip thickness and has an estimated value typically between 10 and 20.
 Grinding
As an example, l and t can be calculated for the following process
parameters: Let D = 200 mm, d = 0.05 mm, v = 30 m/min, and V = 1800
m/min. Using the preceding formulas gives

Grinding Forces
A knowledge of grinding forces is essential for
° Estimating povver requirements.
° Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures and devices.
° Determining the deflections that the workpiece, as well as the grinding
machine itself, may undergo. Note that, unless accounted for, deflections
adversely affect dimensional accuracy and are especially critical in
precision and ultraprecision grinding.
 Grinding Forces

FIG 26.ll Chip

formation and plowing
Specific Energy
The energy dissipated in producing a grinding chip consists of the
energy required for the following actions:
° Chip formation
° Plowing, as shown by the ridges formed in Fig. 26.11
' Friction, caused by rubbing of the grain along the workpiece surface.
Specific-energy requirements in grinding are defined as the energy per
unit volume of material ground from the workpiece surface and are
shown in Table 26.2. Note that these specific-energy levels are much
higher than those in the machining operations given in Table 21.2.
 Grinding Forces
This difference has been attributed to factors such as the presence of a
wear flat, high negative rake angles of the grains (which require more
energy), and a possible contribution of the size effect (the smaller the
chip, the higher the energy required to produce it). Also, it has been
observed that with effective lubrication, specific energies in grinding can
be reduced by a factor of four or more.
EXAMPLE : Forces in Surface Grinding
A surface-grinding operation is being performed on low-carbon steel
with a wheel of diameter D = 250 mm that is rotating at N = 4000 rpm
and a width of cut of w = 25 mm. The depth of cut is d = 0.05 mm and
the feed rate of the workpiece, v, is 1.5 m/min. Calculate the cutting
force (the force tangential to the wheel), FC, and the thrust force (the
force normal to the workpiece surface), Fn.
Solution The material-removal rate (MRR) is determined as

The power consumed is given by Power = (u) (MRR)

 Grinding Forces
Solution
where u is the specific energy, as obtained from Table 26.2. For low
carbon steel, it is estimated to be 40 W- s/mm3. Thus,
 Grinding Forces

Grinding Wheel

High rates of material removal is achieved by large number of grains

acting together. This is done by using bonded abrasives, typically in the
form of a grinding wheel, in which the abrasive grains are distributed and
oriented randomly.
 Grinding Wheel

Grinding Wheel Dressing

Conventional abrasives
° Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
° Silicon carbide (SiC)
Superabrasives
° Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
° Diamond
 Grinding Wheel
Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding Wheels
Dressing is the process of Conditioning worn grains on the surface of a
grinding wheel by producing sharp new edges on grains so that they cut
more effectively.
Truing, which is producing a true circle on a wheel that has become out
of round.
The techniques used to dress grinding wheels are as follows:
•A specially shaped diamond-point tool or diamond cluster is moved
across the width of the grinding face of a rotating wheel and removes a
small layer from the wheel surface with each pass.
•A set of star-shaped steel disks is pressed manually against the wheel.
•Abrasive sticks may be used to dress grinding wheels, particularly softer
wheels.
•Dressing techniques for metal-bonded diamond wheels involve the use
of electrical-discharge and electrochemical machining techniques,
 Grinding Wheel
Abrasive Grain Size
The size of an abrasive grain is identified by a grit number, which is a
function of sieve size: the smaller the grain size, the larger the grit
number. For example, grit number 10 is typically regarded as very
coarse, 100 as fine, and 500 as very fine. Sandpaper and emery cloth
also are identified in this manner, as you can readily observe by noting
the grit number printed on the back of the abrasive paper or cloth.
Abrasive-workpiece-material Compatibility.
Aluminum oxide: Carbon steels, ferrous alloys, and alloy steels.
Silicon carbide: Nonferrous metals, cast irons, carbides, ceramics,
glass, and marble.
Cubic boron nitride: Steels and cast irons above 50 HRC hardness
and high~temperature alloys.
Diamond: Ceramics, cemented carbides, and some hardened steels.
 Grinding Wheel
Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide
bonded abrasives.
 Grinding Wheel
Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond
bonded abrasives.
 Grinding Wheel
Bond Types
Vitrified. Essentially a glass, a vitrified bond (also called a ceramic
bond) is the most common and widely used bond material. The raw
materials consist of feldspar (a crystalline mineral) and clays. They are
mixed with the abrasives, moistened, and molded under pressure into
the shape of grinding wheels. These “green” wheels, which are similar
to powder-metallurgy parts, are fired slowly up to a temperature of
about 1250°C to fuse the glass and develop structural strength. The
wheels are then cooled slowly (to avoid thermal cracking), finished to
size, inspected for quality and dimensional accuracy, and tested for
defects.
Wheels with vitrified bonds are strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to
oils, acids, and water. However, they are brittle and lack resistance to
mechanical and thermal shock.
 Grinding Wheel
Resinoid. Resinoid bonding materials are thermosetting resins and are
available in a wide range of compositions and properties. Because the
bond is an organic compound, wheels with resinoid bonds also are called
organic Wheels. The manufacturing technique for producing them
consists basically of (a) mixing the abrasive with liquid or powdered
phenolic resins and additives, (b) pressing the mixture into the shape of a
grinding wheel, and (c) curing it at temperatures of about 175°C.
Because the elastic modulus of thermosetting resins is lower than that of
glasses, resinoid wheels are more flexible than vitrified wheels. A more
recent development is the use of polyimide as a substitute for the
phenolic in resinoid wheels; it is tougher and more resistant to higher
temperatures. In addition to pressing, injection molding is another
process used to manufacture grinding wheels
 Grinding Wheel
Reinforced Wheels. These wheels typically consist of one or more
layers of fiberglass mats of various mesh sizes.
Thermoplastic. ln addition to thermsetting resins, thermoplastic bonds
are used in grinding wheels.
Rubber. The most flexible matrix used in abrasive wheels is rubber.
Metal. Using powder-metallurgy techniques, the abrasive grains
(usually diamond or cubic boron nitride) are bonded to the periphery of a
metal wheel to depths of 6 mm or less
Grinding fluids
Grinding Fluids. The functions of grinding fluids are similar to those of
cutting fluids. Although grinding and other abrasive-removal processes
can be performed dry, the use of a fluid is important because it
•Reduces temperature rise in the workpiece.
•Improves part surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
•Improves the efficiency of the operation by reducing wheel wear and
loading and by lowering power consumption.
Grinding fluids
 Grinding temperature, thermal damage and surface roughness
obtainable.
Grinding is the most common abrasive machining process and in many
cases the last of the series of machining operations. Compared to other
machining processes grinding requires very high-energy input per unit of
volume of material removal. The chip removal process consists of
rubbing, plowing and metal removal. The frictional resistance
encountered between work material, the tool, and the chip tool interface
and the resistance to deformation during shearing of chips contributes to
a rise in temperature and the cutting zone. The temperature generated is
not only quite high but the temperature gradients are also severe. Under
abusive grinding conditions, the formation of the heat-affected zone was
observed which damages the ground surfaces of the workpieces
Grinding temperature, thermal damage and surface roughness
obtainable.
 Horning
Honing is an operation that is used primarily to improve the surface
finish of holes produced by processes such as boring, drilling, and
internal grinding. The honing tool consists of a set of aluminum-oxide
or silicon-carbide bonded abrasive sticks, usually called stones (Fig.
26.27). They are mounted on a mandrel that rotates in the hole at
surface speeds of 45 to 90 m/min, applying a radial force. The tool has
a reciprocating axial motion, which produces a cross hatched pattern
on the surface of the hole. The stones can be adjusted radially for
different hole sizes. Oil- or water-based honing fluids generally are
used to help flush away the debris. Honing is also done on external
cylindrical or flat surfaces and to manually remove sharp edges on
cutting tools and inserts.
 Horning
The quality of the surface finish produced by honing can be controlled
by the type and size of abrasive used, the pressure applied, and speed. A
fluid is used to remove chips and to keep temperatures low. If not
performed properly, honing can produce holes that are neither straight
nor cylindrical, but rather in shapes that are bell mouthed, wavy, barrel
shaped, or tapered.
Horning
 Lapping
This is an operation used for finishing flat, cylindrical, or curved
surfaces. The lap (Fig. 26.29a) is relatively soft and porous and usually is
made of cast iron, copper, leather, or cloth. The abrasive particles either
are embedded in the lap or may be carried in a slurry. Lapping of
spherical objects and glass lenses is done with specially shaped laps.
Running-in of mating gears can be done by lapping, as on hypoid gears
for rear axles. Depending on the type and hardness of the workpiece
material, lapping pressures range from 7 to 140 kPa.
 Lapping
Dimensional tolerances on the order of + 0.0004 mm can be obtained in
lapping by using fine abrasives (up to grit size 900), and the surface
finish can be as smooth as 0.025 to 0.1 µm. Production lapping on flat or
cylindrical pieces is done on machines similar to those shown in Figs.
26.29b and c.
 Burnishing
In this process, also called surface rolling, the surface of the component
is cold worked by a hard and highly polished roller or set of rollers. The
process is used on various flat, cylindrical, or conical surfaces (Fig.
34.1). Roller burnishing improves surface finish by removing scratches,
tool marks, and pits and induces beneficial compressive surface residual
stresses. Consequently, corrosion resistance is improved, since corrosive
products and residues cannot be entrapped. In a variation of this process
called low-plasticity burnishing, the roller travels only once over the
surface, inducing residual stresses and minimal plastic deformation.
 Burnishing
Internal cylindrical surfaces also are burnished by a similar process,
called ballizing or ball burnishing. In this process, a smooth ball
(slightly larger than the bore diameter) is pushed through the length
of the hole.
Roller burnishing is used to improve the mechanical properties of
surfaces as Well as their surface finish. It can be used either by itself
or in combination with other finishing processes, such as grinding,
honing, and lapping. The equipment can be mounted on various CNC
machine tools for improved productivity and consistency of
performance. All types of metals (soft or hard) can be roller
burnished. Roller burnishing is typically used on hydraulic-system
components, seals, valves, spindles, and fillets on shafts.