COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SRM IST, KATTANKULATHUR – 603203

Program: B. Tech. (ECE, Mech, EEE, EIE, Auto, Chemical,

BioTech, Bio Medical and Genetics)

21PYB101J -Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Instructional Manual
Ex. No Name of the Experiment Page No

1. Determination of Internal Resistance of the given Cell-Potentiometer 3

2. Determination of Dielectric Constant of the sample 5

3. Calibration of Ammeter using Potentiometer 8

4. Calibration of voltmeter using Potentiometer 11
5. Determination of magnetic susceptibility-Quincke’s method 14
6. Determination of Planck’s Constant 17
7. Study of I-V characteristics of a light dependent resistor (LDR) 20
8. Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light Newton’s ring 22
9. Determination of particle size using laser 25
10. Determination of wavelength of mercury spectrum - diffraction grating 27
11. Determination of laser parameters – divergence and wavelength for a
given laser source 32
12. Study of attenuation and propagation characteristic-optical fiber 35
13. Mini project 39
 1. DETERMIATION OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN CELL
USING POTENTIOMETER
Aim
To determine the internal resistance of the given cell using potentiometer.
Apparatus Required
Potentiometer, battery (2V), Daniel Cell, keys, Two dial Resistance box, high resistance,
sensitive table galvanometer, (110 ohm) connecting wires etc.

Formulae
r = R x (lo – l)/l
where R= Resistance in the two dial box
l = Balancing length for different resistance (m)
l0 = Balancing length corresponding to e.m.f. of Daniel cell (m)
Procedure
Part 1 : To standardize the potentiometer (or) To find the potential fall across one metre length of
the potentiometer
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in fig. (6.14) and is described below.
2. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of a battery to the end A of the
potentiometer and its negative terminal to the end B through a key (K 1).
3. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the Daniel cell to A and its
negative to the jockey through a high resistance (HR) and a sensitive galvanometer.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the circuit.
5. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f. the potential drop across the potentiometer wire
remains steady.
6. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10-metre potentiometer wire, till the
position for the null deflection is found in the galvanometer.
Circuit Diagrams

K
2V Ba Rh

J
A B

HR G
Daniel cell

Fig.1.1 Standardisation of Potentiometer

Part II Determination of Internal resistance

Fig.1.2 Measurement of Internal resistance

1. Connect different electrical components as shown in the Fig 1.2.

2. Take R = 0.1 Ω (from Resistance Box), close the key K1 and quickly measure the new balance
length l.
3. Repeat the experiment by increasing the value of R in equal steps and for each value of R obtain
the balance length l. The readings are tabulated below.

Observation

S. No External Resistance Balancing Length (l) r = R x (lo – l)/l

(Ohm) (Meters) (Ohm)

Result:
The internal resistance is determined for various values of external resistance and the values are
tabulated.

REFERENCES:
1. https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282 -Solid State Physics virtual lab
2. Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel, Wiley Eastern Limited (5th Edition).
 2. DETERMINATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE
SAMPLE
AIM
To determine the dielectric constant of the given sample at different temperatures.

APPARATUS
The given sample, capacitance meter, dielectric sample cell, digital temperature indicator
etc.

FORMULA
a. The dielectric constant of the sample is given by,
r = C / C0 (No unit)
where C = capacitance of the sample (farad)
C0 = Capacitance of the air capacitor having the same area and
thickness as the sample (farad)

b. The capacitance of air capacitor is given by,

0 A
C0  (farad)
d
where 0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.854  1012 farad / metre
A = area of the plates of the capacitor
(A = r2 : r = radius of the sample)
d = thickness of the sample (or) distance between the plates (m)

PRINCIPLE
The capacitance of a capacitor increases when it is filled with an insulating medium. The
increase in the capacitance depends on the property of the medium, called dielectric constant (). It
can be measured using either static or alternating electric fields. The static dielectric constant is
measured with static fields or with low frequency ac fields. At higher frequencies, values of
dielectric constant become frequency dependent. The dielectric constant varies with temperature
also.

PROCEDURE

1. The given dielectric sample inside the dielectric cell in its position without forming air
gap between the plates of the sample holder.

2. Connect the thermocouple leads to a digital temperature indicator to measure the

temperature of the dielectric cell

3. Also, connect the capacitance meter to the dielectric cell

4. Connect the heater terminals of the dielectric cell to ac mains through a dimmerstat.

5. At room temperature, measure the capacitance of the sample using capacitances meter.

6. Now switch on the heater and measure the capacitance of the sample at different
temperature (in steps of 10°C starting from room temperature).
 6000

Dielectric Constant 5000

4000

3000

2000

1000
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
Temperature (Degree Celcius)
Fig. 1.1. Dielectric Constant versus Temperature for barium titanate

Determination of dielectric constant of the sample:

Dielectric constant
Capacitance  C 
Sl.No. Temperature (°C)
(Farad)  r  
 C 0 

OBSERVATION
The radius of the sample (r) = ........................... m
The thickness of the sample (d) =… ....................... m
CALCULATION

The area of the plates of the capacitor =  r2 =… ....... m2

The capacitance of the air capacitor,
0 A
C  ............. farad
d
The dielectric constant of the sample
C
 
n
C0

7. Measure the thickness of the sample (d) using the micrometer screw attached in the
sample cell
8. Measure the diameter of the sample using a vernier caliper and determine the radius of
the sample
9. Calculate the capacitance of the air capacitor using, the relation
0 (  r2)
C0 
d
10. Calculate the dielectric constant of the sample at different temperatures using the
relation.

C
r 
C0

and tabulate the readings in the table

11. Plot a graph by taking temperature along X axis and dielectric constant along Y axis.

RESULT
The dielectric constants of the given sample at different temperature are measured and a
graph is plotted between the temperature and dielectric constant.

REFERENCES:
1. https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282 -Solid State Physics virtual lab
2. Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel, Wiley Eastern Limited (5th
Edition).
 3. CALIBRATION OF AMMETER USING POTENTIOMETER
AIM
To calibrate the given ammeter by potentiometer. (i.e. To check the graduations of
ammeter and to determine the corrections, if any).
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Potentiometer, rheostat, batteries (2V and 6V) (or) accumulators, keys, Daniel cell, high
resistance, sensitive table galvanometer, the given ammeter, a standard resistance (1 Ω) (or) a dial
type resistance box (110 ohm) connecting wires etc.

FORMULAE
Calibrated current passing through standard resistance
1.08
i'   (amp)
R0
where R= Standard resistance (1 Ω)
l = Balancing length for different ammeter readings (m)
l0 = Balancing length corresponding to e.m.f. of Daniel cell (m)

PROCEDURE
Part 1 : To standardize the potentiometer (or) To find the potential fall across one metre
length of the potentiometer
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in fig. (6.14) and is described below.
2. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of a battery to the end A of
the potentiometer and its negative terminal to the end B through a key (K1).
3. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the Daniel cell to A and
its negative to the jockey through a high resistance (HR) and a sensitive galvanometer.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the circuit.
5. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f. the potential drop across the potentiometer
wire remains steady.
6. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10-metre potentiometer wire, till the
position for the null deflection is found in the galvanometer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

K
2V Ba Rh

J
A B

HR G
Daniel cell

Fig. 2.1. Standardization of Potentiometer

 K
2V Ba Rh

J
A B

G HR

A
R = 1 ohm

K
Rh
6V Ba

Fig. 2.2. Calibration of Ammeter

OBSERVATIONS
To calibrate the given ammeter

Balancing length l0 = ……… 102 m

(Length of the wire balancing the emf of the Daniel cell)

Length balancing the p.d Calculated ammeter

Ammeter across l ohm coil reading Correction
S.No. reading
lm 1.08
i (A) i'  l (A) (I i) (A)
l0

+Y
Y
i - i (ampere)
i (ampere)

X
O i (ampere)

O
X
i (ampere)
-Y
Fig. 2.3. Model Graph (i vs i' ) Fig. 2.4. Model Graph i vs (i' – i)
 7. Let the balancing length be l0 meter (AJ). Then, the potential drop per unit length of the
1.08
potentiometer is calculated. The rheostat should not be disturbed hereafter.
l0

Part 2 : To calibrate the given ammeter

1. In order to calibrate the given ammeter, the primary circuit of the potentiometer is left
undisturbed.
2. In the secondary circuit the voltmeter is replaced by a standard one-ohm resistance (or a
dial resistance box).
3. One end of one ohm resistance is connected to A and the other end is connected to jockey
through a high resistance (HR) and galvanometer [figure (6.15)].
4. In addition an ammeter, plug key (K2), a rheostat and a 6V battery are connected in series
to ends of one ohm standard resistance.
5. The rheostat of the ammeter is adjusted to read 0.1 A and the jockey is moved and pressed
to get null deflection in the galvanometer. The second balancing length l m is determined,
and i’ is calculated using the given formula.
6. The experiment is repeated by adjusting the rheostat in the secondary circuit, so that the
ammeter readings are successively 0.2, 0.3, …..1 ampere.
7. The current flowing through the circuit is calculated in each case and the corrections to the
readings of the ammeter (i’ – i) are tabulated.

GRAPH
1. A graph between ammeter reading (i) along the X-axis and the correction (i’ – i) along the
y – axis is drawn.
2. A graph between ammeter reading (i) and calculated ammeter reading i’ is also drawn.

RESULT
The given ammeter is calibrated.

REFERENCES:
3. https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282 -Solid State Physics virtual lab
4. Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel, Wiley Eastern Limited (5th Edition).
 4.CALIBRATION OF VOLTMETER USING POTENTIOMETER
AIM
To calibrate the given voltmeter by potentiometer. (i.e. To check the graduations of
voltmeter and to determine the corrections, if any).
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Potentiometer, rheostat, battery (2V) (or) accumulators, keys, Daniel cell, high resistance,
sensitive table galvanometer, given voltmeter, connecting wires etc.

FORMULAE
1.08
Calibrated voltage V '  l (volt)
l0
where l0 = Balancing length corresponding to e.m.f. of Daniel cell (m)
l =Balancing length for different voltmeter reading (m)

PROCEDURE
Part 1 : To standardize the potentiometer (or) To find the potential fall across one metre
length of the potentiometer
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in fig. (6.10) and is described below.
2. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of a battery to the end A of
the potentiometer and its negative terminal to the end B through a key (K1).
3. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the Daniel cell to A and
its negative to the jockey through a high resistance (HR) and a sensitive galvanometer.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the circuit.
5. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f. the potential drop across the potentiometer
wire remains steady.
6. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10-metre potentiometer wire, till the
position for the null deflection is found in the galvanometer.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

K
2V Ba Rh

J
A B

HR G
Daniel cell

Fig. 3.1. Standardization of Potentiometer

K
2V Ba Rh

J
A B

Fig. 3.2. Calibration of Voltmeter

OBSERVATIONS
Table 3.1a: To calibrate the given voltmeter

Length of the wire balancing the e.m.f. of the Daniel cell (l0) = …… 102 m

Calculated voltmeter
Balancing reading Correction
S. Voltmeter reading Length (l) m 1.08 (V  V)
No. (V) volt V ' l (volt)
Volt
l0
 +Y
Y

V - V (volt)
V (volt)

X
O V (volt)

O
X
V (volt) -Y

Fig. 3.3. Model Graph (V vs V' ) Fig. 3.4. Model Graph V vs (V' – V)

7. Let the balancing length be l0 meter (AJ). Then, the potential drop per unit length of the
1.08
potentiometer is calculated. The rheostat should not be disturbed hereafter.
l0
Part 2: To calibrate the given voltmeter
1. The Daniel cell, high resistance (HR) and the galvanometer are replaced by the given low
range voltmeter which is to be calibrated. The positive terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to A and its negative terminal to the jockey[ figure (6.11)]
2. By trial, the jockey is moved along the wire, and by pressing at different points, the length
l m of the potentiometer wire which gives a reading of 0.1 volt in the voltmeter is
determined.
3. The experiment is repeated by finding similar balancing lengths for voltmeter readings of
0.2, 0.3, ……1 V. Knowing the p.d meter length of the wire (l 0), the actual p.d. V’
corresponding to these reading are calculated and the corrections in these readings are
determined.

GRAPH
1. A graph between the voltmeter reading (V) along the X-axis and the correction (V’-V)
along the Y-axis is drawn.
2. A graph of observed voltmeter reading (V) along the X-axis and calculated voltages (V’)
along the Y-axis may also be drawn.

RESULT
The given voltmeter is calibrated.

REFERENCES:
1. https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282 -Solid State Physics virtual lab
2. Introduction to Solid State Physics – C. Kittel, Wiley Eastern Limited (5th Edition).
5.DETERMINATION OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY –
QUINCKE’S METHOD
AIM
To measure the susceptibility of paramagnetic solution by Quincke’s tube method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Quincke’s tube, Travelling microscope, sample (FeCl3 solution), electromagnet, Power
supply, Gauss meter.

PRINCIPLE
Based on molecular currents to explain Para and diamagnetic properties magnetic moment
to the molecule and such substances are attracted in a magnetic filed are called paramagnetics.
The repulsion of diamagnetics is assigned to the induced molecular current and its respective
reverse magnetic moment.
The force acting on a substance, of either repulsion or attraction, can be measured with the
help of an accurate balance in case of solids or with the measurement of rise in level in narrow
capillary in case of liquids.

The force depends on the susceptibility , of the material, i.e., on ratio of intensity of
magnetization to magnetizing field I/H. If the force on the substance and field are measured the
value of susceptibility can be calculated.
FORMULA
The susceptibility of the given sample is found by the formula

2(    )gh
= 2
kg m– 1 s– 2 gauss– 2
H

Where  is the density of the liquid or solution (kg/m3)

 is the density of air (kg/ m3)

• is the acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
• is the height through which the column rises (m)
H is the magnetic field at the centre of pole pieces (Gauss)

Electromagnet Electromagnet

N S

Quincke's Tube

Battery Rh

Fig. 4.1. Quincke’s Setup

Table 4.1 To find the rise in the capillary tube of the solution:
Microscopic reading without field (h1) = ….. cm

LC = … cm TR = MSR + (VSC  LC)

Travelling microscope Difference

Current (i) Field (H)
reading (h2) h = h1 ~h2
S.No. h / H2
MSR VSC TR
Ampere Gauss  10 – 2 m (m – 1 )
(cm) (div) (cm)

Mean h/H2 = …………….

OBSERVATION:

 = density of the liquid or solution = …..kg/m3

 = density of air = … kg/ m3

CALCULATION:
2(    )gh
The magnetic susceptibility of the given solution  =
H2
PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus consists of U-shaped tube known as Quincke’s tube. One of the limbs
of the tube is wide and the other one is narrow.
2. The experimental liquid or the solution (FeCl3) is filled in the tube in such a way that
the meniscus of the liquid in the narrow limb is at the centre of the magnetic field as
shown in the figure.
3. The level of the liquid in the narrow tube is read by a traveling microscope when the
magnetic field is off (h1).
4. The magnetic field is switched on by switching on the electromagnet. Adjust the
regulator knob available with the power supply to the electromagnet and fix the
current to be 0.3A. The raised level of the column is read with the traveling
microscope and noted in the table as (h2).
5. The experiment is repeated by varying the field by changing the current insteps of 0.3
A upto the maximum and each reading is noted.
6. To determine the magnetic field (H), the hall probe flux meter (Gauss meter) is used.
 7. The flat portion of the hall probe is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e.
between the pole pieces at the center parallel to the poles.
8. Switch off the electromagnet power supply. By adjusting, the gauss meter knob and
fix the field to be zero.
9. Switch on the electromagnet and adjust the current to be 0.3A. Note the field value
from the gauss meter. Repeat the same as before till attaining the maximum current
and note the reading in the table.
10. Calculate the magnetic susceptibility using the above formula.
RESULT
The magnetic susceptibility of the given sample = .................... kg m– 1 s– 2 gauss– 2

REFERENCES:

1. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David. J. Griffiths.

2. Cottingham, Cottingham. and Greenwood Greenwood. Electricity and Magnetism.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
 6. DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT
AIM:
To determine Planck’s constant by measuring the turn-on voltage of several LEDs
APPARATUS:
Planck’s constant kit
FORMULA:
h = E λ /C Js
E-Energy of light, λ-Wavelength of light emitted by LED and C-Velocity of light
PRINCIPLE:
The height of potential barrier across the p-n junction is reduced when it is
connected to forward bias. At a particular input voltage the height of potential barrier
becomes very low and the LED starts glowing. This is called turn-on voltage.

Fig. 5.1. Planck ’s constant setup

 Turn on
Wavelength (λ) Energy h = Eλ/C
LED voltage Vo
nm E = eVo Js
Volt
Blue 450
Green 525
Orange 610
Red 660

OBSERVATION:
Eg = eVo = hν = hc/λ
h = eVoλ/c Js
RESULT: Planck’s constant = (i) By Theory ......................... Js
(ii) By Graph ........................ Js
REFERENCES:

1. Raymond A. Serway and Jr. John W. Jewett. Principles of Physics. Brooks/Cole,

Belmont, CA, fourth edition, 2006.SS
 7.STUDY OF I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIGHT
DEPENDENT RESISTOR
AIM
To measure the photoconductive nature and the dark resistance of the given light
dependent resistor (LDR) and to plot the characteristics of the LDR.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
LDR, Resistor (1 k), ammeter (0 – 10 mA), voltmeter (0 – 10 V), light source, regulated
power supply.

FORMULA
V
By ohm’s law, V  IR (or) R  ohm
I
where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I
represents the corresponding voltage and current respectively.

PRINCIPLE
The photoconductive device is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain
semiconductor materials when they are exposed to both infrared and visible radiation.
The photoconductivity is the result of carrier excitation due to light absorption and the
figure of merit depends on the light absorption efficiency. The increase in conductivity is due to an
increase in the number of mobile charge carriers in the material.
PROCEDURE
• The connections are given in as shown in Fig. 6.3.1.
• The light source is switched on and made to fall on the LDR.
• The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.
• The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different distances from the
LDR.
• A graph is plotted between resistance and distance of LDR from the light source.
• The LDR is closed and the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.
The value of the dark resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law.

1 k ( 0 - 10 mA) Y
+ _
A
RR
Light
(k)
10 V + +
V LDR
_
_

X
Distance (cm)

Fig. 6.1. Circuit diagram Fig. 6.2. Model graph

OBSERVATION
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = …… V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = ……. A
V
Dark resistance = R  = ……. ohm
I
Table: To determine the resistances of LDR at different distances

S.No Distance Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading RR

(cm) (V) volt (I) mA k

RESULT
1. The characteristics of LDR were studied and plotted.
2. The dark resistance of the given LDR = ........... ohm

REFERENCES:

1. U.A Bakshi, A.P Godse, “Electronic Devices. Technical Publications”, India,

2008.
2. Robert Diffenderfer,“Electronic Devices: Systems and Applications”, Thomas
Delmer Learning, USA, 2005.
 8. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC
LIGHT NEWTON’S RING
AIM:
To determine the wavelength of monochromatic light using Newton’s ring method.
APPARATUS:
Travelling microscope, glass plate, convex lens, monochromatic light.
FORMULA:
λ = (rn+m 2 – rn2)/mR meter
rn-Radius of the dark nth ring, m-Order of the ring and R-Radius of curvature of the ring

Fig. 9.1. Newton’s Ring Set up Fig. 9.2. Newton’s Rings

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the lens L at a distance equal to its focal length from the sodium lamp to get a parallel
beam of light.
2. Adjust the microscope vertically above the center of the lens. Focus the microscope so that
alternate dark and bright rings are clearly visible.
3. The first few rings are usually not clear so slide the microscope to the left or right and set it
tangentially at the center of the Nth dark ring.
4. Move the cross wire towards right by turning the horizontal tangential screw in clock wise
direction and count the number of rings till 21st and set it tangentially at the corner of the 21st
dark ring. This is the N+21st dark ring on right hand side. Now take the microscope reading.
5. After that rotate the horizontal tangential screw in anti clock wise direction and catch N+18 th
dark ring on same right side and take the microscope reading.
6. Repeat the procedure no. 5 for N+15, N+12….. up to Nth dark ring. The readings are
tabulated.
7. Then rotate the horizontal tangential screw in same anti clock wise direction and catch the N th
dark ring on left side and note down microscope reading. Continue the same for N+3, N+6……
up to N+21. The values are tabulated.
8. From the readings calculate the difference between N+21 st dark ring on right and left hand
side, which gives the diameter of the 21 st ring. Similarly calculate the diameter of 18, 15…….nth
dark rings.
9. From the diameter calculate radius and square of radius and the values are tabulated.
9. Now, calculate the difference between first reading and fifth reading in square of radius which
r r
is called n+m 2 – n2 (Order 12 rings). Similarly calculate the same for 2nd and 6th, 3rd and 7th and
4th and 8th readings and the values are tabulated.
r
10. Then take the mean value of n+m 2 – n2 r
11. By using the above formula calculate the wavelength of monochromatic light.

OBSERVATIONS

Order of Microscope Diameter Radius r2 rn+m 2 –

the Ring Reading of the of the Mean
Ring Ring rn2 of
Left Right
N+21
N+18
N+15
N+12
N+9
N+6
N+3
N

Order of the ring (m) =12

Radius of curvature of lens (R) = 20 Cm
RESULT:
The wavelength of the given monochromatic light is…………. m

1. by R. K. Gaur and S. L. Gupta, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Co Pvt Ltd

2. A Textbook of Engineering Physics by Dr. M.N Avadhanulu and Dr. P.G Kshirsagar,
S.Chand Publications
 9. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING LASER

To determine
W the size of micro particles using laser.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Fine micro particles having nearly same size (say lycopodium powder), a glass plate (say
microscopic slide), diode laser, and a screen.

PRINCIPLE
When laser is passed through a glass plate on which fine particles of nearly uniform size are
spread, due to diffraction circular rings are observed. From the measurement of radii of the observed
rings, we can calculate the size of the particles. Since for diffraction to occur size of the obstacle must be
comparable with wavelength, only for extremely fine particles of micron or still lesser dimension,
diffraction pattern can be obtained.
Diffraction is very often referred to as the bending of the waves around an obstacle. When a
circular obstacle is illuminated by a coherent collimated beam such as laser light, due to diffraction
circular rings are obtained as shown in the figure 3.1 . If “r” is the radius of the first dark ring and “D” is
the distance between the obstacle and screen on which the diffraction pattern is obtained, then.
r
tan
D
Since θ is very small in this experiment
r
tan  
D
According to the theory, the diameter 1a’ of the circular obstacle is given by
1.22nD
2a 
rn

where
rn = radius of the nth order dark ring (m)
D = distance between the obstacle and the screen (m)
λ = wavelength of the laser light ( Å)
 Screen with Diffraction Pattern

Glass plate with

fine particle
Laser spread

 r

Fig. 8.1. Particle size determination using Laser

Table.8.1 Determination of particle size

Diffraction order Radius of dark Particle size

Sl.No. Distance (D)
(n) ring (rn) ( 2a )
Unit m m m

1 1
2

2 1
2

3 1
2

Mean

PROCEDURE
1. Fine powder of particles is sprayed/spread on the glass plate.
2. Laser is held horizontally and the glass plate is inserted in its path.
3. Position of the glass plate is adjusted to get maximum contrast rings on the screen which is at a
distance more than 0.5 m.
4. A white paper is placed on the screen and the positions of the dark rings are marked. The radii of
different order dark rings (rn) are measured using a scale.
5. The distance between the screen and the glass plate (D) is also measured. Using the given formula,
1.22nD
the average diameter of the particles is calculated. 2a 
rn
6. The experiment is repeated for different D values.

RESULT
The average size of the particles measured using laser = ........ μm

REFERENCES:

1. Huimin Liu, Science and Engineering of Droplets, Noyes Publication, Park Ridge, U.S.A.

2. William A. Sirignano, Fluid dynamics and transport of droplets and sprays, University of
California, Irvine.

3. Handbook of Atomization and sprays Theory and Applications, Springer.

10. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MERCURY SPECTRUM-
SPECTROMETER GRATING

AIM:

To determine the wave length of the mercury spectrum using diffraction grating.
APPARATUS:
A spectrometer, mercury vapour lamp, grating, spirit level, reading lens etc.

FORMULAE:
Wavelength λ = Sinθ / mN (Unit: Å)

Fig.7.1. Spectrometer Grating Normal Incidence position

LC = Value of one MSD = 30'  1'

No. of div on VS 30

PROCEDURE:

Adjustments of telescope to receive parallel rays:

Turn the telescope towards a distant object (e.g. a far off building) and adjust the
telescope to see a clear well-defined image of the distant object. If the initial adjustment of
the cross hairs was good, the image of the distant object will remain fixed against the
image of cross hairs as the eye is moved slightly from side to side. That is, there is no
parallax between the images of the cross hairs and the distant object, and thus the two
coincide with the focal plane of the telescope. Otherwise there is relative motion between
the image of the cross hairs and that of the distant object and the adjustments must be
repeated. This method of focusing by the elimination of parallax is universal in the use of
optical instruments.
Adjustments of the collimator to provide parallel incident rays:
Swing the telescope so that it is aligned with the collimator. There are two knobs under
the telescope. One of these is to fix the telescope relative to the collimator and the other
for fine alignment of the telescope with respect to the collimator. Note that there is another
set of knobs for the prism table. One of them is to fix the prism table at any position and
the other is used for finer adjustments. The slit side of the collimator should face the light
source. Illuminate the collimator slit with the mercury light source. Make the slit width
narrow and bring the slit into sharp focus while viewing through the eyepiece side of the
telescope and by adjusting the collimator only. Again use the absence of parallax between
the slit image and the cross hairs.
Determination of the precision of angular measurement in the spectrometer:
1) The circular main scale on the spectrometer is graduated from zero to 360°; each
division on this scale is equal to one half of a degree (i.e., 30 minutes). There are 30
divisions on each of the vernier scales (1) and (2).
2). When the zero of either of the vernier scales matches with a division on the main scale,
the 30th division on that vernier coincides with another main scale division. Careful
observation indicates that there are 29 main scale divisions between these zero and 30th
divisions of the vernier scale. This implies that each vernier division corresponds to
(29/30) of a main scale division and that the angular measurements can be made to a
precision of one minute ( i.e. the difference between the values of one main scale division
and one vernier scale division ). Remember that one minute equals 1/60 th of a degree.
3. Mounting the grating CAUTION: do not touch the grating surface. Handle the grating
by means of the frame supporting it. The grating and holder are used with the side marked
"FRONT" or the printed data turned toward the collimator. The height of the grating is
adjusted until its center coincides with the axis of the collimator. The grating spacing, d, is
the reciprocal of the number of lines per unit length of the grating.
4. Adjustment of the position of the grating the plane of the grating must be normal to the
light beam as it emerges from the collimator. To make this adjustment, we will make use
of the law of reflection. a) Lock the table and take a reading with the cross-hairs aligned
with the slit image. b) Move the telescope 90° 0' and lock the telescope. c) Insert the
grating and rotate the grating until the slit image reflected from the grating surface (a
plane mirror) is aligned with the crosshairs. d) Unlock the table and rotate it 45° 0' in a
direction that places the grating perpendicular to the light beam. e) Lock the table and
unlock the telescope for further readings.
5. Zeroth-order reading Read the angle for straight-through light from the collimator and
record this reading as a. In general, the zero for the vernier division is between two main
scale divisions. Note the main scale reading to the left of the zero of the vernier. Find the
number (n) of the vernier division that coincides with a main scale division. Thus a = main
scale reading + n(1 minute). Enter a in Data Table 1.
6. Measurement of angles of diffraction (a) Move the head to the left or right of the
normal position until the first order of the spectrum is observed with the unaided eye.
[Note: some gratings, due to minor variations in manufacture, give brighter spectra on one
side than the other. This is the side to use for readings. In the gratings supplied, motion to
the left usually gives the best results.] Swing the telescope into position to locate this first
order. Take angular readings on the blue, green and two yellow lines in the spectrum,
calling the reading b for each color. Continue to move the telescope, locating the second
and, possibly, third order. Read the angles of each line for each order. (c) The angle of
diffraction q is thus the difference between the straight-through reading a and the reading
taken for each line b.
RESULT
The wave lengths of colors of mercury spectrum -------------

REFERENCES

1. Bonnett, Raymond. Vibrations and Waves. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1971

2. Towne, Dudley. Wave Phenomena. Mineola: Dover, 1988.

OBSERVATIONS
Number of lies per meter of grating N = Order of Diffraction m = 1

Colours Spectrometer Spectrometer 2θ Mean 2θ θ λ = Sinθ/mN

Reading Reading
(Right) (Left)
VA VB VA VB VA VB

Violet

Blue
Green

Yellow I

Laboratory Experimen
Yellow II
Orange

Red I

Red II

ts
 11. DETERMINATION OF LASER PARAMETERS–DIVERGENCE
AND WAVELENGTH FOR A GIVEN LASER SOURCE USING
LASER GRATING
AIM
To determine the divergence and wavelength of the given laser source using standard grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Laser source, grating, a screen etc.,

PRINCIPLE
When a composite beam of laser light is incident normally on a plane diffraction grating, the
different components are diffracted in different directions. The mth order maxima of the wavelength λ,
will be formed in a direction θ if d sin θ = mλ, where d is the distance between two lines in the grating.

FORMULA
The angle of divergence is given by

(a 2  a1 )

2(d2  d1 )

where a1 = Diameter of the laser spot at distance d1 from the laser source
a2 = Diameter of the laser spot at distance d2 from the laser source
The wavelength of the laser light is given by
sin  m
 m
Nm

where m = Order of diffraction

θn = Angle of diffraction corresponding to the order m
N = number of lines per metre length of the grating
θ = tan-1 (x/D)
x = Distance from the central spot to the diffracted spot (m)
D = Distance between grating and screen(m)

Screen

1
Laser Source 0
1
Grating

Fig. 11.1. Experimental Setup for Laser Grating

Determination of wave length of Laser Light:

Distance between grating and screen ( D) = -------------- m

Number of lines per metre length of the grating = N = --------------
Distance of Different orders from the
Central Spot
Mean
Angle of sin  m
S.No
Order of Diffraction
(x) m diffraction 
(m) (x) m Nm
 = tan 1[x / D]
Left Right Å

PROCEDURE
Part 1: Determination of angle of divergence
1. Laser source is kept horizontally.
2. A screen is placed at a distance d1 from the source and the diameter of the spot (a1) is
measured.
3. The screen is moved to a distance d2 from the source and at this distance, the diameter of
the spot (a2) is measured.

Part 2: Determination of wavelength

1. A plane transmission grating is placed normal to the laser beam.
2. This is done by adjusting the grating in such a way that the reflected laser beam coincides with
beam coming out of the laser source.
3. The laser is switched on. The source is exposed to grating and it is diffracted by it.
4. The other sides of the grating on the screen, the diffracted images (spots) are seen.
5. The distances of different orders from the central spot are measured.
6. The distance from the grating to the screen (D) is measured.
7. θ is calculated by the formula θ = tan-1 (x/d).
8. Substituting the value of , N and m in the above formula, the wavelength of the given
monochromatic beam can be calculated.
RESULT
1. The angle of divergence is = --------- --.
2. The wavelength of the given monochromatic source is = -----------

REFERENCES:

1. Koechner, Walter. Solid-State Laser Engineering. Berlin: Springer, 2006.

2.Ion, John. Laser Processing of Engineering Materials. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2005.
3. Laser Surveying. London: Van Nostrand Reinhold (International), 1989.
 12.STUDY OF ATTENUATION AND PROPAGATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
I . ATTENUATION IN FIBERS
AIM
(i) To determine the attenuation for the given optical fiber.
(ii) To measure the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle of the given
fiber cables.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Fiber optic light source, optic power meter and fiber cables (1m and 5m), Numerical aperture
measurement JIG, optical fiber cable with source, screen.

PRINCIPLE
The propagation of light down dielectric waveguides bears some similarity to the propagation of
microwaves down metal waveguides. If a beam of power P i is launched into one end of an optical fiber
and if Pf is the power remaining after a length L km has been traversed , then the attenuation is given by,
 
10 log Pi P 
Attenuation =
 f 
dB / km
L
FORMULA
 
10 log Pi P 
Attenuation (dB / km) =  f 
L
PROCEDURE
1. One end of the one metre fiber cable is connected to source and other end to the optical
power metre.
2. Digital power meter is set to 200mV range ( - 200 dB) and the power meter is switched on
3. The ac main of the optic source is switched on and the fiber patch cord knob in the source is
set at one level (A).
4. The digital power meter reading is noted (Pi)
5. The procedure is repeated for 5m cable (Pf).
6. The experiment is repeated for different source levels.

AC Fiber Optic
Light Source
Fiber
Cable

DMM
Power Meter
(200 mV)

Fig. 12.1. Setup for loss measurement

Determination of Attenuation for optical fiber cables

L = 4 m = 4 × 10 – 3 km
P 
10 log i 
Source Power output for 1m Power output for  P 
Level cable (Pi) 5m cable (Pf) Attenuation =
 f
dB / km
L

Acceptance Cone



Fig. 12.2. Numerical Aperture

Measurement of Numerical Aperture

Distance between W
Diameter of the NA =
Circle source and screen (L) θ
(mm)
spot W (mm) 4L2  W 2
RESULT
1. Attenuation at source level A = ----------- (dB/km)
2. Attenuation at source level B = ------------ (dB/km)
3. Attenuation at source level C = ------------ (dB/km)

II. Numerical Aperture

PRINCIPLE
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber end is
totally internally reflected and transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of
this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber.

FORMULA

W 
Numerical aperture (NA)=  sin max
4L2  W 2
Acceptance angle = 2 θmax (deg)

where L = distance of the screen from the fiber end in metre

W =diameter of the spot in metre.

PROCEDURE
1. One end of the 1 metre fiber cable is connected to the source and the other end to the NA jig.
2. The AC mains are plugged. Light must appear at the end of the fiber on the NA jig. The set knob
in source is turned clockwise to set to a maximum output.
3. The white screen with the four concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25mm diameters) is held
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fiber coincide with the
10mm circle.
4. The distance of the screen from the fiber end L is recorded and the diameter of the spot W is
noted. The diameter of the circle can be accurately measured with the scale. The procedure is
repeated for 15mm, 20mm and 25mm diameter circles.
5. The readings are tabulated and the mean numerical aperture and acceptance angle are determined.

RESULT
i) The numerical aperture of fiber is measured as ........................
ii) The acceptance angle is calculated as ................... (deg).
REFERENCES

1. Lutz, Erich, Markus Werner, and Axel Jahn. Satellite systems for personal and
broadband communications. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
2. Maral, Gérard, and Michel Bousquet. Satellite communications systems: systems,
techniques and technology. John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
3. Larsson, Erik G., and Petre Stoica. Space-time block coding for wireless
communications. Cambridge university press, 2008.
 13. MINI PROJECT – CONCEPT BASED DEMONSTRATION

AIM:
To construct the working model based on principles of physics, the opportunity to
develop a range of skills and knowledge already learnt to an unseen problem.

OBJECTIVES:
On successful completion of the mini project, the student will have developed
skills in the following areas:
1. Design of experiments.
2. Experimental or computational techniques.
3. Searching the physical and related literature.
4. Communication of results in an oral presentation and in a report.
5. Working as part of a team.
6. Assessment of team members.
Assessment and Evaluation:

1. Each Class should have at least eight groups. Each group should have a minimum of 5
members or above and Maximum of 9 members.

2. Mini Project should be a working model. One page write-up about the project should be
submitted as per the template provided by the class subject teacher.

3. Department of Physics & Nanotechnology will be organizing an event TechKnow to showcase

these Mini Projects. All groups should present the working model along with the poster at the
TechKnow.
4. Expert Committee will evaluate and select the best project from each class.

5. Certificates will be awarded for the best project during the event TechKnow .

6. Marks for the project will be awarded under the following criteria.

S. No Criteria Marks
1. Working model / Design 5
2. Idea/ Concept / Novelty 5
3. Presentation / Viva 5
4. Usefulness / Application 5
Total 20