OCTOBER

21, 1898.] SCIENCE. 533

PhotographicStudies of the Electric Arc. By The Heat of Fusion of Ice Determinedin Elec-
N. H. BROWN,Ithaca, N. Y. trical Units. By PROFESSOR E. L. NIOHOLS,
On the Efficiency of Condensers. By PRO- Ithaca, N. Y.
FESSOR E. B. ROSA and ARTHUR W. The Electrical Resistanceof Lead Amalgamsat
SMITH, Middletown, Conn. Low Temperatures. By G. W. GRESSMAN,
THE authors give results determined by Ithaca, N. Y.
their resonance method, which was de- THE most striking fact reported in this
scribed at the Detroit meeting. paper is the sudden decrease in resistance
the resistance of the
A CalorimetricDetermination of the Energy upon solidification,
solid amalgam being sometimes as low as
Dissipated in Condensers. By PROFESSOR one-fifth of the resistance of the fluid amal-
E. B. ROSA and ARTHURW. SMITH.
gam at its freezing point. If the thermo-
The Effect of Fibrous Structurein Iron on its electrical explanation-based on hetero-
Changeof Lengthwhen Magnetized. By E. geneity-of excessively high resistance of
RHOADS,PH.D., Baltimore, MId. alloys is correct one would expect an in-
Notes on the Effectof Silicon on the Magnetic crease of resistance upon solidification, for
it is then that the alloy becomes hetero-
Permeability of Iron. By PROFESSORF.
C. CALDWELL,Columbus, Ohio. geneous.
N. ERNEST DORSEY,
IT was found that the permeability in-
Press Secretary.
creases with the amount of silicon present
in the iron.
THE ADVANCEOF PSYCHOLOGY.*
On the Measurementof Electrical Oscillations THE American Association for the Ad-
of Short Period and their Absorption by vancement of Science, when it first met
Water. By PROFESSORA. D. COLE, Gran- fifty years ago, had no place for anthropol-
ville, Ohio. ogy nor for psychology. Science has its
THIS is a continuation of the work which
origin in the practical needs of society. In
was reported by Professor Cole to Section a new country of great area and rich re-
B at Buffalo. sources the energies of its people were
An Acoustical Micrometer. By J. O. REED, directed to invention and exploration. The
PH.D., Ann Arbor, Mich. spirit of Franklin led to the development
ITS principle consists in measuring the of railways, steamboats and telegraphy, to
the building of cities and the search for
amplitude of vibration of a stretched mem-
brane. mines.
But not only in America and in the case
Polarization in the Zn - H,SO Cell. By of the anthropological sciences have fifty
PROFESSORW. A. ANTHONY, New York years brought great changes. Science has
City. become a leading factor in modern life by
AFTERan extended research into the effect the rapidity rather than by the duration of
of saturating the acid with hydrogen, oxy- its growth. Our own revered Dr. Hall might
gen and carbon dioxide, Professor Anthony have talked with Herschell, who could al-
concludes that what is called polarization most have touched the hand of Newton.
is not due to the accumulation of hydrogen, Newton was born the year that Galileo
but to the fact that the oxygen originally
*Address of the Vice-President of Section H-An-
dissolved in the acid and condensed on the thropology-of the American Association for the Ad-
plates has been used up. vancement of Science, August, 1898.
534 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL.VIII. No. 199-

died. If Copernicus had lived to extreme It may, however, be that the subject-
old age he might have handed the De matter of the anthropological sciences is
Orbium CelestiumJRevolutionibus to Galileo. such that they will proceed without catas-
While the whole history of science is thus trophe. The form of the earth is altered
nearly spanned by five lives, modern science by earthquakes on occasion, but every day
is scarcely older than our Association. It it is molded to a greater degree by less
was only in the decade of its foundation obtrusive agencies. In the making of the
that the doctrine of the conservation of anthropological sciences by the collecting
energy was announced, while the Origin and arranging of facts, by discovery and by
of Species was published in the year of generalization, we have every reason to be
our eleventh meeting. If the physical satisfied with the part taken by America
sciences, as we now understand them, are and by this Association. In many sciences
scarcely more than fifty years old, and the we must at once yield the leadership to
biological sciences are only forty years older nations. In the youngest of the sci-
old, the anthropological sciences are still ences we at least stand on terms of equal
younger. Perhaps these are now in the service. It was perhaps by special provi-
condition of the physical sciences before dence that last year's meeting of our Asso-
they had become truly exact, of the biolog- ciation was presided over by an anthropolo-
ical sciences before they had become truly gist, but this year we chose to celebrate our
genetic. fiftieth anniversary under a member of this
it is easy to prophesy after the event, Section. That this Section should have sup-
and from our present point of view science plied three of our last five presiding officers
in its history appears to have followed a and our permanent secretary for twenty-five
necessary course. The phenomena of the years; that the British Association should
physical world are stable and readily sub- have come to America to establish its Sec-
ject to experiment and measurement; their tion of Anthropology and on its second visit
control is essential to material progress. should have chosen an anthropologist for
It is, therefore, no wonder that the physical its president-these things we may at least
sciences should have preceded the biological regard as an omen of the place of anthro-
sciences in their development. Far more pology in the science that is to be and of
complex, transient and inaccessible to ex- the place of America in anthropology.
periment even than the phenomena of living While anthropology, largely owing to
beings are men, they themselves and their the richness of the material at hand and to
deeds-sciences of these things must come the great Bureau of American Ethnology
late. As man has been evolved from established to investigate this material, has
simpler forms of life, and these were pre- come to such fruition in America, psychology
ceded by a lifeless earth, so the sciences has also shown great vitality. Unlike an-
dealing withjman, with life and with matter thropology, psychology is distinctly a uni-
must be based one upon the other. The versity discipline. For reasons chiefly
history of science is, therefore, full of theological, ethical and educational, mental
promise for the student of anthropological and moral philosophy had been taught
science. We may grant the past to others from the foundation of our colleges by the
and claim the twentieth century for our president of each institution to all students.
heritage. Perhaps our Copernicus, our It happened that at the same time that
Newton, our Lavoisier, our Darwin is one psychology had developed into a science,
of the younger members of this Section. the college president became an executive
OCTOBER
21, 1898.] SCIENCE. 535

officer, no longer chosen as a matter of lish and Scottish successors to the present
course from the clergy, having neither time time have been at once students of philos-
nor training for the teaching of mental ophy, and of psychology. The same may be
science. There was thus an empty place said of Herbart, Lotze, Wundt and many
which the modern psychologist was pre- more in Germany and in France. In our
pared to fill. Further, the rapid develop- own country to-day we find many of our
ment of the college into the university with leaders-James, Ladd, Royce, Dewey, Ful-
elective courses permitted psychology to lerton and others-professing equally phil-
compete on equal terms with the older osophy and psychology.
sciences, and the result has been its secure Psychology, under the guidance of phil-
establishment in the university. Indeed, osophy, became at times somewhat sche-
psychology, touching with one hand phil- matic and unreal, though never I think un-
osophy, the humanities and the historical fruitful or regressive. It needed, however,
and political sciences, while with the other to be cross-fertilized with the natural
hand it reaches toward the natural and ex- sciences. These sciences, in their develop-
act sciences, bids fair to become central. ment, could not ignore the senses and the
Thus, at Harvard, Professor Miinsterberg's mind. Perceptions are parts of a physical
elective course in empirical psychology was system, but they are also parts of an indi-
this year followed by 365 students. At vidual consciousness. Newton not only
Yale Dr. Scripture's course in physiological analyzed light, but also named seven colors;
and experimental psychology was elected Dalton found that he was blind to certain
by 138 students. There were last year of them; Young invented a theory to ac-
given by American universities 18 doctor- count for their combinations; von Helm-
ates with psychology as the major subject holtz reviewed the phenomena in one of the
-more than in any science except chemis- greatest of books. Physiology on its side
try, six times as many as in astronomy could not study the senses and brain while
and nine times as many as in anthropology. ignoring the functions that they subserve,
Psychology, though its recent develop- and it was found that the methods of nat-
ment has been so rapid, is not a new science; ural science could be applied in psychology.
it should rather be regarded as one of the The zoologist could not neglect the mental
oldest of the sciences. Under the great life of animals and the place of conscious-
dynasty of philosophers-founded in Greece, ness in evolution. Darwin wrote not only
not extinct even during the Dark Ages, re- The Origin of Species,but also The Descent of
established after the Renaissance-all the Man and The Expressionof the Emotions,and
sciences were developed. From Aristotle to was the first to study the development of
Kant the history of philosophy is in large the child's mind.
measure the history of science. But as the The subject-matter having been supplied
domain of knowledge became too great to by philosophy and the methods by natural
be ruled by a single mind it must needs be science, the way was made ready for the es-
divided into the principalities that we call tablishment of a science of psychology. This
the sciences. From the beginning psychol- we owe largely to the intellectual patience of
ogy has been the favored nursling of phil- Germany, tired at last of the Hegelian
osophy, and, as the other sciences were metaphysics. Lotze published his Medi-
taken from it, all the more did it cherish zinische Psychologie in 1852; Fechner his
that which was left. In Great Britain Elemente der' Psychophysikin 1860; Wundt
Locke, Berkeley and Hume and their Eng- his Mensechen und Thierseelein 1863, and his
536 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL.VIII. No. 199.

PhysiologischePsychologiein 1874. Lotze and three different generations. Darwin, Hux-

Wundt were doctors of medicine; Fechner ley and Spencer, while establishing the
was a professor of physics; they were all theory of evolution, gave mind its due
deeply interested in philosophy. Psychol- place, Spencer having concerned himself
ogy, as pursued to-day, is deeply indebted to especially with mental and social evolution.
these three, perhaps chiefly to Wundt, who, Romanes and Lloyd Morgan have directed
continuing his services, founded in 1879 attention to the study of animal intelli-
the first laboratory of psychology, and es- gence, while Galton's contributions to an-
tablished in 1883 a journal for the publica- thropometry and heredity have exhibited
tion of its investigations. Following and great originality. Experimental psychol-
leading this psychological movement we ogy has not made much headway in Great
find in Germany men such as Stumpf, Britain. They have let us take from them
Lipps, Ziehen, Muller, Ebbinghaus and Titchener; so he must count for America.
many more. One of them-Miinsterberg- The first laboratory, at Cambridge, was
has come to us, while Hoffding, of Denmark, founded by me, and maintains a humble
may be included in the same group. Physi- existence. Within a year a laboratory has
ologists, such as Hering, Aubert, Preyer, been founded at University College, Lon-
Flechsig, Exner and von Kries, and physi- don, and Oxford has at least awakened to
cists, such as von Helmholtz, Mach and the existence of experimental psychology
Kinig, may reasonably be claimed, in part to the extent of decreeing this summer that
at least, for psychology. it shall not be taught under a newly estab-
In France a philosopher, as Cousin, or a lished lectureship of mental philosophy.
man of letters, as Taine, may have accom- This American Association is naturally
plished somewhat, but modern writers and most concerned with what has been accom-
workers, as Ribot and Binet, have been plished for psychology in America. The
largely influenced by Germany. France history of psychology here prior to 1880
has, however, made two independent con- could be set forth as briefly as the alleged
tributions of importance, though in both chapter on snakes in a natural history of
cases chaff has been mixed with the grain. Iceland-" There are no snakes in Ice-
These are, on the one hand, abnormal and land." The eminence of the theologian
pathological psychology and, on the other Jonathan Edwards is witness to the lack of
hand, individual and social psychology. any psychologist. We had only text-books
In Italy the names of Lombroso and Mosso by college presidents setting forth Scottish
remind us of work in criminology and in realism. Porter, of Yale, gave us the best
physiology that has become important for of these books, but McCosh, of Princeton,
psychology, as is also the case with the his- performed a greater service by placing the
tological work of the Spaniard, Ramon y aegis of theological conservatism over both
Cajal. In Russia performance waits on organic evolution and experimental psy-
promise. chology.
Great Britain has developed a modern But the land lay fallow and twenty years
psychology without breaking with its tradi- ago the seed was sown. James, at Harvard,
tions. It has always been a land of great began the publication of a series of striking
individuals, and Locke, Berkeley and articles, culminating in the issue, in 1890, of
Hume have found worthy successors in The Principles of Psychology,a work of genius
Bain, Ward and Stout, to mention only such as is rare in any science or in any
three living psychologists belonging to country. Hall, in 1883, established in the
OCTOBER
21, 1898.] SCIENCE. 537
Johns Hopkins University the first Ameri- as a leader in experimental psychology
can laboratory of psychology-the second having accomplished much for the advance-
in the world *-since transferred to Clark ment of the science and the diffusion o
University. The American Journal of Psy- its results. In the latter connection may
chology,founded by him in 1887, shows the be mentioned the psychological laboratory
value of the work accomplished at Johns under his direction at the Columbian Ex-
Hopkins and Clark, while the Pedagogical position and the fact that almost alone he
Seminar bears witness to his influence in has represented psychology in this Associa-
stimulating interest in the child's develop- tion.
ment. Ladd published, in 1887, his Elements The great services for psychology of
of PhysiologicalPsychology,a work that has James at Harvard, Hall at Clark and Ladd
exerted great influence both here and at Yale were not confined to their own
abroad. It has been followed by a series publications, but were also directed toward
of treatises on psychology that have never building up strong departments. Harvard,
been equalled in range and thoroughness. with James, Miinsterberg, Royce,Santayana,
Under James, Hall and Ladd and in MacDougal and other men in closely related
Germany there was then trained a second departments, surpasses every other univer-
generation of psychologists, and we our- sity in the world in its opportunity for
selves now have our students, a third gener- psychological study and research, and there
ation. The second American laboratory was is quite as much reason for German stu-
under my direction at the University of dents to come to Harvard as for our stu-
Pennsylvania. The first chair in psychol- dents to go to Germany. Clark, where
ogy was there established and courses in Sanford has charge of the laboratory,
laboratory work were there first given. This may almost be said to be a university for
was only ten years ago. The work at Penn- the advancement of psychology. The lab-
sylvania is continued under Witmer, while oratory at Yale, under Scripture, has
at Columbia we have since 1890 a labora- shown great activity and is able to publish
tory and a range of courses in experimen- annually a volume of researches. Cornell,
tal, physiological and analytic psychology under a president who is a student of phil-
which may bear comparison with those of osophy and psychology, has robbed Great
the other sciences. Baldwin carried modern Britain of its best exprimental psychologist,
psychology, himself enlarging it as he went, and under Titchener the laboratory stands
from Princeton to Lake Forest and thence quite to the front, while the courses in
to Toronto and back to Princeton. The philosophy and psychology are especially
laboratory established by him at Toronto well developed. Chicago early recognized
is continued under Kirschmann, while at the importance of psychology. Securing
Princeton he has founded an efficient lab- Dewey and Mead from Michigan and Angell
oratory, and by his work on genetic psy- for experimental work from Minnesota, in
chology has brought our science into fruit- psychology, as in other departments, its de-
ful relations with zoology and sociology. velopment has been marvellous. Michigan
Jastrow, at Wisconsin, stands forward and Minnesota have found other men to
continue the work, while Stanford, Califor-
* It would be more correct to
regard the laboratory nia, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois and all the great
established about the year 1875 by James in the
State universities have established labora-
Scientific School of Harvard University as the world's
first psychological laboratory. It was, however, nom- tories and given an adequate place to psy-
inally under physiological auspices. chological courses.
538 SCIENCE. IN. S. VOL. VIII. No. 199.

It would be possible for me to give other fixed stars since the time of the Chaldseans
objective proofs of the progress of psychol- is less complicated than the play of a child
ogy-the establishment, in 1894, of a second in its nursery for a single day. The stars
journal, The Psychological Review, which are so far away, the telescopes are so big,
during the first six months of the present eclipse expeditions proceed to such remote
year published some 900 pages, all we hope quarters of the earth, that the simplest
contributing to the advancement of psy- items of information take on a dramatic
chology; the prominent place given to interest. Atoms and molecules are so in-
psychology in our journals of education, visible, the ether is so intangible, we know
philosophy, general science and popular after all so little about them, that it is easy
literature; the widespread amateur interest to invent hypotheses that do not contra-
in child-study and psychical research; our dict our ignorance. The generalizations of
Psychological Association, with a member- physical science are, indeed, the greatest
ship of 102, all engaged in advancing psy- achievements of the human intellect, but
chology-these and other witnesses for the intellect, by which and for which these
psychology might be called upon to testify, generalizations have been created, when
but the development of psychology in the itself made the subject-matter of a science,
university has seemed to me best deserving is complex beyond those sciences which are
of extended comment. Until the State shall its offspring.
learn to care for those who do the most for Psychology does not, of course, claim as its
it, until those who are engaged in advanc- subject-matter all 'that is in heaven above,
ing knowledge shall work for the State and or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in
be supported by the State our universities the waters beneath the earth.' The phys-
will be the centers for research, and the ical and natural sciences, language, litera-
position of a science in the university will ture and the fine arts, industries and insti-
measure its opportunity and fruitfulness. tutions have, it is true, their origin and
Very significant for psychology, therefore, end in the mind, but this does not turn them
is its progress in the universities of America into departments of psychology. The phy-
during the past twenty years. sicist no more needs to concern himself
My remarks have been confined to the with the mental processes leading to his
externals of psychology. Its inner history, discovery than does the hen with the pro-
its present content, its future outlook are not cesses preceding the laying of its egg. The
subjects that can be readily brought up and kind of novel called psychological is by no
dismissed in a few words. Psychology is means a product of science. The enjoy-
the most complex of the sciences. I do not ment of art decreases as we analyze its prod-
at all claim that it is the most important of ucts. Scientific prevision and guidance
the sciences. The human race got on with- have scarcely more to do with the rise and
out it very well and could doubtless con- decline of institutions than with the rise
tinue to do so. Its practical applications and decline of the sun in the firmament.
do not compare in importance with those Still I do claim that there is no depart-
of many of the sciences; it is in a way ment of knowledge or activity which does
lacking in great discoveries and universal not have an aspect that concerns psychol-
laws. But, compared with psychology, a ogy, and while hitherto it is psychology
science such as astronomy may almost be which has learned from sciences preceding
regarded as naive. The entire known per- it in their development, the time will come,
formance of the solar system and of the and perhaps has now come, when every
OOTOBEn 21, 1898.] SCIENCE. 539

science must take into account the facts and relations with psychology. cteology and
theories of psychology. The increase of anthropology are closely related, while
knowledge which has caused the creation of physical geography is especially concerned
the separate sciences is now leading to with the relations of man to the earth.
further specialization, but not in the sense Many of the problems of evolution, so
of one science more completely ignoring the essential for psychology, are best studied in
others. Rather we have at present well plants, and the applications of botany in
established sciences, such as astrophysics, agriculture, etc., are determining factors in
physical chemistry, biology and others the evolution of man.
which take their subject-matter from two or Physiological psychology is already ac-
more of the older sciences. It is probable cepted as a distinct discipline, while zoology
that students in increasing numbers will and psychology are equally intertwined.
take up the inter-relations of psychology It is impossible to separate physical and
with other sciences. Indeed, this tendency mental evolution-witness the writings of
is already well marked. Mathematics is Darwin, Spencer, Huxley, Romanes, Cope,
necessary as a tool for psychology, while Morgan and many more. Under the classi-
conversely several books have recently been fication of this Association anthropology
published concerned with the psychological and psychology are included in one section.
presuppositions of mathematics. The funda- Several of our leading members would make
mental concepts of mechanics have been psychology a branch of anthropology, while
treated as mental products by Mach, Pear- psychology regards ethnology and archae-
son and others. At the present moment ology, on the one hand, and somatology, on
the Vice-President is giving, before the Sec- the other, as contributing much to its sub-
tion of Physics$ an address on the perception ject-matter. Sociologists find it somewhat
of light and color, while the same subject difficult to disentangle their field from that
was chosen by Sir George Stokes last month of psychology.
for the subject of his address before the If we turn to the departments of knowl-
Victoria Institute. Physics is, however, edge not represented in this Association-
leaving to psychology vision, hearing, etc., the humanities-we find psychology to be
though in the meantime new departments, a connecting link between them and the
destined perhaps to become new sciences- physical and natural sciences. If we re-
represented by the great works of von Helm- gard the professions-medicine, law, the-
holtz, PhysiologischeOptik and Tonempfind- ology, teaching, journalism-we find that
ungen-are being created, which draw their their products when systematized into sci-
materials in equal measure from physics, ences give to psychology and take from it.
from physiology and from psychology. Literature and the fine arts, both in their
Errors of observation, the personal equation, origin and in their end, may be studied as
the relation between mental and physical departments of psychology, though it does
intensity, are subjects where the investiga- not appear that psychology has as yet been
tions of the psychological laboratory must of great service to them.
be applied in astronomy and the' other I may illustrate the inter-dependence of
physical sciences. Chemistry, geology and psychology and other sciences by a definite
botany perhaps stand most remote from, example. Much is being written just now
psychology. Still, if physiology is in large regarding the relation of consciousness to
tneasure the chemistry of living tissues, the brain. ,The question is: Do perceptions,
chemistry may be brought into intimate thoughts, feelings, volitions stand in causal
540 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL. VIII. NO. 199.

interaction with the brain, or- are they an matter or only to the immaturity of our
epiphenomenon, accompanying changes in science. Under present circumstances it is
the brain but not influencing them? Are perhaps better in part to question my own
our ordinary actions complex reflexes due statement. Columbus discovered a new
to physical stimuli and the structure of the world; Copernicus discovered innumerable
nervous system, or are the changes in the worlds; but Descartes discovered, or at all
brain that precede movements initiated and events invented, the soul. Which after all
directed by consciousness? The question was the greater scientific advance? Co-
is one of facts, that should be settled by lumbus did not foresee four hundred years
scientific methods; and the solution will by of history, the present unequal conflict of a
no means concern psychology alone. The powerful nation with a declining civiliza-
two greatest scientific generalizations of the tion. Descartes' ideas of the relation of
present century are the conservation of mind and body are not ours, But is not
energy and evolution by survival of the the very subject-matter of psychology one
fit. Now, if consciousness alters, however of the greatest discoveries of modern sci-
slightly, the position of molecules in the ence? To unite strict idealism with strict
brain the fundamental concept of physical materialism; to give consciousness its cen-
science must be abandoned. If conscious- tral place in the universe and yet to show
ness have no concern in the actions of the that each change in consciousness is corre-
individual we have one of the most com- lated with a change in the nervous system
plex results of evolution developed apart -this I claim to be a scientific generaliza-
from the survival of useful variations, and tion comparable to that of the conservation
the Darwinian theory has failed. Surely of energy or of organic evolution.
both the physicist and the biologist must Minor but clear-cut discoveries in psychol-
watch the steps toward the solution of a ogy have not been lacking-witness color-
problem that concerns them so nearly. blindness, individual types of mental imag-
The world is one world; every part of it ery, the dependence of emotion on reflex
is in relation to every other part, and each bodily movements, hypnotism, etc. Neither
part consists in these relations. As a hand are quantitative formulas denoting relations
cut off from the rest of the body is no longer among mental states or between mental and
a hand, as a man apart from other men is physical change lacking. Recent researches
no longer a man, so each science and each on subjects such as the perception of space,
scientific fact and law has its value and illusions of sense, color-vision, the time of
even its existence in its relation to the to- mental processes, memory, fatigue and
tality of knowledge and of life. Psychology many more represent scientific advances as
has become an integral part of modern sci- definite, interesting and important as those
ence; it gives and takes with a free hand. of physics or of zoology. Psychology has
A parvenu among the sciences, it is self- been able to adopt the quantitative methods
conscious and knows its obligations and its of exact science and the genetic methods of
limitations; but its position in the body of natural science, while its older methods
scientific is henceforth secure. of description and analysis witness an in-
I have said that psychology is in a way sight and acuteness unrivaled by any other
lacking in great discoveries and universal science.
laws. If I were addressing an audience of I have said that the practical applications
psychologists it might be desirable to con- of psychology do not compare in importance
sider whether this is due to the subject- with those of many of the other sciences.
 21, 1898.]
OCTOBER SCIENCE. 541
Here again, while a society of psychologists see that it has been an era of science.
might properly discuss the causes of this German music, English poetry, the modern
limitation, in an address confined to gener- novel-these are great achievements, but
alities, it may be more profitable to point scarcely comparable to the forward move-
out that daily life consists in the applica- ment in science. The older sciences have
tion of such psychological knowledge as is been reformed and new departments have
at hand. How could Bismarck and Glad- been established. But amid all this scien-
stone direct contemporary history except by tific progress nothing has been more notable
superior insight into the way men act and -at least from my own partial point of
the methods of influencing their actions? view-than the development of psychology
What have Wagner and Browning done into a science rivaling in activity and fruit-
except excite interest and emotion ? The fulness the other great sciences.
conduct of every profession and of every J. MCOEEN CATTELL.
business is chiefly based on the adjustment COLUMBIAUNIVERSITY.
of thoughts, feelings and actions. Systems
of government and education are simply THE SENFF ZOOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO
methods for controlling and directing the THE NILE VALLEY.
human mind. Now, of course, all this is THE chief object of the expedition was to
done by the rule of thumb entirely unin- procure the life-history of Polypterusand its
fluenced by psychology as a science. The bearings upon the problem of the relation of
savage who kills a bird with a stone is not the Crossopterygian fishes to the Amphibia.
thereby shown to be a zoologist and a physi- In the last few years the former theory that
cist. Still he does have a kind of knowl- Amphibia sprang from Dipnoan fishes has
edge of the habits of animals and of the gradually given way to the present view
laws of projectiles, whence have devel- that Dipnoi are to be regarded as parallel to
oped the sciences which, in the course of Amphibia from a common Crossopterygian
time, have turned back to daily life those origin.
applications of science in which modern Several very successful expeditions have
civilization consists. Whether the history been recently sent out to procure material
of the material sciences will be repeated in for the embryology of Dipnoans, notably
the case of the mental and social sciences that of Richard Semon from Jena and that
it is not possible to say or to gainsay. There of Graham Kerr from the University of
are at present indications of the application Cambridge. The former secured the com-
of psychology in the treatment of diseases, plete life history of Ceratodus,and the latter
in education and in other directions. Evo- brought back the embryology and complete
lution, careless of the individual, has pro- life history of Lepidosiren,a South American
ceeded with boundless waste; certainly we form. In the meanwhile nothing has been
are now interfering with its course for our done upon the development of Polypterus
benefit. It may be that some day the ap- because of the exceptional difficulties which
plications of material science will be subor- stood in the way of procuring material.
dinate to those of psychology. The fish is abundant in the unhealthy equa-
These things lie on the knees of the torial zone of Africa, being recorded on the
gods. What the future will bring we do West Coast rivers as well as in Central
not know, but the past is ours. When we Africa. It is also found in the Nile, but the
regard the fifty years of this Association or Upper Nile, where it probably occurs in
the century now ending we cannot fail to greatest abundance, has not been open to