sensors

Article
Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Water Quality in High
Andean Lakes with Sentinel-2 Satellite Automatic
Water Products
Johanna Elizabeth Ayala Izurieta 1,2 , Andrés Agustín Beltrán Dávalos 2,3 , Carlos Arturo Jara Santillán 1,4 ,
Sofía Carolina Godoy Ponce 2 , Shari Van Wittenberghe 1 , Jochem Verrelst 1 and Jesús Delegido 1, *

1 Image Processing Laboratory (IPL), University of Valencia, 46980 Paterna, Spain; [email protected] (J.E.A.I.);
[email protected] (C.A.J.S.); [email protected] (S.V.W.); [email protected] (J.V.)
2 Group of Research for Watershed Sustainability (GISOCH), Faculty of Sciences, Escuela Superior Politécnica
de Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba 060155, Ecuador; [email protected] (A.A.B.D.);
[email protected] (S.C.G.P.)
3 Unit for Sustainable Environmental and Forest Management, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, University of Santiago de Compostela, E-27002 Lugo, Spain
4 Research Group in the Natural Resources Field (GIARN), Faculty of Natural Resources, Escuela Superior
Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba 060155, Ecuador
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-963544068

Abstract: The water of high Andean lakes is strongly affected by anthropic activities. However,
due to its complexity this ecosystem is poorly researched. This study analyzes water quality using
Sentinel-2 (S2) images in high Andean lakes with apparent different eutrophication states. Spatial
and temporal patterns are assessed for biophysical water variables from automatic products as
obtained from versions of C2RCC (Case 2 Regional Coast Color) processor (i.e., C2RCC, C2X, and
C2X-COMPLEX) to observe water characteristics and eutrophication states in detail. These results
were validated using in situ water sampling. C2X-COMPLEX appeared to be an appropriate option
Citation: Ayala Izurieta, J.E.; to study bodies of water with a complex dynamic of water composition. C2RCC was adequate for
Beltrán Dávalos, A.A.; lakes with high transparency, typical for lakes of highlands with excellent water quality. The Yambo
Jara Santillán, C.A.; lake, with chlorophyll-a concentration (CHL) values of 79.6 ± 5 mg/m3 , was in the eutrophic to
Godoy Ponce, S.C.;
hyper-eutrophic state. The Colta lake, with variable values of CHL, was between the oligotrophic to
Van Wittenberghe, S.; Verrelst, J.;
mesotrophic state, and the Atillo lakes, with values of 0.16 ± 0.1 mg/m3 , were oligotrophic and even
Delegido, J. Spatial and Temporal
ultra-oligotrophic, which remained stable in the last few years. Automatic S2 water products give
Analysis of Water Quality in High
information about water quality, which in turn makes it possible to analyze its causes.
Andean Lakes with Sentinel-2
Satellite Automatic Water Products.
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774. https://
Keywords: Sentinel-2; atmospheric correction; satellite data; chlorophyll-a; water quality; lakes and
doi.org/10.3390/s23218774 lagoons; trophic state; C2RCC; total suspended solids; lake turbidity and transparency

Academic Editor: David Lyzenga

Received: 21 September 2023

Revised: 22 October 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 25 October 2023 Mountain regions cover 25% of the world’s land area and contain over 85% of the
Published: 27 October 2023 world’s amphibian, bird, and mammal species. The complex climatic characteristics are
likely to play a key role in generating and maintaining diversity [1]. Mountainous regions,
such as the high Andes, experience physical changes related to altitude (i.e., related to
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
meters above sea level (m a.s.l.), such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, and clear-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
sky turbidity), as well as other changes, such as humidity, sunshine hours, wind, season
This article is an open access article length, geology, and even human land use [2]. Therefore, highland ecosystems and their
distributed under the terms and dynamics are important in environmental, technological, social, and scientific interests. In
conditions of the Creative Commons addition, water regulation is one of the most important ecosystem services offered by high
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Andean ecosystems [3]. Water quality is vital for human populations, and the conservation
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of aquatic communities requires policies to prevent their deterioration and pollution [4].
4.0/).

Sensors 2023, 23, 8774. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218774 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 2 of 20

However, these ecosystems are vulnerable and subject to spatial and temporal changes
with negative impacts on the water quality [5].
The Andean mountain range of Ecuador contains about 25,000 shallow lakes with
water bodies larger than 1 ha [6]. These ecosystems are located in páramo areas and foothills
on high altitude plains where shallow lakes have formed [7]. Detailed information on their
water status is currently absent. The region is characterized by complex geomorphology
with limited access, and the presence of strong wind currents and wet–cold weather. As
a result, in situ monitoring is time- and resource-consuming and is considered tedious,
exhausting, and in some cases even impossible [8]. Therefore, methodologies using optical
remote sensing technologies could serve as an alternative and attractive solution. Remote
sensing imagery has been widely used for environmental and other studies [9,10], and has
proven to be invaluable for water resource management at different scales [11,12].
Biophysical variables, such as chlorophyll-a concentration (CHL) and total suspended
matter concentration, reveal changes in the water composition that can alter the optical
properties. This can be analyzed using optical imagery due to differences in the shapes
of the reflectance spectra associated with the dominant optical water quality constituents
and relationships between water quality parameters such as Secchi depth and CHL [13].
These differences can be detected and quantified by satellite imagery. Furthermore, water
bodies with high transparency are not the same as water bodies with high turbidity. Turbid
waters require new processes for atmospheric correction; the backscatter ratio is spectrally
neutral in small organic particles, and observations in turbid waters should take this into
account [14,15]. Water has a low reflectance curve; atmospheric incidence reduces the
radiance and accounts for the majority of the satellite-measured radiance in the visible
bands [16,17]. Hence, the atmospheric correction process is an essential step in remote
sensing studies of water quality [18]. Atmospheric corrections can be divided into either
(1) absolute corrections, which result in surface reflectance and require atmospheric optical
conditions (i.e., satellite image data with information on the corrections, independent data
for atmospheric optical conditions, in situ data), and (2) relative corrections, which do not
result in surface reflectance [19].
Regarding atmospheric correction, the Case 2 Regional CoastColour (C2RCC) is adapt-
able for various satellite instruments such as the Multi-Spectral Imager (MSI) from Sentinel-
2 (S2), making an approach generic across missions [20]. This processor makes it possible
to retrieve the reflected light spectrum over a water body [18]. The Case 2 Regional
CoastColour (C2RCC) processor is based on a large database of simulated water-leaving
reflectances and the related top-of-atmosphere radiance with the purpose of obtaining the
water radiance and retrieving the inherent optical properties of the water body [18,21].
The database is used to train a neural network model obtaining the inversion of the spec-
trum for the atmospheric correction [22]. Part of the Sentinel fleet, as managed by the
European Space Agency (ESA), includes the S2 mission with MSI sensor. Since 2016, the
S2 constellation has offered high spatial (10–20 m) and temporal resolution (5 days), with
free access [23]. S2 imagery can be applied to water quality monitoring [24], for instance
for extracting automatic products for water. The atmospheric correction model C2RCC
has been adapted to S2. Three versions are available in C2RCC, i.e., C2RCC, C2X, and
C2X-COMPLEX [25]. These different versions make it possible to study lakes and lagoons
with different eutrophic states with the estimation and evaluation of water variables such
as CHL, solids in suspension, and transparency.
Given the complexity of mountainous ecosystems and the atmospheric effects impact-
ing remote sensing products for water studies, in situ sampling is required to validate or
detect problems and errors related to particular conditions over the study zones. With the
ambition of evaluating the performance of the C2RCC automatic products using S2 imagery,
we analyzed three lakes in the highlands over the Ecuadorian Andean Mountain range with
different eutrophication states. Within this context, the objectives of this study are twofold:
first, to validate biophysical variables obtained from three C2RCC atmospheric correction
versions using in situ samples and acquired S2 images on three lakes with different trophic
 Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 3 of 20

range with different eutrophication states. Within this context, the objectives of this study
are twofold: first, to validate biophysical variables obtained from three C2RCC atmos-
pheric correction versions using in situ samples and acquired S2 images on three lakes
statuses; and second,
with to analyze
different spatialstatuses;
trophic and temporal changes
and second, in water
to analyze composition
spatial for the
and temporal changes in
waterlink
study lakes and their composition for the study lakes
with environmental and their link with environmental processes.
processes.

2. Materials and 2.Methods

Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area 2.1. Study Area
In Ecuador,
In Ecuador, the Andean the Andean
mountain mountain
range runs therange runs the
country country
from from north–south
north–south through through
10 of its 24 provinces, from Carchi to Loja. Here, around 90 percent of the lakes andlakes
10 of its 24 provinces, from Carchi to Loja. Here, around 90 percent of the and water
water
bodies are distributed above 3000 m a.s.l. This study focused on three high Andean lakes lakes
bodies are distributed above 3000 m a.s.l. This study focused on three high Andean
of the center zoneofof
the center zone of Ecuador, i.e., the Yambo, Colta, and Atillo lakes (see Figure 1).
Ecuador, i.e., the Yambo, Colta, and Atillo lakes (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. High Andean

Figurelakes studied
1. High and
Andean thestudied
lakes distribution
and theofdistribution
sampling of points; CHLpoints;
sampling in Yambo and
CHL in Yambo and
Atillo and
Atillo and transparency transparency
using the SECCHIusing thedepth
disk SECCHI
(SD)disk
in depth
Colta.(SD) in Colta.

The Yambo lakeThe Yambo lake

is located is located province.
in Cotopaxi in CotopaxiThe province. The lake encompasses
lake encompasses an areaanofarea of 25
25 ha approximately at 2600 m a.s.l. located at 78 59 W and 1 10 S. The annualannual
ha approximately at 2600 m a.s.l. located
◦ 0 at 78°59′ ◦W and
0 1°10′ S. The average average of
of temperature in the last five years was 11 C [26]. A tourist facility is located in thesouthern
temperature in the last five years ◦was 11 °C [26]. A tourist facility is located in the
area of Yambo lake. Also, tourism activities are developed on Yambo lake mainly in the
southern area of Yambo lake. Also, tourism activities are developed on Yambo lake mainly
northeast zone with a port for recreational activities. Therefore, socioeconomic activities
in the northeast zone with a port for recreational activities. Therefore, socioeconomic
take place in the surroundings. Agricultural activities introduce excreta, and its accumu-
activities take place inthrough
lation the surroundings. Agricultural
nitrification processes in the activities
water can introduce excreta, and of water
cause the contamination
its accumulation bodies.
through nitrification processes in the water can cause the contamination
All the activities around the lake and the resulting discharges do not maintain
of water bodies. All the activities around the lake and the resulting discharges do not
maintain specialized treatment in order to minimize a negative environmental impact on
their waters. Consequently, these activities can generate eutrophication impacts related to
changes in the compositional characteristics of water and also its quality. With a visible
greenish coloration, the water of the lakes shows the presence of increases in phytoplankton
and a high concentration of plant biomass.
Similarly, located in the Chimborazo province at 3320 m a.s.l., Colta is also a touristic
lake. Colta has an area of approximately 186 ha situated at 78◦ 120 W and 1◦ S. The lake is
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 4 of 20

located next to the town center and the Pan-American highway; therefore, its north zone is
easily accessible. Hence, anthropic activities derived from tourism, agriculture, livestock,
fumigation, and wastewater discharges have a negative impact on the lake ecosystem. Main
and secondary streams possibly introduce large amounts of sediment into the lake due to
hydric erosion processes [27]. Due to public interest in lake recovery, the lake has been
dredged on irregular dates as a mechanism for control and management of Colta water
since 2011 [28]. Also, the lake and its surroundings are affected due to poor water residual
management, and the increase in the agricultural area produces negative environmental
impacts. The resident species can influence biophysical water parameters due to a great
variety of birds of around 20 species and 13 families, with the families Anatidae and
Tyrannidae being the most abundant [29].
Finally, Atillo is located in the southeastern zone of the Chimborazo province and
extends between 78◦ 520 W and 2◦ 190 S. This lacustrine ecosystem is formed by four main
lakes (i.e., Atillo, Magdalena, Kuyuk, and Negra). Atillo at 3440 m a.s.l and Magdalena
at 3445 m a.s.l. are the largest lakes, with an area of 125 and 133 ha, respectively. Kuyuk
with an area of 2.8 ha is an affluent area of Magdalena. The water coloration of these
lakes is of blue-green color, unlike Negra. The Negra Lake has an area of 8.8 ha and it is
located at 3450 m a.s.l.; its water has dark coloring (varies between black, green, and blueish
depending on the weather conditions); and it is surrounded by cliffs and large extensions
of grasslands. Currently, this lacustrine ecosystem is characterized by low anthropic
activities and high quality water. The soil water retention is over 50 percent [30]. The lower
temperatures limit algae growth, increasing the water transparency, and variables such as
CHL and temperature can alter the spectral phytoplankton absorption coefficient [31].

2.2. Water Sampling

Due to the extreme conditions of these lakes and the weather conditions of these
zones nearest to zero latitude (equatorial line), the seasons are not the same as in other
latitudes. Therefore, the planification focused on a range of days with apparently better
weather conditions. The water sampling was carried out on multiple dates, and samples
were obtained during a day per each month and were planned to consider the climatic
conditions in the last week of the month. Yambo was monitored from January to March of
2021, and five water samples were collected for each month at the same UTM coordinates;
Colta during was sampled from April until June of 2020; and Atillo was sampled during
November 2020 until January 2021. The water sampling distribution was obtained taking
into account the spatial representativity, access conditions, and avoiding the lakes’ bound-
aries (see Figure 1). Finally, 5 sampling points were used for the Yambo lake, 14 in Colta,
and 8 sampling points in Atillo.
The procedure for water sampling at each location was developed by a team of Group
of Research for Watershed Sustainability-GISOCH, using a rowing boat to move from one
sampling point to another. The methodology for obtaining water samples was based on the
national standard technical note [32]. The process consisted of collecting 750 mL of water
at different depths, considering the maximum depth and Secchi disk readings using the
standard [33]. Surface water was collected using a graduated collector and poured into
previously coded and labeled glass bottles. Samples at depth were obtained using the Van
Dorn sampler, which is introduced into the lake attached to a numbered rope every two
meters, and then the water was placed in the graduated collector and finally deposited
carefully into the glass bottles. The samples were stored in coolers with ice to maintain
the temperature up to their corresponding transportation to the Water Quality Laboratory,
complying with the norm for the conservation of water samples [34].
The chlorophyll concentration values for each sampling point were extracted in the
laboratory using spectrophotometer filtration equipment from Thermo Scientific (Thermo sci-
entific evolution 201 UV-Visible, Madison, WI, USA) with the Standard Methods 10200 H [35]
(Equation (1)). Water samples of 200 mL were filtered with 0.45 µm cellulose nitrate filters, and
then the filters were inserted into 15 mL Falcon tubes. The spectrophotometer was set up and
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 5 of 20

calibrated with 90% acetone as a blank. Each prepared sample is then processed, obtaining
absorbance values of 750 and 664 nm for each sample. Finally the CHL is obtained using
Equation (1), where V1 is the extracted volume [L]; V2 is the sample volume [m3 ]; L is the
light path or width of the spectrophotometric cell [cm]; 26.7 is a constant value representing
the absorbance correction factor. CHL is obtained from the turbidity corrected 664 nm before
acidification and 665 nm after acidification readings by subtracting the 750 nm of absorption
reading from its respective 664 nm and 665 nm readings:
 mg  26.7 × (corr.664−corr.665 ) × V1
CHL = (1)
m3 V2 × L

2.3. Sentinel 2 Data and Processing and Atmospheric Correction

This study used multispectral images from Sentinel-2 (S2) mission satellites. The spa-
tial resolution with bands of S2 (i.e., 10 m, 20 m, and 60 m) allows for improving the ability
to analyze smaller areas of the earth’s surface and also to obtain images with a temporal
resolution of up to 5 days with S2-A and S2-B satellites. Level-1C products were used
and downloaded from the Copernicus Open Access Hub. The Hub is a web service from
Copernicus Program of the European Union and ESA [23], providing top-of-atmosphere
(TOA) reflectances with all parameters to transform them into radiances [36] for the study
zone. The low temperatures over this ecosystem facilitate a lack of thermal seasonality,
especially with the presence of the predominant convective and orographic cloud forma-
tions [37]. Hence, cloudiness cover (CC) and cloud shadows are a constant problem when
using optical sensors on high mountain ecosystems [8]; their higher percentages over scenes
reduce the amount of images with high quality that can be obtained. Similar Andean zones
show low climatic variability in a year. For instance, the mean annual temperature in the
year 2021 in the high Ecuadorian Andean mountains ranges from 9 to 15 ◦ C [26]. Therefore,
the images used corresponded to the acquisition date closest to the sampling period, in the
same sampling month [38,39]. Tiles 17MQU and 17 MQT with scenes of 100 × 100 km2
were used. The used satellite imagery is detailed in Table 1.

Table 1. S2 images used for each study lake for multitemporal analysis.

Tile
Lake S2 Date (Day-Month-Year) Used % CC 1 Platform
Number
06 June 2017 23.9 S2-A
12 April 2018 11.4 S2-A
24 August 2020 7.6 S2-B
Yambo 17MQU
31 January 2021 27.3 S2-B
27 December 2021 33.0 S2-B
18 September 2022 22.8 S2-A
06 June 2017 23.9 S2-A
07 January 2018 20.0 S2-B
27 May 2019 28.9 S2-A
Colta 17MQU
06 February 2020 17.7 S2-B
28 September 2021 17.2 S2-B
08 September 2022 22.6 S2-A
28 November 2018 38.6 S2-A
13 December 2019 17MQT 32.2 S2-A
Atillo 06 February 2020 16.0 S2-B
05 July 2021 5.4 S2-A
27 December 2022 24.5 S2-A
1 Cloud cover (CC) percentage for the entire S2 image.

Optical satellite data applied for water monitoring studies require a specific atmo-
spheric correction due to the low reflectances at the water surface. Hence, the signal
measured at the satellite is influenced at around 90% by the atmospheric path radiance [18].
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 6 of 20

For the estimation of the constituents of water or its optical properties, the inversion of the
spectra of the emergent reflectance of the water is required, so all images were processed
using the C2RCC (Case 2 Regional Coast Color) processor of the toolbox for thematic water
processing using the Sentinel Applications Platform (SNAP) software version 9.0.0 [25].
This process obtains water variables from the inversion of a database of radiative transfer
simulations and neural networks, which can be applied to a diverse number of sensors. The
C2RCC processor relies on a large database of simulated water-leaving reflectances, and
includes the related top-of-atmosphere radiances that were used to train neural networks
(NN). The NN then produces the inversion of the spectrum and uses it for the atmospheric
correction process. As a result, the determination of the water surface reflectance is ob-
tained, as well as the retrieval of the inherent optical properties of the water body for
pigment absorption, detritus, gelbstoff, and total scattering [18].
C2RCC offers three versions in the latest SNAP releases providing automatic water
quality products; each version uses pre-defined sets of NN, which differ in the training
ranges of the inherent optical properties (IOPs) [40]: (1) the C2RCC version is the original
network covering typical ranges of coastal IOPs, which has applications for waters with low
turbidity such as marine and ocean waters; also (2) the C2X networks use a CoastColour
dataset to extend the range for coastal waters, including extreme cases [18], and it is used
for studies in inland waters with high concentrations of suspended material and CHL;
and (3) C2X-COMPLEX was trained with intermediate ranges of IOPs [41], and it is used
for darker waters (i.e., optically complex water types, preferably to be used for inland
waters) [25,42].
When applying the atmospheric correction with each of the three versions, in addition
to the retrieval at the water surface reflectance, a number of automatic products are gener-
ated in SNAP. Among them, the one that best defines transparency is Kd_Z90max, which
corresponds to the depth (in m) at which 90% of the radiation reaching the water surface
is absorbed. Kd_Z90max comes from (1/kdmin), where kdmin is the mean irradiance
attenuation coefficient at the three bands with minimum kd in [m−1 ] [4,5]. The automatic
products like CHL and total suspended matter concentration (TSM) were obtained with
the default factors and exponents of C2RCC (CHL = 21 × a_pig1.04 ; TSM = 1.72 Palatino
Linotype b_part + b_wit Palatino Linotype 3.1) [40], where a_pig, b_part and b_wit are
optical properties of water at 443 nm wavelengths, i.e., a_pig is the absorption coefficient of
phytoplankton pigments, b_part is the scattering coefficient of typical sediments, and b_wit
is the scattering coefficient of white particles (calcareous sediments) [40]. As a result, by ap-
plying atmospheric correction with each one of the three versions, absolute concentrations
of CHL in [mg/m3 ], TSM in [g/m3 ], and Kd_Z90max in [m] are obtained [25].
A selective process to validate pixels was made using UTM coordinates from in
situ data sampling and by verifying that the spectral signature observed is water (see
Figure 2). Due to the narrow shape of the north zone of the Colta lake, it was necessary
to go through the pixel selection to the next closest pixel of water. Subsequently, in order
to determine the best C2RCC version to apply in each of the three studied lakes and
due to the singular characteristics of each study lake explained in Section 2.1, the three
automatic products generated by each version were evaluated by comparing these with
the field data (see Figure 2). In the Yambo and Atillo lakes, this analysis was achieved
by comparing the automatic CHL product, obtained for images corresponding to dates
closest to the sampling date, with the field CHL data. Information from the satellite
image product was used based on pixels corresponding to GPS position from in situ
samples and avoiding outliers. In Colta, CHL data were not available, so sampling was
performed by comparing the Secchi disk depth (SD in m) with the automatic Kd_Z90max
product, as they are comparable variables of similar rank [40,42], and also Kd_Z90max is a
variable strongly correlated with the SD [43,44]. The lowest root mean square error (RMSE)
(Equation (2)) value (results of the comparison of each method’s products with in situ data
variables) determines the most applicable atmospheric correction method over the bodies
of water, and is subsequently used for multitemporal analysis for each lacustrine ecosystem.
 In Colta, CHL data were not available, so sampling was performed by comparing the Sec-
chi disk depth (SD in m) with the automatic Kd_Z90max product, as they are comparable
variables of similar rank [40,42], and also Kd_Z90max is a variable strongly correlated
with the SD [43,44]. The lowest root mean square error (RMSE) (Equation (2)) value (re-
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774
sults of the comparison of each method’s products with in situ data variables) determines 7 of 20
the most applicable atmospheric correction method over the bodies of water, and is sub-
sequently used for multitemporal analysis for each lacustrine ecosystem. Additional sta-
tistical indicators are as follows: the Bias (Equation (3)) and Mean Absolute Percentage
Additional statistical
Error (MAPE%) indicators
(Equation are asobtained
(4)) were follows:to
the Bias (Equation
compare (3)) and Mean
values estimated with Absolute
the meas-
Percentage Error (MAPE%) (Equation (4)) were obtained to compare values estimated with
ured values.
the measured values.
v
u (𝑋  −𝑋 ) 2
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 = u N Xi estimated − Xi measured (2)
u
RMSE = t ∑ 𝑁 (2)
i =1
N

1 1 N
𝑁 N∑ i
𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 = = (𝑋
BI AS −𝑋
( X estimated ))
− Xi measured (3)
(3)
i =1

estimated
100 N𝑋 Xi − Xi measured
100 − 𝑋
MAPE%
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐸% = = N ∑ measured
(4)
(4)
𝑁 i =1 𝑋 X i

S2 image closest to Yambo S2 image closest to Atillo 2017 to 2022 2017 to 2022 2018 to 2022
water sampling dates water sampling dates S2 images-L1C S2 images-L1C S2 images-L1C
Level 1-C Level 1-C Yambo Colta Atillo
(TOA reflectances) (TOA reflectances)
S2 image closest to Colta
water sampling dates
Level 1-C
(TOA reflectances)

C2RCC toolbox
SNAP Spatial analysis
(CHL, TSM,
Kd_Z90max)
Image
C2RCC C2X C2XCOMPLEX processing with
best method Multitemporal
analysis
(CHL, TSM,
Kd_Z90max)

Selective process to validate pure

water pixels from images

no
Pixels corresponding to water

yes

Analysis of In situ values with CRCC Adecuated method

products values (RMSE, BIAS, MAPE%) for Yambo, Colta
and Atillo

In situ water In situ water In situ water

parameters of parameters of Colta parameters of
Yambo (CHL) (SECCHI disck) Atillo (CHL)

Figure2.2.Processes
Figure Processesdiagram
diagramfor
forimage
imageprocessing.
processing.

Once
Once the
the most accurate
accurate C2RCC
C2RCCversion
versionhadhadbeen
beendetermined
determined forfor each
each lake,
lake, thethe la-
lacus-
custrine ecosystems
trine ecosystems were were statistically
statistically analyzed
analyzed in twoinways:
two ways: (1) spatial
(1) spatial analysisanalysis and
and (2) mul-
(2) multitemporal
titemporal study.study. For spatial
For spatial variability,
variability, distributions
distributions of theofautomatic
the automatic products
products CHL,
CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max were retrieved for one image. For the
TSM, and Kd_Z90max were retrieved for one image. For the multitemporal study, multitemporal study,
the
the
meanmean
andand standard
standard deviation
deviation of each
of each of the
of the three
three variables
variables in in a region
a region of of interest
interest (ROI)
(ROI) in
in each
each lake
lake were
were calculated
calculated on on different
different dates
dates (from
(from 2017
2017 to 2022
to 2022 for Yambo
for Yambo andand Colta,
Colta, and
and from 2018 to 2022 for Atillo), as shown in Table 1. Due to the cloudy conditions of the
study area, careful manual delimitation of ROIs for each lake was necessary. The ROIs were
generated using the S2-mask cover products, and by using visual interpretation, avoiding
the edges of lakes. The number of required ROIs depends on the image and conditions of
the study area to ensure the quality of pixels/pure water pixels without interference from
soil or clouds (i.e., islets or edge land, fog, and clouds) and avoiding adjacency effects.
Subsequently, C2RCC-methods do not include specific correction for sun glint or land
adjacency [40]. Hence, due to an effect of wind over water surface that alters the signal
retrieval, an additional process of encapsulation was applied based on histogram analysis
over S2-bands. Therefore, all pixels with reflections caused by waves that come from wind
were masked out (see Figure 3).
 ence from soil or clouds (i.e., islets or edge land, fog, and clouds) and avoiding adjacency
effects.
Subsequently, C2RCC-methods do not include specific correction for sun glint or
land adjacency [40]. Hence, due to an effect of wind over water surface that alters the
signal retrieval, an additional process of encapsulation was applied based on histogram
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 8 of 20
analysis over S2-bands. Therefore, all pixels with reflections caused by waves that come
from wind were masked out (see Figure 3).

CHL
Filter Mean
TSM
3x3
Kd_Z90max

Filter Mean
(rtoa_B2_mean3x3) x
3x3
(rtoa_B8_water_mask) = rtoa_B2_agua
to rtoa_B2
Top of atmosphere
reflectances(rtoa)
From S2, B1 to B12 Water mask is
bands obtained
Histogram analysis to identify the
based on
water reflection threshold and
histogram
reflection mask generation
analysis to
rtoa_B8

Reflection mask x CHL_mean3x3

Example:
Reflection mask x TSM_mean3x3
Example: Atillo image, date: 2021/07/05:
Atillo image, date: 2021/07/ Water reflection threshold=0.062
Reflection mask x Kd_Z90max
05: Expression to reflection mask _mean3x3
If rtoa_B8<0.05 then 1 else generation:
NaN If rtoa_B2_agua > 0.062 then NaN else 1
Pixels masked out
and pure pixels of
CHL,TSM,
Kd_Z90max

Figure3.3.Process
Figure Processdiagram
diagram
forfor masked-out
masked-out pixels
pixels due due to reflections
to reflections caused
caused by waves
by waves comewind.
come from from
wind.
Then, all variable values were obtained with the accumulative ROIs for each lake.
As a Then,
result,all variable
these valuescould
variables were obtained with
expose the the accumulative
water ROIs for each lake.
quality in a multitemporal As
study.
Subsequently,
a result, thesean environmental
variables analysisthe
could expose was carried
water out to
quality inevaluate the trophic
a multitemporal state Subse-
study. of the
lakes. Social
quently, an activities in the lakes’
environmental surroundings
analysis and
was carried weather
out variables
to evaluate the were alsostate
trophic evaluated
of the
to better
lakes. understand
Social activitiesthe
inlakes’ conditions.
the lakes’ This information
surroundings and weather could also bewere
variables usedalso
to detect
evalu-
sources
ated to of discharge.
better understand the lakes’ conditions. This information could also be used to
detect sources of discharge.
3. Results
3.1. Atmospheric Correction Method for Yambo, Colta, and Atillo Lakes
3. Results
RMSE, BIAS,
3.1. Atmospheric and MAPE%
Correction Methodvalues as calculated
for Yambo, Colta, andbyAtillo
field Lakes
data against the values from
the automatic products of each C2RCC version are given in Table 2. Results are in agreement
RMSE, BIAS, and MAPE% values as calculated by field data against the values from
with the physical characteristics of the lakes. Yambo and Colta have a higher degree of
the automatic products of each C2RCC version are given in Table 2. Results are in agree-
anthropic intervention and are more turbid, while Atillo is a lake with low intervention
ment with the physical characteristics of the lakes. Yambo and Colta have a higher degree
and superior quality. Based on the lowest RMSE, BIAS, and MAPE% values, the best
of anthropic intervention and are more turbid, while Atillo is a lake with low intervention
atmospheric correction C2RCC version for Yambo lake was C2X-COMPLEX (see Table 2).
and superior quality. Based on the lowest RMSE, BIAS, and MAPE% values, the best at-
Yambo has a simple shape which favors a reduction in spatial resolution. In the Colta
mospheric
lake, correction C2RCC
the C2X-COMPLEX version
also gave the for Yambo
lowest RMSE lake was C2X-COMPLEX
value. (see Table
Colta has an elongated shape2).
Yambo
with hasnarrow
very a simple shape especially
sectors, which favors a reduction
in the northerninpart.
spatial
Theresolution. In the Colta
results revealed lake,
the C2X-
COMPLEX as the most adequate version for Colta. Finally, the results indicate thatwith
the C2X-COMPLEX also gave the lowest RMSE value. Colta has an elongated shape for
very narrow
Atillo the mostsectors,
adequateespecially in thecorrection
atmospheric northernC2RCC
part. The results
version revealed
was C2RCC.the C2X-COM-
These results
PLEX
also canasbethe most adequate
observed in Figureversion
4, whichforshows
Colta.scatterplots
Finally, the between
results indicate that for Atillo
in situ sampled data
the most adequate atmospheric correction C2RCC version was C2RCC.
(i.e., CHL for Yambo, SD for Colta, and CHL for Atillo) and data retrieved by the These results also
C2RCC,
can be
C2X, andobserved in Figureversions.
C2X-COMPLEX 4, which Please
shows refer
scatterplots between in situMaterials.
to the Supplementary sampled data (i.e.,
CHL for Yambo, SD for Colta, and CHL for Atillo) and data retrieved by the C2RCC, C2X,
and C2X-COMPLEX
Table 2. Comparative RMSE,versions.
BIAS,Please refer to
and MAPE% the Supplementary
results Materials.
of the CHL or Kd_Z90max product for each
lake after applying the different atmospheric versions.

Atmospheric Correction C2RCC Version

Lake-Biophysical
C2RCC C2X C2X-COMPLEX
Variable
RMSE BIAS MAPE% RMSE BIAS MAPE% RMSE BIAS MAPE%
Yambo-CHL [mg/m3 ] 94.7 −93.9 97.6 35.1 −26.7 28.4 18.6 −14.6 14.9
Colta-SD-Kd_Z90max [m] 36.6 35.9 1716.6 20.5 18.5 874.4 3.1 1.8 91.0
Atillo-CHL [mg/m3 ] 0.8 −0.6 58.7 3.8 1.47 169.5 9.2 6.25 673.1
 Atmospheric Correction C2RCC Version
Lake-Biophysical
C2RCC C2X C2X-COMPLEX
Variable
RMSE BIAS MAPE% RMSE BIAS MAPE% RMSE BIAS MAPE%
Yambo-CHL [mg/m3] 94.7 −93.9 97.6 35.1 −26.7 28.4 18.6 −14.6 14.9
Colta-SD-Kd_Z90max
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 [m] 36.6 35.9 1716.6 20.5 18.5 874.4 3.1 1.8 91.0
9 of 20
Atillo-CHL [mg/m ]
3 0.8 −0.6 58.7 3.8 1.47 169.5 9.2 6.25 673.1

120 50

100
CHL S2 [mg/m³]

Kd_Z90max [m}
80

60 25

40

20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 1 2 3
CHL in situ [mg/m³] SECCHI DISK in situ [m]

C2RCC C2X C2X-COMPLEX C2RCC C2X C2X-COMPLEX

(a) (b)
12

10
CHL S2 [mg/m³]

0
1 2
CHL in situ [mg/m³]

C2RCC C2X C2X-COMPLEX

(c)
Figure4.4.Scatterplots
Figure Scatterplotsbetween
betweenthe
the
inin situ
situ sampled
sampled data
data and
and thethe retrieved
retrieved data
data by the
by the different
different at-
atmo-
mospheric correction C2RCC versions: CHL for Yambo (a), Secchi disk vs. Kd_Z90max in Colta (b),
spheric correction C2RCC versions: CHL for Yambo (a), Secchi disk vs. Kd_Z90max in Colta (b), and
and CHL in Atillo lake (c). The 1:1-line is added.
CHL in Atillo lake (c). The 1:1-line is added.

3.2.Spatial
3.2. SpatialAnalysis
Analysis
Thespatial
The spatialdistribution
distributionofofCHL,
CHL,TSM,
TSM,and andKd_Z90max
Kd_Z90maxbased basedononthe
thebest
bestatmospheric
atmospheric
correction method for each lake is shown in Figure 5. Using S2 images
correction method for each lake is shown in Figure 5. Using S2 images approximating most approximating
most closely
closely the sampling
the sampling dates
dates and andon
based based
ROIs ontoROIs to variables
obtain obtain variables
of pureof purepixels,
water water the
pix-
els, theindicate
results results that
indicate
Yambothatobtained
Yambo obtained
the highest theCHL
highest CHL
values values
with withofa79.6
a mean mean 3,
of 79.6
mg/m
mg/m , followed
followed 3 by Colta by Colta
with 0.5 with
mg/m 3
0.5, mg/m , and Atillo
and finally
3 finallywith
Atillo with
0.16 mg/m 3
0.16 mg/m (see Table
(see Table
3 3).
3). The
The north
north sectorsector
of Coltaof Colta presents
presents differences
differences in CHL in CHL values
values compared
compared to thetoother
the other lakes.
lakes. As
for
AsAtillo, it has
for Atillo, it ahas
homogenous
a homogenous distribution.
distribution.
Regarding the TSM values, Yambo also obtained the highest mean value, followed by
Colta and Atillo, with TSM mean values of 9.2 g/m3 , 4.4 g/m3 , and 0.38 g/m3 , respectively.
The spatial distribution of TSM is mainly homogeneous except for the northern sector of
Colta. Kd_Z90max values show an inverse behavior with higher values on Atillo and lower
values in Yambo; considering only ROIs, the extended lakes show homogeneous spatial
distribution. The southern area of Atillo shows an area with very high anomalous values of
CHL and TSM. This may be due to reflections caused by strong winds (see also the Atillo
RGB image: Figure 5).
Yambo is located in a valley at 2600 m a.s.l. and the west and east center zones
are rounded by median slopes between 20 and 30 degrees, whose highest points are
approximately 170 m above the level of the lake surface. Hence, discharges could be
linked with the dissolution of minerals by soil erosion around the lake and the geological
composition. In addition, a Pan-American highway is located at the top near to the
northwest zone with a tourist viewpoint; also in the northeast zone a tourist port is placed,
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 10 of 20

and a tourist facility is located in the southern zone. These land uses can be a source
of residual discharges to lakes that would cause negative environmental impact due to
associated human activities [33]. Hence, different types of waste are directly discharged
into the lake. This can be tracked by higher CHL and TSM values observed in the northeast
and south zones of Yambo. The depth of the Yambo lake is approximately 25 m, but lower
Kd_Z90max values ranging from 0.5 to 1 m imply that sunlight can penetrate into the
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW
first
10 of 20
meter of water depth. In addition, the higher values are correlated with sectors with lower
CHL and TSM values.

RGB/ROI YAMBO CHL YAMBO TSM YAMBO Kd_Z90max YAMBO

RGB/ROI COLTA CHL COLTA TSM COLTA Kd_Z90max COLTA

RGB/ROI ATILLO CHL ATILLO TSM ATILLO Kd_Z90max ATILLO

Figure5.5.Spatial
Figure Spatialdistribution
distributionofofCHL,
CHL,TSM,
TSM,and
andKd_Z90max
Kd_Z90maxusingusingthe
thebest
bestatmospheric
atmosphericcorrection
correction
C2RCC version for each lake. RGB and ROIs of satellite images are shown. Image dates are
C2RCC version for each lake. RGB and ROIs of satellite images are shown. Image dates are shown shown
on Table 3.
on Table 3.

Table 3. Statistical values (mean value± standard deviation) of variables in the lakes calculated for
the Figure 5 images.

Lake Image Data CHL (mg/m3) TSM (g/m3) Kd_Z90max (m)

YAMBO 31 January 2021 79.6 ± 48 9.2 ± 11.4 0.8 ± 0.6
COLTA 6 February 2020 0.5 ± 1.8 4.4 ± 13.4 5.3 ± 2.4
ATILLO 5 July 2021 0.16 ± 0.1 0.38 ± 4.0 13.0 ± 0.2

Regarding the TSM values, Yambo also obtained the highest mean value, followed
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 11 of 20

Table 3. Statistical values (mean value± standard deviation) of variables in the lakes calculated for
the Figure 5 images.

Lake Image Data CHL (mg/m3 ) TSM (g/m3 ) Kd_Z90max (m)

YAMBO 31 January 2021 79.6 ± 48 9.2 ± 11.4 0.8 ± 0.6
COLTA 6 February 2020 0.5 ± 1.8 4.4 ± 13.4 5.3 ± 2.4
ATILLO 5 July 2021 0.16 ± 0.1 0.38 ± 4.0 13.0 ± 0.2

Like Yambo, the Colta lake corresponds to volcanic origin. Colta is characterized by
high tourist activities; part of this is due to its proximity to two roads localized around
all sides of the lake. Also, agricultural activities and the town center are nearby. In the
northwest zone the highest CHL values were observed in the narrowest zone. A stream
flow analysis around Colta indicated major discharges in the north zone, which seems to
reveal that human and agricultural activities generate discharges into springs and streams.
Hence, they may carry nitrites to the lake, producing the high CHL shown. In addition,
a boardwalk is located 30 m from the highway and up to 40 m from the lake, and also
a touristic activities area was developed on this zone of the lake. TSM variability was
observed on the south sector of Colta; it would be related to around 21 streams that
generate water erosion and drag sediments. The depth is variable with a mean of 3.5 m [45],
depending on rainfall and seasonal streams.
Low values of CHL and TSM are observed in the Atillo lakes even with a road
emplaced a few meters along the lakes, which can be explained by the fact that Atillo is
located in a protected natural area. Even so, it is known that one of the activities that is
carried out in Atillo is fishing. Although the climatic conditions suggest having similar
radiation temperatures throughout the year, the inclusion of winds and rain tends to
increase between January to April, which may contribute to thermal stratification [46]. This
phenomenon would be relatively low as opposed to tropical environments with seasonal
periods, but even so, it can be linked with phytoplankton migration to another strata in the
water column.
Higher Kd_Z90max values are related to lower CHL and TSM values (see Table 3).
In Atillo, the range of CHL and TSM is low and this group of lakes at 3440 m a.s.l are the
highest in comparison to Colta and Yambo. The climatic conditions in this lake located
in a protected area, among others factors, would have an effect over the growth of algae
and therefore the transparency. An additional factor should be taken into account over
the Atillo analysis: the water properties added to the wind conditions of the area alter the
results. Therefore, the water seems to generate reflections due to the effect of waves caused
by the wind over its surface (see Figure 5). Hence, the ROI used for statistical analysis was
reduced for Atillo.

3.3. Multitemporal Analysis

The multitemporal CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max results (mean values in each ROI)
for each lake from 2017 to 2022 for Yambo and Colta, and from 2018 to 2022 for Atillo,
are shown in Figure 6. Yambo shows high values of CHL; however, notable decreases
are shown in 2020, at the end of 2021, and in September 2022. The temperature values
obtained from climate weather monitoring stations [20,35] and precipitation using the
Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS) data [47,48] (see
Figure 6d) observed for Yambo in during the multitemporal analysis could indicate a
certain linking with the reduction in CHL values, which is noticeable for evaluation dates in
2021 and 2022 (see Figure 7). A decrease in TSM values is also observed from 2019 onwards.
In addition, the results of TSM allowed us to detect a discharge of solids in the northern
sector of the lake, which is in concordance with anthropic activities due to the port. This
discharge was also detected by the decrease in Kd_Z90max values (see Figure 7). Regarding
Kd_Z90max in Yambo, the results suggest that in 2021 and 2022, the water transparency
was higher due to the fact that CHL and TSM values were lower.
 linking with the reduction in CHL values, which is noticeable for evaluation dates in 2021
and 2022 (see Figure 7). A decrease in TSM values is also observed from 2019 onwards. In
addition, the results of TSM allowed us to detect a discharge of solids in the northern
sector of the lake, which is in concordance with anthropic activities due to the port. This
discharge was also detected by the decrease in Kd_Z90max values (see Figure 7). Regard-
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 12 of 20
ing Kd_Z90max in Yambo, the results suggest that in 2021 and 2022, the water transpar-
ency was higher due to the fact that CHL and TSM values were lower.

120 6 45 6
CHL [mg/m3]; TSM [g/m3]

CHL [mg/m3]; TSM [g/m3]

40
100 5 5
35

Kd_Z90max [m]
80 4 30 4

Kd_Z90max [m]
25
60 3 3
20
40 2 15 2
10
20 1 1
5
0 0 0 0

CHL TSM Kd_Z90max CHL TSM Kd_Z90max

(a) (b)
0.5 35 15 250
CHL [mg/m3]; TSM [g/m3]

30 14

Temperature [°C]
0.4

Precipitation [mm]
13 200
Kd_Z90max [m]
25 12
0.3 20 11 150
10
0.2 15 9 100
10 8
0.1 7 50
5 6
0 0 5 0

Temp Yambo Temp Colta

CHL TSM Kd_Z90max Temp Atillo PR Yambo

(c) (d)
Figure 6. Multitemporal variability (2017–2020) for pure water pixels using ROIs from automatic
Figure 6. Multitemporal variability (2017–2020) for pure water pixels using ROIs from automatic wa-
water products: (a) Yambo lake; (b) Colta lake; (c) Atillo lakes. Kd_Z90max values are on the sec-
ter products: (a) Yambo lake; (b) Colta lake; (c) Atillo lakes. Kd_Z90max values are on the secondary
ondary axis. (d) Temperature and precipitation variability for Yambo, Colta, and Atillo lakes [47,49].
axis. (d) Temperature and precipitation variability for Yambo, Colta, and Atillo lakes [47,49].

The Colta lake is characterized by high concentrations of CHL with higher concentra-
tions in the north zone. Nevertheless, this situation changed in 2020 as the CHL decreased
considerably. This anomalous behavior is in line with the increase in Kd_Z90max, and
this situation will be discussed in the next section (see Figure 8). The mean values of TSM
showed a relatively stable behavior over time. Higher Kd_Z90max in Colta can be observed
in February 2020 (Figure 6b), which is in concordance with a reduction in CHL values. High
Andean zones are characterized by high humidity and persistent drizzle. Figure 6d shows
a temporal profile with more precipitation than subsequent months. Therefore, apparently
the precipitation did not necessarily cause high sediment discharges for these zones. This
would be related to an increase in the water level from precipitation sources, and hence
apparently the transparency is increased due to the optical conditions due to the passage of
sunlight. The Atillo lakes presented the lowest values of CHL and TSM; these lakes are
located within the protected zone of Sangay National Park in Chimborazo province, and
anthropic activity is low. Therefore, the results are in line with high water quality. Medium
CHL values range from 0.1 to 0.25 mg/m3 and TSM values range from 0.05 to 0.44 g/m3
indicating low variability considering the range of values to evaluate the trophic state of
lakes [50] (see Figures 6c and 9). Conversely, results for Kd_Z90max parameters show the
capacity to introduce light into the water ranging from 13 and 33 m.
Sensors 23, 8774
2023,2023,
Sensors 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW
SATELLITE IMAGE DATE 1320
13 of of 20

6 June 2017 12 April 2018 24 August 2020 31 January 2021 27 December 2021 18 September 2022
CHL
TSM
Kd_Z90max

Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 7. Multitemporal variability of CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max in Yambo lake from 2017 to 14 of 20
2022
Figure 7. Multitemporal variability of CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max in Yambo lake from 2017 to 2022
years.
years.
The Colta lake is characterized by high concentrations of CHL with higher concen-
SATELLITE IMAGE DATE

28 September 8 September
6 June 2017 7 January 2018 in27
trations the north
May 2019zone.6 February
Nevertheless,
2020 this situation changed in 2020 as the CHL de-
2021 2022
creased considerably. This anomalous behavior is in line with the increase in Kd_Z90max,
and this situation will be discussed in the next section (see Figure 8). The mean values of
TSM showed a relatively stable behavior over time. Higher Kd_Z90max in Colta can be
observed in February 2020 (Figure 6b), which is in concordance with a reduction in CHL
values. High Andean zones are characterized by high humidity and persistent drizzle.
Figure 6d shows a temporal profile with more precipitation than subsequent months.
Therefore, apparently the precipitation did not necessarily cause high sediment dis-
charges for these zones. This would be related to an increase in the water level from pre-
cipitation sources, and hence apparently the transparency is increased due to the optical
conditions due to the passage of sunlight. The Atillo lakes presented the lowest values of
CHL and TSM; these lakes are located within the protected zone of Sangay National Park
in Chimborazo province, and anthropic activity is low. Therefore, the results are in line
with high water quality. Medium CHL values range from 0.1 to 0.25 mg/m3 and TSM val-
CHL

ues range from 0.05 to 0.44 g/m3 indicating low variability considering the range of values
to evaluate the trophic state of lakes [50] (see Figures 6c and 9). Conversely, results for
Kd_Z90max parameters show the capacity to introduce light into the water ranging from
13 and 33 m.

Figure 8. Cont.
TSM
 CHL
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 14 of 20
TSM
Kd_Z90max

Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 8.

Figure 8. Multitemporal
Multitemporal variability
variability of
of CHL,
CHL, TSM,
TSM, and
and Kd_Z90max
Kd_Z90max in
in Colta
Colta lake
lake from
from 2017
201715toof
to 2022
20
2022
years.
years.
DATE

27 December
28 November 2018 13 December 2019 6 February 2020 5 July 2021 27 December 2021
2022
S2 IMAGE
CHL
TSM
Kd_Z90max

Figure 9. Multitemporal variability of CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max in Atillo lakes from 2018 to 2022
Figure 9. Multitemporal variability of CHL, TSM, and Kd_Z90max in Atillo lakes from 2018 to 2022
years.
years.
4.
4. Discussion
Discussion
The
The reflectance
reflectanceofofthe
thewater
waterbodies
bodiesis is
overall low,
overall yetyet
low, most pronounced
most pronounced between 0.4
between
and 1.2 µm [51]. Within this spectral region, the reflectance signal is also easily affected by
0.4 and 1.2 µm [51]. Within this spectral region, the reflectance signal is also easily affected
a high atmospheric influence, making it difficult to retrieve the pure water-leaving signal
[18]. The most pronounced reflectance of clear water occurs in the blue, reducing towards
the red and being zero in the infrared [52]. Hence, to evaluate water using optical sensors
is possible due to the biophysical and chemical variables of water that produce an effect
on its optical properties; this is used to study lakes, ponds, and other water bodies, and
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 15 of 20

by a high atmospheric influence, making it difficult to retrieve the pure water-leaving

signal [18]. The most pronounced reflectance of clear water occurs in the blue, reducing
towards the red and being zero in the infrared [52]. Hence, to evaluate water using optical
sensors is possible due to the biophysical and chemical variables of water that produce an
effect on its optical properties; this is used to study lakes, ponds, and other water bodies,
and their respective changes over time. Water coloration changes were observed on RGB
from S2-L1C images (see Figure 7) and the C2RCC versions made it possible to mark their
changes and spatial distribution in detail. The water quality has a relationship with its color,
and the differences of the reflectance spectrum are related to the dominant wavelength and
water quality variables, such as the Secchi depth and CHL, among others [13]. The Yambo
lake has a green coloration, which can be linked with minerals dissolved from the geology
composition of the lake but also due to chemical characteristics (i.e., pH and P, among
others) that suggest a high concentration of organic matter likely due to tourist activity
wastes. S2 satellite information and its analysis enabled the detection of an abrupt change
in water composition, evidenced by in situ sampling with the C2X-COMPLEX atmospheric
correction version. Higher CHL values were observed and were according to the in situ
monitoring data for Yambo lake. Also, an additional laboratory analysis with in situ water
sampling showed in January 2021 a mean of 10.4 mg/L of nitrates, which agrees with the
results identified with S2.
For the aforementioned variables linking to the trophic state is an important role for
water studied with remote sensing. This study was based on three lakes with different
conditions of eutrophication and conditions of water quality (i.e., Yambo: eutrophic [53];
Colta: eutrophic and mesotrophic [53]; Atillo: oligotrophic [54]). Comparing the data from
in situ sampling with each version to water atmospheric correction for the studied lakes,
the results showed that the C2X-COMPLEX was effective for Yambo and Colta. Although
C2X is developed for waters with high concentrations of suspended material and CHL, the
results using the C2X-COMPLEX method showed lower RMSE, BIAS, and MAPE% values.
This method is developed for optically complex water types and inland waters. That this
method is best suited can be attributed to the fact that Yambo and Colta have high levels
of water contamination, anthropic activities are common in these places, and also Colta
lake is subject to dredging processes; consequently, the water is continuously subject to
change. According to Carlson [50,55], the mean values of CHL and Kd_Z90max suggest
that the trophic state of Yambo is hyper-eutrophic in the monitoring date of 2021. The
multitemporal analysis indicates that this eutrophication situation for Yambo was changing
in the last few years where the lake changed to a eutrophic state. CHL values vary between
relatively high values, which reveal a hyper-eutrophic state (>75 mg/m3 ), and low CHL
values that reveal a eutrophic state (25 to 75 mg/m3 ). The Colta lake is eutrophic during
multitemporal analysis, but in 2020 the water conditions changed and a mesotrophic state
was observed in the results.
Conversely, the applicability of the C2RCC method was successful and it was accurate
for higher water transparency and lower CHL and TSM values for the group of lakes
of Atillo where the atrophic activities are limited. This is according to the use of this
method for eutrophic to mesotrophic water types [25]. Results for Atillo determined that
Atillo is oligotrophic and even ultra-oligotrophic, which is maintained throughout the
multitemporal analysis. According to [18], uncertainty for low CHL concentrations is
determined with a large error if the TSM concentration is high, but with a smaller error
under low TSM conditions, which is in favor of the results of the Atillo lakes. The values
for CHL and TSM had a mean of 0.16 mg/m3 and 0.38 g/m3 , respectively (see Table 3).
After using optical imagery for water analyses, we noted that weather conditions
such as high cloudiness and wind, typical for high mountain areas in equatorial regions,
can influence the transparency values of water, altering the optical signal retrieval. The
phenomenon of wind was evidenced on the Atillo lake, where the water body revealed
the reflection of waves, therefore showing specular properties (see Figure 9, RGB S2 image
of 2020 and July 2021). In the same way, the wind presence is typical for highlands, and
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 16 of 20

produces waves on the water surface, which are also observed on the image products.
The C2RCC method makes it possible to identify anomalous results linking with cloud-
risk flag; even so, it was possible only for extreme anomalous values and, therefore, the
image processing for these particular study zones required an additional process to obtain
statistical analysis based on pure water pixels.
The obtained results help to understand the dynamics of the eutrophication states in
the lakes. Also, additional in situ monitoring within the temporal dates analyzed on this
study obtained in 2022 for Yambo lake shows a mean CHL value of 15.4 mg/m3 [56] and
for 2017 a mean CHL value of 82.6 mg/m3 [57], which is in agreement with our results (see
Figures 6 and 7). A follow-up research aims to focus on applying field radiometry. That
will help us to develop our own calibration models for high Andean lakes and minimize
the uncertainty on products derived from current atmospheric corrections.
Lake eutrophication is considered a serious environmental problem, and only a few
studies have focused on lake eutrophication in terms of anthropogenic influences (such
as sewage emissions and agricultural practices) [58]. This environmental situation can be
researched with calibrating models based on remote sensing, reducing uncertainty and
increasing the spatial scale of studies. The climatic conditions for Andean regions produce
high cloud cover, which is a problem for finding a collection of satellite images with good
quality, but also the wind alters the conditions in optical analyses over this type of lake [59].
This was more evident in Atillo.
Due to the atmospheric conditions typical of this study zone, it is difficult to obtain
a large quantity of images of entire lakes. Pixels were affected first by clouds and their
shadows, and second by the effects of sun glint or land adjacency [40]. Hence, the processes
to mask out these pixels for the area of water to study the lake are reduced in some cases.
Even so, the results can offer important information about the conservation state of lakes.

5. Conclusions
Using the automatic C2RCC water quality products as offered by SNAP, it was possible
to analyze the eutrophication of three different lakes under study in the Andean region. The
atmospheric correction has an effect on the retrieval of signals from the waters of bodies of
water. Due to lakes having their own biophysical characteristics, reflectance can be altered
by water composition like CHL, and this is important for applying an adequate method
of atmospheric correction. In Yambo, CHL values of 79.6 ± 48 mg/m3 were obtained
using S2 images and automatic biophysical products with the C2X-COMPLEX atmospheric
correction version, which were validated using in situ samples and showed lower RMSE
than the C2RCC and C2X versions. The eutrophication state determined for Yambo was
between eutrophic and hyper-eutrophic. Even so, a reduction in CHL and TSM while
Kd_Z90max increased in the multitemporal analysis was noted, revealing that the lake had
a reduced eutrophication state in the last seven years. The C2X-COMPLEX version was
also evaluated as the best method for Colta with values of CHL of 0.5 ± 1.8 mg/m3 . Colta
is a lake with high anthropogenic activities, and the variability of biophysical variables not
only depends on a natural process, but also their variability is affected due to dragging
processes, which alter in an abrupt way the levels of chlorophyll and sediments. After
multitemporal analysis, a mesotrophic state was determined for Colta. Automatic water
quality products enabled the detection of sectors of contamination, mainly in areas near
highways and areas with human activities due to tourism and socioeconomic activities in
the surroundings of the lakes.
The Atillo lake has superior water quality with high transparency and lower anthro-
pogenic activities, as opposed to Yambo and Colta lakes. The C2RCC was determined as
the best atmospheric correction method for these water conditions after a comparison with
in situ results. With a mean CHL value of 0.16 ± 0.1 mg/m3 for Atillo, an oligotrophic
and even ultra-oligotrophic state was determined, which has remained stable in the last
few years.
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 17 of 20

This study revealed the high capacity of automatic products of C2RCC atmospheric
correction versions to study the lakes of highlands, with the spatial resolution of S2 images
making it possible to detect sources of discharge (i.e., nutrients, release of sediments, and
other suspended materials such as pollutants, heavy metals, or organic substances), by
abrupt changes in the spatial analysis of biophysical variables, useful for water studies
and monitoring. The C2XCOMPLEX approach was evaluated as an attractive option to
study water bodies with complex dynamics and variability of water composition that
alter the optical water properties. The C2RCC method was found adequate for lakes
with high transparency, typical for lakes in the highlands with great water quality. Even
so, due to specular characteristics on this water body and also the weather conditions, a
careful processing of the images was necessary to achieve satisfactory results based on pure
water pixels.
The Ecuadorian Andean region is characterized by a high percentage of cloudiness,
limiting the use of optical images with good conditions for water quality monitoring.
However, climatic conditions have low annual variability in this mountain equatorial
region, which allows for multitemporal studies even though less imagery is available than
in other regions.
Automatic water products from S2 give information about the water quality facilitating
the local and temporal evaluation of the lake’s eutrophic status and the link to its potential
causes. Our results can be used to establish strategies for protection and conservation. A
next step for mountain lakes is research focused in the definition of our own atmospheric
correction model or the establishment of our own correction parameters applied to the
C2RCC versions, all with extensive radiometric measures in situ. Finally, the results of
this study give an alternative to study these lakes located in complex zones. This is in line
with the increasing global concern about water resources and environmental conservation,
research aimed at understanding and monitoring water quality in ecologically sensitive
regions like the Andean mountains. In addition, these results help us to generate a research
project and obtain a grant (ESPOCH-IDIPI-336), which is funding the study of high Andean
lakes from June 2023 to December 2026. The project focuses on the analysis of in situ
reflectance to obtain calibration parameters. Hence, this will allow us to minimize the
uncertainty in studies of lakes in the high Andean region and mountain lakes in general.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//zenodo.org/records/10030630, Table S1: Detail of comparative RMSE results of the CHL or SD
product for each lake after applying the different atmospheric corrections.
Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, J.E.A.I.; methodology, J.E.A.I.; writing—
review and editing, J.E.A.I., S.V.W., J.V. and J.D.; supervision, A.A.B.D., C.A.J.S. and S.C.G.P. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by “Los Sistemas Lacustres del centro del Ecuador como fuente
o sumideros de dióxido de carbono como determinante para su conservación (IDIPI-234) Project,
Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba, Ecuador” and “Applying new
methodologies based on remote sensing and environmental modeling to assessment the eutrophication
state of lakes and lakes in the Inter-Andean region of Ecuador (IDIPI-336) Project, Escuela Superior
Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba, Ecuador”. S.V.W. and J.V. were supported by the
European Research Council (ERC) under the ERC-2021-STG PHOTOFLUX project (grant agreement
101041768) and ERC-2022-COG FLEXINEL project (grant agreement 101086622), respectively.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: To technicians from GISOCH group and students from Environmental Engineer-
ing from ESPOCH, for their support with the in situ and laboratory activities.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sensors 2023, 23, 8774 18 of 20

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