Modal Auxiliaries, Connecting Ideas

and Comparisons
General Training for Grammar
[April 2013]
Modal Auxiliaries
 The Form of Modal Auxiliaries
Auxiliary + the Simple Form of a Verb
Ex: Olga can speak English.
[can, could, may, might, should, had better,
must, will, and would.]

Auxiliary + to + the Simple Form of a Verb

Ex: I have to study tonight.
[have to, have got to, be able to, and ought
to.]
 Expressing Ability: Can and
Could
a. Can expresses ability in the future.
Ex: Bob can play the piano.

b. Can’t, cannot or can not are the negative

forms of can.

c. The past form of can is could.

Ex: Our son could walk when he was one year
old.

d. The negative of could is couldn’t or could

not.
e. Could expresses past ability.
Ex: How was the movie? Could you
understand the English?

f. Could expresses present possibility.

Ex: A: Why isn’t Greg in class?
B: I don’t know. He could be sick.
** He could be sick has the same meaning as
He may/might be sick. [possible that he is
sick]
g. Could expresses a future possibility.
Ex: Look at those dark clouds. It could start
raining any minute.

h. Ability can also be expressed with a form of

be able to.
Ex: He can read. OR
He is able to read.
Expressing Possibility: May, Might, and Maybe
Expressing Permission: May and Can

a. May and might express possibility in the

present or future. They have the same
meaning.
Ex: It may rain tomorrow. OR
It might rain tomorrow.

b. Negative: may not and might not.

c. Maybe is an adverb. It means “possibly”. It

comes at the beginning of a sentence.
Ex: Maybe it will rain tomorrow.
d. May be [two words] is a verb form: the
auxiliary may + the main verb be.
Ex: Maybe John is sick. [adverb]
John may be sick. [verb]

e. May and can are used to give permission.

But may is more formal than can.
Ex: You can borrow my pen. OR
You may borrow my pen.
 Exercises
Complete the sentences with can, may, or might.
Identify the meaning expressed by the modals:
possibility or permission.

Example:
In a courtroom for a speeding ticket

1. No one speaks without the judge’s

permission. You may / can not speak until
the judge asks you a question.
Meaning: permission
2. The judge _____________ reduce your
fine for your speeding ticket, or she
____________ not. It depends.

Meaning: __________________
3. You ____________ not argue with the
judge. If you argue, you will get a fine.

Meaning: ____________________
4. You have a strong case, but I’m not
sure if you will convince the judge.
You __________ win or you
_______________ lose.

Meaning: ____________________
Polite Questions: May I, Could I,
Can I
a. May I, Could I,* and Can I are used to
ask polite questions. The questions ask for
someone’s permission or agreement.

NOTE: can I is less formal than may I and

could I.

Ex: May I / Could I / Can I please borrow

your pen?

* In a polite question, could is NOT the past

form of can.
 Polite Questions: Would You,
Could You, Can You
a. Would you, could you, will you, and
can you are used to ask polite questions.
The questions ask for someone’s help or
cooperation.

Ex: Would you/ Could you/ Will you/ Can you

please open the door?

NOTE: Would and could are generally

considered more polite than will and can.
b. May is NOT used when you is the subject
of a polite question.

INCORRECT: May you please open the door?

 Expressing Advice: Should and
Ought To
a. Should and ought to have the same
meaning. “This is a good idea. This is good
advice.”

b. Forms:
should + simple form of a verb [not to]
ought + to + simple form of a verb

Ex: My clothes are dirty. I should / ought to

wash them.
c. Question:
should + subject + main verb

(Ought to is usually not used in questions and

negative statements.)

Ex: A: I’m going to be late. What should I do?

d. The use of maybe with should and ought
to “softens” advice.

Ex: A. You should / ought to go home and

take a nap. [giving a definite advice]

B: Maybe you should / ought to go home

and take a nap. [making a suggestion]
 Expressing Advice: Had Better
a. Had better has the same meaning as
should and ought to.
Ex: My clothes are dirty. I should / ought to /
had better wash them.

b. Had better has a more sense of urgency

than should or ought to. It often implies a
warning about possible bad consequences.
Ex. You’re driving too fast! You’d better slow
down.
c. Negative: had better not

d. In conversation, had is usually contracted:

‘d.

Ex: I’d better send my boss an email right

away.
 Expressing Necessity: Have to,
Have Got to, Must
a. Have to, have got to, and must have
basically the same meaning. They express
the idea that something is necessary.
Ex: I have to / have got to / must study
tonight.

b. Have to is used frequently in everyday

speech and writing than must.

c. Have got to is used in informal

conversation.
d. Must is found in written instructions or
rules.

e. Have to is usually used in questions, not

must or have got to. Forms of do are used
with have to in questions.
Ex: A. Do we have to bring pencils?
B. Why did he have to leave so early?

f. Past Form: had to

 Making Logical Conclusions:
Must
a. Must can be used to express logical
conclusions.

Ex: A: Nancy is yawning.

B: She must be sleepy.
 Stating Preferences: Prefer,
Like… Better, Would Rather
a. Form: prefer + noun + to + noun
prefer + -ing verb + to + -ing verb
Ex: I prefer apples to oranges.

b. Form: like + noun + better than + noun

like + -ing verb + better than + -ing
verb
Ex: I like apples better than oranges.
c. Would rather is followed immediately by
the simple form of a verb. Verbs following
than are also in the simple form.
Ex: I’d rather visit a big city than live there.
INCORRECT: I’d rather visit a big city than to
live / than living there.

d. In a polite question, would rather can be

followed by or to offer someone a choice.
Ex: Would you rather have an apple or an
orange?
 Exercises
Complete the sentences with than or to.

1. When I’m hot and thirsty, I prefer

cold drinks ______ hot drinks.
2. When I’m hot and thirsty, I like cold
drinks better ______________ hot
drinks.
3. When I’m hot and thirsty, I’d rather
have a cold drink _______________ a
hot drink.
Connecting Ideas
 Connecting Ideas with And
a. When and connects only TWO WORDS (or
phrases) within a sentence, NO COMMA is
used.
Ex: I saw a cat and a mouse.

b. In a series of THREE OR MORE items, the

comma before and is optional.
Ex: I saw a cat, a mouse, and a dog. OR
I saw a cat, a mouse and a dog.
c. When and connects TWO COMPLETE
SENTENCES, a COMMA is used.
Ex: I saw a cat, and you saw a mouse.

d. Without and, two complete sentences are

separated by a period.
Ex: I saw a cat. You saw a mouse.
INCORRECT: I saw a cat, you saw a mouse.
 Connecting Ideas with But and
Or
a. A comma is used when but or or combines
two complete (independent) sentences into
one sentence.
Ex: I dropped the vase, but it didn’t break.

b. A conjunction can come at the beginning of

a sentence, except in formal writing.
Ex: I dropped the vase. But it didn’t break.

*Sometimes the comma is omitted when and connects two very

short independent clauses. In longer sentences, the comma is
helpful and usual.
 Connecting Ideas with So
a. So expresses results. It is preceded by a
comma.
Ex: The room was dark, so I turned on a light.

b. But expresses an unexpected result.

Ex: The room was dark, but I didn’t turn on a
light.
 Using And + Too, So, Either,
Neither
a. In affirmative statements, an auxiliary verb
+ too or so can be used after and.
S + AUX + TOO
Ex: Sue works, and Tom does too.
SO + AUX + S
Sue works, and so does Tom.

Word Order: Subject + auxiliary + too

So + auxiliary + subject
c. An auxiliary verb + either or neither are
used with negative statements.
Ex: S + AUX + EITHER
Ann doesn’t work, and Joe doesn’t either.
NEITHER + AUX + S
Ann doesn’t work, and neither does Joe.

Word Order: subject + auxiliary + either

neither + auxiliary + subject
NOTE: An affirmative auxiliary is used with neither.
d. Me too, me either, and me neither are
often used in informal spoken English.

Ex: -- I don’t eat meat.

-- Me (n)either. (informal)
 Connecting Ideas with Because
a. Because expresses a cause.
b. An adverb clause is NOT a complete
sentence.

complete sentence adverb clause

Ex: He drank water because he was thirsty.

adverb clause complete sentence

Because he was thirsty, he drank water.

c. Compare

INCORRECT IN WRITING:
He drank water. Because he was thirsty.

CORRECT IN SPEAKING:
-- Why did he drink some water?
-- Because he was thirsty.
Comparisons
 Making Comparisons with As…
As
a. As… as is used to say that the two parts of
a comparison are equal or the same.

Ex: Tina is as old as Sam.

Form: as + adjective + as
as + adverb + as
 Comparative and Superlative
Forms
Write the comparative and superlative forms
of the following adjectives and adverbs.

Example:

1. high higher, the highest

2. good ______________________
3. lazy _______________________
4. slowly __________________
5. friendly __________________
 Comparisons with Less… Than
and Not As… As
a. The opposite of er/more is expressed by:

less and not as…as – are used with

adjectives and adverbs of more than one
syllable.
Ex: A pen is less expensive than / not as
expensive as a book.

not as… as – is used with one syllable

adjectives or adverbs.
Ex: A pen is not as large as a book.
 Repeating a Comparative
a. Repeating a comparative gives the idea
that something becomes progressively
greater.

Ex: Life in the modern world is getting more

and more complicated.
 Using Double Comparatives
a. It has two parts; both parts begin with
the. The second part is the result of the
first part.

Ex: The harder you study, the more you will

learn.
 Exercises
Complete the sentences with any appropriate form of
the words in parentheses. Add any other necessary
words. More than one completion may be possible.

Example:

1. Lead is a very heavy metal. It is

(heavy) heavier than gold or silver. It
is one of (heavy) the heaviest metals of
all.
2. Mrs. Cook didn’t ask the children to
clean up the kitchen. It was (easy)
__________________ for her to do it
herself __________________ to nag them
to do it.
3. A car has two (wheels)
_______________than a bicycle.
 Using The Same, Similar,
Different, Like, Alike
a. They are used as adjectives.

b. the same is followed by as;

Ex: This book is the same as that one.

c. similar is followed by to;

Ex: This book is similar to that one.

d. different is followed by from. *

Ex: This book is different from that one.
* In informal speech, native speakers might
use than instead of from after different.
From is considered correct in formal English,
unless the comparison is completed by a
cause: I have a different attitude than I used
to have.
 Exercises
Complete the sentences with as, to, or from.

1. Geese are similar __________ ducks.

They are both large water birds.
2. But geese are not the same
__________ ducks. Geese are usually
larger and have longer necks.
3. Geese are different _________ ducks.
 Prepared by:
ATRM Alex
TRM Boo

IBIZ Academy Korea

2013