The Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis

THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
The Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis covers the major approaches to discourse analysis
from critical discourse analysis to multimodal discourse analysis and their applications in key
educational and institutional settings. The handbook is divided into eight sections: Approaches
to Discourse Analysis, Gender, Race and Sexualities, Narrativity and Discourse, Genre and
Register, Spoken Discourse, Social Media and Online Discourse, Educational Applications and
Institutional Applications.
The chapters are written by a wide range of contributors from around the world, each a
leading researcher in their respective field. With a focus on the application of discourse analysis
to real-life problems, the contributors introduce the reader to a topic and analyse authentic
data. This fully revised second edition includes new sections on Gender, Race and Sexualities,
Narrativity and Discourse, Genre and Register, Spoken Discourse, Social Media and Online
Discourse and nine new chapters on topics such as digital communication and public policy
and political discourse.
This volume is vital reading for all students and researchers of discourse analysis in linguistics,
applied linguistics, communication and cultural studies, social psychology and anthropology.
Michael Handford is Professor of English Language and Communication at Cardiff

University, UK. Before that, he was Professor of International Education at the University of
Tokyo. His research interests include professional communication, critical intercultural com-
munication, corpus-assisted discourse studies, and creativity and discourse.
James Paul Gee is Regents’ Professor Emeritus at Arizona State University, USA. He has
worked in syntactic theory, discourse analysis, literacy studies and digital media and learning.
He is the author of Sociolinguistics and Literacies (1990), The Social Mind (1992), An Introduction to
Discourse Analysis (1999), What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy (2003),
Situated Language and Learning (2004) and What Is a Human? (2020) among other books.
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THE ROUTLEDGE
HANDBOOK OF DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
Second edition
Edited by Michael Handford and James Paul Gee

Designed cover image: Getty Images | MirageC
Second edition published 2023
by Routledge
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© 2023 selection and editorial matter, Michael Handford and James Paul Gee;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Michael Handford and James Paul Gee to be identified as the authors of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2013
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Handford, Michael, 1969– editor. | Gee, James Paul, editor.
Title: The Routledge handbook of discourse analysis /
edited by Michael Handford, James Paul Gee.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |
Series: Routledge handbooks in applied linguistics |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022048820 | ISBN 9780367473839 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032458632 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003035244 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Discourse analysis. | LCGFT: Essays.
Classification: LCC P302 .R68 2023 |
DDC 401/.41–dc22/eng/20221118
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022048820
ISBN: 978-0-367-47383-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-45863-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-03524-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003035244
Typeset in Bembo
by Newgen Publishing UK
CONTENTS
Contributors ix
Introduction 1
James Paul Gee and Michael Handford
PART I
Approaches to discourse analysis 9
1 Critical discourse analysis 11

Norman Fairclough
2 Evaluation and discourse analysis 23

Theo van Leeuwen and Joshua Han
3 A culturalist approach to discourse 39

Shi-xu
4 Discursive psychology 53
Bogdana Humă and Jonathan Potter
5 Conversation analysis 67
Steven E. Clayman and Virginia Teas Gill
6 Interactional sociolinguistics and discourse analysis 85

Jürgen Jaspers
7 Discourse-oriented ethnography 98
Graham Smart
v
Contents
8 Discourse analysis and linguistic anthropology 112

Justin B. Richland
9 Corpus-based discourse analysis 126

Lynne Flowerdew
10 Multimodal discourse analysis 139

Gunther Kress, with an addendum by Jeff Bezemer
11 Systemic functional linguistics: exploring meaning in language 156

Mary J. Schleppegrell and Teresa Oteíza
12 Metaphor and discourse: a view from extended conceptual

metaphor theory 170
Zoltán Kövecses
PART II
Gender, race and sexualities 185
13 Gender and discourse analysis 187

Jennifer Coates and Pia Pichler
14 Queer linguistics and discourse analysis 203

William L. Leap
15 Intersectionality and discourse analysis 217

Ebony Elizabeth Thomas, Autumn A. Griffin and S. R. Toliver
16 Discourse, gender and professional communication 231

Louise Mullany and Victoria Howard
17 (Anti)Racist discourse 244

Teun A. van Dijk
PART III
Narrativity and discourse 261
18 Narrative analysis 263

Joanna Thornborrow
19 Literary discourse 278

Peter K. W. Tan
vi
Contents
20 Narrative, cognition and rationality 293

David R. Olson
PART IV
Genre and register 307
21 Register and discourse analysis 309

Douglas Biber
22 Genre, register and discourse in systemic functional linguistics 328

David Rose
23 Genre as social action 346

Charles Bazerman
24 Critical genre analysis of professional discourse 358

Vijay K. Bhatia
PART V
Spoken discourse 373
25 Prosody in discourse 375

Winnie Cheng and Phoenix Lam
26 Lexis in spoken discourse 391

Michael McCarthy and Paula Buttery
27 Emergent Grammar 411

Paul J. Hopper
PART VI
Social media and online discourse 425
28 Social media and discourse analysis 427

Rodney H. Jones
29 (Small) Stories online: the intersection of affordances and practices 441

Alexandra Georgakopoulou
30 Online identity and discourse analysis 454

Camilla Vásquez and Dacota Liska
vii
Contents
PART VII
Educational applications 467
31 Discourse and ‘the New Literacy Studies’ 469

James Paul Gee
32 Ethnography and classroom discourse 481

Amy Bik-May Tsui
33 Education and bilingualism 495

Karen Thompson, Soria Colomer and Kenji Hakuta
34 English for academic purposes and discourse analysis 509

Ken Hyland
PART VIII
Institutional applications 523
35 Discourse(s) in advertising 525

Elsa Simões
36 Discourse and news media 539

Mats Ekström
37 Discourse and health(care) 553

Gavin Brookes, Kevin Harvey and Svenja Adolphs
38 Discourses in the language of the law 568

Edward Finegan
39 Ethnicity and humour in the workplace 582

Julia de Bres and Janet Holmes
40 Politics as usual: investigating political discourse in action 595

Ruth Wodak
41 Critical policy discourse analysis 610

Nicolina Montesano Montessori
42 Intercultural discourse: identity perspectives on business interaction 625

Stefanie Stadler, Hale Işık-Güler and Helen Spencer-Oatey
Index 639
viii
CONTRIBUTORS
Svenja Adolphs is Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the University of

Nottingham, UK. Her research interests are in the areas of corpus linguistics (in particular,
multimodal spoken corpus linguistics), pragmatics and discourse analysis. She has published
widely in these areas, including Introducing Electronic Text Analysis (Routledge, 2006), Corpus and
Context: Investigating Pragmatics Functions in Spoken Discourse (John Benjamins, 2008), Introducing
Pragmatics in Use (Routledge, first edition 2011, second edition 2020, with Anne O’Keeffe
and Brian Clancy), Spoken Corpus Linguistics: From Monomodal to Multimodal (Routledge, 2013,
with Ronald Carter) and the Routledge Handbook of English Language and Digital Humanities
(Routledge, 2020, edited with Dawn Knight).
Charles Bazerman is Distinguished Professor of Education at the University of California,

Santa Barbara. He is a founder and former Chair of the International Society for the Advancement
of Writing Research and former Chair of the Conference on College Composition and
Communication. He has been a visiting professor in Portugal, Denmark, the Czech Republic,
France, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Nepal, Chile, Mexico, Brazil, and the US. His books
include A Rhetoric of Literate Action, A Theory of Literate Action, The Languages of Edison’s Light,
Constructing Experience, Shaping Written Knowledge, The Informed Writer, The Handbook of Research
on Writing, Genre in a Changing World, What Writing Does and How It Does It, and The Lifespan
Development of Writing Abilities.
Jeff Bezemer is Professor of Communication at UCL Institute of Education. He has published

widely on multimodality, learning and communication in school and workplace settings.
Drawing on social semiotics, ethnography and conversation analysis he explores collaboration
and meaning-making among learners and teachers and members of professional teams. He also
has a keen interest in the use of video for research and professional development purposes. His
latest books include Multimodality, Learning and Communication: A Social Semiotic Frame (with
Gunther Kress), and Introducing Multimodality (with Carey Jewitt and Kay O’Halloran).
Vijay K. Bhatia retired as a professor from City University of Hong Kong and is now an
adjunct professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and a visiting professor at the
ix
Contributors
Hellenic American University in Athens (Greece). His research interests include, (critical)
genre theory, analysis of academic and professional discourses, particularly in legal, business,
promotional, and new media contexts, ESP and professional communication. Three of his
monographs on genre theory, Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings (1993),
Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View (2004) and Critical Genre Analysis: Interdiscursive
Performance in Professional Practice (2017) are widely used in genre theory and practice.
Douglas Biber is Regents’ Professor of English (Applied Linguistics) at Northern Arizona

University. His research efforts have focused on corpus linguistics, English grammar and register
variation (in English and cross-linguistic; synchronic and diachronic). He has published over
250 research articles and 25 books and monographs, including primary research studies as
well as textbooks. He is widely known for his work on the corpus-based Grammar of Spoken
and Written English (John Benjamins, 2021) and for the development of “Multi-Dimensional
Analysis” (a research approach for the study of register variation), described in earlier books
published by Cambridge University Press (1988, 1995, 1998). More recently, he co-authored
a textbook on Register, Genre, and Style, second edition (Cambridge University Press, 2019),
co-edited the Cambridge Handbook of English Corpus Linguistics (2015) and co-authored research
monographs on grammatical complexity in written academic English (Cambridge University
Press, 2016), register variation on the web (Cambridge University Press, 2018), corpus rep-
resentativeness (Cambridge University Press, 2022), and the register-functional approach to
grammatical complexity (Routledge, 2022).
Gavin Brookes is UKRI Future Leader Fellow in the Department of Linguistics and English
Language at Lancaster University, UK. His research uses corpus linguistic, critical and multi-
modal approaches to discourse studies, with a particular focus on language and health and
identities. He is widely published in these areas, including Obesity in the News: Language and
Representation in the Press (Cambridge University Press, 2021, with Paul Baker), Corpus Discourse
and Mental Health (Bloomsbury, 2020, with Daniel Hunt) and The Language of Patient Feedback
(Routledge, 2019, with Paul Baker and Craig Evans). He is an associate editor of the International
Journal of Corpus Linguistics (John Benjamins) and co-editor of the Corpus and Discourse book
series (Bloomsbury, with Michaela Mahlberg).
Paula Buttery is Professor of Machine Learning and Language at the University of Cambridge.
She is a co-director of Cambridge Language Sciences, an Interdisciplinary Research Centre,
and leads research into personalized adaptive technology for learning and assessment within the
Cambridge Institute for Automated Language Teaching and Assessment (ALTA).
Winnie Cheng, who retired in 2019, was formerly a professor in the Department of English
and director of the department’s Research Centre for Professional Communication in English
(RCPCE), The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Her research interests include corpus
linguistics, critical discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and intercultural and professional
communication.
Steven E. Clayman is Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Los Angeles.

His research addresses human interaction as a topic in its own right, and as a window into
social institutions with an emphasis on media and politics. He has published widely in soci-
ology, communication and linguistics journals, and is the co-author (with John Heritage) of
x
Contributors
Talk in Action: Interactions, Identities, and Institutions (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010) and The News
Interview: Journalists and Public Figures on the Air (Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Jennifer Coates is Emeritus Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the University
of Roehampton, London, UK. Her chief research interests are language, gender and sexu-
ality, conversational narrative, and turn- taking in everyday talk. Her published work
includes Women, Men and Language (originally published 1986, 3rd edition 2004), Women
Talk: Conversation between Women Friends (1996), Men Talk: Stories in the Making of Masculinities
(2003), The Sociolinguistics of Narrative (edited with Joanna Thornborrow, 2005) and Language
and Gender: A Reader, 2nd edition (co-edited with Pia Pichler, 2011). A collection of her lan-
guage and gender papers was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2013 under the title Women,
Men and Everyday Talk. She has given lectures at universities all over the world and has held
visiting professorships in Australia, New Zealand, the USA, Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
Spain and Italy. She was made a fellow of the English Association in 2002, and of the Royal
Society of Arts in 2014.
Soria E. Colomer is the Patricia Valian Reser Faculty Scholar in the College of Education
at Oregon State University. An associate professor of bilingual education, she considers how
ethnolinguistically diverse students, families and educators navigate socio-political contexts and
language policies. Her work informs teacher education, curricula and practice, and can be
found in the Journal of Literacy Research, Urban Education, Theory into Practice, TESOL Quarterly,
Race, Ethnicity and Education and the Bilingual Research Journal, among others.
Julia de Bres is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics at Massey University in New Zealand. She is
a critical sociolinguist, specializing in how language is used to reproduce and challenge social
inequalities. Her research focuses on discourse in relation to minority groups, including lin-
guistic, ethnic and gender minorities. She takes a multimodal approach to discourse analysis,
exploring visual and verbal data deriving from interviews, media sources and drawings. She is
currently analysing the discourses of affirming parents of transgender children.
Mats Ekström is a professor in the Department of Journalism, Media and Communication,

University of Gothenburg. His research focuses on journalism, political communication,
media discourse and conversations in institutional settings. His most recent projects (funded by
Riksbankens Jubileumsfond and The Swedish Research Council) include: “The Epistemologies
of Digital News Journalism” (together with Oscar Westlund); “Right-Wing Populism in the
News Media” (together with Marianna Patrona and Joanna Thornborrow); “Activation and
Articulation of Authoritarian Attitudes: The Importance of the Media” (together with Adam
Shehata).
Norman Fairclough, before his retirement in 2004, was Professor of Language in Social Life
at Lancaster University, UK, and is now Emeritus Professor. His main research interest has been
in critical discourse analysis, especially critical analysis of semiotic aspects of processes of social
change within trans-disciplinary social research. His books include Language and Power (1989,
third edition in 2015), Discourse and Social Change (1992), Critical Discourse Analysis (1995,
second edition 2010), Discourse in Late Modernity (1999, with Lilie Chouliaraki), New Labour,
New Language? (2000), Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (2003), Language
and Globalization (2006) and Political Discourse Analysis (2012, with Isabela Fairclough).
xi
Contributors
Edward Finegan is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics and Law at the University of Southern
California. He has served as vice-president and president of the International Association of
Forensic Linguists (now called the International Association for Forensic and Legal Linguistics)
and is currently president of the Dictionary Society of North America. He has written exten-
sively about the language of the law and, starting in 1977, served as an expert witness in
hundreds of litigations, mostly in the arenas of trademark and defamation but also contract
disputes and authorship analysis.
Lynne Flowerdew holds an Honorary Research Fellowship in the School of Arts (Centre for
Multilingual and Multicultural Research), Birkbeck, University of London. Her main research
and teaching interests include corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, EAP/ESP and disciplinary
writing. She has published widely in these areas in international journals and prestigious edited
collections and has also authored and co-edited several books.
James Paul Gee is Regents’ Professor Emeritus at Arizona State University. He has worked
in syntactic theory, discourse analysis, literacy studies, and digital media and learning. He is the
author of Sociolinguistics and Literacies (1990), The Social Mind (1992), An Introduction to Discourse
Analysis (1999), What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy (2003), Situated
Language and Learning (2004) and What Is a Human? (2020) among other books.
Alexandra Georgakopoulou is Professor of Discourse Analysis and Sociolinguistics and

co-director of the Centre for Language, Discourse and Communication, King’s College
London. She has developed small stories research, a paradigm for studying identities in
everyday life stories. Her latest publications include: Quantified Storytelling: A Narrative
Analysis of Metrics on Social Media (with Stefan Iversen and Carsten Stage, Palgrave, 2020) and
The Cambridge Handbook of Discourse Studies (co-edited with Anna De Fina, Cambridge
University Press, 2020). She is the (co)-editor of the Routledge Research in Narrative,
Interaction and Discourse series.
Virginia Teas Gill is Professor Emerita of Sociology at Illinois State University. Her research
focuses on interaction in medical settings, including physician–patient interaction in various
primary and specialty care contexts. Her work has been published in journals such as Social
Psychology Quarterly, Research on Language and Social Interaction and Sociology of Health and Illness.
She is the co-editor (with Alison Pilnick and Jon Hindmarsh) of Communication in Healthcare
Settings: Policy, Participation and New Technologies (2010).
Autumn A. Griffin is an educational researcher whose work centres on the multiple and
digital literacies of Black youth, with a particular focus on Black girls. Her research employs
Black feminist, Black girlhood and critical multimodal and digital storytelling frameworks to
explore how Black youth –namely Black girls –use arts-based literacies as a means to heal from
pedagogical and curricular violence and to (re)write their futures and their stories –those full of
love, joy, celebration, and imagination –for themselves. She is a co-editor of the forthcoming
NCTE Principles in Practice volume Restorying Young Adult Literature for a Digital Age.
Kenji Hakuta is the Lee L. Jacks Professor, emeritus, at the Stanford University Graduate School
of Education. He received his PhD in experimental psychology from Harvard University in
1979. He has published in the areas of psycholinguistics, bilingualism, language shift, the acqui-
sition of English in immigrant students and education policy. He is a fellow of the National
xii
Contributors
Academy of Education, the American Educational Research Association, the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Joshua Han is an emerging scholar, undertaking research in multimodality and social semi-
otics. He has a background in linguistics and music composition. He completed his doctoral
thesis on the social semiotics of music and movement at the University of New South Wales,
Australia.
Kevin Harvey is Associate Professor of Discourse Analysis at the University of Nottingham, UK.
His research uses multimodal critical discourse analysis to examine contemporary health commu-
nication, focusing particularly on health promotion and media representations of dementia. He
has published widely in these areas, including Exploring Health Communication: Language in Action
(Routledge, 2013, with Nelya Koteyko) and Investigating Adolescent Health Communication: A
Corpus Linguistics Approach (Bloomsbury, 2013).
Janet Holmes is Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington and

associate director of the Language in the Workplace Project (www.victor ia.ac.nz/lwp/). She
has published on many aspects of sociolinguistics, including language and gender, New Zealand
English, and workplace interaction, including the discourses of humour and leadership. Her
books include Gendered Talk at Work, Leadership, Discourse, and Ethnicity (with Meredith Marra
and Bernadette Vine), Research Methods in Sociolinguistics: A Practical Guide (with Kirk Hazen),
and the sixth edition of the Introduction to Sociolinguistics (with Nick Wilson). With her research
team, she is currently investigating mobile and digital workplaces.
Paul J. Hopper is the Paul Mellon Professor Emeritus of Humanities at Carnegie Mellon
University. He has been a Guggenheim Fellow, Collitz Professor of Linguistics at the Linguistic
Society of America’s Linguistics Institute, and Directeur d’Études at the École Pratique des
Hautes Études, Sorbonne. He was awarded the Medal of the Collège de France. He is a
senior fellow of the Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies. He has held teaching positions
at Washington University, the University of Hawaii, the University of Köln and the Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro. He has published books and articles on discourse grammar, gram-
maticalization and historical linguistics.
Victoria Howard is a postdoctoral research fellow in linguistics at Nottingham Trent

University and an honorary visiting fellow in professional communication at University of
Nottingham, UK. Her research interests lie in sociolinguistics, gender and intersectional iden-
tities in professional and healthcare communication. She has published in the areas of language,
gender and political communication and has also worked on a number of different research and
impact-based projects, delivering linguistic consultancy findings to multiple stakeholders both
inside and outside academia.
Bogdana Humă is an assistant professor in the Department of Language, Literature, and

Communication at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Her research employs discursive psychology
and conversation analysis to study the fundamental role of language as a medium and a resource
for the practical management of psychological topics in real-life interactions. She has examined,
for example, how first impressions authenticate assessments, how persuasion and resistance are
practically accomplished in sales calls, and how accusations of mansplaining are constructed and
dealt with across different institutional settings.
xiii
Contributors
Ken Hyland is an honorary professor at the University of East Anglia. He was previously a
professor at the UEA, University College London and the University of Hong Kong and has
taught in Africa, Asia and Europe. He is best known for his research into writing and aca-
demic discourse, having published 260+articles and 29 books on these topics with 70,000
citations on Google Scholar. A collection of his work was published as The Essential Hyland
(Bloomsbury, 2018). He was editor of JEAP and Applied Linguistics and is a visiting professor at
Jilin University, China.
Hale Işık-Güler is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Department of Foreign Language

Education, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara. Her work can be best described
as being at the intersection of discourse analysis, socio-pragmatics and corpus linguistics. More
specifically, her academic interests mainly lie within the domains of corpus-assisted critical
discourse analysis; gender, identity and facework in institutional settings, intercultural/cross-
cultural communication, online discourses and spoken/written corpora compilation. She has
worked on the compilation project of the first Spoken Turkish Corpus and has published in
the Journal of Pragmatics, Intercultural Pragmatics, Dilbilim Araştırmaları and Discourse, Context and
Media, Linguistics and Education among others. She is the research group leader of the Discourse
and Corpus Research Group (DISCORE) at METU.
Jürgen Jaspers is a sociolinguist and Professor in Dutch Linguistics at the Université Libre de
Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium. He is interested in language-in-education, classroom interaction,
the ethnography of urban multilingualism, language policy and language ideology.
Rodney H. Jones is Professor of Sociolinguistics and Head of the Department of English

Language and Applied Linguistics at the University of Reading. His research interests include
language and digital media, health communication, language and sexuality, and language and
creativity. He has authored or edited 15 books and over 100 journal articles and book chapters.
His recent books include Understanding Digital Literacies: A Practical Introduction, second edition
(Routledge, 2021) and Introducing Language and Society (Cambridge University Press, 2022).
Zoltán Kövecses is Professor Emeritus at Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest. His main
research interests include conceptual metaphor theory, the figurative conceptualization of the
emotions, the issue of universality and specificity of conceptual metaphors, the role of con-
text in the production and comprehension of metaphors, and the question of embodiment in
metaphor. His major book publications are: Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Cambridge
University Press, 2020), Where Metaphors Come From (Oxford University Press, 2015),
Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, second edition (Oxford University Press, 2010), Language,
Mind, and Culture (Oxford University Press, 2006), Metaphor in Culture (Cambridge University
Press, 2005) and Metaphor and Emotion (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
Gunther Kress (1940–2019) was Professor of Semiotics and Education at UCL Institute of
Education. His interests were in communication and meaning(-making) in contemporary
environments. His broad aims were to develop a social semiotic theory of meaning-making
and (multimodal) communication; and, in that, to develop a theory in which communication,
learning and identity are entirely interconnected. Part of that agenda was to develop apt tools for
the “recognition” and “valuation” of meaning-making. His publications include: Social Semiotics
(with Bob Hodge); Reading Images: A Grammar of Visual Design (with Theo van Leeuwen); and
Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication.
xiv
Contributors
Phoenix Lam is an associate professor in the Department of English and Communication at

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. She is also a member of the Department’s Research
Centre for Professional Communication in English (RCPCE). Her research interests are in the
areas of corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, and intercultural and professional communication.
Her research monograph Online Place Branding: The Case of Hong Kong (Routledge, 2021),
focuses on the discursive construction of online place branding through a corpus-assisted dis-
course analytic approach.
William L. Leap is an emeritus professor of Anthropology at the American University

(Washington, DC) and an affiliate professor in the Center for Women, Gender and Sexuality
Studies at Florida Atlantic University (Boca Raton, FL). He the founder of the Lavender
Languages Conference, the now-international, annual forum for LGBTQ language studies. He
served as co-editor of the Journal of Language and Sexuality from 2011 to 2021. He helps organize
and teaches in the Lavender Languages Summer Institute at Florida Atlantic University. His
research in queer historical linguistics traces the circulations of “homosexual” language before
Stonewall in the urban and rural US settings. A related project explores the queer potential of
the translanguaging practices found on American Indian reservations, in post-apartheid Black
townships near Cape Town ZA, and in the Pakhtun villages (northwestern Pakistan) under
Taliban rule and during the “War on Terror”.
Dacota Liska is a doctoral student in the Linguistics and Applied Language Studies pro-
gramme at the University of South Florida in Tampa. Her research explores digital discourse,
with a focus on identity construction, multimodality and narrativity on social media platforms
such as Twitch.tv and Reddit.com. She explores social interactions online using multimodal
social semiotic and discourse analytic approaches.
Michael McCarthy is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics, University of Nottingham,

UK. He is author/co-author/editor of 58 books, including the Cambridge Grammar of English,
English Grammar: The Basics, From Corpus to Classroom and The Routledge Handbook of Corpus
Linguistics. He is the author/co-author of 120 academic papers. He was a co-founder of the
CANCODE and CANBEC spoken-English corpora projects.
Nicolina Montesano Montessori is an associate professor at Utrecht University of Applied

Sciences (Netherlands) and obtained her PhD in Lancaster (2008) supervised by Norman
Fairclough and Ruth Wodak. She has applied CDA to social movements, social entrepreneur-
ship, commons and complexity in education. In the process she has developed a strong interest
in designing research methodology which has brought her to systematically combine CDA
with discourse theory, transition theory and participatory action research in different research
projects.
Louise Mullany is Professor of Sociolinguistics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She

has researched professional communication and gender inequality for the last 25 years and
published a number of books and articles in this area with international publishing houses.
Recent books include Professional Communication: Consultancy, Advocacy, Activism (Palgrave) and
Globalisation, Geopolitics and Gender in Professional Communication, edited with Stephanie Schnurr
(Routledge). She is a founder and director of Linguistic Profiling for Professionals, a research
centre and business unit based at the University of Nottingham.
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Contributors
David R. Olson is University Professor Emeritus of the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education/University of Toronto where he has taught for more than 40 years. He graduated
from the University of Saskatchewan in 1960 and received his PhD from the University of
Alberta in 1963 and did post-graduate work at the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies with
Jerome Bruner. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canda and holds honorary doctorates
from Gothenberg University (1994), the University of Saskatchewan (1996) and the University
of Toronto (2012). David has published extensively on language, literacy and cognition,
including the widely anthologized article “From Utterance to Text: The Bias of Language
in Speech and Writing” (Harvard Educational Review, 1977) an article that argued that the
modern mind is essentially a literate mind. This theme is expanded in his book The World on
Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implication of Writing and Reading (Cambridge University
Press, 1994). His most recent books are The Mind on Paper: Reading, Consciousness and Rationality
(Cambridge University Press, 2016) and Making Sense: What We Mean by Understanding
(Cambridge University Press, 2022).
Teresa Oteíza is an associate professor at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile. She is an
editor of the Latin American Journal of Discourse Studies and of Discurso & Sociedad. Her interests
include the areas of social and critical discourse studies, systemic functional linguistics, educa-
tional linguistics and the discourse of history. She is currently working with Cristina Arancibia
on the project “Engagement System in Spanish: Linguistic Resources to Build Dialogicity
in the Discursive Semantic Stratum of the Language”. Her forthcoming book is titled What
to Remember, What to Teach: Human Rights Violations in Chile’s Recent Past and the Pedagogical
Discourse of History (Equinox).
Pia Pichler is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics and programme convenor of the Sociocultural
Linguistics MA at Goldsmiths, University of London. Pia’s work explores language and iden-
tity in everyday spontaneous interaction, focusing on intersectionality, indexicality, humour
and voice. Publications include “Intersections of Race, Class and Place: Language and Gender
Perspectives from the UK” (Gender and Language, 2021), “ ‘I’ve Got a Daughter Now Man It’s
Clean Man’: Heteroglossic and Intersectional Constructions of Fatherhood in the Spontaneous
Talk of a Group of Young Southeast London Men” (Language in Society, 2021), Talking Young
Femininities (Palgrave, 2009, shortlisted for IGALA book prize 2010) and Language and Gender: A
Reader, co-edited with Jennifer Coates (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).
Jonathan Potter is Distinguished Professor in the School of Communication and Information

at Rutgers University. He has worked on basic theoretical and methodological issues in social
science for more than 40 years, engaging with post-structuralism (in Social Texts and Context [1984,
with Margaret Wetherell and Peter Stringer]), discourse analysis (in Discourse and Social Psychology
[1987, with Margaret Wetherell]), discursive approaches to racism (in Mapping the Language of
Racism [1992, with Margaret Wetherell]), discursive psychology (in Discursive Psychology [1992,
with Derek Edwards]), constructionism (systematically respecified in Representing Reality [1996]),
and conversation analysis (in Essentials of Conversation Analysis [2021, with Alexa Hepburn]).
Justin B. Richland is Professor of Anthropology and Law at the University of California,

Irvine and faculty fellow at the American Bar Foundation. His research explores the language
of contemporary Native American law and he is the author of peer-reviewed essays and three
books, Arguing with Tradition: The Language of Law in Hopi Tribal Court (University of Chicago
Press, 2008), Introduction to Tribal Legal Studies, third edition (with Sarah Deer [Muscogee],
xvi
Contributors
Rowman and Littlefield, 2015), and Cooperation without Submission: Indigenous Jurisdictions in
Native Nation-US Engagements (University of Chicago Press, 2021).
David Rose is an honorary associate of the University of Sydney and director of Reading to
Learn, an international literacy programme that trains teachers across school and university
sectors (www.readingtolearn.com.au). His research interests include literacy teaching practices,
teacher professional learning, analysis and design of classroom discourse, language typology and
social semiotic theory. His books include The Western Desert Code: An Australian Cryptogrammar
(Pacific Linguistics, 2001), Working with Discourse (Continuum, 2007), Genre Relations (Equinox,
2008), Learning to Write, Reading to Learn: Genre, Knowledge and Pedagogy in the Sydney School
(Equinox, 2012) (with J. R. Martin) and Reading to Learn, Reading the World (in prep, with
C. Painter and R. Whittaker).
Mary J. Schleppegrell is Professor of Education at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Her research uses systemic functional linguistics to explore language and meaning in ways that
illuminate issues in education, focused especially on the challenges of language across school
subjects and the language development of students learning English as an additional language.
She is the author of The Language of Schooling: A Functional Linguistics Perspective (Erlbaum,
2004) and other books and research reports. Her current research, with social studies researcher
Chauncey Monte-Sano, is a collaboration with middle school social studies teachers to support
all students in inquiry with sources and argument writing.
Shi-xu (PhD, University of Amsterdam) has held teaching posts in the Netherlands, Singapore
and UK. Currently he directs the Centre for Contemporary Chinese Discourse Studies,
Hangzhou Normal University. His books in English include A Cultural Approach to Discourse,
Chinese Discourse Studies, Discourses of the Developing World and Handbook of Cultural Discourse
Studies (forthcoming). He is founding editor-in-chief of the Journal of Multicultural Discourses
and general editor of Routledge Cultural Discourse Studies and serves on a dozen international
journal editorial boards.
Elsa Simões is an associate professor at University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal. She
lectures in communication sciences and has written widely on advertising, literature, semiotics
and journalism, including the chapter “Taboo in Advertising” in The Language of Advertising
(2007), the book Taboo in Advertising (2008), the chapter “Advertising the Medium” in
Intermediality and Storytelling (2010), the chapter “Advertising and Discourse Analysis” in The
Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis (2011), the chapter “Language of Advertising” in The
Routledge Companion to English Studies (2014), the chapter “Crude and Taboo Humour in
Television Advertising” in Taboo Comedy (2016) and the chapter “Factuality and Fictionality in
Advertisements” in Narrative Factuality (2019).
Graham Smart is an associate professor in the School of Linguistics and Language Studies at
Carleton University, Ottawa. He has published research on writing in both professional and
academic settings, including Writing the Economy: Activity, Genre and Technology in the World of
Banking, a long-term ethnographic study of the discourse practices of economists at Canada’s
central bank. More recently, his research has focused on the complex body of discourse jointly
created by government, business, civil-society organizations and other social groups as they
advance arguments regarding global climate change. In his current research, he is studying the
discourses of public health.
xvii
Contributors
Helen Spencer-Oatey is Emeritus Professor of Intercultural Communication at the

University of Warwick, UK, and managing director of GlobalPeople Consulting Ltd. (GPC).
Her main research interests are in intercultural interaction and intercultural relations, including
in international business contexts. She has published extensively in these areas, including most
recently Developing Global Leaders: Insights from African Case Studies (with Jordans and Ng’weno,
Palgrave, 2020), Intercultural Politeness (with Kádár, Cambridge University Press, 2021) and
Global Fitness for Global People (with Franklin and Lazidou, Castledown, 2022). Helen is par-
ticularly committed to the applied relevance of her work and, with colleagues, has developed a
wide range of diagnostic and training resources, all available from her company, GlobalPeople
Consulting Ltd.
Stefanie Stadler is Professor of English Linguistics at Doshisha University in Kyoto. Having

lived and worked in more than a dozen countries across five continents for more than two
decades, she has a long-standing personal and professional interest in the topic of intercultural
communication. Her research interests encompass various topics related to intercultural com-
munication, including intercultural effectiveness, business communication, conflict communi-
cation, discourse analysis, intercultural and interlanguage pragmatics, multimodality, politeness
and the application of such research insights into intercultural competence development
initiatives.
Peter K. W. Tan is Senior Lecturer in the Department of English Language and Literature in
the National University of Singapore. His research interests include the development of world
Englishes, especially English in Singapore and Malaysia; literary stylistics; onomastics, especially
in relation to the linguistic landscape and language planning. He is the author of A Stylistics of
Drama and co-edited Language as Commodity with Rani Rubdy. He has also published in various
journals, including Connotations, English Language Teaching Journal, English Today, Language
Problems and Language Planning, Linguistics Vanguard, Names: A Journal of Onomastics and World
Englishes; and various books chapters.
Ebony Elizabeth Thomas is Associate Professor in the Joint Program in English and
Education at the University of Michigan’s School of Education. A former Detroit Public
Schools teacher and National Academy of Education/Spencer Foundation postdoctoral fellow,
she serves as a co-editor of Research in the Teaching of English, and her most recent book is The
Dark Fantastic: Race and the Imagination from Harry Potter to the Hunger Games (NYU Press,
2019). In addition to her work in children’s and young adult literature, media and culture, she
has published widely on race, discourse and interaction in classrooms and digital environments.
Karen D. Thompson is an associate professor in the College of Education at Oregon State

University. Her research addresses how curriculum and instruction, teacher education and
policy interact to shape the classroom experiences of multilingual students in K-12 schools. Her
work has been funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, the Office of English Language
Acquisition and the Spencer Foundation. She was awarded the Presidential Early Career Award
for Scientists and Engineers. Her scholarship has been published in venues such as Educational
Researcher and the American Educational Research Journal. Prior to entering academia, she was a
bilingual elementary school teacher.
Joanna Thornborrow is Emeritus Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the

University of Western Brittany (UBO), France. Her research in the fields of discourse and
xviii
Contributors
conversation analysis has focused on narrative interaction, and particularly on storytelling

practices in institutional and mediated contexts. Publications include The Discourse of Public
Participation Broadcasting: From Talk Show to Twitter (Routledge, 2015), and most recently “Le
partage du récit de l’expérience partagée sur Twitter: De ‘me too’ au mouvement #MeToo”
(with P. Chartier) in Small Stories: Un nouveau paradigme pour les recherches sur le récit (Cahiers
Textuel, 2020).
S. R. Toliver is an assistant professor of literacy and secondary humanities at the University of

Colorado Boulder. Her scholarship honours the historical legacy that Black imaginations have
had and will have on activism and social change. She is the author of Recovering Black Storytelling
in Qualitative Research: Endarkened Storywork (Routledge, 2021), and her academic work has
been published in multiple journals.
Amy Bik-May Tsui is Professor Emerita of the Faculty of Education at The University
of Hong Kong, and was Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Vice-President (Teaching and Learning)
(2007–2014) during which she led the historical reform of undergraduate education. She
has published 11 books and over 100 articles on classroom discourse, conversational analysis,
language policy and teacher development, has presented over 80 keynotes at international
conferences in 16 countries in Asia, UK, US, Europe, Australia, South Africa and Mexico,
and has served on the editorial and advisory boards of 25 international refereed journals. She
was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in education by the University of Edinburgh, UK,
in 2015.
Teun A. van Dijk was Professor of Discourse Studies at the University of Amsterdam and
the Pompeu Fabra University, and is currently founding director of the Centre of Discourse
Studies, Barcelona. His publications since the 1960s are in the fields of literary theory, text
grammar, discourse pragmatics, the cognitive psychology of text processing, racist discourse,
news, ideology, context, knowledge and the history of antiracist discourse. His current project
is on social movement discourse. He is founding editor of Discourse and Society, Discourse Studies
and Discourse and Communication. With Adriana Bolivar he founded in 1995 the Latin American
Association of Discourse Studies.
Theo van Leeuwen is Professor of Language and Communication at the University of Southern
Denmark and Honorary Professor at the University of New South Wales in Australia. He has
published widely in the area of visual communication, multimodality and critical discourse
analysis and was a founding editor of the journals Social Semiotics and Visual Communication.
His books include Speech, Music, Sound, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (with
Gunther Kress), Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication (with
Gunther Kress), Introducing Social Semiotics, Discourse and Practice: New Tools for Critical Discourse
Analysis, The Language of Colour and Multimodality and Identity.
Camilla Vásquez is a professor of applied linguistics at the University of South Florida, where
she directs the doctoral programme in Linguistics and Applied Language Studies (LALS). She is
the editor of Research Methods for Digital Discourse Analysis (2022) and the author of The Discourse
of Online Consumer Reviewers (2014) and Language Creativity and Humour Online (2019). Her
research about online identities has appeared in journals such as Discourse Context and Media,
Food and Foodways, Journal of Pragmatics, Journal of Sociolinguistics and Narrative Inquiry among
others.
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Contributors
Ruth Wodak is Emerita Distinguished Professor of Discourse Studies at Lancaster University,

UK. She was awarded the Wittgenstein Prize for Elite Researchers in 1996, an honorary doc-
torate from University of Örebro in Sweden in 2010, and an honorary doctorate from Warwick
University in 2020. She is a member of the British Academy of Social Sciences and a member
of the Academia Europaea. In March 2020, she became an honorary member of the Senate
of the University of Vienna. She is a co-editor of the journals Discourse and Society, Critical
Discourse Studies and Language and Politics.
xx
INTRODUCTION
Discourse analysis is the study of language in use. It is the study of the meanings we give lan-
guage and the actions we carry out when we use language in specific contexts. Discourse ana-
lysis is also sometimes defined as the study of language above the level of a sentence, of the ways
sentences combine to create meaning, coherence, and accomplish purposes. However, even a
single sentence or utterance can be analyzed as a “communication” or an “action” and not just
as a sentence structure whose “literal meaning” flows from the nature of grammar. Grammar
can tell us what “I pronounce you man and wife” literally means, but not when and where it
actually means you are married.
Sometimes the term “pragmatics” is used for the study of language in use (Levinson, 1983)
and people reserve the term “discourse analysis” for studying how the sentences in an oral or
written “text” pattern together to create meaning and coherence and to define different genres
(e.g., dialogues, narratives, reports, descriptions, explanations, and so forth). In this book, the
term “discourse analysis” covers both pragmatics (the study of contextually specific meanings
of language in use) and the study of “texts” (the study of how sentences and utterances pattern
together to create meaning across multiple sentences or utterances).
We do not just mean things with language. We also do things with language. We accomplish
actions, goals, and purposes. When a minister says “I pronounce you man and wife”, he or she
is marrying two people, not just communicating to them. When a person calls the union of two
gay men a “marriage”, the speaker is helping to create or recreate the institution of marriage
in a certain way, as an institutionally sanctioned union between two committed people and not
necessarily a man and a woman. When another person refuses to use the word for the union of
two gay men, that speaker is helping to recreate or reproduce a different institution of marriage.
Linguists make an important distinction between two types of meaning, a distinction that
has relevance for discourse analysis. They distinguish between utterance-type meaning and
utterance-token meaning (Levinson, 2000). Any word, phrase, or structure has a general
range of possible meanings, what we might call its “meaning range”. This is its utterance-type
meaning. For example, the word “cat” has to do, broadly, with felines and the (syntactic) struc-
ture “subject of a sentence” has to do, broadly, with naming a “topic” in the sense of “what is
being talked about”.
However, words and phrases take on much more specific meanings in actual contexts of
use. These are utterance-token meanings or what we can also call “situated meanings” or
DOI: 10.4324/9781003035244-1 1
“situational meanings”. Thus, in a situation where we say something like “The world’s big
cats are all endangered”, “cat” means things like lions and tigers; in a situation where we are
discussing mythology and say something like “The cat was a sacred symbol to the ancient
Egyptians”, “cat” means real and pictured cats as symbols; and in a situation where we are
discussing breakable decorative objects on our mantel and say something like “The cat broke”,
“cat” means a statue of a cat.
Subjects of sentences are always “topic-like” (this is their utterance-type meaning), in
different situations of use, subjects take on a range of more specific meanings. In a debate, if I say,
“The constitution only protects the rich”, the subject of the sentence (“the constitution”) is an
entity about which a claim is being made; if a friend of yours has just arrived and I usher her in,
saying “Mary’s here”, the subject of the sentence (“Mary”) is a center of interest or attention;
and in a situation where I am commiserating with a friend and say something like “You really
got cheated by that guy”, the subject of the sentence (“you”) is a center of empathy (signaled
also by the fact that the normal subject of the active version of the sentence—“That guy really
cheated you”—has been “demoted” from subject position through use of the “get-passive”).
Discourse analysis can undertake one or both of two tasks, one related to utterance-type
(general) meaning and one related to situated meaning. One task is what we can call the
utterance-type meaning task. This task involves the study of correlations between form and
function in language at the level of utterance-type meanings (general meanings). “Form” here
means things like morphemes, words, phrases, or other syntactic structures (e.g., the subject
position of a sentence). “Function” means type of meaning or the type of communicative pur-
pose a form carries out.
The other task is what we can call the utterance-token meaning or situated meaning
task. This task involves the study of correlations between form and function in language at
the level of utterance-token meanings. Essentially, this task involves discovering the situation-
specific or situated meanings of forms used in specific contexts of use.
Failing to distinguish between these two tasks can be dangerous, since very different issues of
validity for discourse analysis come up with each of these tasks, as we will see below. Let’s start
with an example of the utterance-type meaning task. Specific forms in a language are proto-
typically used as tools to carry out certain communicative functions (that is, to express certain
utterance-type meanings). For example, consider the sentence labeled (1) below (adapted from
Gagnon, 1987: 65):
1 Though the Whig and Tory parties were both narrowly confined to the privileged
classes, they represented different factions and tendencies.
This sentence is made up of two clauses, an independent (or main) clause (“they represented
different factions and tendencies”) and a dependent clause (“Though the Whig and Tory parties
were both narrowly confined to the privileged classes”). These are statements about form. An
independent clause has as one of its functions (at the utterance-type level) that it expresses an
assertion; that is, it expresses a claim that the speaker/writer is making. A dependent clause
has as one of its functions that it expresses information that is not asserted, but, rather, assumed
or taken-for-granted. These are statements about function (meaning).
Normally (that is, technically speaking, in the “unmarked” case), in English, dependent
clauses follow independent clauses. Thus, the sentence (1) above might more normally appear
as: “The Whig and Tory parties represented different factions, though they were both narrowly
confined to the privileged classes”. In (1) the dependent clause has been fronted (placed in
front of the whole sentence). This is a statement about form. Such fronting has as one of its
2
Introduction
functions that the information in the clause is thematized (Halliday, 1994), that is, the infor-
mation is treated as a launching off point or thematically important context from which to
consider the claim in the following dependent clause. This is a statement about function.
To sum up, in respect to form-functioning mapping at the utterance-type level, we can say
that sentence (1) renders its dependent clause (“Though the Whig and Tory parties were both
narrowly confined to the privileged classes”) a taken-for-g ranted, assumed, unargued for (i.e.,
unasserted), though important (thematized) context from which to consider the main claim in
the independent clause (“they represented different factions and tendencies”). The dependent
clause is, we might say, a concession. Other historians might prefer to make this concession the
main asserted point and, thus, would use a different grammatical construction, perhaps saying
something like: “Though they represented different factions and tendencies, the Whig and
Tory parties were both narrowly confined to the privileged classes”.
At a fundamental level, all types of discourse analysis involve claims (however tacitly they
may be acknowledged) about form-function matching at the utterance-type level. This is
so because, if one is making claims about a piece of language, even at a much more situated
and contextualized level (which we will see in a moment), but these claims violate what we
know about how form and function are related to each other in language at the utterance-
type level, then these claims are quite suspect, unless there is evidence the speaker or writer
is trying to violate these sorts of basic grammatical relationships in the language (e.g., in
poetry).
As we have already said, the meanings with which forms are correlated at the utterance-type
level are rather general (meanings like “assertion”, “taken-for-g ranted information”, “con-
trast”, etc.). In reality, they represent only the meaning potential or meaning range of a form or
structure, as we have said. The more specific or situated meanings that a form carries in a given
context of use must be figured out by an engagement with our next task, the utterance-token
or situated meaning task.
A second task that discourse analysis can undertake is what we called above the utterance-
token or situated meaning task. When we actually utter or write a sentence it has a situated
meaning (Gee, 1990, 2010, 2012). Situated meanings arise because particular language forms
take on specific or situated meanings in specific different contexts of use.
Consider the word “coffee” as a very simple example of how situated meaning differs from
utterance-type meaning. “Coffee” is an arbitrary form (other languages use different sounding
words for coffee) that correlates with meanings having to do with the substance coffee (this is
its meaning potential). At a more specific level, however, we have to use context to determine
what the word means in any situated way. In one context, “coffee” may mean a brown liquid
(“The coffee spilled, go get a mop”); in another one it may mean grains of a certain sort (“The
coffee spilled, go get a broom”); in another it may mean containers (“The coffee spilled, stack
it again”); and it can mean other things in other contexts, e.g., berries of a certain sort, a certain
flavor, or a skin color. We can even use the word with a novel situated meaning, as in “You give
me a coffee high” or “Big Coffee is as bad as Big Oil as corporate actors”.
To see a further example of situated meanings at work, consider sentence (1) again
(“Though the Whig and Tory parties were both narrowly confined to the privileged classes,
they represented different factions”). We said above that an independent clause represents
an assertion (a claim that something is true). But this general form-function correlation can
mean different specific things in actual contexts of use, and can, indeed, even be mitigated or
undercut altogether.
For example, in one context, say between two like-minded historians, the claim that the
Whig and Tory parties represented different factions may just be taken as a reminder of a
3
“fact” they both agree on. On the other hand, between two quite diverse historians, the same
claim may be taken as a challenge (despite YOUR claim that shared class interests meant no
real difference in political parties, the Whig and Tory parties in 17th-century England were
really different). And, of course, on stage as part of a drama, the claim about the Whig and Tory
parties is not even a “real” assertion, but a “pretend” one.
Furthermore, the words “privileged”, “contending”, and “factions” will take on different
specific meanings in different contexts. For example, in one context, “privileged” might
mean “rich”, while in another context it might mean “educated” or “cultured” or “politic-
ally connected” or “born into a family with high status” or some combination of the above or
something else altogether.
To analyze Gagnon’s sentence or his whole text, or any part of it, at the level of situated
meanings—that is, in order to carry out the situated meaning task—would require a close study
of some of the relevant contexts within which that text is placed and which it, in turn, helps
to create. This might mean inspecting the parts of Gagnon’s text that precede or follow a part
of the text we want to analyze. It might mean inspecting other texts related to Gagnon’s. It
might mean studying debates among different types of historians and debates about educational
standards and policy (since Gagnon’s text was meant to argue for a view about what history
ought to be taught in schools). It might mean studying these debates historically across time and
in terms of the actual situations Gagnon and his text were caught up in (e.g., debates about new
school history standards in Massachusetts, a state where Gagnon once helped write a version of
the standards). It might mean many other things, as well. Obviously, there is no space in a paper
of this scope to develop such an analysis here.
The issue of validity for analyses of situated meaning is quite different than the issue of val-
idity for analyses of utterance-type meanings. We saw above that the issue of validity for ana-
lyses of utterance-type meanings basically comes down to choosing and defending a particular
grammatical theory of how form and function relate in language at the level of utterance-type
meanings, as well as, of course, offering correct grammatical and semantic descriptions of one’s
data. On the other hand, the issue of validity for analyses of situated meaning is much harder.
In fact, it involves a very deep problem known as “the frame problem” (Gee, 2010).
The frame problem is this: any aspect of context can affect the meaning of an (oral or
written) utterance. Context, however, is indefinitely large, ranging from local matters like the
positioning of bodies and eye gaze, through people’s beliefs, to historical, institutional, and cul-
tural settings. No matter how much of the context we have considered in offering an interpret-
ation of an utterance, there is always the possibility of considering other and additional aspects
of the context, and these new considerations may change how we interpret the utterance.
Where do we cut off consideration of context? How can we be sure any interpretation is
“right”, if considering further aspects of the context might well change that interpretation?
Let us give an example of a case where changing how much of the context of an utterance
we consider changes significantly the interpretation we give to that utterance. Take a claim
like: “Many children die in Africa before they are five years old because they get infectious
diseases like malaria”. What is the appropriate amount of context within which to assess this
claim? We could consider just medical facts, a narrow context. And in the context the claim
seems unexceptional. But widen the context and consider the context described below:
Malaria, an infectious disease, is one of the most severe public health problems world-
wide. It is a leading cause of death and disease in many developing countries, where
young children and pregnant women are the groups most affected. Worldwide, one
death in three is from an infectious or communicable disease. However, almost all
4
Introduction
these deaths occur in the non-industrialized world. Health inequality affects not just
how people live, but often dictates how and at what age they die. [see: www.cdc.gov/
malar ia/impact/index.htm and ucatlas.ucsc.edu/cause.php].
This context would seem to say that so many children in Africa die early not because of infec-
tious diseases but because of poverty and economic underdevelopment. While this widening
of the context does not necessarily render the claim “Many children die in Africa before they
are five years old because they get infectious diseases like malaria” false, it, at least, suggests that
a narrow construal of “because” here (limiting it to physical and medical causes) effaces the
workings of poverty and economics.
The frame problem is both a problem and a tool. It is a problem because our discourse ana-
lytic interpretations (just like people’s everyday interpretations of language) are always vulner-
able to changing as we widen the context within which we interpret a piece of language. It is
a tool because we can use it—widening the context—to see what information and values are
being left unsaid or effaced in a piece of language.
The frame problem, of course, raises problems about validity for discourse analysis. We
cannot really argue an analysis is valid unless we keep widening the context in which we con-
sider a piece of language until the widening appears to make no difference to our interpret-
ation. At that point, we can stop and make our claims (open, of course, to later falsification as
in all empirical inquiry).
It should be clear now that discourse analysis involves studying language in the context of
society, culture, history, institutions, identity formation, politics, power, and all the other things
that language helps us to create and which, in turn, render language meaningful in certain
ways and able to accomplish certain purposes. As such, discourse analysis is both a branch of
linguistics and a contribution to the social sciences. Because of its relevance to so many social
and cultural issues, discourse analysis of one form or another is used in a great many disciplines,
for example, history, anthropology, psychiatry, sociology, political science, education, and many
others.
There are many different types of discourse analysis. Some forms are closely tied to lin-
guistics and tie their claims closely to facts about grammar and the way different grammatical
structures function in different contexts of use. Other forms are less closely tied to linguistics or
grammar and focus on the development of themes or images across the sentences or utterances
in an oral or written text. Some forms of discourse analysis are primarily interested in descrip-
tion and explanation. Others are interested, as well, in tying language to politically, socially, or
culturally contentious issues and intervening in these issues in some way. These latter forms of
discourse analysis are often called “critical discourse analysis” (Fairclough, 2003).
People do not make meaning just as individuals. They do so as parts of social groups who
agree on, contest, or negotiate norms and values about how language ought to be used and
what things ought to mean. Many forms of discourse analysis are, thus, connected to views
about and studies of different types of social groups. These groups are called by different names
depending on the aspects of social activity that the discourse analyst wants to stress: discourse
communities, speech communities, communities of practice, activity systems, Discourses (“big
D Discourses”), networks, and cultures. Whatever term is used, discourse analysis is always at
heart simultaneously an analysis of language and of practices in society (Gee, 2012).
When we use language to communicate we must signal to our listeners who we are (in the
sense of what socially meaningful identity or role we are speaking out of) and what we are doing
(what action or activity we are attempting to carry out). We do not do this with language alone.
If you want to get recognized in a given context as a “Native American”, a “good student”,
5
a “tough policeman”, a “competent doctor”, a “radical feminist”, a “devout Catholic”, or

a “gamer” (each of a certain sort), you need not just to “talk the talk”, but to “walk the
walk” as well. You need, in each case, to use distinctive “ways with words”—distinctive ways
of speaking/listening and/or reading/writing—and you need to couple these with distinctive
ways of acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, dressing, thinking, and believing, as well as using
various sorts of objects, tools, and technologies. Gee (1990) used the term “Discourses” (with
a capital “D”) for these distinctive meldings (a “dance”) of “ways with words” with non-verbal
things.
Discourses constitute “kinds of people” (Hacking, 1996) and they appear and disappear in
history. At one time in history, in England and the United States, you could be recognized as
a witch, if you “talked the talk” and “walked the walk” (and you might in some cases do so
unintentionally). Now it is much harder to get so recognized. People speak through (enact)
Discourses and thereby produce, reproduce, and change them through history.
The main importance of discourse analysis lies in the fact that, through speaking and writing
in the world, we make the world meaningful in certain ways and not others. We shape, produce,
and reproduce the world through language in use. In turn the world we shape and help to
create works in certain ways to shape us as humans in turn. This mutual shaping process can
have profound consequences for people’s lives. In the end, discourse analysis matters because
discourse matters. We discourse analysts want to expose the often taken-for-g ranted workings
of discourse to light, because like the study of atoms, cells, and stars, there is a great wealth of
scientific knowledge to be gained. But there is also insight into how to make the world a better
and more humane place to be gained as well.
This is the second edition of the Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis. This collection
contains 42 chapters, nine of which are new, both in terms of the authors and the topics. The
remaining 33 chapters have been completely revised. Unlike the first edition, which contained
six sections, the second edition is separated into eight sections: Approaches to discourse analysis,
Gender, race and sexualities, Narrativity and discourse, Genre and register, Spoken discourse, Social
media and online discourse, Educational applications, and Institutional applications. The new sections
are Gender, race and sexualities and Social media and online discourse. These are included to reflect
their increased and increasing relevance in our contemporary world. For instance, in the Gender,
race and sexualities section, there are original chapters on (anti)racism by Teun van Dijk, and on
intersectionality by Ebony Thomas, Autumn Griffin, and S. R. Toliver. It is of note that neither
of these topics were included in the first edition, developed back in the first decade of this cen-
tury. This is not to say that they were not relevant then, but rather the topics with which they
engage and the explanations they offer seem even more pressing and relevant now. In the Social
media and online discourse section there are original chapters on social media by Rodney Jones,
small online stories by Alexandra Georgakopoulou, and online identity by Camilla Vásquez and
Dacota Liska. As such, they also evidence how we are positioning the Handbook: it is intended
to critically engage with real-world issues, such as racism in the 21st century, and demon-
strate how discourse analysis can provide empirical evidence of new and entrenched discourse
and social practices. Many of the chapters in other sections also evidence this orientation, for
instance Nicolina Montessori’s chapter on critical policy, which examines the United Nation’s
documents introducing the sustainable development goals (SDGs), or Edward Finegan’s revised
chapter on language and the law which demonstrates how minority dialect speakers or women
may suffer systemic discrimination in courtrooms. Other chapters may be more methodological
or theoretical in orientation, for instance the new chapters on evaluation by Theo van Leeuwen
and Joshua Han, and on metaphor by Zoltán Kövecses in the opening section.
6
Introduction
As with all such categorizations, other groupings are possible, and certain chapters may seem
more prototypical of the category than others. Moreover, some chapters may easily fit in two
or three categories simultaneously, for instance, Vijay Bhatia’s chapter on professional genres is
in the Genre and register section, but would be equally comfortable in the Institutional applications
section, whereas Mats Ekström’s new chapter on new media in Institutional applications could
have appeared in Genre and register. Therefore we suggest the reader use the categorizations
merely as a guide; also, each author suggests recommended chapters and areas at the end of the
chapter, which the reader is encouraged to explore.
In designing this Handbook, we intended it to be accessible and relevant for the widest pos-
sible audience. Discourse analysis is indeed an interdisciplinary approach, and this book should
allow readers from various academic backgrounds and disciplines to understand how discourse
analysis is done, and why it might be relevant to them. With this in mind, the chapters typically
contain expository analysis of real data. Readers should be able to see how the tools of discourse
analysis are used, and on what types of data. A quick glance through the list of authors will
show that the Handbook contains many of the leading figures in their fields, who continue to
produce groundbreaking work. Such researchers have been encouraged to give a more personal
account of their research and their motivations than is typical in publications of this sort, and to
place their research in the academic wider context.
In these ways, we hope once again to have assembled a collection that, in the words of one
contributor, not only defines the field but also drives it forward.
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Interactional sociolinguistics and discourse analysis

Bucholtz, Mary (2011) White Kids: Language, Race and Styles of Youth Identity. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
This study explores how three white youth groups in a Californian High School (preppies, hip hop fans and
nerds) use a range of linguistic resources with divergent indexical meanings (slang, Valley Girl speech,
African American English, affected superstandard English) to negotiate their actual and future position in a
racialised social order.
Erickson, Frederick (2004) Talk and Social Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Erickson in this book re-analyses examples of everyday interaction from his earlier work, before reviewing
key perspectives in social theory. The book is very accessible: the first chapter is in lay language; the
following ones gradually introduce the terminology necessary for reading the theoretical chapters.
Gumperz, John (1982a) Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This book is a landmark in interactional sociolinguistics. It eloquently introduces Gumperz’ main theoretical
and methodological concepts. A must-read for any student of interactional sociolinguistics.
Rampton, Ben (2022) Linguistic Practice in Changing Conditions. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
In this recent volume, Rampton brings together a number of his earlier IS analyses and more reflective
chapters which insist on the continuing relevance of IS for the analysis of everyday talk in urban settings and
the securitised environments these increasingly entail.
Agha, Asif (2007) Language and Social Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Multilingual Discourses, 2: 115–130.
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Corpus-based discourse analysis

Baker, Paul (2006) Using Corpora in Discourse Analysis. London: Continuum.
This book provides a very reader-friendly introduction to how key words, frequency and dispersion, and
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Baker, Paul and McEnery, Tony (eds.) (2015) Corpora and Discourse Studies. London: Palgrave.
The wide-ranging articles in this edited anthology explore ways in which traditional discourse analysis can
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Biber, Douglas , Connor, Ulla and Upton, Thomas (2007) Discourse on the Move: Using Corpus Analysis to
Describe Discourse Structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
This volume presents case studies which explore two major approaches (‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’) to
corpus-based discourse analysis.
Friginal, Eric and Hardy, Jack (eds.) (2021) The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Approaches to Discourse
Analysis. London: Routledge.
The chapters in this up-to-date handbook bear witness to the diversity, breadth and depth of this field.
Taylor, Charlotte and Marchi, Anna (eds.) (2018) Corpus Approaches to Discourse: A Critical Review.
London: Routledge.
Under-researched topics, overlooked genres and pitfalls to avoid in research design are covered in this
edited volume.
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Baker, Paul , Gabrielatos, Costas , Khosravinik, Majid , Krzyžanowski, Michal , McEnery, Tony and Wodak,
Ruth (2008) ‘A useful methodological synergy? Combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics
to examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK Press’, Discourse and Society, 19 (3):
273–306.
Baker, Paul and McEnery, Tony (2005) ‘A corpus-based approach to discourses of refugees and asylum
seekers in UN and newspaper texts’, Journal of Language and Politics, 4 (2): 197–226.
Baker, Paul and McEnery, Tony (eds.) (2015) Corpora and Discourse Studies. London: Palgrave.
Baker, Paul , Vessey, Rachelle and McEnery, Tony (2021) The Language of Violent Jihad. Cambridge:
Bednarek, Monika and Caple, Helen (2017) The Discourse of News Values: How News Organizations
Create Newsworthiness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Berber Sardinha, Tony (2021) ‘Discourse of academia from a multidimensional perspective’, in Eric Friginal
and Jack Hardy (eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Approaches to Discourse Analysis. London:
Biber, Douglas (1988) Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Biber, Douglas (2006) University Language: A Corpus-Based Study of Spoken and Written Registers.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Biber, Douglas , Connor, Ulla and Upton, Thomas (2007) Discourse on the Move: Using Corpus Analysis to
Describe Discourse Structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
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teaching and textbooks’, Applied Linguistics, 25 (3): 371–405.
Blommaert, Jan (2005) Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brezina, Vaclav , Temperley, Matt and McEnery, Tony (2018) #LancsBox [Computer software]. Available at:
http://corpora.lancs.ac.uk/lancsbox.
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of language in social life. Includes studies in elementary and secondary education, academic writing, and
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Systemic Functional Linguistics and Legitimation Code Theory. New York: Routledge.
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dialogue to better understand academic discourses in different situated practices. This book presents new
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Chilean pedagogical discourse of history regarding a recent painful national past of human rights violations
and dictatorship. The book offers a detailed linguistic and multimodal analysis of key discourses that build
pedagogical practices based on SFL and semiotics with a CDA approach.
Zappavigna, Michelle and Dreyfus, Shoshana (eds.) (2020) Discourses of Hope and Reconciliation. London:
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Metaphor and discourse

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A comprehensive introduction to conceptual metaphor theory. It also includes exercises.
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A substantial treatment of metaphor in discourse from a cognitive-pragmatic perspective.
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Eubanks, Philip (2000) A War of Words in the Discourse of Trade: The Rhetorical Constitution of Metaphor.
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Gender and discourse analysis

Cameron, Deborah (2015–2021) Language: A Feminist Guide. [https://debuk.wordpress.com/ (accessed 22
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This is Deborah Cameron’s blog which will engage lay readers and students/scholars of language, gender,
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pronoun choices, misrepresentation of sexual violence, #MeToo, constraints and successes of (authoritative)
women speakers in public.
Coates, Jennifer (2013) Women, Men and Everyday Talk. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
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conversational data spanning more than 30 years.
Hall, Kira (2009) ‘Boys talk: Hindi, moustaches and masculinity’, in Pia Pichler and Eva Eppler (eds.) Gender
and Spoken Interaction. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 139–162.
This article presents an ethnographic investigation of the interplay between local identity constructions and
larger-scale ideologies of language, gender, and social class in a bilingual support group for male-identified
women (or ‘boys’) in a New Delhi NGO.
Pichler, Pia (2021) ‘“I’ve got a daughter now man it’s clean man”: heteroglossic and intersectional
constructions of fatherhood in the spontaneous talk of a group of young southeast London men”. Language
in Society, First View, 1–28.
This article provides an insight into the heteroglossic and intersectional construction of fatherhood and
(hegemonic) masculinity in the self-recorded, spontaneous talk of a group of young men from ethnically and
racially mixed working-class backgrounds in southeast London.
Shaw, Sylvia (2020) Women, Language and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
In this book Shaw presents an in-depth overview of women’s (under)representation in in a range of political
contexts over a 20-year time span, contemplating the effects of sexism, gender stereotypes, and ideologies
and providing examples of resistance.
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Queer linguistics and discourse analysis

Cameron, Deborah and Kulick, Don (2003) Language and Sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
A useful, if at times partisan, review of 20th-century studies of discourse, text, and sexuality, and a
persuasive argument favoring a desire-centered paradigm to remedy the shortcomings of earlier work.
Milani, Tommaso (ed.) (2018) Queering Language, Gender and Sexuality. Sheffield: Equinox.
A selection of papers modeling what queer linguistic inquiry can reveal about discourses of identity and
desire, embodiment, heteronormative demand, and the politics of space and place.
Motschenbacher, Heiko (2022) Linguistic Dimensions of Sexual Normativity: Corpus-Based Evidence.
London: Routledge.
An extensive review of current theories of normativity precedes seven case studies tracing how normative
discourses shape meanings of sexuality in public media and other settings. The case studies model
combinations of queer perspectives and corpus linguistic analysis.
Rudwick, Stephanie (2021) The Ambiguity of English as a Lingua Franca. London: Routledge.
How discourses shaping English fluencies in post-apartheid South Africa promote national, historical/ethnic,
racial, as well as gendered and sexual identities. Queer inquiry joins ethnographic research, with speaking
subjects participating as researchers’ colleagues throughout the inquiry.
Zimman, Lal , Davis, Jenny and Raclaw, Joseph (eds.) (2014) Queer Excursions: Retheorizing Binaries in
Language, Gender and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Discussions of discourses and textual practices from diverse locations explore gender and sexuality when
binaries and boundaries do impose restrictions on data or theory-building.
Abe, Hidako (2019) ‘Indexicality of grammar: the case of Japanese transgender speakers’, in Kira Hall and
Rusty Barrett (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Language and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190212926.013.16.
Berlant, Lauren (2011) Cruel Optimism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Blackwood, Evelyn (2010) Falling into the Lesbi World: Desire and Difference in Indonesia. Honolulu, HI:
University of Hawai’i Press.
Borba, Rodrigo and Ostermann, Christina (2017) ‘Do bodies matter? Travestis’ embodiment of (trans)gender
identity through the manipulation of the Brazilian Portuguese grammatical gender system’, Gender and
Language, 1 (1): 131–147.
Calder, Jeremy (2019) ‘From sissy to sickening: the indexical landscape of /s/ in SoMa, San Francisco’,
Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 29 (3): 332–358.
Calder, Jeremy (2020) ‘From “gay lisp” to “fierce queen”: the sociophonetics of sexuality’s most iconic
variable’, in Kira Hall and Rusty Barrett (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Language and Sexuality. New York:
Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190212926.013.4.
Conrod, Kirby (2022) ‘Variation in English gendered pronouns: analysis and recommendations for ethics in
linguistics’, in Lex Konnelly and Browyn Bjorkman (eds.) Journal of Language and Sexuality, 11 (1). Special
issue: Towards an Engaged Linguistics: Nonbinary Pronouns as a Site of Advocacy in Research and
Teaching.
Crowley, Archie (2022) ‘Language ideologies and legitimacy among nonbinary YouTubers’, in Lex Konnelly
and Browyn Bjorkman (eds.) Journal of Language and Sexuality, 11 (1). Special Issue: Towards an Engaged
Linguistics: Nonbinary Pronouns as a Site of Advocacy in Research and Teaching.
Davis, Jenny (2014) ‘More than just “Gay Indians”: intersecting articulations of Two-Spirit gender, sexuality
and indigenousness’, in Lal Zimman , Jenny Davis and Joseph Raclaw (eds.) Queer Excursions:
Retheorizing Binaries in Language, Gender and Sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 62–80.
Duberman, Martin (1993) Stonewall. New York: Plume Books.
Dynes, Wayne (2007) ‘Migration of gay lingo’. Homolexis. http://homolexis.blogspot.com/2007/02/migration-
of-gay-lingo.html (posted February 16, 2007; accessed May 12, 2016).
Edelman, Elijah (2021) Trans Vitalities: Mapping Ethnographies of Trans Social and Political Coalitions. New
York: Routledge.
Edelman, Lee (2004) No Future: Queer Theory and the Death Drive. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Eng, David with Halberstam, J[ack] and Muñoz, José (2005) ‘Introduction: what’s queer about queer studies
now?’, Social Text, 84–85: 1–18. Special issue: What’s Queer about Queer Studies Now?
Fairclough, Norman (2003) Analysing Discourse. London: Routledge.
Goldberg, Jonathan and Menon, Madhavi (2005) ‘Queering history’, PMLA, 120 (5): 1608–1617.
Gopinath, Gayatri (2005) Impossible Desires. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Halberstam, J[ack] (1998) Female Masculinity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Hill, Jane (1998) ‘Language, race, and white public space’, American Anthropologist, 100 (3): 680–689.
Ilbury, Christopher (2020) ‘“Sassy queens”: stylistic orthographic variation in Twitter and the enregisterment
of AAVE’, Journal of Sociolinguistics, 24: 345–264.
Johnson, E. Patrick (2005) ‘“Quare” studies, or (almost) everything I know about queer studies I learned from
my grandmother’, in E. P. Johnson and Mae Henderson (eds.) Black Queer Studies. Durham, NC: Duke
Johnson, E. Patrick (2008) Sweet Tea: Black Gay Men of the South. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North
Carolina Press.
Johnson, E. Patrick (ed.) (2016) No Tea, No Shade: New Writings in Black Queer Studies. Durham, NC:
Duke University Press.
Johnson, E. Patrick (2018) Black. Queer. Southern. Women. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press.
Johnson, E. Patrick and Mae, Henderson (eds.) (2005) Black Queer Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University
Press.
June, Jennie (2020 [1918]) Autobiography of an Androgyne. San Francisco, CA: Stanhope Press.
Konnelly, Lex (2021) ‘Nuance and normativity in trans linguistics research’, Journal of Language and
Sexuality, 10 (1): 71–82.
Konnelly, Lex and Bjorkman, Browyn (eds.) (2022) Journal of Language and Sexuality, 11 (1). Special issue:
Towards an Engaged Linguistics: Nonbinary Pronouns as a Site of Advocacy in Research and Teaching.
Lane, Nikki (2011) ‘Black women queering the mic: Missy Elliot disturbing the boundaries of racialized
sexuality and gender’, Journal of Homosexuality, 58 (6–7): 775–792.
Lane, Nikki (2019) The Black Queer Work of Ratchet: Race, Gender, Sexuality and (Anti)Politics of
Respectability. London: Palgrave.
Leap, William (2012) ‘Queer linguistics, sexuality and discourse analysis’, in James Gee and Michael
Handford (eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge, pp. 558–571.
Leap, William (2020a) Language before Stonewall: Language, Sexuality, History. London: Palgrave.
Leap, William (2020b) ‘Language, sexuality, history’, in Kira Hall and Rusty Barrett (eds.) The Oxford
Handbook of Language and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190212926.013.12.
Leap, William (2021) ‘Queer refusal / Recusa queer’, Revista Da Anpoll, 52: 216–229.
doi.org/10.18309/ranpoll.v52iesp.159.
Leap, William (to appear) The Queer Potential of Translanguaging. Manuscript under review.
Leznoff, Maurice and Wesley, William A . (1956) ‘The homosexual community’, Social Problems, 3 (4):
257–263.
Livia, Anna and Hall, Kira (1997) ‘“It’s a girl!”: bringing performativity back to linguistics’, in Anna Livia and
Kira Hall (eds.) Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.
1–15.
Makoni, Busi (2021) ‘Black female scholarship matters: a black female’s reflections on language and
sexuality studies’, Journal of Language and Sexuality, 19 (1): 48–58.
Marcus, Eric (2009) ‘Stonewall’. www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/stonewall-
transcript/#.Vbdt8ZFqdUSmail.
Masten, Jeffrey (2016) Queer Philologies: Sex, Language and Affect in Shakespeare’s Time. Philadelphia,
PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
McCune, Jeffrey (2014) Sexual Discretion: Black Masculinity and the Politics of Passing. Chicago, IL:
Menon, Madhavi (2008) ‘The argument: unhistoricism, or homohistory’, in Unhistorical Shakespeare: Queer
Theory in Shakespearean Literature and Film. London: Palgrave, pp. 1–26.
Muñoz, José (1999) Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics. Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Muñoz, José (2009) Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Futurity. New York: New York University Press.
Newton, Esther (1972) Mother Camp. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Pêcheux, Michel (1982 [1975]) ‘The subject form of discourse in the subjective appropriation of scientific
knowledges and political practice’, in Language, Semantics and Ideology ( Harbans Nagpal trans.). New
York: St. Martins Press, pp. 155–170.
Pierce, Joseph M ., Viteri, María Amelia , Falconí Trávez, Diego , Vidal-Ortiz, Salvador and Martínez-
Echazábal , Lourdes (2021) ‘Cuir / queer Américas: translation, decoloniality, and the incommensurable’,
GLQ, 27 (3): 321–327.
Provencher, Denis (2007) Queer French. London: Ashgate.
Provencher, Denis (2017) QMF: Queer Maghrebi French. Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press.
Raissiguier, Catherine (2010) Reinventing the Republic: Gender, Migration and Citizenship in France.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Rosa, Jonathan (2019) Looking Like a Language, Sounding Like a Race: Raciolinguistic Ideologies and the
Learning of Latinidad. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ruti, Mari (2017) The Ethics of Opting Out: Queer Theory’s Defiant Subjects. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Sedgwick, Eve (1993) ‘Queer and now’, in Tendencies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 1–20.
Snorton, C. Riley (2017) Black on Both Sides: A Racial History of Trans Identity. Minneapolis, MN: University
of Minnesota Press.
Traub, Valerie (2016) Thinking Sex with the Early Moderns. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Turton, Stephen (2017) ‘“Improper words”: silencing same-sex desire in eighteenth century general English’,
Oxford Research in English, 8: 9–36.
Turton, Stephen (2019) ‘Unlawful entries: buggery, sodomy and the construction of sexual normativity in
early English dictionaries’, Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America, 40 (1): 81–112.
Vining, Don (1986) How Can You Come Out If You’ve Never Been In? Trumansburg, NY: Crossings Press.
Viteri, María Amelia (2017) ‘IntenSiones: tensions and queer agency and activism in Latino América’,
Feminist Studies, 43 (2): 405–417.
White, Edwin (1980) ‘The political language of homosexuality’, in Leonard Michaels and Christopher Ricks
(eds.) The State of the Language. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 235–246.
Wiegman, Robyn and Wilson, Elizabeth (eds.) (2015) differences, 26. Special issue: Queer Theory without
Antinormativity.
Woodard, Vincent (2014) The Delectable Negro: Human Consumption and Homoeroticism within U.S. Slave
Culture. New York: New York University Press.
Zimman, Lal (2012) ‘Voices in transition: testosterone, transmasculinity, and the gendered voice among
female-to-male transgender people’. Doctoral dissertation. University of Colorado.
Zimman, Lal (2019) ‘Trans self-identification and the language of neoliberal selfhood: agency, power, and
the limits of monologic discourse’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 256: 147–175.
Zimman, Lal (2020) ‘Transgender language, transgender moment: toward a trans linguistics’, in Kira Hall and
Rusty Barrett (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Language and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190212926.013.452012.
Zimman, Lal , Davis, Jenny and Raclaw, Joseph (eds.) (2014) Queer Excursions: Retheorizing Binaries in
Language, Gender and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Intersectionality and discourse analysis

Baker-Bell, April (2020) Linguistic Justice: Black Language, Literacy, Identity, and Pedagogy. London:
Routledge.
Baker-Bell’s book bridges the gap between theory, research, pedagogical practice, and lived experience to
examine antiblack linguistic racism and linguistic white supremacy. Linguistic Justice has our highest
recommendation.
Brown, Ayanna F. (2011) ‘Descendants of “Ruth”: Black girls coping through the “Black male crisis”’, The
Urban Review, 43 (5): 597–619.
This essential article discursively demonstrates how Black girls were invisibilized and underserved through
school policy and practices focused on at-risk Black boys – a hallmark of Crenshaw’s legal theory of
intersectionality.
Carter, Stephanie Power (2007) ‘“Reading all that white crazy stuff:” Black young women unpacking
whiteness in a high school British literature classroom’, The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 42 (1): 42–54.
Carter shows how Black adolescent girls responded to curriculum that privileged Eurocentric images of
young women’s beauty through this discussion of a lesson on Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130.
Haddix, Marcelle M. (2012) ‘Talkin’ in the company of my sistas: the counterlanguages and deliberate
silences of Black female students in teacher education’, Linguistics and Education, 23 (2): 169–181.
This article demonstrates how racial assumptions of whiteness in teacher education (that is, the majority of
preservice teachers are white women, so the curriculum is written with them in mind) rendered Black women
teaching candidates invisible and silenced. The candidates utilized counterlanguage and deliberate silences
as agency.
Acker, Joan (2012) ‘Gendered organizations and intersectionality: problems and possibilities’, Equality,
Diversity and Inclusion, 31 (3): 214–224.
Baker-Bell, April (2020) Linguistic Justice: Black Language, Literacy, Identity, and Pedagogy. London:
Routledge.
Bell, Derrick (1992) Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism. New York: Basic Books.
Brock, André (2018) ‘Critical technocultural discourse analysis’, New Media & Society, 20 (3): 1012–1030.
Brown, Ayanna F. (2011) ‘Descendants of “Ruth”: Black girls coping through the “Black male crisis”’, The
Urban Review, 43 (5): 597–619.
Brown, Ruth Nicole (2009) Black Girlhood Celebration: Toward a Hip-Hop Feminist Pedagogy. New York:
Peter Lang.
Butler, Tamara T. (2018) ‘Black girl cartography: Black girlhood and place-making in education research’,
Review of Research in Education, 42 (1): 28–45.
Cahill, Loren S. (2022) ‘Memoirs of the Colored Girls Museum: for Blackgirls everywhere to remember that
our love is enuf’, WSQ: Women’s Studies Quarterly, 50 (1): 229–245.
Carter, Stephanie Power (2007) ‘“Reading all that white crazy stuff:” Black young women unpacking
whiteness in a high school British literature classroom’, The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 42 (1): 42–54.
Cho, Sumi, Williams Crenshaw, Kimberlé and McCall, Leslie (2013) ‘Toward a field of intersectionality
studies: theory, applications, and praxis’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38 (4): 785–810.
Ciston, Sarah (2019) ‘Intersectional AI is essential: polyvocal, multimodal, experimental methods to save
artificial intelligence’, Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts, 11 (2): 3–8.
Collins, Patricia Hill (1991) ‘On our own terms: self-defined standpoints and curriculum transformation’,
NWSA Journal, 3 (3): 367–381.
Collins, Patricia Hill (2002) Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of
Empowerment. London: Routledge.
Collins, Patricia Hill (2012) ‘Social inequality, power, and politics: intersectionality and American pragmatism
in dialogue’, The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 26 (2): 442–457.
Crenshaw, Kimberlé (1989) ‘Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a Black feminist critique of
antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics’, University of Chicago Legal Forum, 8 (1):
139–167.
Crenshaw, Kimberlé (1991) ‘Mapping the margins: identity politics, intersectionality, and violence against
women’, Stanford Law Review, 43 (6): 1241–1299.
Dillard, Cynthia B. (2000) ‘The substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen: examining an
endarkened feminist epistemology in educational research and leadership’, International Journal of
Qualitative Studies in Education, 13 (6): 661–681.
Dillard, Cynthia (2021) The Spirit of Our Work: Black Women Teachers (Re) Member. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press.
Edwards, Breanna (2014) ‘The secret fight of the Black-girl nerds’, The Root. www.theroot.com/the-
secretfight-of-the-black-girl-nerds-1790876687 (retrieved 31 July 2022).
Evans-Winters, Venus E. (2021) ‘Black women improvisations: shifting methodological (mis) understandings
within and across boundaries’, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 34 (6): 481–485.
Fairclough, Norman (2013) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London: Routledge.
Floyd-Thomas, Stacey M. (2006) Deeper Shades of Purple: Womanism in Religion and Society. New York:
NYU Press.
Foreman, P. Gabrielle (1997) ‘“Reading aright”: white slavery, Black referents, and the strategy of
histotextuality in Iola Leroy ’, The Yale Journal of Criticism, 10 (2): 327–354.
Griffin, Autumn Adia (2020) ‘Finding love in a hopeless place: Black girls’ twenty-first century self-love
literacies’. Dissertation. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Griffin, Autumn A . (2021a) ‘Black parade: conceptualizing Black adolescent girls’ multimodal renderings as
parades’, Urban Education: 00420859211003944.
Griffin, Autumn A . (2021b) ‘Magic water: the symbolic and healing nature of water in Black children’s
literature’, Journal of Language and Literacy Education, 17 (2): 1–9.
Habermas, Jürgen (1998) On the Pragmatics of Communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Haddix, Marcelle M. (2012) ‘Talkin’ in the company of my sistas: the counterlanguages and deliberate
silences of Black female students in teacher education’, Linguistics and Education, 23 (2): 169–181.
Halliday, Aria S. (2020) ‘Twerk sumn!: Theorizing Black girl epistemology in the body’, Cultural Studies, 34
(6): 874–891.
Haynes, Chayla , Joseph, Nicole M ., Patton, Lori D ., Stewart, Saran and Allen, Evette L . (2020) ‘Toward an
understanding of intersectionality methodology: a 30–year literature synthesis of Black women’s experiences
in higher education’, Review of Educational Research, 90 (6): 751–787.
Hudson-Weems, Clenora (2001) ‘Africana womanism: the flip side of a coin’, Western Journal of Black
Studies, 25 (3): 137–145.
Jacobs, Harriet A. (1862) Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself ( L. Maria Child , ed.).
London: Hodson and Son.
Joseph, Nicole M., Haynes, Chayla and Patton, Lori D. (2021) ‘The politics of publishing: a national
conversation with scholars who use their research about Black women to address intersectionality’,
Educational Researcher, 50 (2): 115–126.
Kirkham, Sam (2015) ‘Intersectionality and the social meanings of variation: class, ethnicity, and social
practice’, Language in Society, 44 (5): 629–652.
Koester, Almut, and Handford, Michael (2018) ‘“It’s not good saying ‘Well it it might do that or it might not’”:
Hypothetical reported speech in business meetings’, Journal of Pragmatics, 130 (6): 7–80.
Kohl, Ellen and McCutcheon, Priscilla (2015) ‘Kitchen table reflexivity: negotiating positionality through
everyday talk’, Gender, Place, and Culture, 22 (6): 747–763.
McPherson, Kisha (2020) ‘Black girls are not magic; they are human: intersectionality and inequity in the
Greater Toronto Area (GTA) schools’, Curriculum Inquiry, 50 (2): 149–167.
Mims, Lauren C. and Williams, Joanna L. (2020) ‘“They told me what I was before I could tell them what I
was”: Black girls’ ethnic-racial identity development within multiple worlds’, Journal of Adolescent Research,
35 (6): 754–779.
Mirra, Nicole, Garcia, Antero and Morrell, Ernest (2015) Doing Youth Participatory Action Research:
Transforming Inquiry with Researchers, Educators, and Students. London: Routledge.
Morris, Monique (2016) Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools. New York: New Press.
Morris, Monique (2019) Pushout: A Documentary. Dir. Jacoba Atlas. https://pushoutfilm.com/.
Muhammad, Gholnecsar E. and Haddix, Marcelle (2016) ‘Centering Black girls’ literacies: a review of
literature on the multiple ways of knowing of Black girls’, English Education, 48 (4): 299–336.
Muhammad, Gholnecsar E. and Womack, Erica (2015) ‘From pen to pin: the multimodality of Black girls (re)
writing their lives’, Ubiquity: The Journal of Literature, Literacy, and the Arts, 2 (2): 6–45.
Nyachae, Tiffany M. and Ohito, Esther O. (2019) ‘No disrespect: a womanist critique of respectability
discourses in extracurricular programming for Black girls’, Urban Education: 0042085919893733.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo (1985) ‘Womanism: the dynamics of the contemporary black female novel in
English’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 11 (1): 63–80.
Ohito, Esther O. and Nyachae, Tiffany M. (2019) ‘Poetically poking at language and power: using Black
feminist poetry to conduct rigorous feminist critical discourse analysis’, Qualitative Inquiry, 25 (9–10):
839–850.
Phillips, Layli (2006) The Womanist Reader: The First Quarter Century of Womanist Thought. London:
Routledge.
Price-Dennis, Detra and Muhammad, Gholnecsar E . (eds.) (2021) Black Girls’ Literacies: Transforming
Lives and Literacy Practices. London: Routledge.
Roche, Jennifer and Arnold, Hayley (2018) ‘The effects of emotion suppression during language planning
and production’, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing, 61 (8): 2076–2083.
Romaine, Suzanne and Lange, Deborah (1991) ‘The use of like as a marker of reported speech and thought:
a case of grammaticalization in progress’, American Speech, 66 (3): 227–279.
Rosette, Ashleigh Shelby, Ponce de Leon, Rebecca, Zhou Koval, Christy and Harrison, David A. (2018)
‘Intersectionality: connecting experiences of gender with race at work’, Research in Organizational Behavior,
38: 1–22.
Sánchez-Eppler, Karen (2005) Dependent States: The Child’s Part in Nineteenth-Century American Culture.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Sealey-Ruiz, Yolanda (2007) ‘Wrapping the curriculum around their lives: using a culturally relevant
curriculum with African American adult women’, Adult Education Quarterly, 58 (1): 44–60.
Searle, John R., Kiefer, Ferenc and Bierwisch, Manfred (eds.) (1980) Speech Act Theory and Pragmatics.
Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
Smitherman, Geneva (1986) Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America. Detroit, MI: Wayne State
University Press.
Tefera, Adai A ., Powers, Jeanne M . and Fischman, Gustavo E . (2018) ‘Intersectionality in education: a
conceptual aspiration and research imperative’, Review of Research in Education, 42 (1): vii–xvii.
Toliver, S. R. (2020) ‘“I desperately need visions of Black people thriving”: emancipating the fantastic with
Black women’s words’, Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 64 (3): 323–332.
Toliver, S. R. (2022) ‘“Weird is normal”: a womanist discourse analysis of Black girl nerds’ community
building’, Equity & Excellence in Education: 1–15.
van Dijk, Teun A. (1993) ‘Principles of critical discourse analysis’, Discourse & Society, 4 (2): 249–283.
van Dijk, Teun A. (1995) ‘Discourse semantics and ideology’, Discourse & Society, 6 (2): 243–289.
Walker, Alice (1983) In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Wargo, Jon M . (2022) ‘“Can I just be a human?” Reading LGBTQ+ youths’ civics talk-as-text’, The Journal
of Social Studies Research, 46 (1): 19–33.
Watkins-Hayes, Celeste (2014) ‘Intersectionality and the sociology of HIV/AIDS: past, present, and future
research directions’, Annual Review of Sociology, 40 (1): 431–457.
Wetherell, Margaret (2008) ‘Subjectivity or psycho-discursive practices? Investigating complex intersectional
identities’, Subjectivity, 22 (1): 73–81.
Winn, Maisha T . (2012) ‘The politics of desire and possibility in urban playwriting: (Re) reading and (re)
writing the script’, Pedagogies: An International Journal, 7 (4): 317–332.
Wodak, Ruth (2009) ‘The semiotics of racism: a critical discourse-historical analysis’, in Jan Renkema (ed.)
Discourse, of Course: An Overview of Research in Discourse Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp.
311–326.
Wodak, Ruth (2011) ‘Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis’, Discursive Pragmatics, 8: 50–70.
Wright, Nazera Sadiq (2016) Black Girlhood in the Nineteenth Century. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois
Press.
Discourse, gender and professional communication

Baxter, Judith (2014) Double Voicing at Work: Power, Gender and Linguistic Expertise. Basingstoke:
Palgrave.
Baxter explores gender in relation to the discourse of business meetings and university classrooms, drawing
on the concept of “double-voicing”, whereby professionals adjust their discourse styles to account for their
awareness of the agendas and concerns of their fellow interactants. She demonstrates how double-voicing
can be used strategically by women in professional settings to demonstrate their linguistic expertise, as well
as a tool to gain approval and acceptance in terms of professional status.
Holmes, Janet (2006) Gendered Talk at Work. Oxford: Blackwell.
Holmes’ seminal work brings together a plethora of spoken data analyses from the Language in the
Workplace corpus in New Zealand. This volume includes interactions from government departments,
corporate organisations, factories, medical settings and IT. She covers a range of areas of analysis including
gender and leadership talk, relational practice, humour, disagreement, complaint and narrative analysis.
Mullany, Louise and Schnurr, Stephanie (2022) Globalisation, Geopolitics and Gender in Professional
Communication. New York: Routledge.
This collection investigates the linguistics of globalisation, geopolitics and gender in professional
communication in a range of settings. The chapters examine how issues of globalisation, gender and
geopolitics affect professionals in different workplace contexts, including domestic workers, IT professionals,
politicians, teachers, university staff, engineers, entrepreneurs, corporate CEOs, NGO leaders, bloggers,
healthcare assistants and caregivers. Authors cover a range of salient geopolitical issues which have global
applicability, but which may also be subject to more localised, socio-cultural variation. The chapters critically
discuss intersectionality, gendered language, perceptions and representations of workplace cultures,
discrimination, gendered stereotyping and deeply ingrained socio-cultural myths about gender, discourse,
identifying critical barriers to equality, diversity and inclusion in professional workplaces worldwide.
Iyer, Radha (2009) ‘Entrepreneurial identities and the problematic of subjectivity in media-mediated
discourses’, Discourse and Society, 20: 241–264.
This article presents a written textual analysis of media discourses authored by women entrepreneurs, taken
from Indian newspapers and popular magazines. Iyer takes a critical discourse analysis approach, which
draws upon a range of different analytical features. She explores dominant gender discourses, including
dominant discourses of femininity and patriarchy. She characterises an important oppositional discourse of
“being/becoming”, which signifies a shift in representations of women, echoing shifts in gender relations and
wider social changes.
Angouri, Jo (2011) ‘“We are in a masculine profession …’: doing gender in a consortium of two multinational
engineering companies situated in Greece’, Gender and Language, 5 (2): 231–245.
Appleby, Roslyn (2015) ‘Julia Gillard: aa murderous rage’, in John Wilson and Diana Boxer (eds.) Discourse,
Politics and Women as Global Leaders. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 250–65.
Ashcraft, Karen and Mumby, Dennis (2004) ‘Organizing a critical communicology of gender and work’,
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 166: 19–43.
Banyard, Kat (2010) The Equality Illusion. London: Faber.
Bargiela-Chiappini, Francesca , Nickerson, Catherine and Planken, Brigette (2013) Business Discourse.
Second edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Baxter, Judith (2010) The Language of Female Leadership. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Baxter, Judith (2014) Double Voicing at Work: Power, Gender and Linguistic Expertise. Basingstoke:
Palgrave.
Baxter, Judith (2017) ‘Resolving a gender and language problem in women’s leadership: consultancy
research in workplace discourse’, Discourse & Communication, 11: 141–159.
Baxter, Judith and Wallace, Kieran (2009) ‘Outside in-group and out-group identities? Constructing male
solidarity and female exclusion in UK builders’ talk’, Discourse & Society, 20: 411–430.
Bengoechea, Mercedes (2011) ‘How effective is “femininity”? Media portrayals of the effectiveness of the
first Spanish Woman Defence Minister’, Gender and Language, 5 (2): 405–429.
Bucholtz, Mary and Hall, Kira (2010) ‘Locating identity in language’, in Carmen Llamas and Dominic Watt
(eds.) Language and Identities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 18–28.
Butler, Judith (1999) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Second edition. New York:
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Mik-Meyer (eds.) Qualitative Analysis: Eight Approaches for the Social Sciences. London, Delhi and New
York: Sage, pp. 243–264.
In this chapter Bamberg draws together various narrative practices, based on thematic, structural,
interactional and positional aspects of storytelling.
Conley, John , O’Barr, William and Conley Riner, Robin (2019) Just Words: Law, Language and Power.
Third edition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
For those particularly interested in the role of narrative discourse, language and the law, the third edition of
this seminal work is essential reading.
Page, Ruth (2015) ‘The narrative dimensions of social media storytelling: options for linearity and tellership’,
in Anna De Fina and Alexandra Georgakopoulou (eds.) The Handbook of Narrative Analysis. Chichester:
Wiley Blackwell, pp. 329–348. doi: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118458204.
In this chapter Page offers a succinct, fresh look at the analysis of narrative forms in the context of social
media.
Bamberg, Michael and Andrews, Molly (eds.) (2004) Considering Counter-Narratives: Narrating, Resisting,
Making Sense. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bell, Allan (1994) ‘Telling stories’, in David Graddol and Oliver Boyd-Barrett (eds.) Media Texts: Authors and
Readers. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 119–136.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana (1997) Dinner Talk. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bruner, Jerome (1991) ‘The narrative construction of reality’, Critical Enquiry, 18: 1–21.
Cheshire, Jenny and Ziebland, Sue (2005) ‘Narrative as a resource in accounts of the experience of illness’,
in Joanna Thornborrow and Jennifer Coates (eds.) The Sociolinguistics of Narrative. Amsterdam: John
Coates, Jennifer (1996) Women Talk: Conversation between Women Friends. Oxford: Blackwell.
Coates, Jennifer (2003) Men Talk: Stories in the Making of Masculinities. Oxford: Blackwell.
Edley, Nigel and Litosseliti, Lia (2010) ‘Contemplating interviews and focus groups’, in Lia Litosseliti (ed.)
Research Methods in Linguistics. London: Continuum, pp. 155–179.
Gimenez, Julio (2010) ‘Narrative analysis in linguistic research’, in Lia Litosseliti (ed.) Research Methods in
Linguistics. London: Continuum, pp. 198–215.
Harris, Sandra (2005) ‘Telling stories and giving evidence: the hybridization of narrative and non-narrative
modes of discourse in a sexual assault trial’, in Joanna Thornborrow and Jennifer Coates (eds.) The
Sociolinguistics of Narrative. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 215–238.
Holmes, Janet and Stubbe, Maria (2015) Power and Politeness in the Workplace. London: Routledge.
Jefferson, Gail (1978) ‘Sequential aspects of storytelling in conversation’, in Jim Schenkein (ed.) Studies in
the Organization of Conversational Interaction. New York: Academic Press, pp. 219–248.
Johnson, Alison (2008) ‘“From where we’re sat …”: negotiating narrative transformation through interaction
in police interviews with suspects’, Text and Talk, 28 (3): 327–350.
Labov, William and Waletzky, Joshua (1967) ‘Narrative analysis: oral versions of personal experience’, in
June Helm (ed.) Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Montgomery, Martin (1991) ‘“Our tune”: a study of a discourse genre’, in Paddy Scannell (ed.) Broadcast
Talk. London: Sage, pp. 138–177.
Montgomery, Martin (2010) ‘Rituals of personal experience in television news interviews’, Discourse &
Norrick, Neal (2005) ‘Contextualising and recontextualising interlaced stories in conversation’, in Joanna
Thornborrow and Jennifer Coates (eds.) The Sociolinguistics of Narrative. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp.
114–115.
Ochs, Elinor and Taylor, Carolyn (1992) ‘Family narrative as political activity’, Discourse and Society, 3 (3):
199–220.
Page, Ruth , Harper, Richard and Frobenius, Maximiliane (2013) ‘From small stories to networked narrative:
the evolution of personal narratives in Facebook status updates’, Narrative Enquiry, 23 (1): 192–213.
Pichler, Pia (2009) Talking Young Femininities. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Polanyi, Livia (1985) ‘Conversational storytelling’, in Teun A. van Dijk (ed.) Handbook of Discourse Analysis,
vol. 3: Discourse and Dialogue. London: Academic Press, pp. 183–201.
Sacks, Harvey (1995) Lectures on Conversation ( Gail Jeffferson , ed.). Vols. 1 and 2. Oxford: Blackwell.
Saunders, Ben (2014) ‘Stigma, deviance and morality in young adults’ accounts of inflammatory bowel
disease’, Sociology of Health and Illness, 36 (7): 1020–1036.
Schegloff, Emmanuel (1997) ‘Narrative analysis: thirty years later’, Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7:
97–106.
Thornborrow, Joanna (2000) ‘The construction of conflicting accounts in public participation TV’, Language in
Society, 29: 357–377.
Thornborrow, Joanna (2001) ‘“Has this ever happened to you?”: Talk show narratives as mediated
performance’, in Andrew Tolson (ed.) TV Talk Shows: Discourse, Performance, Spectacle. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum, pp. 117–137.
Thornborrow, Joanna (2010) ‘“Going public”: constructing the personal in a television news interview’,
Discourse & Communication, 4 (2): 105–123.
Thornborrow, Joanna (2015) The Discourse of Public Participation Media: From Talk Show to Twitter.
London: Routledge.
Thornborrow, Joanna and Chartier, Pierre (2020) ‘Le partage du récit de l’expérience partagé sur Twitter: de
“Me too” au mouvement #MeToo’, in Sylvie Patron (ed.) Small Stories: Un nouveau paradigme pour les
recherches sur le récit. Paris: Cahier Textuel, pp. 91–114.
Toolan, Michael (2001) Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. Third edition. London: Routledge.
Literary discourse
Rather than reinventing the wheel and give a list of reading items, I will refer the reader who wants to explore
this area to four volumes.
Carter, Ronald and Stockwell, Peter (eds.) (2008) The Language and Literature Reader. London: Routledge.
This volume contains 28 chapters and is organised around three main periods. The section entitled
Foundations presents work from the 1960s and 1970s, including chapters that employ grammatical analysis
of literary texts (and includes the Halliday (1971) study mentioned above). Developments covers work in the
1980s and 1990s (Nash’s study on Hamlet is included). New Directions showcases more recent work,
including work in cognitive and corpus stylistics. It also contains a reprinted version of Gavins (2003) and
Semino (2002).
Lambrou, Marina and Stockwell, Peter (eds.) (2008) Contemporary Stylistics. London: Continuum.
This volume of 20 chapters is organised around the three main literary genres of prose, poetry and drama
and provides a very wide range of approaches to literary texts. It includes the chapter on schema poetics by
Walsh mentioned above.
Stockwell, Peter and Whitely, Sara (eds.) (2014) The Cambridge Handbook of Stylistics. Cambridge:
This volume contains 39 chapters and is divided into five parts which deal with the discipline, concepts,
techniques and experience of stylistics; the last part extends stylistics to beyond the literary domain.
Burke, Michael (ed.) (2017) The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics. London: Routledge.
This is another large volume, consisting of 32 chapters and divided into four parts. The third section is the
largest one and demonstrates the different methods employed in contemporary stylistics. The earlier parts
deal with the history and issues within stylistics, and the final part looks at some ‘trending’ approaches.
Black, Elizabeth (2006) Pragmatic Stylistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Bridgeman, Teresa (2005) ‘Thinking ahead: a cognitive approach to prolepsis’, Narrative, 13 (2): 125–159.
Broich, Ulrich (1997) ‘Intertextuality’, in Hans Bertens and Douwe Fokkema (eds.) International
Postmodernism: Theory and Literary Practice. Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 249–256.
Carter, Ronald and McCarthy, Michael (2006) Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Cook, Guy (1994) Discourse and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cooper, Marilyn (1998) ‘Implicature, convention and The Taming of the Shrew’, in Jonathan Culpeper , Mick
Short and Peter Verdonk (eds.) Exploring the Language of Drama: From Text to Context. London:
Crystal, David (1998) Language Play. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Culpeper, Jonathan , Short, Mick and Verdonk, Peter (eds.) (1998) Exploring the Language of Drama: From
Text to Context. London: Routledge.
Currie, Gregory (1990) The Nature of Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Douthwaite, John , Virdis, Daniela Francesca and Zurru, Elisabetta (2017) The Stylistics of Landscapes, the
Landscapes of Stylistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Ellis, Jeffrey and Ure, Jean N . (1976) ‘Registers’, in Christopher S. Butler and R. R. K. Hartman (eds.) A
Reader on Language Variety. Exeter: University of Exeter, pp. 32–40.
Fish, Stanley (1980) Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Gavaler, Chris and Johnson, Dan (2019) ‘A one-word science fiction (vs realism) manipulation reveals
intrinsic text properties outweigh extrinsic expectations of literary quality’, Scientific Study of Literature, 9 (1):
34–52.
Gavins, Joanna (2003) ‘Too much blague? An exploration of the text worlds of Donald Barthelme’s Snow
White’, in Joanna Gavins and Gerard Steen (eds.) Cognitive Poetics in Practice. London: Routledge, pp.
129–144.
Gavins, Joanna (2007) Text World Theory: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Gavins, Joanna and Steen, Gerard (eds.) (2003) Cognitive Poetics in Practice. London: Routledge.
Gunn, Daniel P . (2004) ‘Free indirect discourse and narrative authority in Emma ’, Narrative, 12 (1): 35–54.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1971) ‘Linguistic function and literary style: an inquiry into the language of William
Golding’s The Inheritors’, in Seymour Chatman (ed.) Literary Style: A Symposium. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, pp. 330–368.
Ikegami, Yoshihiko (2005) ‘Register specification in the learner’s dictionary’.
www.pearsonlongman.com/dictionaries/pdfs/register-specification.pdf.
Jackson, Howard and Amvela, Etienne Zé (2000) Words, Meaning, and Vocabulary: An Introduction to
Modern English Lexicology. London: Cassell.
Jakobson, Roman (1960) ‘Closing statements: linguistics and poetics’, in Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.) Style in
Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 350–377.
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (1980) Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Leech, Geoffrey (2008) Language and Literature: Style and Foregrounding. London: Routledge.
Mahlberg, Michaela , Stockwell, Peter , Joode, Johan de , Smith, Catherine and O’Donnell, Matthew Brook
(2016) ‘CLiC Dickens: novel uses of concordances for the integration of corpus stylistics and cognitive
poetic’s’, Corpora, 11 (3): 433–463.
Mahlberg, Michaela and Wiegand, Viola (2020) ‘Literary stylistics’, in Svenja Adolphs and Dawn Knight
(eds.) The Routledge Handbook of English Language and Digital Humanities. London: Routledge, pp.
306–327.
McIntyre, Dan (2004) ‘Investigating the presentation of speech, writing and thought in spoken British English:
a corpus-based approach’, ICAME Journal, 28: 49–76.
McRae, John (1994) Literature with a Small ‘l’. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Miall, David S . (2018) ‘Towards an empirical model of literariness’, Scientific Study of Literature, 8 (1):
21–46.
Miall, David S . and Kuiken, Don (1999) ‘What is literariness? Three components of literary reading’,
Discourse Processes, 28: 121–138.
Nash, Walter (1989) ‘Changing the guard at Elsinore’, in Ronald Carter and Paul Simpson (eds.) Language,
Discourse and Literature. London: Unwin Hyman, pp. 23–41.
Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition (1989) ‘Preface to the second edition’. OED Online. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. http://dictionary.oed.com/archive/oed2–preface/general.html.
Pratt, Mary Louise (1977) Toward a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.
Rudanko, Juhani (2006) ‘Aggravated impoliteness and two types of speaker intention in an episode of
Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens’, Journal of Pragmatics, 28: 820–841.
Searle, John R . (1975) ‘The logical status of fictional discourse’, New Literary History, 6: 319–332.
Reprinted in John R. Searle (1979) Expression and meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sell, Roger (1991) Literary Pragmatics. London: Routledge.
Semino, Elena (2002) ‘A cognitive stylistic approach to mind style in narrative fiction’, in Elena Semino and
Jonathan Culpeper (eds.) Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam:
Semino, Elena and Culpeper, Jonathan (eds.) (2002) Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text
Analysis. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Sherzer, Joel (2002) Speech Play and Verbal Art. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Short, Mick (1996) Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. London: Longman.
Stockwell, Peter (2002) Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction. London: Routledge.
Thomas, Jenny (1995) Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman.
Toolan, Michael (1998) Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics. London: Arnold.
van Peer, Willie (2008) ‘But what is literature? Toward a descriptive definition of literature’, in Ronald Carter
and Peter Stockwell (eds.) The Language and Literature Reader. London: Routledge, pp. 118–126.
Virdis, Daniela Francesca , Zurru, Elisabetta and Lahey, Ernestine (eds.) (2021) Language in Place: Stylistic
Perspectives on Landscape, Place and Environment. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Walsh, Clare (2008) ‘Schema poetics and crossover fiction’, in Marina Lambrou and Peter Stockwell (eds.)
Contemporary Stylistics. London: Continuum, pp. 106–117.
Widdowson, H. G. (1975) Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. London: Longman.
Widdowson, H. G. (1992) Practical Stylistics: An Approach to Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Narrative, cognition and rationality

Havelock, Eric (1982) The Literate Revolution in Greece and Its Cultural Consequences. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Havelock was the first to state, one could say overstate, the role of writing in the invention of philosophical
discourse in classical Greece. He thought the alphabet critical, a view that must be tempered by new
understanding of the importance of other scripts. But he was correct, I believe, in emphasizing the
importance of the fixed text and its availability to the common as opposed to the elite reader.
Goody, Jack (1987) The Interface between the Oral and the Written. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Goody uses his extensive knowledge of traditional oral culture to reflect on social changes produced by the
agricultural and urban revolutions and the role of writing in intellectual and social changes that accompanied
them.
Eisenstein, Elizabeth (1979) The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Eisenstein documents the increasing reliance on printed documents in social, political and intellectual life in
the 16th and 17th centuries when modern thought evolved. Her important emphasis on the availability of
texts, in my view, somewhat understates the importance of the new authority of the common reader and the
waning of authority of King and Church during that period.
McLuhan, Marshall (1962) The Gutenberg Galaxy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
McLuhan, often disparaged for his overstatement and universal popular appeal, was nonetheless the first to
insist that the medium of communication mattered and that writing invited a new mentality.
Allport, Gordon (1937) Personality. New York: Holt.
Barnes, Jerome (2009) New York Review of Books, LVI, June 11.
Bruner, Jerome (1961) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, Jerome (1986) Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, Jerome (2002) Making Stories: Law, Literature, Life. New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux.
Burke, Kenneth (1945) A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Carruthers, Peter (1996) Language, Thought and Consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cody, Sherwin (1894) The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Cooper, Charles (ed.) (1985) Researching Response to Literature and the Teaching of Literature: Points of
Departure. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dennett, Daniel (1978) Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Easterly, William (2009) ‘The anarchy of success’, New York Review of Books, LVI , October 8, 28–30.
Ford, William (1976) ‘The language of disjunction’. Unpublished PhD dissertation. OISE/University of
Toronto.
French, Lucy and Nelson, Katherine (1985) Young Children’s Understanding of Relational Terms. New York:
Springer Verlag.
Gaskell Mrs . (1848) Mary Barton. London: Dent.
Gigerenzer, Gert (1996) ‘On narrow norms and vague heuristics: a reply to Kahneman and Tversky (1996)’,
Psychological Review, 103: 592–596.
Greenhaigh, Trisha (ed.) (1998) Narrative Based Medicine: Dialogue and Discourse in Clinical Practice.
London: BMJ Books.
Grice, H. Paul (1989) Studies in the Ways with Words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hacking, Ian (1983) Representing and Intervening: Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Harris, Roy (2009) ‘Speech and writing’, in David R. Olson and Nancy Torrance (eds.) The Cambridge
Handbook of Literacy. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 46–58.
Hertwig, Ralph and Gigerenzer, Gert (1999) ‘The “Conjunction Fallacy” revisited: how intelligent inferences
look like reasoning errors’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12 (4): 275–305.
Kahneman, Daniel and Tversky, Amos (1996) ‘On the reality of cognitive illusions’, Psychological Review,
103: 582–591.
Leezenberg, Michiel (2001) Contexts of Metaphor. New York: Elsevier.
Locke, John (1690/1961) An Essay concerning Human Understanding, vol. 2. London: Dent/Everyman’s
Library.
Luria, Alexander (1976) Cognitive Development: Its Cultural and Social Foundations. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lyotard, Jean-Paul (1993) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Minneapolis, MN: University
of Minnesota Press.
Macnamara, John (1986) A Border Dispute: The Place of Logic in Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Olson, David R . (1977) ‘From utterance to text: the bias of language in speech and writing’, Harvard
Educational Review, 47: 257–281.
Olson, David R . (1994) The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and
Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Olson, David R . (2009) ‘A theory of writing/reading: from literacy to literature’, Writing Systems Research, 1
(1): 51–64.
Olson, David R . (2016) The Mind on Paper: Reading, Consciousness and Rationality. Cambridge:
Piaget, Jean (1962) The Psychology of Intelligence. New York: Routledge.
Reiss, Timothy (1982) The Discourse of Modernism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Schlicht, Ekkehart (1985) Isolation and Aggregation in Economics. New York: Springer Verlag.
Slouka, Mark (2009) ‘Dehumanized: when math and science rule the school’, Harper’s Magazine, 319
(1912): 32–40.
Snow, Catherine and Uccelli, Paola (2009) ‘The challenge of academic language’, in David R. Olson and
Nancy G. Torrance (eds.) The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.
112–133.
Spratt, Thomas (1966) History of the Royal Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge ( J. I.
Cope and H. W. Jones , eds.). St. Louis, MO: Washington University Press.
Stanovich, Keith (2009) What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Tversky, Amos and Kahneman, Daniel (1974) ‘Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases’, Science,
185: 1124–1131.
Winner, Ellen , Rosenblatt, Elizabeth , Windmueller, Gail , Davidson, Lyle and Gardner, Howard (1986)
‘Children’s perception of “aesthetic” properties of the arts: domain-specific or pan-artistic?’, British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 4: 149–160.
Register and discourse analysis

This is the first major study of register variation to apply multi-dimensional analysis. The book identifies and
interprets the major dimensions of variation among spoken and written registers in English.
Biber, Douglas and Conrad, Susan (2019) Register, Genre, and Style. Second edition. Cambridge:
This book describes the most important kinds of texts in English and introduces the methodological
techniques used to analyze them. Three analytical approaches are introduced and compared throughout the
book, describing texts from the perspective of register, genre, and style.
Friginal, Eric (2009) The Language of Outsourced Call Centers. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
This is one of the first books to undertake a comprehensive linguistic description of an emerging register.
The book describes the register of call-center discourse at multiple linguistic levels, including a survey of
lexico-grammatical features, detailed descriptions of stance features, and a multi-dimensional analysis that
captures the underlying parameters of variation.
Quaglio, Paulo (2009) Television Dialogue: The Sitcom Friends versus Natural Conversation. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins.
This book presents a corpus-based description of the popular TV sitcom Friends compared to normal face-
to-face conversations. The book offers a thorough linguistic description of the television sitcom register,
including in-depth chapters that focus on vague language, the expression of personal emotion, informal
language (including slang and expletives), and a comparison of narrative features in Friends versus natural
conversation.
Atkinson, Dwight (1992) ‘The evolution of medical research writing from 1735 to 1985: the case of the
Edinburgh Medical Journal ’, Applied Linguistics, 13: 337–374.
Atkinson, Dwight (1999) Scientific Discourse in Sociohistorical Context: The Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, 1675–1975. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Besnier, Niko (1988) ‘The linguistic relationships of spoken and written Nukulaelae registers’, Language, 64:
707–736.
Biber, Douglas (1987) ‘A textual comparison of British and American writing’, American Speech, 62: 99–119.
Biber, Douglas (1995) Dimensions of Register Variation: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison. Cambridge:
Biber, Douglas (2001) ‘Dimensions of variation among eighteenth-century speech-based and written
registers’, in Susan Conrad and Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-Dimensional Studies.
London: Longman, pp. 200–214.
Biber, Douglas (2006) University Language: A Corpus-Based Study of Spoken and Written Registers.
Biber, Douglas (2008) ‘Corpus-based analyses of discourse: dimensions of variation in conversation’, in
Vijay Bhatia , John Flowerdew and Rodney H. Jones (eds.) Advances in Discourse Studies. London:
Biber, Douglas (2014) ‘Using multi-dimensional analysis to explore cross-linguistic universals of register
variation’, Languages in Contrast, 14 (1): 7–34.
Biber, Douglas , Connor, Ulla and Upton, Thomas A . (2007) Discourse on the Move: Using Corpus Analysis
to Describe Discourse Structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Biber, Douglas and Conrad, Susan (2019) Register, Genre, and Style. Second edition. Cambridge:
Biber, Douglas , Conrad, Susan and Reppen, Randi (1998) Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language
Structure and Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Biber, Douglas , Conrad, Susan , Reppen, Randi , Byrd, Pat and Helt, Marie (2002) ‘Speaking and writing in
the university: a multi-dimensional comparison’, TESOL Quarterly, 36: 9–48.
Biber, Douglas , Davies, Mark , Jones, James K. and Tracy-Ventura, Nicole (2006) ‘Spoken and written
register variation in Spanish: a multi-dimensional analysis’, Corpora, 1: 7–38.
Biber, Douglas and Finegan, Edward (1989) ‘Drift and the evolution of English style: a history of three
genres’, Language, 65: 487–517.
Biber, Douglas and Finegan, Edward (1997) ‘Diachronic relations among speech-based and written registers
in English’, in Susan Conrad and Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-Dimensional Studies.
Biber, Douglas and Hared, Mohamed (1992) ‘Dimensions of register variation in Somali’, Language Variation
and Change, 4: 41–75.
Biber, Douglas and Jones, James K . (2005) ‘Merging corpus linguistic and discourse analytic research
goals: discourse units in biology research articles’, Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 1: 151–182.
Brown, Penelope and Fraser, C . (1979) ‘Speech as a marker of situation’, in Klaus R. Scherer and Howard
Giles (eds.) Social Markers in Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 33–62.
Connor, Ulla and Upton, Thomas A. (2003) ‘Linguistic dimensions of direct mail letters’, in Charles F. Meyer
and Pepi Leistyna (eds.) Corpus Analysis: Language Structure and Language Use. Amsterdam: Rodopi, pp.
71–86.
Connor-Linton, Jeff and Shohamy, Elana (2001) ‘Register variation, oral proficiency sampling, and the
promise of multi-dimensional analysis’, in Susan Conrad and Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-
Dimensional Studies. London: Longman, pp. 124–137.
Conrad, Susan (1996) ‘Investigating academic texts with corpus-based techniques: an example from
biology’, Linguistics and Education, 8: 299–326.
Csomay, Eniko (2005) ‘Linguistic variation within university classroom talk: a corpus-based perspective’,
Ehret, Katharina and Taboada, Maite (2020) ‘Are online news comments like face-to-face conversation? A
multi-dimensional analysis of an emerging register’, Register Studies, 2 (1): 1–36.
Ervin-Tripp, Susan (1972) ‘On sociolinguistic rules: alternation and co-occurrence’, in John Gumperz and
Dell Hymes (eds.) Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication. New York: Holt, pp.
213–250.
Friginal, Eric (2009) The Language of Outsourced Call Centers. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Gardner, Sheena , Nesi, Hilary and Biber, Douglas (2019) ‘Discipline, level, genre: integrating situational
perspectives in a new MD analysis of university student writing’, Applied Linguistics, 40: 646–674.
Goulart, Larissa and Wood, Margaret (2019) ‘Methodological synthesis of research using multi-dimensional
analysis’, Journal of Research Design and Statistics in Linguistics and Communication Science, 6: 107–137.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1988) ‘On the language of physical science’, in Mohsen Ghadessy (ed.) Registers of
Written English: Situational Factors and Linguistic Features. London: Pinter, pp. 162–178.
Helt, Marie E . (2001) ‘A multi-dimensional comparison of British and American spoken English’, in Susan
Conrad and Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-Dimensional Studies. London: Longman, pp.
157–170.
Hymes, Dell (1974) Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia, PA: University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Kim, Youjin and Biber, Douglas (1994) ‘A corpus-based analysis of register variation in Korean’, in Douglas
Biber and Edward Finegan (eds.) Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Register. New York: Oxford University
Press, pp. 157–181.
Kruger, Haidee and Van Rooy, Bertus (2018) ‘Register variation in written contact varieties of English: a
multidimensional analysis’, English World-Wide, 39: 214–242.
McEnery, Anthony , Xiao, Richard and Tono, Yukio (2006) Corpus-Based Language Studies. London:
Routledge.
Parodi, Giovanni (2007) ‘Variation across registers in Spanish’, in Giovanni Parodi (ed.), Working with
Spanish Corpora. London: Continuum, pp. 11–53.
Quaglio, Paulo (2009) Television Dialogue: The Sitcom Friends versus Natural Conversation. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins.
Reppen, Randi (2001) ‘Register variation in student and adult speech and writing’, in Susan Conrad and
Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-Dimensional Studies. London: Longman, pp. 187–199.
Rey, Jennifer M . (2001) ‘Historical shifts in the language of women and men: gender differences in dramatic
dialogue’, in Susan Conrad and Douglas Biber (eds.) Variation in English: Multi-Dimensional Studies.
Sardinha, Tony and Pinto, Marcia (2019) ‘Dimensions of variation across American television registers’,
International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 24: 3–32.
Schiffrin, Deborah , Tannen, Deborah and Hamilton, Heidi E . (eds.) (2001) The Handbook of Discourse
Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell.
White, Margie Ligaya (1994) ‘Language in job interviews: differences relating to success and socioeconomic
variables’.PhD dissertation. Northern Arizona University,ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Genre, register and discourse in systemic functional linguistics

Acevedo, Claire and Rose, David (eds.) (in press) Reading to Learn, Reading the World: How Genre-Based
Literacy Pedagogy Is Democratizing Education. London: Equinox.
Bernstein, Basil (2000) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Critique. London:
Taylor and Francis.
Christie, Frances (ed.) (1999) Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social
Processes. London: Cassell.
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and School. London: Cassell.
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Genre as social action
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This essay connects the perspectives represented here with foundational work in the history and social
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This volume provides an extensive review of the work in writing studies, organized conceptually around the
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Critical genre analysis of professional discourse

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This work offers a very comprehensive analytical account of the way genres in the real world of professions
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A very informative and comprehensive account of corpus-informed discourse analysis of authentic business
meetings as a genre. It is an excellent resource for training business students and uninitiated professionals.
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This is an innovative and inspiring book that outlines an approach to discourse analysis with a focus on
academic genres. It is an excellent book for pedagogical application to the teaching and learning of a variety
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161–174.
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(1): 32–50.
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Prosody in discourse
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This is the revised edition of Brazil’s (1985 ) seminal work.
Cheng, Winnie , Greaves, Chris and Warren, Martin (2008) A Corpus-Driven Study of Discourse Intonation:
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Discourse(s) in advertising
Cluley, Robert (2017) Essentials of Advertising. London: Kogan Page.
A valuable guide for students and academics to the endless research possibilities afforded by advertising as
a discourse.
Hardy, Jonathan , Powell, Helen and MacRury, Iain (eds.) (2018) The Advertising Handbook. Fourth edition.
London and New York: Routledge, pp. 165–174.
Focusses on the latest developments in this field, with contributions from leading experts in advertising
communication, ranging from creativity, past and present marketing practices, to the new media and the new
consumers.
Rodgers, Esther and Thorson, Shelly (eds.) (2018) Advertising Theory. Second edition. London and New
York: Routledge.
A comprehensive overview and synthesis of the most important theories in the area of advertising studies.
Yakob, Faris (2022) Paid Attention: Innovative Advertising for a Digital World. London: Kogan Page.
A lively contextualization of the advertising phenomenon as it stands nowadays, with a strong emphasis on
the digital approaches of many recent campaigns.
Altstiel, Tom , Grow, Jean and Jennings, Marcel (2020) Advertising Creative: Strategy, Copy, Design. Fifth
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Discourse and news media
Bednarek, Monika and Caple, Helen (2019) News Discourse. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Bednarek and Caple provide a comprehensive introduction to the study of news discourse based on diverse
approaches and with rich examples from empirical research.
Montgomery, Martin (2007) The Discourse of Broadcast News. London: Routledge.
Montgomery’s book is the most in-depth linguistic and multidisciplinary study of broadcast news discourse.
Richardson, John (2007) Analysing Newspapers: An Approach from Critical Discourse Analysis. News York:
Palgrave.
This book is highly recommended as a theoretical and methodological guide to the critical discourse analysis
of news.
Alonso Belmonte, Isabel and Porto, Dolores (2020) ‘Multimodal framing devices in European online news’,
Language & Communication, 71: 55–71.
Baker, Paul , Gabrielatos, Costas , Khosravinik, Majid , Krzyzanowski, Michal , McEnery, Tony and Wodak,
Ruth (2008) ‘A useful methodology synergy? Combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to
examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK press’, Discourse & Society, 19: 273–306.
Baker, Paul , Gabrielatos, Costas and McEnery, Tony (2013) ‘Sketching Muslims: a corpus driven analysis of
representations around the word “Muslim” in the British Press 1998–2009’, Applied Linguistics, 34: 255–278.
Bednarek, Monika (2006) Evaluation in Media Discourse: Analysis of a Newspaper Corpus. London:
Continuum.
Bednarek, Monika and Caple, Helen (2014) ‘Why do news values matter? Towards a new methodological
framework for analysing news discourse in critical discourse analysis and beyond’, Discourse & Society, 25:
135–158.
Bednarek, Monika and Caple, Helen (2019) News Discourse. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Bell, Allan (1991) The Language of News Media. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bødker, Henrik (2016) ‘Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding model and the circulation of journalism in the digital
landscape’, Critical Studies in Media Communication, 33: 409–423.
Breazu, Petre and Machin, David (2022) ‘“It’s still them”: concealed racism against Roma in Romanian
television news’, Social Identities, 28: 90–107.
Caple, Helen and Knox, John (2017) ‘Genre(less) and purpose(less): online news galleries’, Discourse,
Context & Media, 20: 204–217.
Carlson, Matt (2017) Journalistic Authority: Legitimating News in the Digital Era. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Catenaccio, Paola , Cotter, Colleen , De Smedt, Mark , Garzone, Giuliana , Jacobs, Geert , Macgilchrist,
Felicitas , Lams, Lutgard , Perrin, Daniel , Richardson, John , Van Hout, Tom and Van Praeti, Ellen (2011)
‘Towards a linguistics of news production’, Journal of Pragmatics, 43: 1843–1852.
Chadwick, Andrew (2013) The Hybrid Media System. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Clayman, Steven (2015) ‘Broadcast news interview’, in Karen Tracy (ed.) The International Encyclopedia of
Language and Social Interaction. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell.
Clayman, Steven and Heritage, John (2002) The News Interview. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ðordevic, Jasmina (2020) ‘The sociocognitive dimension of hate speech in readers’ comments on Serbian
news websites’, Discourse, Context & Media, 33: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2019.100366.
Edgerly, Stephanie and Vraga, Emily (2019) ‘News, entertainment, or both? Exploring audience perceptions
of media genre in a hybrid media environment’, Journalism, 20: 807–826.
Efe, Ibrahim (2019) ‘A corpus-driven analysis of representations of Syrian asylum seekers in the Turkish
press 2011–2016’, Discourse & Communication, 13: 48–67.
Ekström, Mats (2006) ‘Interviewing, quoting and the development of modern news journalism’, in Mats
Ekström , Åsa Kroon and Mats Nylund (eds.) News from the Interview Society. Göteborg: Nordicom, pp.
21–48.
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Discourse and health(care)

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Discourses in the language of the law
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Over 40 chapters: language in the legal process; linguist as expert; new directions.
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Explores the relationship between speech and writing in law and the effects of modern technologies on law’s
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Ethnicity and humour in the workplace

Holmes, Janet (2000) ‘Politeness, power and provocation: how humour functions in the workplace’,
Discourse Studies, 2 (2): 159–185. Reprinted in Teun van Dijk (ed.) (2007) Discourse Studies, vol. 3.
London: Sage, pp. 76–101.
Although this paper does not focus on ethnicity, it provides a useful starting place for those interested in
using a discourse analysis approach for analysing workplace humour, including definitions and categories.
Moody, Stephen J . (2019) ‘Contextualizing macro-level identities and constructing inclusiveness through
teasing and self-mockery: a view from the intercultural workplace in Japan’, Journal of Pragmatics, 152:
145–159.
This article is an excellent example of the boundary-marking and solidarity-building functions of humour
operating simultaneously in inter-ethnic workplace settings. It uses a discourse analysis approach to
analysing ethnicity and humour at work.
Holmes, Janet (2023) ‘Rapport management and microaggression in workplace interaction’, in Troy
McConachy and Perry Hinton (eds.) Negotiating Intercultural Relations: Insights from Linguistics, Psychology
and Intercultural Education. New York: Bloomsbury, pp. 35–53.
While this chapter does not focus on humour, it is one of the few studies to date that investigates racial
microaggressions in spontaneous interactions in the workplace.
Barsoux, Jean-Louis (1993) Funny Business: Humour, Management and Business Culture. London: Cassell.
Bell, Allan (1984) ‘Language style as audience design’, Language in Society, 13 (2): 145–204.
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the Māori language in the workplace’, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 20 (1): 46–68.
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Claps and Cheers: Humor in Business and Society Relationships. London: Routledge, pp. 216–227.
Godfrey, Richard (2016) ‘Soldiering on: exploring the role of humour as a disciplinary technology in the
military’, Organization, 23 (2): 164–183.
Holmes, Janet (2000) ‘Politeness, power and provocation: how humour functions in the workplace’,
Holmes, Janet (2007) ‘Humour and the construction of Māori leadership at work’, Leadership, 3 (1): 5–27.
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Zealand workplaces’, in Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard (ed.) Innovations and Challenges in Language and
Gender: Women and Sexism. London: Routledge, pp. 93–112.
Holmes, Janet (2023) ‘“Maybe keep your voice down a bit”: rapport management and microaggression in
workplace interaction’, in Troy McConachy and Perry Hinton (eds.) Developing Intercultural Relations:
Insights from Linguistics, Social Psychology and Intercultural Training. New York: Bloomsbury.
Holmes, Janet and Hay, Jennifer (1997) ‘Humour as an ethnic boundary marker in New Zealand interaction’,
Journal of Intercultural Studies, 18 (2): 127–151.
Holmes, Janet and Marra, Meredith (2006) ‘Humor and leadership style’, Humor, 19 (2): 119–138.
Holmes, Janet and Marra, Meredith (2011) ‘Relativity rules: politic talk in ethnicised workplaces’, in Bethan L.
Davies , Michael Haugh and Andrew John Merrison (eds.) Situated Politeness. London: Continuum, pp.
27–52.
Holmes, Janet and Schnurr, Stephanie (2014) ‘Funny, feminine and flirtatious: humour and gendered
discourse norms at work’, in Delia Chiaro and Raffaella Baccolini (eds.) Gender and Humor: Interdisciplinary
and International Perspectives. London: Routledge, pp. 165–181.
Holmes, Janet and Stubbe, Maria (2015) Power and Politeness in the Workplace: A Sociolinguistic Analysis
of Talk at Work. Second edition. London: Routledge.
Holmes, Janet , Vine, Bernadette and Marra, Meredith (2020) ‘Contesting the culture order: contrastive
pragmatics in action’, Contrastive Pragmatics, 1 (1): 1–27.
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dynamics of women’s work meetings’, Multilingua, 26 (4): 309–331.
Korczynski, Marek (2011) ‘The dialectical sense of humour: routine joking in a Taylorized factory’,
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Dániel Z. Kádár and Marina Terkourafi (eds.) Cambridge Handbook of Sociopragmatics. Cambridge:
Marra, Meredith and Holmes, Janet (2005) ‘Constructing ethnicity and leadership through storytelling at
work’, in Colleen Mills and Donald Matheson (eds.) Communication at Work: Showcasing Communication
Scholarship. Refereed Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Australia and New Zealand Communication
Association, Christchurch.
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1–15.
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THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF

Michael Handford is Professor of English Language and Communication at Cardiff

The Routledge Handbook of the Psychology of Language Learning and

The Routledge Handbook of Language Testing

The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Linguistics

The Routledge Handbook of Materials Development for Language Teaching

The Routledge Handbook of Corpora and English Language Teaching and

The Routledge Handbook of Language and the Global South

The Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis

The Routledge Handbook of Content and Language Integrated Learning

The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics

The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics

For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routle​dge.com/​ser​ies/​RHAL

Edited by Michael Handford and James Paul Gee

1 Critical discourse analysis 11

2 Evaluation and discourse analysis 23

3 A culturalist approach to discourse 39

6 Interactional sociolinguistics and discourse analysis 85

8 Discourse analysis and linguistic anthropology 112

9 Corpus-based discourse analysis 126

10 Multimodal discourse analysis 139

11 Systemic functional linguistics: exploring meaning in language 156

12 Metaphor and discourse: a view from extended conceptual

13 Gender and discourse analysis 187

14 Queer linguistics and discourse analysis 203

15 Intersectionality and discourse analysis 217

16 Discourse, gender and professional communication 231

17 (Anti)Racist discourse 244

18 Narrative analysis 263

19 Literary discourse 278

20 Narrative, cognition and rationality 293

21 Register and discourse analysis 309

22 Genre, register and discourse in systemic functional linguistics 328

23 Genre as social action 346

24 Critical genre analysis of professional discourse 358

25 Prosody in discourse 375

26 Lexis in spoken discourse 391

27 Emergent Grammar 411

28 Social media and discourse analysis 427

29 (Small) Stories online: the intersection of affordances and practices 441

30 Online identity and discourse analysis 454

31 Discourse and ‘the New Literacy Studies’ 469

32 Ethnography and classroom discourse 481

33 Education and bilingualism 495

34 English for academic purposes and discourse analysis 509

35 Discourse(s) in advertising 525

36 Discourse and news media 539

37 Discourse and health(care) 553

38 Discourses in the language of the law 568

39 Ethnicity and humour in the workplace 582

40 Politics as usual: investigating political discourse in action 595

41 Critical policy discourse analysis 610

42 Intercultural discourse: identity perspectives on business interaction 625

Svenja Adolphs is Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the University of

Charles Bazerman is Distinguished Professor of Education at the University of California,

Jeff Bezemer is Professor of Communication at UCL Institute of Education. He has published

Douglas Biber is Regents’ Professor of English (Applied Linguistics) at Northern Arizona

Steven E. Clayman is Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Los Angeles.

Mats Ekström is a professor in the Department of Journalism, Media and Communication,

For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com/series/RHAL

Victoria Howard is a post- doctoral research fellow in linguistics at Nottingham Trent

Hale Işık-Güler is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Department of Foreign Language

Helen Spencer-Oatey is Emeritus Professor of Intercultural Communication at the