I

ntr
oduct
iont
oAgr
icul
tur
e
Def
ini
ti
onofAgr
icul
tur
e
 Agr
icul
tureisthescienceandar tofcul
ti
vat
ionofcr
opsandr
ear
ingofl
i
vestock.
 Asas cience,i tinv
olvese xper i
mentationandappli
cati
onofsci entif
ic
knowledgei nsuchareasas;
 Soilanal
y si
s,
 Controlofpestsanddi seases,
 Farm machi neryandst r
uctures,
 Cropandl i
vest
ockbreeding.
 Asanar
t,i
tinvol
vest
heuseofl
ear
nedski
l
lsi
n;
 Ti
ll
ingthel and,
 Constructi
on,
 Measur ement ,
 Harvestingofcrops,
 Feedingandhandl i
ngofl
i
vest
ock
 Marketing.

Br
anchesofAgr
icul
tur
e
Cr
opFar
ming(
Arabl
eFar
ming)
 Thepr
act
iceofgr
owi
ngcr
opsoncul
ti
vat
edl
and.
I
tissubdi
videdi nt
o:
 FieldcropsCul t
ivat ion:
 maize,beans,pot atoes,coffee,tea, cott
ont onamebutafew.
 Ho rti
culture:
 Iti
nvol
v esthegrowi ngofper i
shablecropswhi chhav
ehighval
ue.
 Iti
sfurthersubdiv i
dedint o:
 Fl oriculture-t hegr owingoff l
ower s.
 Ol ericultur e-thegr owingofv egetabl
es.
 Po mocul ture-t hegr owingoffrui
ts.

Li
vest
ockFar
ming
 Thi
sbr
anchdeal
swi
tht
her
ear
ingofl
i
vest
ockf
orv
ari
ouspr
oduct
s.
I
tisf
urt
hersubdi
vi
dedi
nto:
 Past
oral
i
sm:
Thi
sist
her
ear
ingofmammal
i
anl
i
vest
ocksuchascat
tl
e,sheep,
goat
s,r
abbi
ts,
pigsandcamel
s.
  Fi
shFar
ming(
Aquacul
tur
e):Thi
sist
hepr
act
iceofr
ear
ingf
ishandot
her
aquat
icor
gani
sms,
inponds.
 BeeKeepi
ng(
Api
cul
tur
e):Thi
sinv
olv
est
her
ear
ingofbeesi
nst
ruct
ures
knownasbeehi
ves.
 Poult
ryKeeping:Thi
sist
hekeepi
ngofdomest
icat
edbi
rds.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
cs
 I
tdeals wi
tht he al
l
ocati
on ofscar ce r
esour
ces (
land,l
abour
,capi
taland
management
)foragri
cul
tur
alproduct
ion.
Agr
icul
tur
alEngi
neer
ing
 Thi
sbranchofagricul
tur
edeal
swi
tht
heuseandmai
ntenanceoff
armt
ool
s,
machi
neryandst
ructur
es.

Far
mingSyst
ems
 Af
armi
ngsy
stem i
stheor
gani
zat
ionoft
hev
ari
ousent
erpr
isesi
naf
arm.
I
tisdet
ermi
nedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:
 Resour cesav ai
lable(l
and,l
abour,capit
alandmanagement).
 Ski
llsoft hefarmer .
 Environment alfactor
ssuchasclimat e,soi
lty
peandtopogr
aphy
.
 Gov ernmentpol icy.
 Farmer 'schoiceandpr ef
erence.
 Enterpr i
serequirement.
 Social-cult
uralf
actors.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esyst
emsoff
armi
ng:
Ext
ensi
veSyst
em:
 Iti
sasystem wher
eal ar
gepi
eceofl
andwi
thl
ow i
nvest
mentofr
esour
cesper
uni
tar
eaiscarr
iedout
.
Advant
ages
 Iti
scheap.
 Doesnotrequi
rehighlev
elofmanagement
.
 Requi
resl
esslabour.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Lowprofi
tperunitarea.
 Cannotbepract
icedwher elandi
sli
mit
ed.
 Lowoutputperunitarea.
 Thelandisunder-ut
ili
zed,
I
ntensi
veFar
ming:
 Thi
ssy st
em ut
il
iz
est
hef
act
orsofpr
oduct
iont
othemax
imum andi
nvol
veshi
gh
l
evelofmanagement
.
Advant
ages
 Maxi
mum ut
il
izat
ionoft
heresources.
 Canbepr
act
icedevenwher
el andisali
mit
ingf
act
or.
  Resul
tsi
nhi
ghy
iel
ds.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Labourint
ensi
ve.
 Highcapit
ali
nvestmentisrequi
red.
 Requir
eshighlevelofmanagement.
 Canleadtohighlosesincaseofpoormanagement
.

Lar
geScal
eFar
ming
 Ref
erst
othef
armi
ngpr
act
iceunderl
argear
easofl
andov
er20hect
ares.
 I
tisusedmai
nlyf
orcommer
cial
pur
poses.
 Thesy
stem i
shi
ghl
ymechani
zed.
Advant
ages
 Resul
tsi
nhighyi
el
ds.
 Duetoeconomi
csofscal
ehi
ghpr
ofi
tisr
eal
i
zed.

Di
sadvant
ages
 Lackofdi
versifi
cati
onmayleadtototalf
ail
urei
ncaseofunf
avor
abl
econdi
ti
ons.
 Highl
evelofmanagementi srequi
red.
 Heavycapit
al i
nvestment
.
 Requi
resskil
ledandquali
fi
edmanpower .
Smal
lScal
eFar
ming
 Ref
erstofar
mingcarri
edoutonasmal lar
eaofl
andlesst
han5hectar
es.
 Famil
yorcasuall
abourcanbeengagedduringt
hepeakperi
ods.
 MostoftheKeny
anf ar
mersaresmallscal
eduetounavai
l
abil
it
yoff
armland.
Advant
ages
 Requi
reslowcapital
inv
estment.
 Possi
blewherelandisali
mit
ingfact
or.
 Doesnotrequi
rehighmanagementlevelunl
essunderi
ntensi
vesy
stem.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Uneconomi cal10mechani
zeduet
osmal
lsi
ze.
 Lowpr oducti
on.
 Provi
deslimitedempl
oyment.
 Labourintensiv
e.
 Dif
fi
culttospecial
i
ze.
Met
hodsofFar
ming
 Amethodoffar
mingi
sanest
abl
i
shedwayofcar
ryi
ngoutf
armi
ngact
ivi
ti
es.
 Thef
oll
owingaret
hecommonmethodsoff
armi
ng:
Mi
xedFar
ming
 I
tisthepr
act
iceofgr
owingcropsandkeepi
ngofl
i
vest
ockont
hesamel
and.
 I
tscommoninhighpotent
ial
areas.
Advant
ages
  Mutualbenef i
tbetweencr opsandl iv
est ock.
 Cropssupplyf eedforanimalswhi l
eani mal ssupplymanur eforcr
ops.
 Actsasani nsuranceagainstt ot
allossbyt hef armer.
 Thefarmeri sassuredofani ncomet hroughoutt heyear.
 Thereismax imum ut i
l
izat
ionoft heresour ces.
 Animalscanbeusedi nthef arm acti
v i
ti
espar ti
cular
lydraughtani
mals.
 Ensuresproperut i
l
izat
ionofl abourandl andt hroughouttheyear.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Highi
nit
ialcapi
tal.
 Lackofspecial
iz
ation.
 Landcanbeal imit
ingfact
ori
fbothenter
pri
sesar
etober ai
sed.
 Requi
reshighlevelofmanagementforbot
henter
pri
ses.

Nomadi
c-Past
oral
i
sm
 Thisisthepr
acti
ceofli
v est
ockr
earingwher
ebyanimal
sar
emov edfrom one
placetoanot
herinsearchofwaterandpast
ures.
 Itispr
acti
cedintheari
dandsemi -
aridar
easwherei
nmostcasesbeefanimal
s
arekept.
Nomadi
cpast
oral
i
sm i
sgr
adual
l
ychangi
ngt
oranchi
ngwi
tht
hei
ntr
oduct
ionof
:
 I
mpr ovedpasturespecies,i
mprovedli
vest
ockbr eedsandsuppl
ementar
yfeedi
ng.
 Ef
fi
cientdi
seaseandpar asi
tecont
rolmeasures.
 I
mpr ovedi
nfra-str
uctur
esuchasr oads,watersupply,
cat
tl
edippi
ngfaci
l
iti
es.
 Ext
ensionservices.
Advant
ages
 Serv
esasthebackboneofbeefindust
ryi
nKenya.
 Properwayofut
il
izi
ngthearidandsemiari
dareas.
 Sourceofi
ncometothepastoralcommuni
ti
es.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Itencour agest hespr eadofl i
vestockpest sanddi seasesduet ocommunal
water i
ngpoint s,grazi
nganddi ppingfacili
ti
es.
 Therei satendencyt oincr easedsoi lerosi
onandl anddegr adat
ion.
 Sour ceofconf li
ctsandet hnictensionamongt henomadi ccommuni t
iesf
orthe
controlofgoodpast uresandwat er.
 Diff
iculttocont r
olbreedi ngandbr eedingdi seases.
 Highr ateofinbreedingl eadingt opoorqual i
tyli
vestock.
 Low pr oductionofmi lk,meat ,hidesandski nsduet owast ageofenergyin
tr
avel i
ngfrom onepl acet oanot herinsear chofpast uresandwat er
.
 Highdeat hratesasar esul tofwal kingforlongdi stances.

Shi
ft
ingCul
ti
vat
ion
 Iti
sat radi
ti
onalmethodofculti
vati
ngapi
eceofl
andunt
ilt
hesoi
lisexhausted
andcropy i
el
dsdecli
ne.
 Thelandisabandonedandt hefar
mershi
ft
stoanewfi
el
dasthepr
eviouslandis
l
eftfal
l
owt oregai
nitsfer
ti
li
ty.
Advant
ages
 Landi
sall
owedtorestandregaini
tsf
ert
il
it
y.
 Nobui
ldupofpest
sanddi seases.
  Soilst
ruct
urei
sr est
ored.
 Thecostofpr oducti
oni slow si
ncei
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
zer
sandpest
ici
desar
enot
used.
 Cropproducearechemi cal
free.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Notpract
icalwher elandi sal i
mitingfactor.
 Farm pl
anningandacqui sit
ionofcr edit
sf orlanddev el
opmenti
s'notpossi
ble.
 Iti
sacumber somemet hodduet oconstantmov ement .
 Lackofsoilconservati
onmeasur es
 Notpossibl
et ogrowper ennialcrops.
 Lowoutputperuni tareaduet opoorf armi ngmet hods.
 Wherefir
eisusedt oclearthel andorgani cmat t
erisdestroy
ed.
Or
gani
cFar
ming
 Itisaf anni ngmet hodwherecr opsaregrownandl i
vestockrearedwithoutthe
useofagr o¬chemi cals.
 Iti
samet hodoff armingwhichhasbeenadopt edtoreducethelongterm eff
ect
oft he agr o-chemical
son cr opswhi ch mayev ent
uall
yend up i n man and
l
ivestock.
 Agro-chemi calsar ealsoexpensivethusor gani
cfarmingreducest hecostof
production. Organi
call
yproducedgoodsf et
chhighmarketpri
ces.
Advant
ages
 Cheapandcostef f
ectiv
e.
 Makeuseoft helocal
lyavail
ablematerial
s
 Useful
inimprovingthesoilst
ruct
ures.
 Nosideeffect
sfrom thecropsandlivestockpr
oduct
s.
 Noenvironmentalpoll
uti
on.

Agr
o-For
est
ry
 Thi
sisthepract
iceofi
ntegr
ati
ngtreesandcropsonthesamepi
eceofl
and.
 Wit
hl and r
esourcesbecoming morescarce,agrof
orest
ryi
sbecoming mor
e
i
mportant
.
Exampl
esofcommonagr
ofor
est
ryt
reesandshr
ubsi
ncl
ude:
 Cajanuscaj an
 Grevil
learobusta
 Sesbaniasesban
 Call
iandracalothyrsus
 Casuar i
naequiseti
f ol
i
a
 Leucaenal eucocephala
Tr
eessel
ectedforagr of
orestryshoul
dhavet
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Abl
etogr
owf ast
.
 Deepr
oot
stomi ni
mizecompet
it
ionf
ornut
ri
ent
s.
 Shoul
dbeprefer
abl
ylegumi
nous.
Advant
ages

Treesreducesoiler
osi
oninagivenarea.
 Leguminoustreesaddni
tr
atesintothesoi
lthusi
mprov
ingthesoilfer
ti
li
ty.
 Somet reescanbeusedasli
vestockfoddertopr
ovi
deahighlev
el ofprot
eins.
  Theyar
eimpor
tantsourcesofwoodfuel
andt
imber
.
 Ther
eismaxi
mum util
iz
at i
onofl
and.
I
mpor
tanceofAgr
icul
tur
etot
heEconomyofKenya
 Providesfoodt othepopul ati
ont omeetnut r
it
ionalrequir
ement sandtoenable
mant oengageinot heract i
vit
iesoff arming.
 Providesempl oyment .Thisf orexampl ecanbedi rectasal aboureri
nthefar
m,
teapluckerorindir
ectf orex ample, worki
ngi nagri
culturalbasedindust
ri
es.
 Source ofr aw mat er i
alsf ori ndustri
esf orex ampl e cott
on li
ntfortexti
le
i
ndust ry
.
 Providesforeignexchange-t hroughex port
ingagr i
cult
uralproduce.
 Provides ma rketf ori ndust r
ialgoods¬agr icult
urei saconsumeroft he
fi
nishedgoodsf rom agr o-basedi ndustri
es.
 Sourceofi ncome-f armer saswel last hegov ernmentgetr evenuefrom t
he
saleofagricul
turalproduceandt axpay ment .

Fact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngAgr
icul
tur
e

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ioni
sinf
luencedbyext
ernalf
act
ors:
 Humanf actors
 Bi
oticf
act or
s
 Cli
mati
cf actor
s
 Edaphi
cf actor
s.

HumanFact
ors
These are human char
act
eri
sti
cs whi
ch af
fectt
he way deci
si
ons ar
e made and
operat
ionscarr
iedout
.
 Levelofeducat
ionandt
echnol
ogy:
 Ski
l
ls
 Technol ogical adv ancement s.
 Humanheal th/ HIV- AIDS:
 Theseaf fectt hestrength, t
hevigour,
visi
onandthedet
erminati
on
towor k.
 HI V/AIDSi st hebiggestt hreatt
ohumanheal tht
odayandhasl ong
l
astingef fectsonagr icult
ure,suchas;
 Shor t
ageoff ar mlabour .
 Lossoff ami l
ysuppor t.
 Lowl ivi
ngst andardsl eadingtodespondencyandhopel
essness.
 Increasedcr i
mi nalactivi
ti
es.
 Mor et i
mespentbyt heGov ernmentandNGO' si
nCarri
ngforthesick.
Economy;
  Stabi
l
ityi
nthecountr
ies'
economyaff
ectagr
icul
tur
alpr
oducti
on.
 GovernmentPol i
cy:
 Thesearegov er
nmentallawswhi
chhav ebeenenact
edt oprot
ectf
armer
s,
l
andandl i
vest
ock.
Theyi
ncl
ude:
 Foodpoli
cy
 Pol
ici
esoncontrolofl
i
vestockparasit
esanddiseases.
 Pol
ici
esonmar ket
ingofbothlocalandexpor
tproductsandot
her
s.
 Tr
anspor tandcommuni cati
on:
 Foragri
cul
tur
algoodstomov efrom thef
armt otheconsumer
s.
 Cul
tur
alpr
act
icesandr
eli
giousbel
i
efs:
 These acti
vit
ies hi
nderimpor
tantchanges i
n a soci
etyt
hatmay br
ing
agri
cul
turaldevel
opment.
 Mar
ketf
orces:
 Demandandsuppl
yfor
ceswhi
chaf
fectpr
icesofcommodi
ti
esi
naf
ree
market
.
Bi
oti
cFact
ors
Theseareli
vingorganismswhi chaf fectagr i
cul
turalproduction.
 Pe sts-Dest r
uctiv
eor ganismswhi chdest r
oycr ops.
 Pa rasit
es-Thesear einver tebrateswhi chli
veinoronot herliv
ingorgani
sms.
 De composer s-Or ganismswhi chactonpl antsandani malt i
ssuestoform
manur e.
 Pa thogens-Mi cro-
organi smswhi chcausediseases.
 Pr edators-Animal sthatk i
l
l andf eedonot heranimals.
 Po ll
inators-Theyt ransf erpol l
engr ai
nsf r
om t hest amenst othepist
ilofa
fl
ower.
 Ni tr
ogen f i
xing bact er ia- They ar e mi cro-or
gani sms whi ch convert
atmosphericnitrogent oni t
rat
esreadyf orusebyt heplant
s.

Cl
i
mat
icFact
ors(
weat
herel
ement
s).
 Rainf
all
,
 Temper at
ure,
 Wind,
 Relat
ivehumidit
y
 Light.
Weat her-At mosphericcondit
ionsofaplaceatagi
vent
imeperi
od.
Climat e-weat hercondit
ionsofapl aceobser
vedandrecor
dedforaper
iodof30-
40
years.

Rai
nfal
l
Suppl
i
esWat er
:
 Whichisnecessar
yfortheli
feprocessinplantsandanimal
s.
 Whichmakest hepl
antturgi
dhencepr ovidessupport
.
 Actsasasolventf
orplantnutr
ient
s.
 Coolst
heplantduri
ngtranspi
rati
on.
 Whichisusedasar awmat er
iali
nphot osynthesi
s.
Whenpl
ant
slackenoughwat
ert
heyr
espondi
ndi
ff
erentwaysasf
oll
ows:
 Bycl
osi
ngt
hest
omat
ator
est
ri
ctwat
erl
oss.
  Hast
ensmaturit
y.
 Somewil
lrol
lthei
rleav
es.
Ot
herpl
ant
shavedevel
opedper
manentadapt
ati
ont
owat
erst
resssuchas:
 Growingneedleli
k eleaves.
 Developfl
eshyleav esforwaterst
orage.
 Developl
ongroot s.
 Wilt
inganddeathi nex t
remeconditi
ons.

I
mport
antAspectsofRainf
all
:
 Rainf
allr
eli
abi
li
ty;
 Thi
sist
hedependencyont
het
imi
ngoft
heonsetoft
her
ains.
 Amountofr
ainf
all
;
 Quanti
tyofrai
nt hatfal
l
si nagiv
enareawit
hinagi
venyear
.
 Rai
nfalldistri
bution;
 Thenumberofwetmont hsinayear.
 Rai
nfalli
nt ensi
ty;
 Amountofr ai
nfall
thatfall
sinanareawi
thi
naperodof1hour
i .
Temper
atur
e
 Thi
sisthedegreeofhot
nessorcoldnessofapl
acemeasuredindegreesCel
sius.
 Cardinalrangeoftemperature¬isthet
emperat
urer
equir
edbyplanttogrow
andthri
vewell
.
 Opti
mum rangeoftemperatures-t
hebesttemper
atur
eforthebestperf
ormance
ofpl
ants.

Eff
ect
sofTemperat
uresonCr
opPr
oduct
ion:
Lowtemper
atur
es:
 Sl
owthegrowthrateofcropsduetoslowedphotosy
nthesi
sandr
espi
rat
ion.
 Hi
ghinci
dencesofdiseaseinf
ect
ion.
 I
mprovesquali
tyofcropssuchasteaandpyret
hrum.
Hi
ghTemper
atur
es
 I
ncreaseevaporati
onrateleadi
ngto
 Wil
ti
ng.
 Hastensthemat ur
it
yofcrops.
 I
ncreasediseaseandpestinfect
ion.
 I
mpr ovesquali
tyofcropssuchaspineappl
es,
orangesandpawpaws.
Wi
nd
Wi
ndi
smovi
ngai
r.
Goodef
fect
sofwi
ndi
ncl
ude:
 Seeddisper
sal
 Cooli
ngofland
 Poll
i
nationi
ncrops
 Bri
ngsrainbear
ingcl
ouds

Negat
iveef
fect
sofwi
nd:
  I
ncreasestherateofev aporat
ionofwat
er.
 Causeslodgingofcer ealsanddist
ort
sperenni
alcr
ops.
 I
ncreasesev apo-
transpirat
ion.
 Spreadsdiseasesandpest s.
 Destroysfar
m structures.
Rel
ati
vehumi
dit
y
 Theamountofwat
erv
apouri
ntheai
r
 Af
fect
sther
ateofev
apo-
tr
anspi
rat
ion.
 Formsdewwhi chsuppl
iessoil
wit
hmoi st
ureunderdr
ycondi
ti
ons.
 Highhumidi
tyi
nducerooti
ngincutt
ings.
 I
ncreasesdi
seasemulti
pli
cat
ionandspread.

Li
ght
 Pr
ovi
der
adi
antener
gyhar
nessedbygr
eenpl
antf
orphot
osy
nthesi
s.

I
mpor
tantaspect
sofl
i
ght
:
 Li
ghti
ntensi
ty;
 Thest r
engthwithwhichli
ghtishar nessedbychlorophyllforphotosynt
hesi
s.
 Li
ghtdur ati
on;
 Theper ioddur
ingwhichli
ghti savail
abletopl
antsperday .
 Plantresponsetol
ightdurati
onisknownasp hot oper i
odi sm.
 Sh ort-dayplants-requirelessthan12hour sofday l
ighttoflowerand
seed.
 Long- daypl ants-requi
remor ethan12hoursofday l
ighttoflowerand
seed.
 Da y-neut r
alplantsrequire12hour sofdayl
ighttoflowerandseed.
 Li
ghtwavel
engt
h;
 Thi
sisthedist
ancebetweentwo-successiv
ecrestsofawavel
engt
h.
 I
tdi
ctatest
hediff
erencebetweennatural
andarti
fi
cial
li
ght
.
 Chl
orophyl
labsor
bscertai
nwav el
engthsofl
ight
.

Edaphi
cFact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngAgr
icul
tur
e
 Thesearesoilf
actor
s.
 Soi
listhenaturalmater
ial
thatcov
ersthesur
faceoft
heeart
h,
 Madeofweat heredrockpart
icl
esanddecomposedanimal
andpl
antt
issues,
and
onwhichplantsgrow.
I
mpor
tanceofSoi
l
 Pr
ovi
desanchoragetot
heplantsbyholdingthei
rroot
sfi
rmly.
 Prov
idespl
antswit
hminer
al sal
ts/nut
rient
swhicharenecessar
yfort
hei
r
gr
owth.
 Pr
ovi
detheplant
swithwat
er.
  Cont
ainsox
ygennecessar
yforr
espi
rat
ionoft
hepl
ant
sandsoi
lmi
cro-
organi
sms.
Soi
lFor
mat
ion:
 Soili
sf ormedt hroughweat heri
ngpr ocess.
 Weat heringist hebreakdownandal t
erat
ionoftheparentrocknearthesur
face
oftheear thtoast abl
esubst ance.
 Weat heri
ng pr ocess is a combi nation of di
si
ntegrat
ion (br
eakdown) and
synthesis(buil
dup)pr ocess.
 Weat heri
ngpr ocessiscontinuous.
TypesofWeat
her
ing
 Physi
calweatheri
ng
 Chemicalweather
ing
 Bi
ologi
calweatheri
ng

Agent
sofWeather
ing
Physi
calAgent
sofWeat
her
ing
 I
ncludewind,water
, mov i
ngi ceandt
emper at
ure.
 Wind-carrymateri
alswhi chhitagai
nsteachothertobreaki nt
ofr
agment
s.
 Water-i
ntensi
tyofr ai
nfal
l causesbr
eakdownofr ock.
 Movingice-hasgrindingef f
ectswhi
chtearoffrockparti
cles.
 Extr
emet emperaturecauser ockst
oex pandandcont ractsuddenl
ypeel
ingof
f
t
heirsur
face.
Chemi
calWeat
her
ing
 Aff
ectst hechemi calcompositi
onandst ructureoftherock.
 I
nvolvespr ocessessuchas;
 Hy drolysis,
 Hy dration,
 Car bonat i
on
 Ox idati
on.
 Hydrat ion;
 Thepr ocessbywhi chsolubleminer al
si ntherocksabsorbwat erandex pand
weakeni ngther ockthusleadingtodi sint
egr at
ion.
 Hydrol ysis;
 Thepr ocesswher ebywaterdissol
v essol ublemineral
sintherockweakeni ng
it.
 Oxidat i
on;
 Ther eactionofr ockmineral
swi t
hox ygent oform oxi
deswhichbr eakeasil
y.
 Carbonat ion;
 The pr ocess wher ebycar bonic acids f or
med when r ain waterdi ssol
ves
car bondi oxide,
 Itreact swi t
hcal ci
um carbonatesinl i
mest onecausingitt
odisintegrat
e.
Bi
ologi
calWeat
her
ing
Thi
sinvol
vest
heact
ionofl
i
vingor
gani
sms,
plant
sandani
mal
sont
her
ocks.
  Bur
rowi
ngani
mal
s,f
orex
ampl
e,t
ermi
tesandmol
esbr
ingsoi
lpar
ti
cl
est
othe
surf
aceex posi
ngt hem t ootheragentsofweat heri
ng.
 Bigani mal sli
ke,el ephants,buff
aloes,camelsandcat tleex ertal otofpressur e
onther ocksast heyst epont hem duet othei
rheav ywei ghtscausi ngther ockst o
di
sintegrate.
 Earthwor mst akepar ti nthedecomposi t
ion ofpl antmat terwi tht hesoi l
part
icles.
 Man' sact ivi
ti
esl ike,mi ni
ngandquar ry
ingexposer ockst ot hesur facedur ing
excavation.Theseact i
vi
tiesbreakdownl ar
gerocksi nt
osmal lerrockpar ti
cles.
 Plantr oot sforcet heirwayt hr
ought hecracksint her ockst huswi deningand
spli
tt
ingt hem.
 Humi caci dsf ormed when pl antt i
ssuesdecomposer eactwi t
ht her ocks
weakeni ngthem further.
 Plantr emai ns-decomposeaddi nghumusi ntothesoi l
.
Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngsoi
lfor
mat
ion
 Cl
imate-(
rai
nfall
,temperat
ureandwind)
 Bi
oti
cfactors-li
v i
ngorgani
sms.
 Par
entmat erial-Natureandpropert
iesoft
heor
igi
nalr
ockf
rom whi
cht
he
soili
sfor
med.
 Ti
me-lengt
hofti
medur i
ngwhichthesoi
lfor
mingprocesseshavetakenpl
ace.
 Topogr
aphy-inf
luencesthemovementofdi
sint
egr
atedmat er
ial
s.

 I
tist
hever
ti
calar
rangementofdi
ff
erentl
ayer
sofsoi
lfr
om t
hegr
oundsur
facet
o
t
hebedr
ock.
  Thesel
ayer
sar
eal
sor
efer
r oashor
edt izons.
 Thelayer
sshow dif
ferencesint
hei
rcont
ent
sandphy
sicalpr
oper
ti
essuchas
col
our,
text
ureandstr
ucture.

 Thelay
ersi
nclude:
organi
cmat
terr
egi
on,
topsoi
l
,sub-
soi
l
,weat
her
edr
ocksand
par
entmater
ial.

Or
gani
cMat
terRegi
on
 Fi
rstl
ayerofthesoilf
oundont hesurf
ace.
 Madeupofl eavesandotherplantr
emainsatvar
iousst
agesofdecomposi
ti
on.
 Somesoilorganismsmayal sobefoundhere.
TopSoi
l
 Hasadarkcolourduetot
hepresenceofhumus.
 I
srichi
nplantnutr
ient
sandwellaer
ated.
 I
tisazoneofmax i
mum leachi
ng(zoneofel
uvi
ati
ons)
Sub-
Soi
l
 I
tiscompactandlessaer
ated.
 I
tisaz oneofaccumul
ati
onofleachedmat
eri
al(
zoneofaluv
iat
ion)f
rom t
het
op
l
ayers.
 Deeprootedcr
opshavethei
rrootsgr
owi
nguptothi
sregi
on.
 Hardpansnormall
yfor
mi nthi
slayer
Weat
her
edRocks
 I
tisal
socall
edsubstratum.
 Rocksatvar
iousstagesofdi
si
ntegr
ati
onar
ef oundint
hisz
one.
 Mostofthemateri
alsfoundi
nthisz
oneori
ginatef
rom t
hepar
entr
ock.
Par
entRock
 I
texi
stsasasoli
dmasswhichisun-
weathered.
 I
tist
hesourceofthei
nor
ganiccomposi
ti
onofthesoi
l
.
 Thewatert
abl
eisonthesur
faceoft
hisrock.

Soi
l
sFor
medi
nSi
tuandSoi
l
sDeposi
ted
 Soi
lformedi nthesameplaceandr emainstherei
ssaidtobeinsit
u.
 Howev er,soi
lcanbeformedduet odeposit
ionofsoi
lparti
cl
escarr
iedf
rom i
ts
ori
ginalsi
teofformati
ontoanotherareawhi chi
susuall
yinthel
owerareasof
sl
opes.
 Suchsoi l
saresaidtohavebeenformedt hr
oughdepositi
on.

Soi
lFor
medi
nSi
tu Soi
lDeposi
ted
l
.
Hast
hecol
ouroft
hepar
entr
ock 1.Hasthechar
act
eri
sti
csofwhen:
itcame
fr
om.
2.
Shal
l
ower 2.Deeper

3.
Lessr
ichi
npl
antnut
ri
ent
s 3.
Richeri
npl
antnut
ri
ent
s
 4.
Easi
l
yer
oded 4.
Noteasi
l
yer
oded
5.
Lesssi
l
ty 5.
Mor
esi
l
ty
6.Havethesamechemi cal 6.
Dif
feri
nchemi
cal
composi
ti
onf
rom t
he
compositi
on
asthatoftheunder
lyi
ngparent
under
lyi
ngpar
entr
ock.
rock.

Soi
lDept
h
 Thi
sisthedistancebetweentopsoill
ayerandthebott
om soil
lay
eri
naprof
il
e.
 I
tdict
atesrootpenetrat
ionandgrowth
 Deepsoil
saremor esui
tablef
orcropgrowthsi
ncetheycontai
nmorenut
ri
ent
s.
 Havealargersurfaceareforr
ootexpansi
on.
 Deepsoil
sfacil
it
ategooddr ai
nageandaerati
on.
Soi
lConsti
tuents
 OrganicMat t
er-Deadanddecayi
ngpl
ant
sandani
mal
remai
ns
 Li
vingOr gani
sms-Soilorgani
smsandpl
antr
oot
s.
 Micro-or
ganisms( bacteri
a,pr
otozoaandf
ungi
)
 I
nv ert
ebrat
es-ter
mi tes,
 Earthwormsandmol luscs.
 Higheranimals-rodent sandothers.
I
nor
gani
corMi
ner
alMat
ter
 Formedfrom theparentmater
ial
s.
 Suppl
yplantnut r
ient
s
 Formtheskeletonandframeworkoft
hesoi
l
.
 Ai
r
 Foundi ntheporespacesofthesoi l
.
 Usedf orrootandorganism r
espirat
ion
 Usedf orgerminat
ionofseeds.
 Helpsindecomposi t
ionoforganicmat ter
.
 Regulatessoilt
emper at
ure.
 Regulatesthemov ementofwat erthroughcapi
l
lar
yact
ion.

 Wat
er
 Di
ssolvesmineralsal
ts
 Maint
ainturgi
dit
yinplant
s.
 Usedforgerminati
onofseeds
 Usedbysoilorganisms.
 Regul
atesoilt
emper at
ure
 Di
ctat
est heamountofairint
hesoi
l
.
Wateri
nthesoi
lexi
stsinthr
eef
ormsnamel
y:
 Super
fl
uous/
Gravi
tati
onalWat
er
 Foundint
helargespaces( macro-
por
es)i
nthesoi
lpar
ti
cl
es.
 Heldbygr
avi
tati
onforces.
 Whentheporesaresaturated,t
hesoi
li
ssaidt
obewaterl
ogged.
 I
tmov esandmaycausel eachi
ng.
  Hygr
oscopi
cWat
er
 Waterf
oundinthi
nfil
msonthesoi
lpart
icl
es.
 Hel
dbystrongadhesi
vef
orcesbet
weenwat erandsoilpar
ti
cl
es.
 Doesnotmoveandhencenotavai
l
ableforplantuse.
 Capi
l
lar
yWat
er
 Occupymi cr
o-por
esi nthesoi
lpar
ti
cl
es.
 Heldbycohesiveforcesbetweenwat
ermol
ecul
es.
 Mov est
hroughcapill
aryacti
on
 Avail
abl
etoplantsforuse.

Soi
lSt
ruct
ure
 Thi
sist
hear
rangementofsoi
lpar
ti
cl
esi
nasoi
lhor
izon.
 TypesofSoi
lSt
ruct
ure–
 Si
ngle-
grai
ned
 Crumby
 Granul
ar
 Pri
smati
c
 Columnar
 Pl
aty
 Bl
ocky
I
mportanceofSoi
lStr
uctur
eonCr
opPr
oduct
ion
Soi
lStruct
ureI
nfl
uences
 Soil
aer ati
on
 Soil
dr ainageandwaterholdi
ngcapaci
ty.
 Pl
ant srootpenetr
abil
it
yandanchorage.
 Microbialacti
vi
ti
esinthesoil
.
 Ci
rculationofgasesinthesoil
.
Far
mingpr
act
iceswhi
chi
mpr
ovet
hesoi
lst
ruct
urear
e:
 Appli
cationofi norganicmanur
eintothesoi
l
.
 Ti
lli
ngt helandatt heri
ghtmoist
urecont
ent
.
 Cropr otat
ion.
 Minimum t il
lage.
 Covercr opping.
 Mulching.

Soi
lText
ure
 Itr
efer
stot
her
elat
ivepr
opor
ti
onoft
hev
ari
oussi
zesoft
hemi
ner
alpar
ti
cl
esof
soi
l.
I
mpor
tanceofSoi
lText
ureonCr
opPr
oduct
ion;
 I
nfl
uencessoil
fert
il
it
y
 Af
fect
stheorganicmattercont
ent
 I
nfl
uencesthedrai
nageofthesoil
.
 I
nfl
uencessoil
aerati
on.
 I
nfl
uenceswaterholdi
ngcapacit
y.
 I
nfl
uencesthecapil
l
arit
yormov ementofwat
eri
nthesoi
l
.

Soi
lText
uralCl
asses
SandySoils
 Madeupl argelyofsandparti
cl
es.
 Hav elar
gepor espaceshencepoori
nwat err
etent
ion.
 Easyt oti
ll(l
ightsoi
ls).
 Freelydraining.
 Lowf ert
il
ityduet oleachi
ngofminer
als.
 Easil
yerodi ble.
Cl
ayeySoi
l
s
 Madeupl ar gelyofcl
ayeypart
icl
es.
 Hav esmal lpor espaceshencegoodinmoi
stur
eret
ent
ion.
 Diff
icultt
ot ill(
heavysoil
s).
 Poor l
y'dr
ai ned.
 Expandwhenwet ,cr
ackwhendr y
.
 Highcapillar y
.
 Ri
chi nplantnut r
ient
s.
Loam Soi
l
s
 Aboutequalamount
sofsandandcl
ay.
 Moderatel
ygoodinbot
hmoist
ureandai
rret
ent
ion.
  Fer
ti
lesoi
l
s.

Soi
lCol
our
 Thi
sdependsont he,miner
alcomposi t
ionofthepar
entrockandt
heorgani
c
matt
ercont
ent.
 Soi
l
scontai
ningalotofi
ronarebrowni
sh, y
ell
owi
ngandreddi
shi
ncol
our
.
 Soi
l
swithalotofsi
li
caarewhite.
 Soi
l
swithalotofhumusaredar korgr
ey.

Soi
lpH
 Thisreferstot heacidit
yoral kali
nit
yofthesoilsol ut
ion/
theconcent
rati
onof
hydrogenionsint hesoilsolut
ion.
 Soi
lpHi sdetermi nedbytheconcent rat
ionofhydrogenions( H+)ort
hehydrox
yl
i
ons(OH)i nthesoi lsol
uti
on.
 ApHofl essthan7meanst hatthesoili
sacidi
c.
 ApHofmor ethan7meanst hatthesoili
salkal
i
ne.
 Asthehy dr
ox y
lions( OH)inthesoili
ncreasethesoilbecomesmor eal
kal
ine.

I
nfl
uenceofSoi
lpHCr
opGr
owt
h
 Itdeter
mi nesthet ypeofcropt obegr owninaparticulararea.
 Mostcr opsar eaffect
edbyei therveryacidi
corverybasi csoilpH.
 SoilpHaf fect
st hechoiceofferti
li
zersandtheavailabil
ityofnut r
ient
stocr
ops.
 Atl ow pH t heconcent rati
on ofav ail
ableiron and al uminium inthesoil
soluti
onmayi ncreasetotoxiclevel
s,whichisharmf ultoplants.
 Veryacidicorl owpHi nhibi
ttheactivi
tyofsoil
micro- organi
sms.

Far
m Tool
sandEqui
pment
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Far
mtool
sandequi
pmentper
for
m speci
fi
cjobsi
nthef
arm.
 Theymakeworkeasi
erandmoreeff
ici
ent.
 Theycanbecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
otheirusesasf
oll
ows:

Gar
denTool
sandEqui
pment
Tool
s Uses
1 Panga Cut
ti
ngandshal
l
owcul
ti
vat
ion,
maki
nghol
es.
.
2 Jembe/
handhoe Cul
ti
vat
ion,
diggi
ng,
shal
l
owpl
ant
inghol
esandt
renches.
.
3 For
kiembe Cul
ti
vat
ion,
diggi
ngoutr
oot
s,har
vest
ingofr
ootcr
ops.
.
4 Rake Col
l
ect
ingt
rash,
breaki
ngl
argecl
ods,
lev
ell
i
ng,
remov
ingst
ones
.
f
rom aseedbedandspr
eadi
ngor
gani
cmanur
e.
5 Spade Scoopi
ngandcar
ryi
ngofsoi
l
,sand,
concr
etemi
xtur
eand
.
 manure.
6 Spr
ingbal
ance Measuri
ngwei
ght
.
.
7 Tr
owel Scoopi
ngseedlingsdur
ingt
ransplant
ingand.
diggi
ngpl
ant
ing
. hol
esforseedl
ings.
8 Pr
uni
nghook Bendi
ngtallbr
ancheswhenpruning.
.
9 Secat
eur Cut
ti
ngy
oungst
emsandpr
uni
ngbr
anches.
.
10.
Tapemeasur
e Measur
ingdi
stances.
11.
Axe Cut
ti
ngbi
gtr
eesandr
oot
sandspl
i
tti
ngl
ogsofwood.
12.
Soi
lauger Maki
nghol
esf
orf
enci
ngpost
s.
13.
mat
tock Di
ggi
nghar
dsoi
l
s
14.
spr
inkl
ers Ov
erheadi
rr
igat
ion.
15.
Wat
eri
ngcan Wat
eri
ngpl
ant
sinnur
ser
ybed.
16.
Wheel
bar
row Tr
anspor
tat
ionofsoi
l
,fer
ti
li
zer
s,f
arm pr
oduce,
tool
sandequi
pment
.
17.
Lev
ell
i
ngboar
d Forl
evel
l
inganur
ser
ybed.
18.
Pruni
ngsaw Cut
ti
ngol
dwoodst
emsandpr
uni
ngbi
gbr
anches.
19.
Hosepi
pe Forconv
eyi
ngwat
erf
rom at
apt
owher
eiti
sneed.
20.
Knapsackspr
ayer Appl
yi
ngagr
o-chemi
cal
byspr
ayi
ng.
21.
Gar
denshear Tr
immi
nghedges.
22.
Pruni
ngkni
fe Remov
alofsmal
lshoot
s.
23.
Met
err
uler Measur
ingdi
stances.
24.
Gar
denf
ork Shal
l
owdi
ggi
ng.

Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
ionTool
sandEqui
pment
Tool
s Uses
1 Dr
enchi
nggun Admi
nist
eri
ngl
i
qui
ddr
ugst
oani
mal
sor
all
y.
.
2 Bol
usgun/
dosi
nggun Admi
nist
eri
ngsol
i
ddr
ugsort
abl
etst
oani
mal
sor
all
y.
.
3 Wool
Shear
s Cut
ti
ngof
fwool
from sheep.
.
4 Hy
poder
micsy
ringe Admi
nist
eri
ngdr
ugsbyi
nject
ionf
orex
ampl
einv
acci
nat
ion.
.
5 St
ir
rup(
bucket
)pump Appl
i
cat
ionofacar
ici
debyhandspr
ayi
ng.
.
6 Ther
momet
er Taki
ngbodyt
emper
atur
esoff
arm ani
mal
s.
.
7 Bur
diz
zo Usedi
nbl
oodl
essmet
hodofcast
rat
ion.
.
8 Hal
ter Ropedesi
gnedt
orest
rai
ntheani
mal
.
.
9 Tr
immi
ngkni
fe Cut
ti
ngshor
ttheov
ergr
ownhoov
es.
.
El
ast
rat
or St
ret
chi
ngr
ubberr
ingdur
ingcast
rat
ion,
dehor
ninganddocki
ng
ofl
ambs.
I
rondehor
ner Appl
i
esheatont
hehor
nbudt
opr
eventgr
owt
hofhor
ns.
Noser
ing Fi
xedi
ntot
henoseofabul
ltor
est
rai
nit
.
St
ri
pcup Det
ect
ingmast
it
isi
nmi
l
kpr
oduct
s.
Tr
ocarandcannul
a Rel
i
evi
ngabl
oat
edani
mal
ofgasespar
ti
cul
arl
yrumi
nant
s.
Har
dbr
oom Forscr
ubbi
ngt
hef
loor
.
Earnot
cher Maki
ngearnot
chesi
nli
vest
ock
.
Bucket Forhol
dingmi
l
kdur
ingmi
l
king. ~
Mi
l
kchum Forhol
dingmil
kaftermil
king.
Mi
l
kst
rai
ner
/si
eve Removi
ngf or
eignpart
icl
esfrom mi
l
kforex
ampl
ehai
rsand
sedi
ments.

Rope Ty
ingort
ether
ingani
mal
s.
Mi
l
kingst
ool Usedbyt
hemi
l
kert
osi
tonwhi
l
emi
l
king.
Wei
ghi
ngbal
ance Wei
ghi
ngmi
l
kaf
termi
l
king.
Teet
hcl
i
pper Remov
alofcani
net
eet
hofpi
glet
ssoonaf
terbi
rt
h.
Chaf
fcut
ter Cut
ti
ngf
odderi
ntosmal
lbi
ts.
Dehor
ningwi
re Cut
ti
nggr
ownhor
ns.
,

Wor
kshopTool
sandEqui
pment
Tool
s Uses
1 Spanner Ti
ght
eni
ngandl
ooseni
ngnut
sandbol
ts.
.
2 Pl
i
ers Cutt
ingsmal lwi
resandthi
nmetalandgrippingfi
rml
y.
.
3 Sharpeningtool
s,smoot
heningorshapi
ngedgesof
Fi
l
es
.
4 metals,
Rasps Smoot heni
ngandshapingofwoodenstructures.
.
5 Chi
sel
s(wood) Makinggroovesinwood.
.
6 Cutt
ingandshaping
Col
dchi
sel
.
7 metal.
Scr
ewdr
iver
s Dri
vi
ngscr ewsinoroutofwoodormet
al.
.
8 Saws .
. Crosscutsaw - Cut
ti
ngacr
osst
hegr
ainofwood.
Ri
psaw Cut
ti
ngal
ongt
hegr
ainofwood.
HacksawBowsaw Cut
ti
ngmet
als.
Tenonl
backsaw Cut
ti
ngbr
anchesoft
rees.
Copi
ngsaw Cut
tingJointsonwoodandf inesawing.
Compass/
key
hol
e Cut
tingcurvesont hinwood.
saw Cut
tingei
theralongoracr ossthegrainofwoodespeci
al
ly
whencutti
ngkeyhol es.
9 Ti
nsnip Cut
tingmet alsheets.
.
1 Br
acesandbi
ts. Bor
ingholesinwood. ,
0
1 Dri
l
landbi
ts Bor
inghol
esi
nmet
alwor
kandwoodwor
k. =
1
1 Hammer
.
2 Cl
awhammer Dr
ivi
ngi
n,r
emov
ingandst
rai
ght
eni
ngnai
l
s.
.
Bal
lpei
n Dr
ivi
ngi
nnai
l
s,r
ivet
sandst
rai
ght
eni
ngmet
al.
Alsoused
oncol
dchi
sel
1 Mal
l
et Hammeri
ngorhi
tt
ingwoodchi
sel
.
3
1 Jackplane Fi
nef
ini
shi
ngofwood.
.
4
1 Scrappers/
spokeshav Smoot
heningcur
vedsur
facesofwoodsuchashandl
esof
.
5 e j
embes,ax
es.
.
1 Measur
ingequi
pment ~
6 Met
rer
uler Measur
ingshor
tlengt
h-.
.
Tr
ysquar
e
Measur
ingl
engt
hangl
esandt
oascer
tai
nsquar
eness.
1 Mar
kinggauge Mar
kingpar
all
ell
i
nest
otheedgeofwood.
7
1 Fenci
ngpl
i
ers Cut
ti
ngwi
res,
hammer
ingst
apl
eswhenf
enci
ng.
.
8
1
. Vi
ceandcl
amps Fi
rml
yhol
dingpi
ecesofwor
ktoget
her
.
9
.
Tool
s Uses
2 Spi
ri
tlev
el Measur
inghor
izont
alorv
ert
ical
lev
els.
0
2
. Sol
der
inggun Mel
ti
ngsol
der
ingr
odswhenr
epai
ri
ngorf
abr
icat
ingmet
al
l
sheet
s.
.
2 Wi
rebr
ush Br
ushi
ngr
oughsur
faces.
2
2
. Di
vi
der Mar
kingandl
ayi
ngout
.
3
2 Cent
repunch Mar
kingt
hepoi
ntofdr
il
li
ng.
.
4
2
. Pai
ntbr
ush Appl
yi
ngpai
ntonsur
faces.
5
2
. Sl
edgehammer Rammi
nghar
dwar
e,br
eaki
ngst
ones.
6
2
. Wi
rest
rai
ner Ti
ght
eni
ngwi
resdur
ingf
enci
ng.
7
2
. Ri
vet
ingmachi
ne Fi
xri
vet
swhenj
oini
ngpi
ecesofmet
al.
8
2
. Cl
awbar Remov i
nglongnai
l
sfr
om wood,
str
aini
ngf
enci
ngwi
res
9 and
di
ggingfenci
nghol
es.
.

Pl
umbi
ngandMasonr
yTool
s

Tool
s Uses
l Pi
pewr
ench Hol
ding,
tight
eni
ngandl
oosi
ngmet
all
i
cpi
pes.
.
2 Pi
pecut
ter Cut
ti
ngPVCpi
pes.
.
3 Lev
ell
i
ngr
od Lev
ell
i
ngt
hef
loordur
ingconst
ruct
ion.
.
4 Mason'
str
owel Pl
aci
ngmor
tarbet
weenconst
ruct
ionst
onesandbr
icks.
.
5 Woodf
loat Cr
eat
eal
evel
sur
faceonwal
l
sandf
loor
s.
6 Mason'
ssquar
e Ascer
tai
nver
ti
cal
ness.
.
7 Pl
umbbob Spr
eadi
ngscr
eedov
erf
loor
sandwal
l
s.
.
8 Shov
el Mi
xi
ngandscoopi
ngconcr
eteormor
tar
,measur
ingcement
.
.

Car
eandMai
ntenanceofTool
sandEqui
pment
ReasonsforMaintenance
 Toincreasedurabili
ty.
 Toincreaseeffi
ciency.
 Reducecost sofreplacement
.
 Forsafetyoftheuser /
avoi
dacci
dent
s.
 Avoiddamaget ot hetool
.
Met
hods
 Uset oolsfortherightwor k.
 Properhandl i
ngwhenusi ngt oolsorequipment
.
 Cl
eanandoi ltoolsafterwor k.
 Keept oolsinthererightpl ace.
 Replaceandr epairwor n-outpar ts
 Sharpencut ti
ngordi ggi ngedges
 Greasemov i
ngpar tstor educef r
ict
ion
 Usesaf etydev i
cesint hewor kshopt or
educeacci
dent
sandbr
eakages

ON1
CROPPRODUCTI
(
LandPr
epar
ati
on)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Api
eceofl
andwhi
chi
spr
epar
edi
sknownasseedbed.

 Aseedbedi
sapi
eceofl
andt
hati
spr
epar
edr
eadyt
orecei
vepl
ant
ingmat
eri
als.

SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
Reasonsf
orSeedbedPr
epar
ati
on;

 Toenabl
ewat
ert
oinf
il
tr
ate.

 Tokil
lweeds
 Toimprov esoi
laerat
ion.
 Todestroypestsanddiseases.
 Toincorporat
eorganicmatteri
nthesoi
l
.
 Foreasyplanti
ng.
 Tofacil
i
taterootpenetr
ati
on.
Oper
ati
onsi
nLandPr
epar
ati
on
LandCl
ear
ing
 Cl
ear
ingofl
andi
snecessar
ywhen:
 Openi
ngupav ir
ginland.
 Astalkgrowingcropwaspr ev
iousl
yplant
ed.
 Ther
eislongintervalbet
weenpr imar
yandsecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ion.
 Landwasl ef
tfal
lowf oralongtime.
Pr
ocedur
e
 Treef
ell
ingandremov
alofst
umpsandr
oot
s.
 Burni
ng
 Sl
ashing
 Useofchemical
s.
Not
e:Bur
ningshoul
dbeav
oidedwher
epossi
blesi
ncei
t;
 Leadstolossoforgani
cmatt
er,
 Kil
lssoi
lorgani
sms
 Destroy
ssoilst
ructur
eandpl
antnut
ri
ent
s.

Pr
imar
yCul
ti
vat
ion
 Thi
si stheini
tial
breakingofl and.
 I
tisdoneear lybeforetheonsetoft herai
nsto:
 Gi veti
mef orsoilorganismst oactonor gani
cmatt
er.
 Al l
owgaseousex changet ot akeplace,t
huscar
bondi
oxi
dedi
ff
usesoutoft
he
soil
whileox y
genent ersintot hesoil
.
 Al l
owot heroperati
onst ot akeplaceinti
me.
Reasonsf
orpr
imar
ycul
ti
vat
ion:
 Remov eweeds.
 Burr
yor gani
cmat t
er.
 Openupsoi lf
orinfi
l
trat
ionofwaterandair
.
 Exposepestsanddiseasecausingorgani
sms.
 Soft
enthesoilforeasyplant
ing.
Oper
ati
onsi
npri
marycul
ti
vat
ion
 Handdi
ggi
ng;
Useofhandt
ool
s;
 Jembes,
 Matt
ocks,
 For
k-j
embes.
 Mechani
calcul
ti
vat
ion;
Useofmoul
dboar
dpl
oughs;
 Discploughs,
 Chisel
pl oughs,
 Subsoilers
 Ripper
s.
  UseofOx-
Ploughs;
Whi
chcanbedr
awnby;
 Oxen,
 Donkeys,
 Camels

Dept
hofCul
ti
vat
ion
Dependson:
 Thet
ypeofcroptobepl
ant
ed/
siz
eofseed.
 Thei
mplementsavai
l
abl
e.
 Thet
ypeofsoil
.

Choi
ceofI
mpl
ement
Det
ermi
nedby:
 Thecondit
ionofland.
 Thetypeofti
lt
hr equi
red/
typeofcr
op.
 Dept
hofcul t
ivat
ion.

Secondar
yTi
l
lage
 Theseareref
inementpract
icesont
heseedbedt
hatf
oll
owpr
imar
ycul
ti
vat
ion.
 I
tisalsoknownasharrowing.
Reasonsf
orsecondar
yTi
l
lage:
 Toremov et
heger minati
ngweeds.
 Tobreaksoil
clodstopr oducerequir
edtil
th.
 Tol
ev el
theseedbedf orunif
orm plant
ing.
 Toi
ncorporateorganicmat t
er/
manur eint
othesoi
l
.
Fact
orsdet
ermi
ningnumberofsecondar
ycul
ti
vat
ion:
 Soi
lmoist
urecontent.
 Si
zeofthepl
antingmat er
ial
s.
 Condi
ti
onofthesoilaf
terpri
marycul
ti
vat
ion.
 Sl
opeoftheland.

Ter
ti
aryOper
ati
ons:
 Ri
dgi
ng;
 Thepr ocessofdiggi
ngsoilonaconti
nuousl
ineandheapi
ngononesideto
produceaf urr
owandabund( ri
dge)
.
 Iti
simpor tantforr
ootcr
ops,toall
ow r
ootex
pansionandforsoi
landwat
er
conservati
on.
 Rol
l
ing:
 Iti
sthecompactionofthesoi
ltopr
oduceaf
ir
m sur
facewhi
chi
ncr
eases
seed-
soi
lcont
actandpr
event
swinder
osi
on.
  Level
l
ing;
 Pr
oduct
ionofanev
en,
uni
for
m sur
facewhi
chpr
omot
esuni
for
m pl
ant
ing.

Subsoi
l
ing:
 Thi
si sdeepculti
vat
ioni
ntot
hesubsoi
llay
ert
obr
eakupanyhar
dpanwhi
ch
mighthavedev
eloped.
I
tisdonef
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
-
 Tofacil
i
tatedrainage.
 Bri
ngupl eachednut r
ientstothesur
face.
 I
ncreaseaerationofthesoi l
.
 Toimprov erootpenetrati
on.
 Theimplement susedi udec
ncl hi
selploughandsubsoi
l
ers.

Mi
nimum Ti
l
lage:
 Thisistheappl
icat
ionofacombinat
ionoff
armi
ngpr
act
iceswi
tht
heai
m of
reduci
ngthedi
stur
banceoft
hesoi
l
.
Exampl
esofwhi
chi
ncl
ude:
 Useofher bicides.
 Mulchingandcov er-
cropping.
 Ti
mel yoper ati
onstopr ev
entweedi
nfest
ati
on.
 St
ri
pcul t
ivati
on.
 Uprootingandsl ashi
ngofweeds.
Reasonsf
orMi
nimum Ti
l
lage
 Toreducecostofcul t
ivati
on.
 Tocontrolsoiler
osi
on.
 Topreservesoilmoist
ur e.
 Topreventrootexposureanddamage.
 Toreconstructdest
royedsoilst
ruct
ure.

Wat
erSuppl
y,I
rri
gat
ionandDr
ainage

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Wat
eri
sav
eryi
mpor
tantnat
ural
resour
ce.
 I
tisnecessar
yforbot
hcr
opsandl
i
vest
ock.

Usesofwat
eri
nthef
arm;
 Cl
eaningequipment .
 Ir
ri
gat i
onindryareas.
 Pr
ocessingfarm produce,f
orexampl
e,cof
fee.
 Dr
inkingbyli
vestockandman.
 Mixi
ngagro-chemicalssuchasacari
ci
de,f
ungici
desandher
bici
des.
 Pr
ovidingpowerinwat ermil
lst
ogri
ndgrai
ncrops.
  Cool
ingengi
nes.
 Constr
uct
ionwork.

Sour
cesofWat
eri
ntheFar
m
Thr
eemaj
orsour
cesofwat
eri
nthef
arm:
 Sur
facewat
er:
I
ncl
udeswat
erf
rom;
 Ri
vers,
 St
reams
 Dams.
 Gr
oundwat
er:
I
ncl
udeswat
erf
rom;
 Spr
ings,
 Wel
ls
 Bor
eholes.
 Rai
nwat
er:
Thi
siswat
ert
appedi
nvar
iouswayssuchas;
 Roof
tops
 Rocksur
face,
wheni
tisr
aini
ngandst
oredi
nvar
iousway
s.

Col
l
ect
ionandSt
orageofWat
er
 Dams:
 Thesearestr
ucturesconstr
uctedacrossr
iversandchannels.
 Theycoll
ectandstorewaterforuseduri
ngthedr yseason.
 Weirs:
 Thesearestructuresconstr
uctedacrossriverstor ai
sethewaterlevelf
or
easypumping.
 Unli
keinthedamswat erfl
owsov ert
hebarriercreat
edacrossther
iver
.
 Wat
erTanks:
 Thesear est
ruct
uresmadeofconcret
e,stone,met al
sheetsandpl
asti
cs.
 Theyst orewaterfrom r
ain orthatwhi ch hasbeen pumped from other
sources.
 Tanksshouldbecov er
edt
opreventcontaminationfrom dust
.

PumpsandPumpi
ngofWat
er
 Pumpi ngisthel
if
ti
ngofwat erfrom onepoi
nttoanot
herbyuseofmechani
cal
force.
 Wat erispumpedf r
om thev ar
ioussourcesandthenconv
eyedtowhereitis
requir
edforuseorstor
age.
TypesofWat
erPumps
Usedt
oli
ftwat
erf
rom i
tssour
ce.
 Centr
if
ugalpumps
 Pi
stonorreci
procat
ingpumps
  Semi
-rot
arypumpsand
 Hydr
am
ConveyanceofWat
er
 Thisistheprocessofmov i
ngwaterfrom onepoint
,usual
l
ythesour
ceorpoi
ntof
stor
aget owhereitwil
lbeusedorstored.
 Piping;
 Thi siswherewaterismovedthroughpipes.
Thecommont ypesofpipesi
ncl
ude:
 Metalpi
pes
 Pl
asti
cpipes
 Hosepipes
 UseofCont
ainer
s:
 Inthiscasewateri
sdrawnandputi ncont
ainer
s.
 drums, j
err
ycans,pot
s,gour
ds,tanksandbuckets.
 Whi charecar
ri
edbyanimals,bi
cycles,
humanbeingsandv
ehi
cl
es.
 UseofCanal
s:
 Inthiscasewat erisconveyedfr
om ahighpointtoaloweronealonga
gradualslopetoavoi
dsoi
lerosi
on.
 Wat erconveyedthr
ought
hiswayismost
lyusedf
orir
ri
gat
ionandl
i
vest
ock.
Wat
erTr
eat
ment
 Rawwatercont
ainsi
mpur
it
ieswhi
chmaybedi
ssol
ved,f
loat
ingorsuspendedi
n
wat
er.
Thesei
mpur
it
iesar
egr
oupedi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies,
namel
y:
 Physi
cali
mpur
it
ies:t
hesear
edi
ssol
vedi
mpur
it
iesdet
ect
edbycol
our
,tast
e
andsmel
l
.
 Chemi
cali
mpur
it
ies:t
hese ar
e di
ssol
ved i
mpur
it
ies det
ect
ed by use of
chemi
cal
anal
ysi
s.
 Bi
ologi
cali
mpur
it
ies:t
hesear
emi
croor
gani
smsi
nwat
ersuchasbact
eri
a,
v
irusesandal
gae.

I
mpor
tanceofTr
eat
ingWat
er
 Toki l
ldiseasecausingmicroor
ganismssuchaschol er
aandt yphoi
dbacter
ia
thatthr
iveindi
rt
ywat er.
 Tor emovechemi cali
mpuri
ti
essuchasex cessf
luori
dewhichmaybeharmfulto
humanbei ngs.
 Tor emovesmellsandbadtaste.
 Tor emovesedimentsofsol
idpart
icl
essuchassoil,
sandandsti
cks.
MethodsofTreati
ngWater
 Aerat
ion:t
hisi
sther
emov
alofsmel
landodourf
rom wat
erbyf
inespr
ayi
ngor
bubbl
i
ngofai
r.
 Sedi
ment
ati
on:t
hisi
swher
ewat
eri
sputi
nlar
gecont
ainer
ssot
hatsol
i
d
par
ti
cl
essuchassand,metalandotherscanset
tl
eatthebot
tom.
 Fil
tr
ati
on:thi
sispassi
ngwat ert
hroughfi
negranul
armater
ial
stor
emov
esol
i
d
par
ti
cl
esandbiol
ogi
calsubst
ances.
  Coagul
ati
on:
addi
ti
onofchemi
cal
swhi
chpr
eci
pit
atei
mpur
it
iesandhel
pin
sof
teni
ngofhar
dwat er.
 Chlori
nati
on:Ster
il
izat
iont
odest
roydi
seasecausi
ngor
gani
sms.

I
rri
gat
ion
 Iti
stheart
ifi
ci
alappl
icat
ionofwatert
ocropsindryareasorwher
ewateri
snot
enough.
 Iti
soneofthemethodsoflandrecl
amati
onincaseofari
dandsemiar
idar
eas.
FactorstoConsi
deri
nIdent
if
yingandAssessi
ngt
hePot
ent
ialofLandf
orI
rri
gat
ion
Development
 Topographyofthel
and
 Soil
type
 Typeofcroptobegrown
 Wateravail
abi
li
ty
 Humanf actor
ssuchasski
l
l,capi
tal
avai
l
abi
l
ityandeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es.
TypesofI
rri
gat
ion
 Surf
aceir
rigat
ion:
 Thi
sincludesfloodirri
gati
onandbasinir
ri
gation.
 I
tisusedi nfl
atareas.
 Theproblem withthi
smet hodi
slossofwaterthr
oughseepage.
 I
talsoincreasessoilsali
nit
y.
 Sub-
sur
faceI
rri
gat
ion:
 Thisi
nvolvestheuseofporouspipesorper f
oratedpi
pes.
 Iti
susedinslopyareasandwher ewat eri
sinadequate.
 OverheadorSpr inkl
erIrri
gat i
on:
 Iti
susedinanyar eawhichisnotsteep.
 Dr
iporTr ickleIrri
gation:
 Iti
susedwher ewaterisli
tt
leandinrelati
vel
ysloppyandfl
atar
eas.

Dr
ainage
 Thi
sisamet hodofremovingex
cesswat
erorl
ower
ingt
hewat
ert
abl
efr
om a
marshywater
-l
oggedl
and.
 I
tisalsoamethodofl
andrecl
amati
on.
I
mpor
tanceofDr
ainageasaMet
hodofLandRecl
amat
ion
 Toi
ncreasesoil
aerati
on.
 Tor
aisesoil
temper at
ure.
 Toi
ncreasemicrobial
activ
iti
esi
nt hesoi
l
.
 Tor
educetoxicsubstancesfrom t
hesoil
.
 Toi
ncreasesoil
v ol
umef orexpl
oit
ati
onbypl
antr
oot
s.
 Met
hodsofDr
ainage
 Useofopendi tches.
 Useofunder gr
ounddr ai
npi pes.
 Frenchdrains.
 Camber edbeds.
 Pumpi ngoutwat erf
rom thesoil
.
 Pl
antingtreespecieswhichabsorbal
otofwat
erf
orex
ampl
eeucal
ypt
us.
Wat
erPol
l
uti
on
 Thi
sist
heprocessbywhi
chharmf
ulsubst
ancesgeti
ntot
hewat
er.
 Thehar
mful
substancei
sref
err
edt
oasapol l
utant
.

Agr
icul
tur
alpr
act
iceswhi
chpol
l
utewat
eri
ncl
ude:
 Useofinorgani
cferti
l
izers.
 Useofpestici
des.
 Poorculti
vati
onpracticessuchasov ercult
ivat
ion,cul
ti
vati
ngalongt heri
ver
banks.
 Overgr
azingwhichleadst oer
osi
onofsoi
lthuscausingsi
l
tati
oninwatersour
ces.

Met
hodsofPr
event
ingWat
erPol
l
uti
on
 Soilconser
vati
onmeasur eswhi chmi ni
mizesoi
l l
ossesthrougher
osi
on.
 Fencingoffthewat ersour ces.
 Adopt i
ngorganicfarmingpr act
icesforexamplecontrol
l
ingpestsandweedusi
ng
non-chemicaltechniques.
 Planti
nggrassal ongriverbankst omi ni
mizesil
tati
oninriv
ers.
 Pr operdi
sposal ofempt ychemi calcontai
ners.

Soi
lFer
ti
li
tyI
(
Organi
cManures)

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Soil
fer
ti
li
tyi
stheabil
i
tyoft
hesoi
ltopr
ovi
decr
opswi
tht
her
equi
rednut
ri
ent
sin
thei
rpr
operpropor
ti
ons.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofaFer
ti
leSoi
l
 Gooddept h-Goodsoi l
sgiverootsgreat
erv olumet oobt ai
nplantnutrient
sand
pr
ov i
destronganchorage.
 Goodaer ati
on-fortherespi
rati
onofplantr ootsandusebysoi lorganisms.
 Goodwat erholdi
ngcapaci t
y-ensurespr ovisi
onofadequat ewat erforplant
gr
owt h.
 Properdrainage-ensuresprovi
sionofadequat eairforplantgrowt h.
 Correctsoi
lpH-di f
fer
entcropshav edif
ferentsoilpHr equir
ement s.
  Adequatenutr
ient
ssupply-itshoul
dsupplyt
herequi
rednutr
ient
sint
hecor
rect
amountsandinaf or
m avail
abletopl
ants.
 Freefr
om excessi
veinf
estati
onofsoilbor
nepest
sanddiseases.
Howsoi
ll
osesf
ert
il
it
y
 Leachi ng:verti
calmov ementofdi ssolvedmi neralsfrom t hetopt othelower
hor izonsoft hesoi lprofi
le.
 Soi lerosion-Ther emov alandcar ry i
ngawayoft het opfer t
il
esoi lfr
om onepl ace
toanot her.
 Monocr opping-Thi si sthepr acti
ceofgr owi ngonet ypeofcr oponapi ece'ofa
l
andov eral ongt i
me.
 Cont i
nuouscr opping-cr opst akeawayal otofnut r
ientsf r
om t hesoi lwhichare
nev err etur
ned.
 Gr owi ngcr opscont inuousl ywithoutgi vingt hesoil t
imet or estmakest hesoil
i
nf ertil
e.
 Changei nsoilpH-changesi nsoi lpHaf fecttheact i
v i
tyofsoi lmi croorganisms
aswel l astheav ai
labili
tyofsoi lnutrients.
 Bur ningofveget ati
on-bur ningofv egetationcov erdest roysor gani cmat t
er.It
alsoex posest hesoi ltotheagent sofsoi lerosion.
 Accumul ati
onofsal ts-soilswi t
hal otofsal tsaresai dtobesal ine.Stateof
hav ingt oomuchsal tinthesoi li
sr eferr
edt oassoi lsali
nity.
 Sal tsaccumul at
ioncausewat erdef ici
encyi npl ants.Itmayal sol eadtochange
i
nsoi lpH.

Mai
ntenanceofSoi
lFer
ti
li
ty
Soi
lfer
ti
li
tyi
smai
ntai
nedt
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods:
 Cont
rolofSoi
lEr
osi
on;
 Terr
acing,
 Contourcul
ti
vati
on,
 Str
ipcroppi
ng,
 Cutoffdrai
ns
 Pl
antingcovercr
ops.
 Cr
opRot
ati
on;
 Pract
iceofgr
owingdiff
erentcropsont
hesamefi
el
dindi
ff
erentseasonsi
n
anorderl
ysequence.
 ControlofSoilpH:
 Appli
cati
onofli
mingmat er
i ssuchasl
al i
mestone,qui
ckli
me,
magnesi
um car
bonat
eandsl
akedl
i
mei
fthesoi
li
saci
dic.
 Appl
i
cat
ionofaci
dicf
ert
il
iz
ersi
fthesoi
li
sal
kal
i
ne.
  Appl
i
cat
ionofmanur
es.
 Pr
operdr
ainage;
Donet
hrough:
 Breaki
nghar dpan.
 Construct
ionofwaterchannel
s.
 Growingcropsoncamber edbed
 Pumpingoutwat erfr
om thesoi
l.
 Weedcont
rol
:
Useofher bi
cides.

Slashing

Uproot ing.

Mul ching

Useofpr operfarmingpr
acti
cessuchasearl
yplant
ing,cor
rectspaci
ngand
covercr ops.
 I
ntercr oppi ng–
 Farmi ngpr acti
cewheredif
fer
entcr
opsspeci
esar
egrownt ogetheri
nthef
iel
d.
 Mi
nimum Ti
l
lage;
 Useofher bicides.
 Uprootingofweeds.
 Sl
ashingweeds
 Mulching
 St
ri
pcul t
ivat
ion.
 UseofI
nor
gani
cFer
ti
li
zer;
 Chemicalcompoundsmanuf
acturedtoappl
yspeci
fi
cpl
antnut
ri
ent
sfor
examplecalci
um ammoni
um ni
trate(
CAN).

 UseofManur
e;
 Wel
ldecomposedmanur esr
eleasenut
ri
ent
sint
othesoi
landi
ncr
easei
ts
wat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty.
Or
gani
cManur
es
 Manur esarederivedfr
om plant
sandani mal remains.
 Theysupplyor ganicmat t
ertothesoilwhichaf terdecomposi
ti
onr
eleasespl
ant
nutr
ients.
 Theendpr oductoft hi
sdecomposi t
ioni
sknownashumus.
 Iti
nfl
uencessoi l
chemi calpr
opert
iesandsoi l
t emperat
ure.
 Manur essuppl
yawi derangeofessenti
alplantnutri
ents.
I
mpor
tanceofOr
gani
cMat
teri
ntheSoi
l
 I
ncreasesthesoilwaterhol di
ngcapacityofthesoi
l.
 I
mpr ovessoilf
erti
li
tybyr el
easingawider angeofnut
ri
ent
sint
othesoi
l
.
 Provi
desfoodandshel t
erforsoilmicr
o-organi
sms.
 I
mpr ovesthesoilstr
ucture.
 Buff
erssoilpH/moder atessoilpH.
 Reducesthetoxicit
yofpl antpoisonsi
nt hesoi
l.
 Moderatessoilt
emper aturebyi t
sdarkcolour.
Li
mit
ati
onsi
ntheUseofManur
e
 Theyarebulky-lownut r
it
ivevalueperuni
tvolume.
 Labori
ousinapplicat
ionandt r
ansport
.
 Theyspreaddiseases,pestsandweeds.
 Lossofnutri
entsifpoorl
ystored.
 Ifnotf
ull
ydecomposedcr opsmaynotbenefitfr
om t
hem.
TypesofOr
gani
cManur
es
 Greenmanur
e.
 Farmyar
dmanure.
 Compostmanur
e
Gr
eenManur
e
 Madef
rom gr
eenpl
ant
swhi
char
egr
ownf
ort
hepur
poseofi
ncor
por
ati
ngi
nto
t
hesoi
l
.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofpl
ant
susedf
orpr
epar
ati
onf
orgr
eenmanur
e:
 Havefastgr
owt hrat
es.
 Havehighni
trogencontent
.
 Capabl
eofrotti
ngquickl
y.
 Capabl
eofgrowi ngi
npoorcondi
ti
ons.
Pr
epar
ati
onofGr
eenManur
e
 Pl
antthegreenmanur ecropinthefiel
d.
 Al
lowthecropt ogrowupt ofl
oweringstage.
 I
ncorpor
ateitintothesoi
lthr
oughpl oughing.
 Al
lowthecropt odecomposef ort
woweek s.
 Pr
eparethefiel
df orpl
ant
ingthemaj orcrop.

Reasonswhygr
eenmanur
eisnotcommonl
yused/
li
mit
ati
ons:
 Mostoftheplant
susedasgr eenmanurear
efoodcr ops.
 Greenmanur ecr
opsmayusemostoft hesoil
moi st
ure.
 Mostoft henutri
entsareusedupbysoi lmi cr
o-organi
smsi
nthepr
ocessof
decomposingthegreenmanure.
 Plant
ingofthemajorcropi
sdelay
ed.

Far
m Yar
dManur
e(FYM)
 Isami xtur
eofani
malwast
eandcr
opr
esi
duesusedasbeddi
ngsi
nani
mal
houses.
Fact
orst
hatDet
ermi
net
heQual
i
tyofFYM
 Thetypesoftheanimal
sused.
 Typesoffoodeaten
 Typesofli
tt
erused.
 Methodofstorage.
 Ageoffarmyardmanure.
 Ageoftheanimalsused.
Pr
epar
ati
onofFYM
 Pr
ovi
debeddi
ngsi
nthehousesoff
arm ani
mal
s.
  Animalsdeposi
ttheirdroppi
ngsanduri
neonthebeddi
ngs.
 Animalsmixthem throughtrampl
i
ng.
 Thebeddingstogetherwithdungarer
emovedandheapedundershedt
o
decompose.
 Aftersometi
me,themat eri
al
sdecomposeandFYM isf
ormed.
 Itcanthenbeusedi nthefarm

CompostManur
e
 I
smanur
epr
epar
edf
rom heaped(
compost
ed)or
gani
cmat
eri
als.

Fact
orst
oconsi
deri
nsel
ect
ingsi
tef
ormaki
ngcompostmanur
e:
 Awelldrai
nedpl
ace.
 Dir
ecti
onofthepr
evai
li
ngwi
nd.
 Si
zeofthefarm.
 Accessi
bil
i
ty.
Pr
epar
ati
onofCompostManur
e
Twomethods:
 Fourheapsmet
hod
 I
ndoreMethod(
PitMet
hod)

I
ndoreMethod(
PitMet
hod)
Pr
ocedur
e;
 Selectashel t
eredplacewi thashadeandneart hef i
el
d.
 Digapi twit
ht hedimensi on1 .
2m x1. 2m x1. 2m.
 Placet hemat er
ial
si nthefollowingor der:
 Hedgecut ti
ngsormai z
est alkstoadept hof3 0cm asaf oundat
ion
 Alay erofgr ass,greenweedsorl eavesandkitchenwastesto30cm.
 Awel l r
ottenmanur e/poultrydroppings.
 Woodashandphosphat i
cfer t
il
iz
ers.
 Al ayeroft opsoiltoi nt
roducemi cro¬organi
sm forthedecompositi
onoforgani
c
remai ns.
 Not e:Some wat er shoul d be spr i
nkl
ed t ot he materi
alstoi ni
ti
atethe
decomposi ti
on pr ocessandr egulatetemperatures.

Fourheapsmet
hod:
Pr
ocedur
e
 Clearthesite.
 Lev el
thesite
 Fourpost s2 m higharefied1
x .2m apar tfr
om fourcorner
soft heheap.
 Fixwoodpl anksont hesides.
 Mat eri
alsareplacedintwoheapsasi nthepi tmethod,
 Thet woheapsmakeupheap1 .
 After3-4weeks, thedecomposedmat eri
al f
rom heap1i st
ransfer
redtoheapI
I.
 Afteranother3-4weekst hemat er
ialistransfer
redtoheapIII
.
 After3-4weeksi tisreadyforuseinthefar m.
I
ndi
cat
orsofwel
ldecomposedmanur
e
 Absenceofbadodour
.
 Materi
alsar
eli
ght
er.
 Manureisbrowni
ncolour
.
Advant
agesofCompostManur
e
 Onedoesnothavetoownl ivest
ockinordertoprepar
eit
.
 Alotofmanur
ecanbepr oducedwithi
nashor tti
me.
 Avariet
yofmateri
al
scanbeusedi nit
spreparati
on.
 Useslocal
l
yavail
ablemateri
alsthuscheaperthanthear
ti
fi
ci
alf
ert
il
iz
ers.
 I
mpr ovest
hesoilst
ruct
ure.
Li
mit
ati
onsofCompostManur
e
 Itrel
easesnut r
ientssl
owlyint
othesoi
l.
 Large quant i
ti
es ofcompostmanur e arerequi
red t
o suppl
y enough pl
ant
nutri
ents.
 Itspreparat
ionislabouri
ntensi
ve.
 Itmayi nducesoil-
bornepestsanddi
seases.
 Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
ion:

(
CommonBr
eeds)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Thet
erml
i
vest
ocki
susedt
oref
ert
oal
ldomest
icat
edani
mal
s.
 Theseani
malsincl
udecat
tl
e,sheep,goat
s,poul
tr
y,pi
gs,r
abbi
ts,camel
s,bees,
fi
shanddonkey
s.
Thei
mpor
tanceofkeepi
ngl
i
vest
ock:
 Sourceoffood.
 Sourceofincome.
 Cult
uralval
ues.
 Sourceofanimalpower.
 Provi
sionofrawmateri
alsf
orindust
ri
es.
 Farmyardmanurefrom t
heanimalsisusedinmaint
aini
ngsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.
 Catt
ledungisusedintheproduct
ionofbiogas.
Cat
tl
eBr
eeds
 Cat
tl
ecanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wogr
oupsbasedont
hei
ror
igi
n.
Thesear
e;
 I
ndigenouscatt
le.
 Exoti
ccatt
le.
I
ndi
genousCat
tl
e
Zebus–
Theyar
esmal
li
nsi
zeandwi
thadi
sti
ncthumpandi
ncl
ude:
 Nandi,
 Bukedi
 Maasaicat
tl
e.
TheBor
ana
 Thesearethecatt
lekepti
ntheNor
ther
npar
tsofKeny
a.
 Theyarelar
gerthantheZebus.
 Indi
genouscattl
ear ehardyhenceabl
etot
oler
atet
hehar
sh env
ironment
al
condit
ionsi
nthetropi
cs.
 Theyar
ethemaj
orsuppl
i
ersofbeefi
nKeny
a.
Exot
icCat
tl
e
 Forei
gncat
tl
efrom t
het emperat
eregi
ons.
 Theyhavedi
sti
nctbreedcharact
eri
sti
csandar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntov
ari
ousbr
eeds.

Gener
alchar
act
eri
sti
cs:
  Theyhavenohumps.
 Theyhavelowt olerancetohi ght emperatureshencepopul
ari
ncoolcli
mat
esof
theKenyahighl
ands. .
 Theyarehi
ghlysuscept ibl
etot r
opi caldi
seases.
 Theyhavefastgrowt hratesleadingt oearl
ymat uri
ty.
 Theyaregoodpr oducersofbot hmeatandmi lk
.
 Theycannotwalkf orlongdistances.
 Theyhaveshortcalv i
nginter
v al
sofonecal fperyeari
fwel
lmanaged.

Exot
iccat
tl
ebr
eedsf
allundert
hef
oll
owi
nggr
oups:
 Dair
ycatt
lebreeds.
 Beefcat
tl
ebreeds.
 Dualpur
posebr eeds.
Dai
ryCat
tl
eBr
eeds
 Theyinclude;
 Fri
esian,
 Ayrshir
e,
 Guernsey
 Jersey.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofDai
ryCat
tl
e
 Wedgeort riangularinshape.
 Largestomach.
 Docil
ewi t
hmi l
dt emperament.
 Large,
wellsuspendedudder sandteats.
 Leanbodies.
 Leanandsmoot hneck.
 Largeandlongmammar ymilkwell
sandv ei
ns.
 Cyli
ndri
cal;uniform andwellspacedteat
s.
 Wideandwel lsethindquar
terstoaccommodatetheudder
.

Fr
iesi
an-
Hol
stei
n(l
argestofal
ldai
rybr
eeds)
 Ori
gin:Holl
and
 Col
our :Bl
ackandwhit
e
 Si
ze: Cowwei ghs550-680kgsBul
lwei
ghs950kg.
 Hi
ghestmil
kpr oducer
sofalldai
rybr
eedsabout9150kgperl
act
ati
onbutwi
th
l
eastbut
ter
fatcontent
;3.
5%

Ayr
shi
re
 Ori
gin:Scot
land
 Col
our :Whi
tewithbr
ownmar ki
ngs.
 Si
ze:Cowwei ghs360-
590kgsBull ghs500-
swei 720kg.
Conf
ormat
ion:
 Str
aighttopli
nes,hor
nsar
elongandfaceupwar
ds.
 Mil
kpr oducti
onissecondtoFriesi
anabout61OOkgperl
act
ati
onwi
thbut
ter
contentofabout4%.
Guer
nsey
 Ori
gin:GuernseyIsl
andofft
hecoastofFr
ance.
 Col
our :Yell
owi
shbr owntor
edwithwhit
elegs,
swi
tchandgi
rt
h..
 Si
ze:Bul l
s540-770kg.Cowwei
ghs450-500kgs
Conf
ormat
ion:
 Uddersar
elesssymmet r
ical
.
 Aver
agemi l
kproduct
ionisabout5185kgperl
act
ati
onwi
thabut
ter
fatcont
entof
4.
5%hencet heyel
lowcolourofmil
k.

sey(
Jer smal
l
estofal
lthedai
rybr
eeds)
 Ori
gin:England
 Col
our :Yell
owbrownwit
hblackmuzz
leandswit
ch.
 Si
ze:Bul l
sweigh540-
700kg.Cowwei
ghs350-
450kgs
Conf
ormat
ion:
 Dishedfor
ehead, havestr
aighttop-
li
neandlev
elrumpswithsharpwit
her
s.
 Hav epr
otrudingblackeyes.
 Averagemi l
kproduction1270kgperlact
ati
onofbutt
erf
atcontent5%.
 Theytoler
atehight emperat
ures.
BeefCat
tl
e
Exampl
es:
 Aber
deenAngus,
 Her
efor
d,
 Shor
thor
ns,
 Gal
l
oway
,
 Amer
icanBr
ahman,
 char
olai
s
 Sant
aGet
rudi
s.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofBeefCat
tl
e
 Bl
ockyorsquareconformati
on.
 Havethickmusclesorarewellf
leshed.
 Earl
ymat uri
ng.
 Deepchestandgi r
thandshortl
egs.
 Str
aighttopandlowerli
nes.
Aber
deenAngus
 Ori
gin:NorthEastScot
land.
 Colour:Bl
ack
 Shape: Cy
li
ndri
cal,
compactanddeep;
Iti
spol
l
ed.
Si
ze:
 Matur
ebull
sweigh900kg.
 Matur
ecowsweigh840kgs.
 Iti
sfoundi
nTimauareaofKeny
a
Her
efor
d
 Ori
gin:England.
 Col
our :Deepredandwhite-
faced.
 Si
ze:Averageweightofbull
sis1000kg.
 Cowswei
gh840kgs.
 I
tisf
oundi
nareassuchasNai
vasha.
Shor
thor
n
 Or
igi
n:Engl
and.
 Haseasyfl
eshingabil
i
ty
 Colour
:Red,Roanorwhite
 Shape:Cyl
indr
ical
,compactanddeep.
 I
tispoll
ed.
Si
ze:
 Bul
lswei
gh700-
900kg,
 cowswei
gh545-
630kgs.

Gal
l
oway
 Ori
gin:Scotl
and.
 Colour:Bl
ack
 Keptinthehighl
andar
easl
i
keMol
oinKeny
a.
Char
olai
s
 Ori
gin:France.
 Col
our :Creamywhit
e.
 Si
ze:Bul l
sweigh1200kg,
cowswei
gh1000kgs.
 I
tisf
oundi
nranchesi
nLai
ki
piaDi
str
ict
.

DualPur
poseBr
eeds
Exampl
es:Sahi
wal
,RedPol
landSi
mment
al.
Sahi
wal
 Ori
gin:IndiaandPaki
stan.
.
 Col
our :reddi
shbrown.
 Size:Bullsweigh650kg,andcows400kg.
 Mi l
kpr oducti
onaverages2700-3000perlactat
ionwi
thabutterfatcont
entof
3.7%.
 Ithasapendul ousudderswhichdoesnotl etdownmilkeasi
l
y .
 Itistherefor
esaidtobeadi f
fi
cultmil
ker
.
 Itiskeptinsemi-ar
idareassuchasNai v
asha.
RedPol
l
 Ori
gin:England.
 Col
our :Deepredwithawhitenose.
 Conformation:Pol
l
ed-deepgir
thandshor
tlegs.
  Kepti
nsemi
-ar
idar
eassuchasNakur
u,Mogot
io.
Si
mment
al
 Ori
gin:Switz
erland.
 Col
our :Li
ghtredandwhi
tepat
chesont
hehead.
Conf
ormat
ion:
 I
thasbroadandstr
aightback,wi
thwel
l-
sprungri
bsanddeepgi
rth.
 I
tiswel
lfl
eshedatrearquart
ers,
wel
lsuspendedudder
sandlar
geteat
s.
SheepBr
eeds:
Pur
poseofKeepi
ngSheep;
 Meat(mutton)
.
 Woolproducti
on.
Exot
icSheep
 Woolbreeds-forexamplemer
ino.
 Dualpurpose-forexampl
eCorri
edal
e,Romneymarsh.
 Mutt
onbr eeds-forexampl
eHampshireDown,Dor
pers.
Mer
ino
 Or
igi
n:Spai
n

Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 I
thaswhi t
efaceanditsli
psandnostr
il
sarepinki
ncolour.
 Ramshav ehornswhicharespir
ali
nshape.
 I
tissuscepti
blet
ofootrot,wor
m andrespi
rat
orydi
seases.
Cor
ri
edal
e
 Or
igi
n:NewZeal
and.
 Si
ze:Rams85-90kg.Ewes60--85kg
 Thi
sisadual-
purposebreedwi
thwhi
teopenf
aceandwhi
tespot
sont
hel
egs.
 I
tishornl
essandhardy.
RomneyMar
sh
 Or
igi
n:Engl
and.
 Si
ze:Rams100-115kg.
 Ewes84-100kg
 I
tisadual -
purposebr eedwhi chshor
nlesswi
thwidepol
landbl
acknost
ri
lsand
l
ips.
 I
tisaverageinproli
fi
cacy.
 I
tisresi
stanttofootrotdiseasesandworminf
est
ati
on.

Hampshi
reDown
 Or
igi
n:Engl
and.
 Si
ze:Rams125kg.
  Ewes80- 100kg
 Itisamut t
onbr eedwhichi
searlymatur
ing,hardyandpr
oli
fi
c.
 Fleeceisofpoorquali
tybecauseoft
hebl ackfi
bres.
 Lambi ngpercentagei
s125-140.
Dor
per
 I
sacrossbreedofDor
sethor
nandbl
ackheadPer
siansheep.
 Iti
smuttonbreed.
Dor
setHor
n
 Dual purposebr eedofsheep.
 IndigenousBr eedsofSheep
 Thei rbodiesar ecoveredwithhai
r.
 Thei rclassif
icationisbasedont hei
rtai
l
sandt
hei
rnamesv
aryaccor
dingt
o
diff
er enttri
bes.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs;
 Thi
ntail
edsheepf
oundinWestAfri
ca.
 Fatt
ail
edsuchasMaasaisheep.
 Fatr
umpedsheep.
MaasaiSheep
 Foundi nSouthWester
nKenyaandNort
hernTanz
ani
a.
 Si
ze: Ram 38kg,
 Ewe20- 30kg.
 Colour:Redandbrown.
 Thesear eearl
ymaturi
ngwi
thlongl
egsandsmall
poi
ntedhor
ns.
Bl
ackHeadPer
sianSheep
 Ori
gin:SouthAfr
ica
 Colour:Whit
ewithblackheadandneck
.
 I
tispolledwit
habigdewl ap,
fatr
umpandacur
vedt
ail
.
.
Goat
s
Goatswelladapted t
o awi
der
angeofenvi
ronment
alcondi
ti
onsbecauseoft
he
f
oll
owingchar
acteri
sti
cs:
 Theyfeedonawi derangeofv egetati
on.
 Theyrequi
reveryli
tt
leamountofwat er
.
 Theyaretol
eranttohightemperatures.
 Theyarefai
rl
yresist
anttodiseases.
 Theycanwalklongdistanceswithoutlosi
ngwei
ght
.
I
ndi
genousGoatBr
eeds
 Gal
l
a(whi
tei
ncol
our
).Adul
tfemal
ecanwei
gh25kg.

 Somal i
(Boran)
: FoundinNor ther
nKenya(whit
eincol
our)
.
 Turkana/Sambur u:(
Longhai randbear
ded.
 Mubende:( Bl
ack)(40-45kg).Thesearesmallandhardyandar
ekeptf
ormeat
andmi l
kedbyt hepastoral
ists.
Exot
icBreeds
Boergoat
 Or
igi
n:Sout
hAf
ri
ca
 Col
our:Whit
e
 Haslongear
sandl
onghai
ront
hei
rbodi
es.
Angl
o-Nubi
an
 Or
igi
n:Nor
thEastAf
ri
ca
 Colour
:RoanandWhi t
e
 Thesehavelonglegs,l
oppedear
sandarepol
l
ed.
 Theyproduce1-2li
tresofmil
kper,
day
.
Jumnapar
i
 Ori
gin:Indi
a
 Col
our :Whit
e,bl
ackandf
awn.
 Theyarehorned,hav
elar
geloppedear
s
 Produce1-
1.5_l
it
resofmi
lkperday.
Toggenbur
g
 Ori
gin:Swit
zer
land
 Col
our :Whi
tepatchesont
hebody
,whi
test
ri
pesont
hef
aceandneck.
 Erectf
orwar
dpoint
ingear
sandpol
l
ed.
 Canproduce2-
3ofmi l
kperday
.
Saanen
 Ori
gin:Swit
zer
land.
 Col
our :Whi
te
 Theyhaveerect
,for
wardpoi
nti
ngear
sandpol
l
ed.
 Canproduce2-3Ii
tr
esofmil
kperday
.
Angor
a
 Ori
gin:Angor
ainAsi
a.
 Colour:Whi
te
 I
tiskeptforwool
product
ion.
Fr
enchal
pine.Pi
gs
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Theyaresparselyhair
edandt her
efor
ecannotwithst
andcold.
 Pi
gswal l
owwheni ti
shotduet oabsenceofsweatglands.
 Theybreathefastwheni ti
shot.
 Theyhavebr i
stl
esinsteadofhair
.
 Breeds
Lar
geWhi t
e
 Ori
gin:Br i
tain
_Keptforbaconandpor kpr
oducti
on.
 Long,largeandwhi tei
ncolour
.
 Earsstraightanderect
.
 Hasdishedf aceandsnout
.
 Mostpr olif
icandwithgoodmotheri
ngabi
l
ity
.
 Fai
rlyhar dy.

Landr
ace

 Or
igi
n:Denmar
k
 Whiteandlongerthanlargewhit
e._
 Earsdroopi
ng.
 Goodforbaconpr oducti
on.
 Veryprol
if
icwithgoodmot her
ingabi
li
ty.
_
 Requir
eshighlevelofmanagement.

WessexSaddl
e
 BackOrigin:Engl
and
 Colour
:Blackwi t
hwhit
efor
elegsandshoul
der
s.
 St
raightsnoutanddroopingears.
_
 Goodf orbaconandpork.
 Goodf orkeepingout
doors.
 Excell
entmot heri
ngi
nst
incts.
Ot
herpi
gbr
eedsi
ncl
ude:
 Ber
kshi
re,
 Mi
ddl
e-whi
te
 Dur
ocJer
seypi
g.
Pi
gscanbecr
ossedt
oobt
ainhybr
idsorcr
osses.
Advant
agesofCr
osses
 I
ncreasedli
ttersi
ze._
 Earl
ymat ur
ing.
_I
ncreaseinbodylength.
_Highpropor
tionofleanmeatt
ofat
.
Poul
tr
yBr
eeds
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofchi
ckenbr
eeds:
 Thel
i
ghtbr
eedskeptf
oreggpr
oduct
ion.
  Theheavybr
eedskeptformeatpr
oduct
ion.
 Dualpur
posebreeds-keptf
orbot
heggsandmeatpr
oduct
ion.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofLi
ghtBr
eeds
 Nevergobr oodyhencepoorsi tt
ers.
 Excel
lentlayers(over220eggspery ear)
.
 Poormeatpr oducers(henscanattai
n2kg; cocks3kgs)
 Verynervousandex hi
bithi
ghdegr eeofcannibal
ism.
 Hen'scombi slargeandbentov eroneey eandcock' scombi
slar
gewi
th5-6
serr
ati
ons.
Exampl
es:
 Leghorns,
 Anconas,
 Sil
ki
es,
 Minorcas.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofHeavyBr
eeds
 Canlayfeweggsandpr
ovidegoodmeatasbr
oil
ers.
 Cangobr oody
.
 Heavi
erandbiggeri
nsi
ze.
 Growfast.
Exampl
es:
 Li
ghtSussex,
 CornishDar
k
 White.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofDual
-Pur
poseBr
eeds
 Gobroody.
 Havegoodmeat .
 Di
seaseresi
stant(donotr
equi
rehi
ghst
andar
dofmanagement
).
 Rar
elyexhi
bitcannibal
i
sm.
Exampl
es:RhodeI
slandRed.
Hybr
ids
 Thesearedevel
opedbycrossi
ngtwodif
ferentbreeds.
 Theyaresuperi
ori
nperf
ormance.
 Canatt
ain2kgin56daysforbroi
l
ersandlayover200eggspery
earf
orl
ayer
s.
Exampl
es:
 Shaver
s,
 Thombers
 I
sabrown.
Rabbi
ts
Keptf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
 Topr
ovi
demeat
,fur
,hai
rorwool
.
  Toprovi
deski
nforl
eather.
 Toprovi
demanure.
 Aspetanimal
s.
 Usedforr
esear
chpurposes.
Br
eeds
 Cal
iforni
anwhi te:whi te,
v eryprol
if
icbl
ackears,noseandf
eet
).
 NewZeal andwhi te:(whitewithpinkeyes-goodformeat)
.
 Fl
emi shgiant( darkgr ey-goodf ormeat).
 Angorarabbi t(whi t
e,keptf orwoolproduct
ion)
.
 Chinchil
l
ah( greyish,keptfori t
sfur)
.
 Earlops(whit
ewi thdr oopyear s).
 Kenyawhi te(whi te,smallestofbreeds).
Camel
s
Keptf
or;
 Transport
,
 Racing,
 Topr ov
idemi
l
k,meatandwool
.
Ther
ear
etwospeci
esofcamel
s.

Dr
omedar
y(Camel
usdr
omedar
ius)
 Ori
gin:ArabiaandSyri
a
 Aresinglehumped,haveli
ghtbody
 Goodf orraci
ngandrapidtr
anspor
t.

Bact
eri
an(
Camel
usbact
eri
anus)
 Or
igi
n:Cent
ral
Asi
a
 Hasdoublehumps,heavi
erandhasshor terlegs.
 Canli
veincol
dregi
onshencei t
sthickandl ongcoatact
sasi
nsul
ati
on.
 Capabl
eofsheddi
ngt hecoatduri
ngspring.

Ter
msusedt
odescr
ibel
i
vest
ocki
ndi
ff
erentage,
sexanduse.
Li
vest
ock Adul
t Repl
acementSt
ock Young User
s)
Speci
es Mal
e Femal
e Mal
e Femal
e One
Dair
y-mil
k
Cat
tl
e Bul
l Cow Bul
l
ock Hei
fer Cal
f Beef-
meat
Mutt
on-meat
Sheep Ram Ewe Ram Hogget Lamb
Woolsheep-
wool

Goat Buckor Doeor Buck Doe Ki

d Dai
ry-mi
l
k

Bi
ll
y Nanny Mutton-meat
Pi
gs Boar Sow Boar Gi
lt Pi
glet Pork-meat
Bacon-cur
ed
Poul
tr
y Cock Hen Cocker
el Pul
l
et Chi
ck Broi
ler
s-meat
 Lay
ers-eggs
Rabbi
ts Buck Doe Buck Doe Ki
ndl
i
ng Meat
Camel Bul
l Cow Bul
l Hei
fer Cal
f Pack,trai
nedf
or
ri
ding,raci
ngmil
k,
meat ,
fur

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
csI
(
Basi
cConceptsandFarm Recor
ds)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Economi csi sthest udyofhow manandsoci etychoosest oall
ocatescarce
product i
ver esourcest oproducev ar
iouscommodi ti
es,overti
me,anddi st
ri
bute
them amongv ari
ousconsumer sinsoci ety
.
 Itattempt st oexplainhow mancanbestuset hel i
mitedresour
cest oproduce
goodsandser vi
ceswhi chsatisfi
eshi sneedswi t
hmi nimum wastageorl ossof
theser esources
Exampl e;
 f ood,
 cl othing
 shel t
er
 Agriculturaleconomi csisthereforedefinedasasci encethataimsatmax imiz
ing
outputwhi l
emi nimiz i
ngcostsbycombi ningthelimitedsuppli
esofgoodsand
servicesf orusebyt hesocietyov eracer t
ainperi
odoft i
me.
 Thesear e;
 l and,
 capi t
al,
 l abour
 management

Basi
ceconomi
cPr
inci
ples
Scar
cit
y
 Economicscarci
tymeansr esourcesar
eli
mitedi
nsuppl
yrel
ati
vet
odemand.
 Thispri
ncipl
eimpli
esthatthereisnotimethatmancanhaveenoughr
esour
ces
tosati
sfyall
hisneedordesires
Choi
ce/
Pref
erence
 Humanwant saremanyandvari
edandmeansofsatisf
yingthem ar
elimit
ed.
 Theref
ore,manhast omakeachoiceamongt heal
ternati
vesinordertousethe
resour
cesavail
able.
 Mandoest hisbysati
sfy
ingt
hemostpressi
ngneedsfir
st.
 Thisiscaleds
l caleofpref
erence.
Oppor
tuni
tyCost
 Opport
unit
ycostistherevenuef
orgonef r
om thebestal
ter
nat
ive.
 Itexi
stsonlywher
et her
earealt
ernat
ives.
 Wheretherearenoalter
nati
vest
heoppor tuni
tycosti
sequalt
oz er
o.
  Oppor
tuni
tycosthel
psi
ndeci
si
onmaki
ng.

Far
m Recor
ds
 Farmrecor
dsaredocument skepti
nthefarm
 Theyshowfarm act
ivi
ti
escarr
iedoutoveralongperi
odofti
me
 Orinf
ormati
onkeptinthefarminwrit
tenfor
m, aboutt
hefar
m andal
lact
ivi
ti
esi
n
i
t.

UsesofFar
m Recor
ds
 Showt hehi storyofthefarm
 Showwhet herthef armi smakingapr ofitorloss.
 Showal ltheasset sandl i
abil
i
tiesofthef arm whichcanbeusedt ovaluethefar
m.
 Helpinsuppor t
inginsuranceclaimsondeat h,theft
,fi
reorlossoffarm asset
s.
 Helpintaxassessmentt oavoidovertaxation.
 Usedasagui deinplanningandbudget ing.
 Helpstodet ectlossesort hef
tinthefarm.
 Makei teasyt oshar eprofi
tsorlossesinpar tnershi
ps.
 Helpinset t
lingdisputesamonghei r
stoest ateifthefarmerdieswithoutawill
.
 Provi
del abourinformationont erminalbenef i
tsforawor ker.
TypeofFar
m Recor
ds
 Pr
oduct
ionRecor
ds-Showt
het
otal
yiel
dandy
iel
dperuni
tofeachent
erpr
ise.

 I
nventor
yRecor
ds-Ar
ecor
dofal
lper
manentandconsumabl
egoodsi
nthe
f
arm.

Consumabl
eGoodsI
nvent
ory
Dat
e Commodi
ty Quant
it
y Dat
e I
ssuedt
o Quant
it
y bal
all
ce
It
em St
ock

 FieldOper ationRecor ds-Show i ndet ail

sal lfi
eldpracti
cescarr
iedout
togetherwi t
ht heinputusedf orall
thecropent erpr
ises.
 Breedi ngRecor ds–
 Showal lthebr eedi
ngact iv
iti
esinthefarm.
 Fr om theser ecordsi ti
spossibletoselecttheproli
fi
canimalsandcullthe
infert
il
eones.
 Fe edingRecor ds–Ar ecordoft hetypesoff eedsusedint hefar
m andt hei
r
quantit
ies.
 He althRecor ds–
 I ndicatestheheal thcondi t
ionsoftheanimal sinthefar
m.
Fr
om t
heser
ecor
dsi
tispossi
blet
o:

Sel
ectandcul
lani
mal
sonheal
thgr
ounds. Soi
lFer
ti
li
tyI
I
 (
Inor
gani
cFer
ti
li
zer
s)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Pl
antnut
ri
ent
soccuri
nthesoi
li
nfor
m ofsol
ubl
esubst
ances.
 Thesesubst
ancesaretakeninbyt
hepl
ant
sindi
ff
erentquant
it
iesdependi
ngon
thei
rrol
esi
ntheplantt
issues.
Essent
ialEl
ement
s
 Thesearenutrientsneededbyplantsforvar
ioususes.
 Theyaredivi
dedi ntotwobroadcategori
esnamely:
 Macr onut
rient s
 mi cr
onutr
ient s.
Macr
o-nut
ri
ent
s
 Thesearealsoref
err
edtoasmajornut
rient
s.
 Theyarerequi
redbythepl
anti
nlargequanti
ti
es.
Theyi
ncl
ude;
 carbon,
 hydrogen,
 oxygen,
 nit
rogen,
 phophorus,
 potassi
um,
 sulphur
,
 cal
cium
 magnesi um.

 Nit
rogen,
phosphorusandpotassi
um ar
eref
err
edtoasf
ert
il
izerel
ements,
 Cal
cium,magnesium andsul
phur,ar
eref
err
edtoasl
imi
ngel ements.
Rol
eofMacr
onut
ri
ent
sinPl
ant
s
Ni
tr
ogen( NH4++)
NO3,
Sour
ces:
 Ar
ti
fi
ci
alfer
til
iz
ers
 Or
ganicmatter
 At
mosphericfi
xat
ionbyli
ght
ning
 Ni
tr
ogenfix
ingbacter
ia.
Rol
eofNi
tr
ogeni
nPl
ant
s
 Vegetati
vegrowt h
 Chlor
ophy l
lformation
 Bui
ldupofpr ot
oplasm.
 I
mpr ovesleafqualit
yinl
eaf
ycr
opssuchast
eaandcabbages.
Def
ici
encySympt
oms
 Yel
l
owi
ngoft
hel
eav
es/
chl
orosi
s.
  St
untedgrowth.
 Pr
emat ur
eri
pening.
 Pr
emat ur
esheddingoft
hel
eav
es.
 Li
ghtseeds.
Ef
fectofExcessNi
tr
ogen
 Scorchi
ngoft
heleav
es.
 Delayedmat
uri
ty.
LossofNi
tr
ogenFr
om t
heSoi
l
:
 Soiler
osion.
 Leaching.
 Volati
l
izat
ion.
 Cropremov al
.
 Usedbymi cr
oor
gani
sms.

Phosphor
us( HPO2-4P2O5)
H2P04,
Sour
ces:
 Organi
cmanures
 Commer ci
alf
ert
il
iz
ers
 Phosphater
ocks
Rol
eofPhosphor
us
 Encouragesfastgrowthoftheroots.
 I
mpr ovesthequalit
yoftheplant.
 Hastensmaturityofthecr
ops.
 I
nfl
uencescel l
divi
sion.
 Sti
mulatesnoduleformati
oninlegumes.
Def
ici
encysympt
oms
 Growthofthepl
antisslow.
 Mat ur
it
yisdel
ayed.
 Leavesbecomegrey,purpl
eincol
our.
 Yiel
dofgrai
ns,f
rui
tsandseedislowered.

LossofPhosphor
usFr
om t
heSoi
l
 Soilerosi
on.
 Leaching
 Cropr emoval
 Fixati
onbyironandal
umi
nium ox
ide.
Pot
asi K+,
um ( K2O)
Sour
ces;
 Cropresi
dueandor ganicmanures.
 Commer ci
alfer
ti
li
zers
 Potassi
um bear
ingmi neral
se.
g.fel
dsparandmi
ca.
Rol
eofPot
assi
um i
nPl
ant
s
  I
ncreasesplantvi
gouranddiseaseresi
stance.
 I
ncreasesthesizeofgrai
nsandseeds.
 Reducestheill
-ef
fect
sduetoex cessni
tr
ogen.
 Prevent
stoor api
dmat ur
ati
onduet ophosphorus.
Def
ici
encySympt
oms
 Plant
shav eshor tjoi
ntsandpoorgr owth.
 Plant
slodgebef oremat uri
ng.
 Leavesdevelopabur ntappearanceonthemar gi
n.
 Leavesatthel owerendoft hepl
antbecomemot tl
ed,spot
tedorstr
eaked.
 Inmaize,grainsandgr assesfi
ri
ngstartsatt
hetipoftheleafandproceedsf
rom
theedgeusual lyleav
ingt hemidri
bgreen.
LossofPot
assi
um Fr
om t
heSoi
l
 Cropr emoval
.
 Leaching.
 Soilerosi
on.
 Fixati
oninthesoi
l
.

Cal
ci Ca2+)
um (
Sour
ce:
 Cr
opr
esi
duesandor
gani
cmanur
es.
 Commer cial
fer
ti
li
zers.
 weather
ingofsoil
mi ner
als.
 Agr
icult
urall
imesforexampledol
omi
te,
li
mest
one.
Rol
eofCal
cium i
nPl
ant
s
 I
mpr ovest hevigourandst i
ff
nessofst raw.
 Neutral
izesthepoi sonoussecr etionsofthepl
ant
s.
 Helpsingr ai
nandseedf ormation.
 I
mpr ovest hesoilstructure.
 Promotesbact eri
al acti
v i
tyi
nt hesoil.
 Correct
st hesoilacidity
.
Def
ici
encysympt
oms
 Youngleav
esr emainclosed.
 Therearel
ightgreenbandsalongt
hemar gi
nsofthel
eaves.
 Leavesint
het er
mi nalbudbecomehookedinappear
ancether
eisadi
e-¬backat
thet
ipandalongt hemar gi
ns.
LossofCal
cium
 Cr
opr
emov
al
 Leaching
 Soiler
osion

Magnesi
um (
Mg2+)
Sour
ces:
 Cropresi
duesandorganicmanur
es
 Commer cial
fer
ti
li
zer
s
 Weatheri
ngofsoilminer
als.
 Agri
cult
urall
imes.
Rol
eofMagnesi
um i
nPl
ant
s
 Formspar tofchlor
ophyl
l.
 Promot esthegrowthofthesoi
lbacteri
aandenhancestheni
tr
ogenf
ixi
ngpower
ofthelegumes.
 Acti
vatest heproducti
onandt ransportofcar
bohydrat
esandprot
einsi
nt he
growingplant.
Def
ici
encysympt
oms
 Lossi ngreencolourwhichst ar
tsfrom t
hebot
tom leavesandgr
adual
l
ymov
es
upwar ds.
 Thev einsremaingreen.
 Leavescur veupwardsalongthemar gi
ns.
 Stal
ksbecomeweakandt heplantdevel
opsl
ongbranchedroot
s.
 Theleav esbecomest r
eaked.

Sul S042-,
phur( SO2)
Sour
ces:
 Commer ci
alfert
il
iz
ers.
 Soilmi
neralcontai
ningsul
phides
 Atmospheri
csulphurfrom i
ndustr
ies.
 Rainwater
Rol
eofSul
phuri
nPl
ant
s
 For
mationandacti
v ati
onofcoenzyme-A.
 Sul
phurisaconsti
tuentofaminoacids.
 I
nfl
uenceplantphy
si ol
ogi
calpr
ocesses.
Def
ici
encySympt
oms
 Smallpl
ants/st
untedgr owth.
 Poornodul
ationinlegumes.
 Li
ghtgreentoyell
owi shleaves/chl
orosi
s.
 Del
ayedmat uri
ty.
Mi
cro-
nut
ri
ent
s
 Al
soref
err
edtoast r
aceormi nornut
ri
ents.
 Theyar
erequi
redinsmallquanti
ti
es/
traces.
 Theyar
eessenti
alf
orpropergrowthanddev el
opmentofpl
ant
s.
Theyi
ncl
ude;
 I
ron,
 Manganese,
 Copper,
 Boron,
 Molybdenum
  Chl
ori
ne.
Rol
eofMicronut
ri
ent
sandThei
rDef
ici
encySympt
oms
 Copper
 Rolei
nox i
dat
ion-
reductionr
eacti
ons.
 Respi
rat
ionandutil
iz
ationofir
on
 Defi
ci
encysymptoms- yell
owingofyoungl
eaves.
I
ron
 Synthesi
sofprot
eins.
 Takespartinoxi
dati
on-¬reduct
ionreact
ions.
 Defi
ciencysymptoms-l eafchlorosis
 Mol
ybdenum
 Ni
tr
ogentransf
ormat
ioninplant
s.
 Met
aboli
zati
onofni
tr
atestoami noaci
dsandpr
otei
ns
 Defi
ci
encysymptoms-leafcurl andscathi
ng.
 Manganese-Sameasmol ybdenum.
 Zi
nc
 Formationofgr
owt hhor
mone.
 Reproducti
onprocess
 Defi
ciencysymptoms-wh i
tebudf
ormat
ion.
 Bor
on–
 Absorpt
ionofwater
.
 Transl
ocati
onofsugar
I
nor
gani
cFer
ti
li
zer
s
 Thesear
echemi
cal
l
ypr
oducedsubst
ancesaddedt
othesoi
ltoi
mpr
ovef
ert
il
it
y.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionAccor
dingt
o:
 Nutr
ientscontai
ned
 Strai
ght-cont
ainonl
yonemacr
onut
ri
ent
.
 Compoundfer
til
i
zer
s-cont
ainmor
ethanonemacr
onut
ri
ent
 Ti
meofappli
cati
on
 Someappl
iedwhenpl
ant
ing.
 Topdr
essi
ngaft
ercr
opemergence
 Ef
fect
sont
hesoi
lpH.
 Aci
dicfert
il
izers.
 Neut
ralfert
il
izers.
 Basi
cferti
li
zers.

Pr
oper
ti
esandI
dent
if
icat
ionofFer
ti
li
zer
s
Ni
tr
ogenousFer
ti
li
zer
s
Char
act
eri
sti
cs
 Highl
ysol ublei
nwater.
 Highl
ymobi l
einthesoi
lhenceitisappl
iedasatopdress.
 Easil
yleachedbecauseoft hehighsolubi
li
tyhencedoesnothav
eresi
dualef
fect
onthesoi l
.
 Hasscor chingeff
ectonyoungcr opsduri
ngwetseasons.
  Easytovol
ati
l
izeduri
nghotseason.
 Theyhaveatendencytocakeundermoi
stcondi
ti
ons.
 Theyarehygr
oscopichenceshoul
dbestor
edindrycondi
ti
ons.
Exampl
es:
 Sul
phat
eofAmmoni
a(NH4)2SO4·
Phy
sicalappearance:
 whitecryst
als,
 Hasaci di
ceffect,
 Contai
ns20%N.
 Ammoni
um Sul
phat
eNi
tr
ate[
(NH4)
2SO4+NH4NO3]
 Colour
:gr
anul
eswhi
chappeary
ell
owor
ange,
 l
essacidi
c,
 contai
ns26%N.
 Cal
cium Ammoni
um Ni
tr
ate(
CAN)
 Colour:gr
eyi
shgranul
es,
 neutrali
nnatur
e,
 contains21%N.
 Ur
ea
 Colour:small
whit
ishgranul
es
 Easil
yleachedorvol
ati
l
ized,
 contai
ns45-46%N.

Phosphat
eFer
ti
li
zer
s
 Haslowsol ubi
l
ityandimmobile.
 Non-scorchi
ng.
 Hasahi ghresi
dualeff
ecthencebenefi
tthenextseason'
scr
op.
 Easytost or
ebecausetheyarenothygroscopi
c.
Exampl
es;
 Si
ngl
esuper
-phosphat
e
 Appearance:
whi
ti
sh,
creamywhi
tegr
anul
es,
 cont
ains2 21%P2O5
0-
 Doubl
esuper
-phosphat
e
 Appearance:
darkgr
eyi
shgr
anul
es,
 Cont ns4
ai 0-42%P2O5
 Tr
ipl
esuper
-phosphat
e
 Appearance:
smal
lgr
eyi
shgr
anul
es,
 Cont n4
ai 4-
48%P2O5

Pot
assi
cFer
ti
li
zer
s
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Hasmoder at
escor chi
ngeff
ect
.
 Moderat
elysolubl
ei nwat
er.
 MostKenyansoi l
shavesuff
ici
entpot
assi
um.
Exampl
es;
 Mur
iat
eofPot
ash(
KCl
)
 Contai
n60-62%K2O
 Sl
ightl
yhy gr
oscopic.
 Appearanceamor phouswhi
te.
 Sul
phat
eofPot
ash(
50%K2O)

CompoundorMi
xedFer
ti
li
zer
s
 Thesear
efer
ti
li
zer
swhi
chsuppl
y2ormor
eoft
hemacr
onut
ri
ent
s.
Examples;
 Monoammoni um phosphat
e.
 Di-ammonium phosphate
 20:20:
20,
23:23:23
Advant
agesofappl
i
cat
ionofcompoundf
ert
il
izer
s
 Savesti
meandmoney
.
 Mix
t ur
egiv
esi
mpr
ovedst
oragepr
oper
ti
esandbet
terhandl
i
ng.
Di
sadvant
agesofcompoundf
ert
il
izer
sappl
i
cat
ion
 Expensiv
e.
 Wasteful
.
 Mixi
ngmaynotbet horough.
 I
ncompat ibi
l
ityoft
heindivi
dual
fer
ti
li
zer
s.

Methodsoffert
il
izerappli
cation
 Broadcasti
ng-random scat
ter
ingoft
hef
ert
il
iz
ersont
hegr
ound.
 Placementmet hod-applicat
ionoffer
ti
li
zersi
nt heplant
ingholes.
 Sidedr essi
ng-fert
il
iz
eri
spl acedatthesi
deoft heplantwit
hintherootz
one,i
n
bandsorspot-
ri
ngs.
 Fo l
iarsprayi
ng-special
l
yf ormulat
edfert
il
iz
ersoluti
onappliedonthefol
iagei
n
sprayfor
m.
 Dripmet hod-appli
edthroughirr
igat
ionwater.

Det
ermi
nat
ionofFer
ti
li
zerRat
es
Cont
ent
soff
ert
il
izer
sar
eexpr
essedasf
ert
il
izergr
adeorf
ert
il
izeranal
ysi
s.
 Fer t
il
iz
ergradeindi
cat
et heguaranteedmini
mum oft heacti
veingr
edients(N,
P2O5,
K2O)inthemixt
ure.
 Itisex pr
essedasaper centageonawei ghtt
owei ghtbasi
sorpercentageby
weigh
Example10:20:0meansforev ery10kgofthemixtur
et her
eare10kgofni tr
ogen,
20kgofP2O5and0kgofK2O.
Exampl
e
Af
armerwasaskedt
oappl
yfer
ti
li
zer
sasf
oll
ows:
  60kg/
hani t
rogen( t
opdressi
ng)
 60kg/
haP2O5( inplant
inghole).
 60kg/
haK2O.
Howmuchsul
phat eofammoni a(20%)woul dberequir
edperhectare?
Howmuchdoublesuper-phosphat
e( 40%)P2O5wouldberequi
redperhectar
e?
Howmuchmuriateofpotash(50%K2O)woul dber equi
redperhectare?
Answer
/Sol
uti
on
 Sul
phateofammonia(SA)whi
chgi v
es60kg/haN
=60
20x100=300kgSA
 Doubl
esuperphosphat
e(40% P2O5)
whichgives60kg/
haP2O5
60
=40x100=1 50kgDSP
 Muri
ateofpotash(
60%K2O)whichgives60kg/hK2O

=60x100=100kgmur
iat
eofpot
ash
60
Exampl
e
Af
armerwasaskedt
oappl
yfer
ti
li
zer
sasf
oll
ows:
 200kg/
haofDSP( 40%P2O5
 150kg/
haofmur i
ateofpotash(60%K2O)
 150kg/
haofsul phateofammoni a(20%N)
HowmuchP2O5di
dt hef ar
merapplyperacr e?
HowmuchK2Odidthef armerapplyperhectare?
HowmuchNdi dt
hef armerapplyperhectare?

Sol
uti
on/
Answer
 P2O5 appl
i
edperhect
aref
rom 200kgofDSP
40
=100x200=80kg/
haP2O5

 K2O5 appli
edperhectar
efrom 150kgofmuriat
eofpot
ash
60
=100x150=90kg/ha K2O
 N appl i
edperhectar
efrom 150kg/hasul
phateofammoni
a
20
=100x150=30kg/ haN
Soi
lSampl
i
ng
 Ref
erst
oobtai
ningofsmal
lquant
it
yofsoi
lthati
srepr
esent
ati
vei
nal
laspect
sof
t
heenti
ref
arm.
Soi
lSampl
i
ngPr
ocedur
es
 Cleart
hev egetati
onoverthesit
e.
 Digoutsoilatdepthsof15-25cm.
 Pl
acet hedugoutsoi l
inacleancont ai
ner
.
 Mixthoroughlythesoili
nthecontainer
.
 Takeasampl eandsendi ttoNationalAgr
icul
tur
alLabor
ator
yforanal
ysi
s.
  Thecontainercar
ryingt
hesampl
eshoul
dbepr
oper
lyl
abel
edasf
oll
ows:
 Nameoft hefarmer,
 Location,
 Dist
ri
ct
 Addressoft hefarmer
.
Si
test
oAvoi
d
 Deadfur rows, dit
ches.
 Swamps
 Nearmanur eheaps.
 Recentlyfertil
i
z edfi
elds
 Anthil
ls.
 Underbi gtrees.
 Nearfencel inesorf ootpat
hs.
 Donotputt hem i ncontai
ner
swhi
char
econt
ami
nat
edwi
thf
ert
il
iz
ersorot
her
chemical containers.
Met
hodsOfSoi
lSampl
i
ng:
 Zi
gzagmethod
 Tr
aversemethod
Soi
lTest
ing
 Soi
ltest
ingi
stheanal
yzi
ngoft
hesoi
lsampl
etodet
ermi
necer
tai
nqual
i
tiesoft
he
soi
l
.
I
mpor
tanceofSoi
ltest
ing:
 Todet
ermi
net
hevalueofthesoi
lhencedet
ermi
nethecroptogrow.
 Todet
ermi
net
henutri
entcont
enthencefi
ndoutt
hetypeoffer
ti
li
zert
oappl
y.
 Todet
ermi
newhet
heriti
snecessarytomodi
fyt
hesoilpHforacrop.
HowSoi
lpHaf
fect
sCr
opPr
oduct
ion
 I
nfl
uencest
hephy si
calandchemi calpr
opert
iesoft
hesoi
l
.
 Aff
ectst
heavai
labil
it
yofnutri
ents.
 I
nfl
uencest
heincidencesofsoil
bor nedi
seases.
 Deter
minet
hetypeofcr optobegr ownatagivenar
ea.

Met
hodsofpHTest
ing
 Uni
ver
sali
ndi
cat
orsol
uti
on
 pHmeter


 Know t he cour
se ofacti
on to be taken i
nthe eventofa di
sease and
mai nt
enanceofgoodheal t
h.
 Knowt hepreval
entdi
seases.
 Calculatethecostoft
reat
ment.
 Ma rketi
ngRecor dsshow commodi t
iessold,quant
it
iesandv
alueofallthe
sal
es.
LabourRecor
ds-showl
abourut
il
iz
ati
onandl
abourcost
s.Cr
oppr
oduct
ionI
I
(
Plant
ing)


 Pl
ant
ingi
stheplacementoft
heplant
ingmat
eri
ali
nthesoi
lfort
hepur
poseofr
egener
ati
oni
nor
dert
o
pr
oducemoreofthepl
antspeci
es.

Typesofpl
ant
ingmat
eri
als

Seeds

 Seedsareproducedbyfl
oweri
ngafterpol
l
inat
ionandf
ert
il
iz
ation.
Theycont
aint
hepar
toft
he
pl
antthatgerminat
esandsubsequentl
ygrowsint
onewplants.

Advant
agesofusi
ngseedsaspl
ant
ingmat
eri
als.

 Seedsar
eeasi
l
ytr
eat
edagai
nstsoi
lbor
nepest
sanddi
seases.

 Theyar
enotbul
kyt
her
efor
est
oragei
seasy
.

 Theyar
eeasyt
ohandl
edur
ingpl
ant
ingmaki
ngoper
ati
oneasy
.

 Whenpl
ant
ingseeds,
iti
seasyt
ousemachi
nesl
i
keseedpl
ant
ersanddr
il
ler
s.

 I
tiseasyt
oappl
ymanur
esandf
ert
il
iz
erst
oget
herwi
thseedsdur
ingpl
ant
ing.

 Fer
ti
li
zer
sandmanur
esappl
i
cat
ioncanbeeasi
l
ymechani
zed.

 I
tispossi
blet
odev
elopnewcr
opv
ari
eti
esduet
ocr
osspol
l
inat
ion.

Di
sant
ivant
agesofusi
ngseedsaspl
ant
ingmat
eri
als.

 Someseedshav
elongdor
mancyandt
heymayneedspeci
alt
reat
menti
nor
dert
oger
minat
e.

 Pl
antsr
aisedf
rom seedshavevar
iat
ionsf
rom t
hemot
herpl
antduet
ocr
osspol
l
inat
ion,
Thi
smay
i
ntr
oduceundesi
rabl
echaract
eri
sti
cs.

 Soi
lbor
nepest
smaydamageseedsi
flef
tforsomet
imei
nthesoi
lbef
orer
ainf
all
s.

 Someseedsmayl
osev
iabi
l
ityi
fst
oredf
oral
ongt
ime.
Thi
sleadst
ogapsi
nthef
arm.

1.Veget
ati
vemat
eri
als.

Thesearepl
antpar
tswhi
chhav
etheabi
l
ityt
opr
oducer
oot
s,t
heygr
owanddev
elopi
ntonew
pl
ants.

Pl
antpar
tssuchasl
eav
es,
root
sorst
emscanbeusedf
orpl
ant
ingasl
ongast
heyar
ecapabl
eof
 r
oot
ing.

Advant
agesofusi
ngveget
ati
vemat
eri
alsf
orpl
ant
ing.

 Cr
opsor
igi
nat
ingf
rom v
eget
ati
vemat
eri
alsmat
uresf
ast
ert
hant
hosef
rom seeds.

 Thecropsshowsuni
for
mi t
yinsuchquali
ti
esasdi
seaser
esi
stance,
seedsi
ze,
col
our
,keepi
ngor
st
ori
ngquali
tyandchemicalcomposi
ti
on.

 I
tispossi
blet
opr
oducemanyv
ari
eti
esofcompat
ibl
ecr
opsont
hesamer
ootst
ock
.

 Useoft
heveget
ati
vemat
eri
alsi
seasi
erandf
ast
er,
especi
al
lywher
eseedsshowpr
olonged
dor
mancy.

 Ther
esul
ti
ngpl
anthasdesi
redshapeandsi
zef
oreaseofhar
vest
ingandspr
ayi
ng.

 Itf
aci
li
tat
esthepropagat
ionofcr
opswhichar
eseedl
essort
hoset
hatpr
oduceseedswhi
char
e
notvi
ableorhav
eal ongdormancyper
iod.

 Suchcr
opsi
ncl
udesugar
-cane,
bananas,
Napi
ergr
assandot
her
s.

Di
sadvant
ages.

 Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
iondoesnotr
esul
tinnewcr
opv
ari
eti
es.

 Keepi
ngt
hemat
eri
alsf
reeofdi
seasesi
sdi
ff
icul
t.

 Mat
eri
alscannotbest
oredf
orl
ong.

 Themat
eri
alsar
ebul
kyandt
her
efor
edi
ff
icul
ttost
oreandt
ranspor
t.

Pl
antpar
tsusedf
orveget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion.

i
) Bul
bil
s.

 Thesear
eti
nysi
sal
plant
spr
oducedi
nthei
nfl
orescenceal
mostatt
heendoft
hepl
ant
growt
hcycl
e.

 Theyr
esembl
ethemot
herpl
antex
ceptt
hatt
heyar
esmal
l
eri
nsi
ze.

 Theyar
epr
oducedbyt
hebr
anchesoft
hesi
sal
pol
e.

 Whenmanur
etheymat
uret
heydev
elopr
udi
ment
aryr
oot
sandf
all
offt
othegr
oundj
ust
bel
owt
hepole.

 Theyar
ethecol
l
ect
edandr
aisedi
nthenur
ser
iesbef
oret
heyar
etr
anspl
ant
edt
\ot
hemai
n
fi
el
d.

 Onesi
sal
pol
emaypr
oduceasmanyas3,
000bul
bil
s.Theyar
eusual
l
y10cm l
ong.
Theymakegood
pl
ant
ingmat
eri
alsandar
ebet
tert
hansucke
i
i
) Spl
i
ts

 Thesear
eplantl
etsdi
videdf
rom t
heex
ist
ingmot
herpl
antwi
thcompl
etewi
thcompl
ete
l
eavesandroot
ingsystem.

 Theyar
eusedt
opr
opagat
emostpast
uregr
assesandpy
ret
hrum.

 Py
ret
hrum spl
i
tsar
erai
sedf
ir
sti
nnur
ser
yandt
hent
ranspl
ant
edt
othef
iel
d.

i
i
i) Cr
ownsandsl
i
ps

 Thesear
emat
eri
alsusedt
opr
opagat
epi
neappl
es

 Cr
ownsar
ebor
nont
opoft
hef
rui
tsandar
ebr
okenof
fandpr
epar
edf
orpl
ant
ing.

 Theyar
emor
epr
efer
redt
osucker
sbecauset
heygi
veuni
for
m gr
owt
handt
aket
woy
ear
sto
r
eachmat
uri
ty.

 Sl
i
psar
ebor
net
othebaseoft
hepi
neappl
efr
uit
s.

 Theyar
ecutandpr
epar
edf
orpl
ant
ings.

 Thei
rgr
owt
hrat
eisf
ast
ert
hanf
orcr
ownsgi
vi
ngav
erageuni
for
mit
y.

 Theyt
ake22mont
hsf
rom pl
ant
ingt
omat
uri
ty.

 Cr
ownsandsl
i
psar
epl
ant
edi
nthenur
ser
iesf
ir
stbef
oret
ranspl
ant
ingt
othemai
nseedbed.

i
v) Sucker
s

 Thesear
esmal
lpl
ant
sthatgr
owf
rom t
hebaseoft
hemai
nst
em.

 Theyhav
eadv
ent
it
iousr
oot
swhi
chgr
owqui
ckl
ywhenpl
ant
edt
ofor
m anewpl
ant
.

 Theyar
eusedt
opr
opagat
ebananas,
sisal
,andpi
neappl
es.

 Whenpl
ant
ed,
sucker
sgi
veunev
engr
owt
hleadi
ngt
omat
uri
tyatdi
ff
erentt
imes.
T

 heyshoul
dbepl
ant
edwhent
heyar
eyoung.

v) Tuber
s

 Thesear
eunder
groundf
oodst
orageor
ganswhi
char
eshor
tandt
hick.

 Theyareusedasv
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionmat
eri
al
sbecauset
heyspr
outandpr
oducer
oot
s
forgr
owth.
  Ther
ear
emai
nlyt
wot
ypesoft
uber
s,t
hest
em andr
oott
uber
s.

 Roott
uber
sdev
elopf
rom t
het
hickeni
ngoft
headv
ent
it
iousr
oot
s.

 Roott
uber
sar
enotcommonl
yusedf
orpr
opagat
ionsi
ncet
heypr
oduceweakst
ems.

 Agoodex
ampl
eofar
oott
uberi
sthesweetpot
ato.

 Ontheot
herhandst
em t
uber
shav
esomeaux
il
iar
ybudswhi
char
esomet
imesr
efer
redt
oas
‘
eyes’
.

 Theseeyesspr
outtopr
oducestemswhi
chgr
owi
ntopl
ant
s.St
em t
uber
sar
ether
efor
e
swoll
enstemswit
hscal
esleav
es.

 Agoodex
ampl
eofast
em t
uberi
sIr
ishpot
ato.

vi
) Vi
nes.

 Thesearesof
twoodcut
ti
ngswhi
chpr
oducer
oot
seasi
l
yuponpl
ant
ingt
ogi
ver
iset
onew
pl
ants.

 Theyar
ecutf
rom t
hemot
herpl
ant
sandpl
ant
eddi
rect
lyi
ntot
hef
iel
d.

 Sof
twoodcut
ti
ngs(
vines)ar
etakenf
rom r
api
dlygr
owi
ngshoot
s.

 Thesof
tupperpar
tsoft
heshoot
sar
epr
efer
red.

 Whenpr
epar
ingt
hecut
ti
ngs,
somel
eav
esandnodesar
eincl
uded.

 Root
sar
epr
oducedf
rom t
henodes.

vi
i
) Cut
ti
ngsandset
ts

o Cut
ti
ngsar
epor
ti
onofpl
ant
spar
tswhi
char
ecutandt
henpl
ant
ed.

o Theymaybef
rom st
ems,
root
sorl
eav
es.

o Ast
em cut
ti
ngmusthav
eabudwhi
chdev
elopsi
ntoshoot
.

o Ther
ootcut
ti
ngmusthav
eaney
e.Cut
ti
ngmusthav
eaney
e.

o Cut
ti
ngsmustpr
oducel
eav
esassoonaspossi
blesot
hatt
heycanst
artmaki
ngt
hei
rown
f
ood.

o Somet
imescut
ti
ngsar
einducedt
opr
oducer
oot
sbyuseofr
oot
inghor
mones.

o Oncet
hecut
ti
ngshav
edev
elopedr
oot
s,t
heygi
ver
iset
onewpl
ant
s.

o I
nsomecr
ops,
thecut
ti
ngsar
ebi
genought
obepl
ant
eddi
rect
lyt
othemai
nseedbed
 wher
easther
earesomepl
ant
swhosecut
ti
ngsar
efi
rstr
aisedi
nspeci
alnur
ser
iesbef
ore
t
heyaret
ranspl
ant
edtot
heseedbed.

o Thecut
tingsofNapi
ergrassandsugar
-canear
eplanteddir
ectl
yontheseedbedbutt
hose
oft
ea;havetoberai
sedinspeci
alnur
serybef
oretheyaretr
ansfer
redt
otheseedbed.

o Examplesofcropswhi
charepr
opagat
edbyuseofst
em cut
ti
ngsi
ncl
ude:
tea,
cassav
a,and
sugar
-caneandNapi
ergr
ass.

o Thestem cut
ti
ngsusedtopropagat
esugar-
canear
eknownas‘
set
ts’
.Set
tsar
est
em
cut
ti
ngswhichhave3-5nodesareusual
ly30-
45cm l
ong.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingr
oot
ingofcut
ti
ngs.

 Temperature:f
orthecut
tingst
oproducer oot
swar mt emperat
uresar erequi
redaround
ther
ootz onewhil
ecooltemperat
uresareimportantfortheaeri
alpartofthecutt
ings.
Formostspeciesopti
mum dayandl i
ghttemperaturesforroot
ingare22- 27°
cand15-
21°crespecti
vel
y.

a) Relativehumi
dit
y:Properrooti
ngofcutt
ingsrequi
reshi
ghhumi di
tywhichlowerthe
tr
anspi r
ati
onrat
e.I
talsoincreasesandmaint
ainsleaft
urgi
dit
yallthet
ime.Assuch,
cutti
ngsshouldberootedingreenhousesorundershadyconditi
ons,whererel
ati
ve
humi dit
ycanberegulat
ed.Somet i
mesthepropagati
onareacanbespr ayedwit
hwat er
tokeepi tmoi
st.

b) Li
ghtintensi
ty: sof
twoodcutti
ngsneedhi ghintensi
tyl
ighttopr oduceroots.Thi
sis
becauseli
ghtpr omotestheproduct
ionofr ootssi
nceitaff
ect stherateof
photosy
nthesis. Har
dwoodcut ti
ngsdowel lindarkcondit
ionssi ncet
heyhav ehigh
amountofstor edcarbohydr
atesandthereforerooti
ngisex cell
entindarkness.

c) Oxygensupply:
plent
if
ul suppl
yofoxygeni
srequi
redf
orrootformati
on.
Ther
oot
ing
medium usedmustthereforebecapabl
eofal
lowi
ngproperaerat
ion.

d) Chemicalt
reat
ment
:theser
ooti
nghormoneswhi
chpr
omot
etheproduct
ionofr
ootsi
n
cut
ti
ngs.Thecommononesincl
udeIAA (
Indol
eacet
icaci
d).

e) Leafarea:
Softwoodscut
tingsrequi
realotofleavesf
orphot
osy
nthesi
swhi
l
ehar
dwood
cutt
ingswil
lpr
oduceroot
sbetterwit
houtleaves.

Sel
ect
ionofpl
ant
ingmat
eri
als

Whensel
ect
ingmat
eri
alsf
orpl
ant
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orsmustbeconsi
der
ed:

 Sui
tabi
li
tytotheecological
condit
ions–thesel
ectedplant
ingmateri
alsshoul
dbewelladapted
tot
hesoilcondi
ti
ons,temperatur
esandamountofr ai
nfal
li
nt hear
ea.Therearemanyvari
eti
esof
maize,
forexample,
whi charesui
tablet
odif
fer
entecologi
calcondi
ti
ons.Hybri
d622forexample
 i
smainlyfort
hehighalt
it
udesar easofKenya513forthemedium al
ti
tudesandt heKatumani
composit
esfort
helowrainf
allareaswhil
ethecoastcomposit
esaresuitabl
eforthecoast
al
condi
ti
onseach v ar
iet
ywillgrowwel l
andproducehighyi
el
dsifgrownundert hecorr
ect
condi
ti
ons

 Pur
ityofthemateri
als-plant
ingmateri
alsshoul
dbepur eandnotmixedwi t
hotherof
fty
pesthe
per
centagepuri
tyofplant
ingmater
ialswil
laff
ecttheseedwhil
ehigherseedsrat
esareusedf
or
i
mpur eseeds.

 Germi nat
ionper centage-Thi
si sameasur eofthegermi
nationpotenti
alofseedsitisexpr
essed
asaper centagef orexampleagerminati
onper cent
ageof80meanst hatforever
y10seeds
planted80oft hem areexpectedtogerminate.Germinat
ionpercentagehelpstodetermine the
seedr at
esofcr opslowerseedr at
esareusedf orcr
opswi t
hhighergerminationper
centagewhil
e
higherseedr at
esar eusedforthosewit
hl owergerminat
ionpercentage.

 Certi
fi
edseeds-Thesear eseedswhichhav ebeentestedandproventohave100ger minati
on
potent
ialandfreef
rom diseasesandpeststheygivehighyi
eldsaft
erthefi
rstplant
ingbutthe
subsequentyi
el
dsdeclineifrepl
acedt
hereforei
nt hi
scaseitisal
way sadv
isabletobuynew
seedswhicharecert
if
iedev eryt
imepl
antingisdone

I
nKenyacer
ti
fi
edseedsarepr
oducedbytheKenyaseedcompany(
KSC)anddi
str
ibut
edby
Keny
aFarmersAssoci
ati
on(
KFA)andotheragent
s.

PREPARATI
ONOFPLANTI
NGMATERI
ALS.

Af
tertheplant
ingmat
eri
alsar
eselect
edtheyar
epr epar
edi
ndif
fer
entway
sbeforet
heyar
e
pl
anted.Someofthemethodsusedtopr
epareplanti
ngmat
eri
al
sincl
udethef
oll
owi
ng:

(
a)Br
eaki
ngt
heseeddor
mancy.

Someseedsunder goador mancyperi

odbetweenmaturi
tyandthet
imetheyspr
out
.The
dormancyperiodisthestage wherebyaseedcannotger
minat
e,t
hestageofi
nhi
bit
ed
growthofseed.Itshoul
dbebr okenbef
oretheseedi
splant
ed.

Met
hodsofbr
eaki
ngseeddor
mancy.

Thef
oll
owi
ngmet
hodsar
eusedt
obr
eakseeddor
mancy
:

(
I)Mechani
calmet hod:Thi
sisamethodwhichai
msatscratchi
ngtheseedcoattomakeitper
meable
towater.Scar
if
icat
ioni
sdonebyrubbi
ngsmallsi
zedseedsagai
nsthardsur
facesuchassandpaper,
whil
efil
l
ingornickingt
heseedcoatwi
thaknif
eisdonetolar
gesiz
edseedssuchascrotonseeds.

(
i)Heatt
i r
eat
ment :t
hisi
nvolv
estheuseofhotwaterorburni
ngtheseedsli
ghtl
y.I
tsoft
enstheseed
coatmaki
ngitpermeabletowaterandthusi
sabletogerminat
e.Theseedsaresoakedi
nhotwater
about80’
cfor3-4minut
esafterwhicht
hewaterisal
lowedtodrai
noff.Exampl
eofseedstreat
edin
t
hiswayi
ncl eucean7
ude:l a2 +32 =22cal
l
iadr
aandacaci
a.
 Lightburni
ngalsoservesthesamepur poseashotwatertr
eatment.I
nthi
scaset r
ashisspreadover
theseedswhichar eal
readycoveredwithathi
nlayerofsoi
l.Thet
rashisburned,
afterwhi
cht he
seedsareretr
ievedandplanted.Examplesi
ncl
udeacaciaandwattletr
eeseeds.Overheat
ingshoul
d
beav oi
dedast hi
swill
cookt heseeds.

(i
ii
)Chemicaltr
eat
ment:seedsar edi
ppedinspecif
icchemical
ssuchasconcentrat
edsulphuri
cacid,f
or
twomi nut
esandthenremov ed.Thechemi cal
wearsofft
heseedcoatmaki ngi
tpermeabletowater.
Care
shouldbetakennott
oleavet heseedsinthechemical
sfortool
ongast hi
swill
kil
ltheembryo.Cot
ton
seedsarenormall
ytr
eatedwi thchemical
st or
emov et
heli
ntorfi
bres.

i
v)Soakinginwater
:seedsar
esoakedinwat
erforaper i
odofbetween24–48hoursunti
ltheyswel
l
.
Theyar
et henremov
edandplant
edimmediat
ely
. Theseedstr
eatedthusger
minat
ever
yfast.Pre-
germi
natedseedsar
eusedwhenraisi
ngri
cei
nt henurseri
es.

b)Seeddr
essi
ng

Thi
sist
hecoatingofseedswit
hfungici
desoraninsect
ici
deoracombi
nat
ionoft
het
wochemi
cal
s.
Thisi
spar
ticul
arl
ycommonwi thcer
eals,sugar
-caneandl
egumes.

Thechemicalspr
otectt
heseedl
i
ngsfr
om soil
-bornediseasesandpest
s.Cer
ti
fi
edseedswhi
charesoldby
seedmerchantsi
nKeny ahav
ebeendressedwiththesechemical
s.Far
merscanalsobuyt
hechemicals
anddressthei
rownseeds.

C)Seedi
nocul
ati
on

Inareaswheresoilsaredefi
cientinnit
rogen,l
egumessuchasbeans, clov
ersandpeasshoul
dbecoated
wit
hani nocul
ant.Aninnocul
antisapr eparat
ionwhichcont
ainst
herightstrai
nofRhi
zobi
um dependi
ng
onthetypeoflegumeandencour agesnodulati
on,
hencenit
rogenfi
xation.Bel
owisatabl
eshowing
di
ff
erentlegumecr opsandtheirri
ghtstrai
nofRhizobi
um.

Cropinocul
ati
ongr
oup Rhi
zobi
um Speci
es
Lucerne R.meliot
i
Clover R.tr
if
oli
Pea R.l
egumi nosar
um
Bean R.phaseoli
Lupin R.l
upini
soyabean R.j
aponicum

Whenhandlingi
nocul
atedseeds,careshoul
dbetakentopreventt
hem fr
om comi ngincontactwit
h
chemical
s.Thismeansthati
nocul
atedseedsshoul
dnotbedr essedwit
hchemi calsasthesewill
kil
lthe
bact
erium.Theyshoul
dalsobeplantedwhenthesoili
smoisttoavoi
ddehy dr
ationwhichkil
lsthe
bact
erium.

d)Chi
tt
ing

Thispract
icei
sal soref
erredtoassprouting.Theselect
edseedpotat
oes‘set
ts’
whichareusedas
pl
anti
ngmat er
ialsaresproutedbef
oreplantingtobreakthei
rdormancy.
Thesettsofabout3-
6cm in
di
ameterarearrangedinlayersof2or3t ubersdeepi napar
tial
l
y
darkenedroom. Theset t
sshouldbear r
angedwi ththerose-endfacingupwardsandt heheel -end
downwar ds.Dif
fusedlightencouragest heproducti
onofshor t
,greenandhealthyspr outs. I
fChi t
ti
ngis
donei ncompletedarkness,long,palethinsprout
sdev elopwhichbreakeasil
yduringpl anting. Duri
ng
Chitt
ingpotatoaphidsandt ubermont hsshoul dbecont rol
l
edbydust i
ngorsprayi
ngt heset twi t
h
di
met hoate.Sometimesachemi calknownasRendi teisusedtobreakdor mancy,thusi nducingspr out
ing.
Chitt
ingisdonemai nlytomakesur ethatgrowthcommencesi mmedi atel
ytheseedi spl antedsoast o
makemax imum useofr ainsforhighy i
elds.

Ti
meofpl
ant
ing

Theti
mingofpl
ant
ingorsowi
ngi
sinf
luencedbyt
het
ypeofcr
opt
obepl
ant
edandt
heenv
ironment
al
condi
ti
onsoft
hearea.

Fact
orst
oconsi
deri
nti
mingpl
ant
ing.

 Ther
ainf
all
pat
ter
n/moi
stur
econdi
ti
onoft
hesoi
l
.

 Ty
peofcr
opt
obepl
ant
ed.

 Soi
lty
pe.

 Mar
ketdemand.

 Pr
eval
enceofpest
sanddi
seases.

 Weedcont
rol
.

Timel
yplanti
ngisnecessar
yandshoul
dbedoneatt
heonsetofr
ains.
Insomear
easwher
erai
nfal
li
s
scar
edryplanti
ngisrecommended.

Advant
agesoft
imel
ypl
ant
ing.

 Cr
opsmakemax
imum useofr
ainf
all
andsui
tabl
esoi
ltemper
atur
e,l
eadi
ngt
ovi
gor
ousgr
owt
h.

 Cr
opsusual
l
yescapeser
iouspest
sanddi
seasesat
tack
.

 Cr
opsbenef
itf
rom ni
tr
ogenf
lushwhi
chi
sav
ail
abl
eatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
her
ain.

 Forhor
ti
cul
tur
alcr
ops,
propert
imi
ngensur
est
hatt
hepr
oducei
smar
ket
edwhenpr
icesar
ehi
gh.

 Cr
opsest
abl
i
shear
li
ert
hant
heweeds,
hencesmot
her
ingt
hem.

Met
hodsofpl
ant
ing.
Ther
ear
etwomai
nmet
hodsofpl
ant
ing:
-

 Br
oadcast
ing.

 Rowpl
ant
ing.

Br
oadcast
ing.

Thi smethodinvolvesscatt
eri
ngt heseedsalloverthefiel
dinar andom manner .
Iti
scommonlyadapt ed
forli
ghtt
inyseedssuchast hoseofpasturegrasses. I
tiseasi
er,qui
ckerandcheaperthanrowplanti
ng.
Howev er
,itusesmor eseedst hanrowplanti
ngandt heseedsarespr eadunevenl
yleadi
ngtocrowdingof
plantsi
nsomepl aces. Thi
sresult
sinpoorperformanceduet ocompet it
ion.
Broadcasti
nggi
vesagood
groundcov er
,butweedi ngcannotbemechani zed.Forgoodr esult
s,theseedbedshouldbeweed-f
ree,
fi
rm andhav eafinetil
th.

Rowpl
ant
ing.

Theseedsorot herplanti
ngmat eri
alsar
eplacedi
nholes,dr
il
lsorfurr
owsinrows.Thedist
ancebet
ween
onerowt otheot herandfrom oneholetotheot
heri
sknown. InKenya,bot
hlar
geandsmal l–scal
e
far
merspr acti
cer owplant
ing.Iti
spract
icedwhenpl
antingmanyt ypesofcr
ops,especi
al
lyper
enni
al,
annualandr ootcrops.

Advant
agesofr
owpl
ant
ing.

 Machi
nescanbeusedeasi
l
ybet
weent
her
ows.

 I
tiseasyt
oest
abl
i
sht
hecor
rectpl
antpopul
ati
on.

 Lowerseedr
atei
susedt
hani
fbr
oadcast
ingi
sadopt
ed.

 I
tiseasyt
ocar
ryoutcul
tur
alpr
act
icessuchasweedi
ng,
spr
ayi
ngandhar
vest
ing.

Di
sadvant
agesofr
owpl
ant
ing.

 I
tdoesnotpr
ovi
deanampl
efol
i
agecov
er.
Thust
hesoi
li
sli
abl
etobei
nger
odedbywi
ndand
wat
er.

 I
tismor
eex
pensi
vet
hanbr
oadcast
ingbecauseofconsumi
ngal
otofl
abourandt
ime.

 I
trequi
ressomeski
l
linmeasur
ingt
hedi
stancesbet
weenandwi
thi
nther
ows.

Seedscanal sobeplantedbydibbli
ngwher etheplantingholesaredugbyuseofpangasorjembe, orbya
di
bblingst
ick(dibbl
er)
.Mostoft hedibbl
i
ngi sdoner andomlyal t
houghrowscanalsobeusedwhenusi ng
aplanti
ngline.Random dibbl
i
ngi snotpopulari
ncommer cialfarmi
ngduetol
owlev el
sofproduct
ion.Itis
onlycommonamongconser vat
ivefarmersinplanti
ngoflegumessuchasbeans, pigeonpeasandcow
peas.

Over
-sowi
ng.

Thi
sist
heintr
oducti
onofapastur
elegumesuchasdesmodi um i
nanexi
sti
nggrasspast
ure.Somef
orm
ofgr
owthsuppressi
onofex
ist
inggrasssuchasbur
ning,
slashi
ngorhar
dgrazi
ngplussli
ghtsoil
disturbanceisrecommendedbef or
eov ersowing.Aheavydoseofsuperphosphate,pr
efer
ablysi
ngl
e
super satarateof200-400kg/haisappli
ed.Thegr assmustbekeptshortunti
lthel
egumei sful
l
y
established.
Regar dl
essofthemethodofestabli
shment,thepastur
esandfodderstandsshouldber
eady
forlightgrazi
ng4-5mont hsaft
erplant
ingifr
ainfal
landsoilf
ert
il
it
yarenotli
miti
ng.

Under
-sowi
ng.

Thisreferstot heest
abl
ishmentofpastureunderacovercr
op,usuall
ymaize.Maizeisplantedas
recommendedandweeded2- 3weeksaftert
heonsetofrai
ns.Past
ureseedsarethenbroadcastedwi th
halftherecommendedbasal fert
il
iz
er.
Nof ur
therweedi
ngshouldbedoneandmai z
eshoul dbeharv est
ed
earlytoex posetheyoungpast ur
eseedli
ngstosunl
ight
.Thebenefi
tsofundersowingincludefaci
l
itati
ng
mor eintensivelandut
il
izat
ionandencouragi
nganear l
yest
abli
shmentofpastures.

Foddercr
opsandv egeteti
vel
ypr
opagat
edpasturespeciesmayalsobeundersownaslongasr
ainf
all
is
adequat
efort
heirestabli
shment
.Ti
mingisnotverycrucial
int
hiscaseandpl
anti
ngcanbedoneaslate
as6-8weeksaft
ertheonsetofrai
ns.

Pl
antpopul
ati
on

Thi
srefer
stotheidealnumberofplant
sthatcanbecomf ort
ablyaccommodatedinanygivenarea,
wit
houtover
crowdingortoofewtowastespace.Agri
cul
turalresear
chhasar
ri
v edattheopti
mum number
ofvar
iouscr
opplantstoberecommendedt ofarmer
s.Plantpopulat
ioni
sdet
ermi nedbydivi
dingthe
pl
anti
ngareabyspacingofthecrop.Thi
smaybesi mpli
fi
edt hus:

Ar
eaofl
and
Pl
antpopul
ati
on=
Paci
ngofcr
op

Exampl
e

Giventhatmai
zei
spl
ant
edataspaci
ngof75x
25cm,
cal
cul
atet
hepl
antpopul
ati
oni
napl
otofl
and
measuri
ng4x 3m.

Wor
king
Ar
eaofl
and
Pl
antpopul
ati
on=
Paci
ngofcr
op

Ar
eaofl
and =400cm x300cm

Spaci
ngofmai
ze =75cm x25cm

Ther
efor
e,pl
antpopul
ati
on =400cm x300cm
75cm x25cm

= 64pl
ant
s.

Spaci
ng
Iti
sthedist
anceofpl
ant
sbetweenandwi
thi
nther
ows.
Cor
rectspaci
ngf
oreachcr
ophasbeen
establ
i
shedasshownintabl
ebelow.
 crop spaci
ng
Maize 75–90cm x23–30cm
(Kit
ale)
hybrids

Cof
fee 2.
75cm x2.
75m
(
Arabi
ca)t
all
var
iet
ies
Tea 1.
5m by0.75m
Beans(er
ectt
ype) 45-60m by25cm
Bananas 3.
6–6.0m by3.6–4.
5m
Coconut 9m x9m
Tomatoes(
Moneymaker
) 100x50cm
kal
es 60x60cm

Spacingdeterminesplantpopulati
onandt hemainai
m ofcorrectspaci
ngistoobtainmaximum number
ofplantsperunitareawhichwi l
lmakemax i
mum useofenvir
onment alf
actor
s.Widerspaci
ngleadstoa
reducedplantpopulati
onwhi chmeansl oweryi
el
ds,whereascloserspaci
ngcouldleadtoover
crowdingof
plantsandcompet it
ionfornutr
ient
sandot herr
esourceswouldoccur.Corr
ectl
yspacedcropsproduce
yiel
dofhighqual i
tythatareacceptabl
einthemarket
.
Spaci
ngi
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:
 Thet ypeofmachi ner yt obeused.
Thespacebet weent her owsshoul dallowfreepassageoft hemachi nerywhi chcanbeusedi n
thef ield. Forex ampl e, thespaci ngbet weenr owsofcof feeissupposedt oall
owmov ementof
tractordr awni mpl ement s.
 Soi lfertili
ty
Af ertilesoi lcansuppor thi ghplantpopul ati
on. Theref
or ecloserspacingispossible.
 Thesi zeofpl ant
Tal lcropv arietiesr equi rewi derspaci ngwhi l
eshor tvarieti
esrequir
ecl oserspaci
ng,forex ample,
Kitalehy bridmai z eiswi delyspacedt hanKat umani mai ze.
 Moi st ureavai labili
ty.
Ar easwi thhi gherr ainfall arecapabl eofsuppor ti
ngal argenumberofpl antshencecl oserspacing
thanar easofl owr ainfal l
.
 Useofcr op.
Cr opgr ownf ort hesuppl yoff or
ageorsi l
agemat er
ialisplantedatacl oserspacingthanf orgrain
product ion.
 Pestanddi seasescont rol .
Whencr opsar epr oper lyspaced, pestsmi ghtfinditdiff
iculttomov efrom oneplacet otheother ,
forex ampl e, aphi dsi ngr oundnut s.
 Gr owt hhabi t.
Spr eadi ngandt il
leringcr opv ari
etiesrequirewi derspacingt hanerecttype.

Seedr
ate.
Seedratei
stheamountofseedst obeplantedinagivenuni tareagov ernedbyul t
imat ecropstandwhich
i
sdesired.
Theobjecti
veofcor
rectspacingofcropistoobt ai
nt hemax i
mum y iel
dsf rom aunitarea
wit
houtsacri
fi
ci
ngqualit
y.Mostcropsareseededatlighterratesunderdr iercondit
ionsthanunderwetor
i
rri
gat
edconditi
ons.Seedswit
hlowger minati
onpercentagear eplantedathi gherratesthanthosewhich
haveabout100%germinati
onpercentage.Therei
sanopt imal seedratef orvari
ouscr ops.Forexample,
theseedrateformai
zei
s22kgperhect
are,
wheati
s110kgperhect
areandcot
toni
sbet
ween17t
o45
kgperhectare.

Fact
orstoconsi derinchoosi ngseedr ates.
 Seedpur it
y.
Whenpl anti
ngseedwhi chispureorwi thahighger minationpercentage,l
essseedisrequir
ed.On
thecont rary,mor eseedsar erequiredwhenusi ngimpur eormi xedseeds.
 Ger mi nationper cent age.
Lessseedi susedwheni tsgerminati
onpercentageishigher .Seedoflowergerminati
on
percentagei srequi redi nlar
geamount s.
 Spaci ng.
Atcloserspaci ng, mor eseedsar eusedt haninawi derspaci ng.
 Numberofseedsperhol e.
Whent woormor eseedsar eplantedperhole,higherseedr ateisrequir
edthanwhenonl yone
seedispl antedperhol e.
 Thepur poseoft hecr op.
Acr optobeusedf orsi l
agemaki ngisspacedmor ecloselyt hanonemeantf orgrai
nproduction.
Thiswoul drequireuseofmor eseeds. Maiz
et obeusedf orsil
agemaki ng,f
orexample,requi
res
mor eseedst hant hatmeantf orproducti
onofgr ai
n.

Dept
hofpl
ant
ing.
Thisi
sthedi stancefrom t
hesoi l sur
facetowher etheseedi spl aced.Thecor rectdept hofplant
ingis
det
ermi
nedby :
 Soi ltype:seedswi l
lemer gefr
om graterdepthsi nsandysoi lthatareli
ght erthani ncl
aysoil
s.
 Soi lmoi stur
econt ent:Itisrecommendedt hatonepl antsdeepi ndr ysoilsinor dertopl
acethe
seedsi naz onewithmoi stsoi
l.
 Si zeoft heseed:Lar gerseedsar epl
anteddeeperi nt hesoi l
becauset heyhav eenoughf ood
reservestomaket hem shootandemer get hroughthesoi ltothesur f
ace.
 Typeofger minat
ion: seedswi t
hepigeal t
ypeofger mi nati
on( carr
ycoty l
edonsabov ethesoil
surface)suchasbeans, shouldbepl antedshallowerthant hosewi thhy pogeal t
y peof
germi nati
on(leav
ecot yl
edonsundert hesoil)suchasmai ze.

Suggest
edActi
v i
ti
es.
1. Learnerstocarryoutplantingusingbroadcasti
ngmet hodandpl ant
ingrows.
2. Learnerstoidenti
fydi
fferentvegetat
ivepropagati
onmat eri
alsdi
splayedbytheteacher
.
3. Learnerstodeterminethecor r
ectplantpopulat
ionforagi v
enareabymat hemat i
cal
calculat
ions.
4. Learnerstocoll
ectsampl esofdiffer
enttr
eeseedsandpr eparet
hem forplant
ingbyvari
ous
met hodsofbreakingseeddor mancy .
5. Learnerstodeterminetheger minati
onpercentageofdiff
erentsamplesofcerealsandl
egume
seeds.

Cr
opPr
oduct
ionI
II

(
Nur
ser
yPr
act
ices)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Pl
ant
ingmat
eri
al
sar
eei
therpl
ant
eddi
rect
lyi
naseedbedori
ndi
rect
lyt
hrougha
 nur
ser
ybed.
 Aseedbedisapieceoflandwhi
chcoul
dbesmal
lorl
argeandpr
epar
edt
o
r
ecei
veplant
ingmat
eri
al
s.
 Anurser
ybedont heot
herhandisasmal lplotoflandspeci
all
ypr
epar
edf
or
r
aisi
ngseedl
i
ngsorpl
ant
ingmater
ial
sbef
oretranspl
anti
ng.
 Iti
susual
l
y1m wideandanyconv
eni
entl
engt
hdependi
ngont
hequant
it
yof
seedl
i
ngst
ober
aised.
 Aseedlingbedisaspeci
alt
ypeofnurserybedusedforrai
si
ngseedl
ingspri
cked
outfrom t he nur
ser
y bed due t
o overcr
owding bef
orethey ar
er eady f
or
tr
ansplanti
ng.
 Pri
ckingoutreferstother
emov alofseedl
ingsfrom anurser
ybedtoaseedl
ing
bed.
 Nurserypr
acticesref
ertoal
ltheacti
vi
tiescarr
iedoutthr
oughoutanur
ser
yli
feto
rai
seseedl
ings. .

I
mpor
tanceofNur
ser
yBedi
nCr
opPr
oduct
ion
 Tof aci
li
tatet hepr oduct i
onofmanyseedl ingsinasmal l ar
ea.
 Iti
seasyt ocar r
youtmanagementpr acti
cesinanur serythani
ntheseedbed.
 Itfaci
li
tatest hepl antingofsmallseedswhi chdev el
opintostr
ongseedl
ingsthat
areeasilytransplant ed.
 Itensurest ransplantingofonlyhealthyandv i
gorousgrowingseedl
i
ngs.
 Itreducest heper i
odt akenbythecropi nthefiel
d.
 Excessseedl i
ngsf rom t henur
serymaybesol dtoear nincome.

Sel
ect
ionofaNur
ser
ySi
te
Fact
orst
oconsi
der
;
 Near nesst ot hewatersour ce.
 Typeofsoi l.-
shouldbewel ldr ained,deepandf erti
le,pr efer
abl
yloam soil
.
 Topogr aphy .
-i
tshouldbesi tuatedonagent lesl opet opr eventfl
oodingand
erosiont hroughsur facerun- off.
 Previouscr opping.
-t
oav oidbui ldupofpest sanddi seases
associat edwi thpart
icularplantf amili
es,considert hepr ecedi
ng
crops.
 Secur i
ty.-selectasit
et hati
spr otect
edf r
om t hef tanddest r
ucti
on
byani mal s.
 Protectionagai nststrongwi ndsandheatoft hesun. -selectashelt
eredpl
ace.
i.
e.
toav oidex cessiveev apot
ranspi rati
onandupr oot i
ngseedl i
ngs.

TypesofNur
ser
ies
Cat
egor
iesofnur
ser
ies:
 Veget
abl
eNur
ser
y:
 Theyar
eusedf
orr
aisi
ngt
heseedl
i
ngsofv
eget
abl
ecr
ops.
  Tomat
oes,
cabbages,
kal
e,oni
ons,
bri
njal
sandpepper
s.
 Veget
abl
ePr
opagat
ionNur
ser
ies:
 Theyare used f
ori
nducing r
ootpr
oduct
ion i
n cut
ti
ngs befor
et heyare
tr
anspl
anted,
 Thecutt
ingscanbepl
anteddir
ect
lyi
nthesoilandhencecal
ledb areroot
nur
ser
ies.
 Orplant
edint
ocontai
ner
ssuchaspot
s,pol
ythenebagsandot
her
s,hence
edc
cal
l ont
ainer
izednurser
ies.
 Tr
eeNur
ser
ies:
 Theseareusedforrai
si
ngtreeseedl
ings.
 The seedli
ngs can be r
aised i
n barerootnur
ser
ies ori
n cont
ainer
ized
nurser
ies.
Nur
ser
yManagementPr
act
ices:
 Thesear
ethepr
act
icescar
ri
edouti
nthenur
ser
ywhi
l
ethepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alsar
e
growi
ng.
Theyi
ncl
ude:
 Mulching.–l i
ghtmul chshoul
dbeappl
i
edont
henur
ser
ybed.
Itbe shoul
dbe
remov edont he4thday
 Weedcont rol.
 Shading.
 Pri
ckingout.
 Pestsanddi seasecontrol
.
 Hardeningof f
 Watering.

Pr
epar
ati
onofvegetat
ivemateri
alsforpl
ant
ing:
Cutt
ings-
Thesear
eplantpar
tssuchasst
ems,leav
esandr
oot
sinducedt
o
pr
oducer
oot
sandusedaspl
ant
ingmat
eri
als.
Gr
aft
ing–
 Iti
sthepracti
ceofunitingtwoseparat
ewoodyst ems.
 Thepartbeari
ngt herootsi
sreferr
edtoasr ootst ockwhi l
ethepar
twhichi
s
graf
tedontotherootst sknownass
ocki cion.
 Thescionhasbudswhi chdevel
opintothefuturepl
ant.
 Theabili
tyoft
her oot
stockandt hesci
ontof orm asuccessf
uluni
onist
ermed
asc ompat i
bili
ty.
Met
hodsofGr
afti
ng
 Whi
portonguegr
aft
ing:
 I
nt hi
scasethediameteroft
heroot
stockandthescionarethesame.
 I
tiscarri
edoutwhent hedi
ameterofthescionandt herootst
ocki
s'penci
l
'
t
hick.
 Si
degr aft
ing:Int
hiscasethediamet
eroftheroot
stockisbi
ggerthant
hat
ofthescion.
Ot
hert
ypesofgr
aft
ingi
ncl
ude;
  Approachgraf
ting,
 Notchgraft
ing
 Barkgraf
ti
ng.
Buddi
ng:
 I
tisthepract
iceofuni
ti
ngav eget
ati
vebudtoaseedl
ingofanotherplant
.
 Thescionhasonlyonebudandsomebar kwit
horwithoutwood.
 Thebudisinsert
edinasli
tmadeont hebar
kofthest
ock.
 I
tisheldti
ghtl
yonthestockbytyi
ngwithabuddi
ngtapeunti
litproducesashoot
.

Met
hodsofBuddi
ng:

 T-buddi
ng
 Topbudding
 Patchbuddi
ng.

I
mpor
tanceofBuddi
ngandGr
aft
ing:
 Pl
ant
s wi
thdesi
rabl
erootchar
act
eri
sti
csbutwi
thundesi
rabl
epr
oduct
s
maybeusedt oproducedesirableproductsf
orexamplelemon¬-or
angegraft
.
 Theyfaci
li
tatethechangingoft het opofthet r
eefrom beingundesir
abl
eto
desi
rabl
e
 Theymakei tpossibl
etogrowmor ethanonetypeoffruitorfl
oweronthesame
pl
ant.
 Theyhel
ptopr opagatecl
onest hatcannotbepropagat
edi nanyot
herway.
 Theyhel
ptoshor tenthematuri
typeriod.
Layer
ing
 Iti
sthepr
ocessbywhichapartofaplanti
sinducedtoproducerootswhi
l
est
il
l
att
achedt
othemotherpl
ant
.
 Oncether
ootshav
ebeenproduced,
thestem i
sthencutof
fandplanted.
Typesofl
ayer
ing;
 Mar cott
ingoraerial
layer
ing.
 Ti
pl ayering.
 Trenchlay er
ing.
 Compoundorser penti
ne.

Ti
ssueCul
tur
eforCr
opPr
opagat
ion
 Tissuecul t
ureisabiotechnologyusedi ncloni
ngv egetati
vel
ypropagat
edplant
s.
 Itisbasedont heabi
li
tyofplantt i
ssue( orcell
s)toregenerat
eotherpart
softhe
plant.
 Thet i
ssuesar ederiv
edf rom shoottipswher ecellsareundergoi
ngrapidcel
l
divisi
onandar enotdi ff
erent
iated.
 Thecel lsarethenprov i
dedwi t
ht herightconditi
onswhi chenablet
hem to
mul ti
plyanddev el
opr oots.
TheRi
ghtCondi
ti
onsf
ort
issuecul
tur
e:
 Cul
tur
emedi
um.
  Cor
rectt
emper at
ure.
 Cor
rectl
i
ghtintensi
tyand
 Cor
rectr
elat
ivehumidit
y.

I
mpor
tanceofTi
ssueCul
tur
einCr
opPr
opagat
ion
 Itisusedt orecoverandestabl
ishpathogen-
freeplant
sespeciall
yint
hecont
rol
ofv i
raldi
seases.
 Iti
susedi nmasspr oducti
onofplant
letsorpropagul
es.
 Iti
sf astandrequir
eslessspacethanthecult
uralmethodsofusingcut
ti
ngwhi
ch
requiresabiggerspace.
Tr
anspl
ant
ingSeedl
i
ngs
 Tr anspl antingofv egetableandt r
eeseedli
ngsar egener all
yt hesame.
 Gener ally,v eget ableseedl i
ngsar ereadyf ortr
anspl antingwhent heyareone
mont hol dorhav e4- 6leav esorar eabout10-15cm inhei ght .
 Bef oret ranspl ant ing,thenur serybedi sadequat el
ywat ered3-4hour sbefore
l
iftingt heseedl ings.
 Thi sensur est heseedl ingsar elif
tedeasil
ywi t
habal l ofeartharoundtherootsto
mi nimi zer ootdamage.
 Tr ee seedl i
ngs t ake a l i
ttlelongert or each transplant i
ng age compared to
veget abl ecr opseedl ings.
 Ther oot sar etrimmedbef or eli
fti
ngtheseedl i
ngs.
 Tr anspl antingshoul dbedoneatt heonsetoft helongr ainstogivethey oung
treesagoodst art.
 Af tertranspl ant i
ngt hey oungt reesshouldbepr otectedf rom damagebyani mals
foraper i
odofaboutoney ear.

Cr
oppr
oduct
ionI
V(Fi
eldPr
act
icesI
)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Fi
eldpr
act
icesareact
ivi
ti
escarri
edoutonthefi
el
dtof
aci
l
itat
epr
opergr
owt
h
andmaxi
mum yiel
dofthevar
iouscropsgr
own.
Theyi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Cr
opRot
ati
on
 Mul
chi
ng
 R0ut
ingf
iel
dpr
act
ices
 Cr
oppr
otect
ion
  Har
vest
ing

Cr
opRot
ati
on
 Thisisthegrowingofdiffer
entty
pesont
hesamepi
eceofl
andi
ndi
ff
erent
seasons,
inanorder
lysequence.
I
mpor
tanceofCr
opRot
ati
on
 Max i
mizesuseofnut r
ient
sandmoi sture.
 Breaksthel
if
ecy cleofpestsanddiseaseagents.
 Maintai
nsgoodsoi lst
ruct
ure.
 Reducessoilerosi
onduet oadequatesoilcover
.
 Control
sweedst hatarespeci
fict
ocer t
aincropse.
g.str
igaoncer
eal
s
 I
mpr ovessoi
l f
erti
l
itywhenlegumesar eincl
udedincroprot
ati
on.
Fact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngRot
ati
onalPr
ogr
amme
 Gr owthhabitsandnut ri
entr
equir
ements.
 Liabil
ityt
osoi l
erosion.
 Cropsat tackedbyt hesamepestsanddiseasesshoul
dnotf
oll
owoneanot
heri
n
thepr ogramme.
 Av ai
labil
i
tyofcapitalandmarketf
orexamplebeansorpeasi
nlegumes.
Mul
chi
ng
 Thisi
stheplacementofmater
ial
ssuchasbananaleav
esorpoly
thenesheet
son
thegr
oundnex tt
othegrowi
ngcrop.
 Thesemateri
alsshoul
dnotcomei nt
ocont
actwiththebaseofthecropasthey
mayencouragepestatt
ack.
I
mpor
tanceofMul
chi
ng
 Reducti
onofevaporat
ionr ate.
 Smothersweeds.
 Moderati
onofsoil
temper atur e.
 Reducti
onofspeedofr unof fs.
TypesofMul
chi
ngMat
eri
als
 Organicmul chi
ngmat eri
alssuchas;
 Sawdust , woodshavings,coff
eepulps,r
icehusks,
 Dr ygrass,bananaleaves,drymaizestal
k ,
napi
ergrass.
 Inor
ganicorsynt het
icmat erial
scommonl yusedar eei
therbl
ackort
ranspar
ent
poly
thenesheet s.
Advant
agesofMul
chi
ng
 Preventswaterevaporati
onthusmaint
aini
ngmoi stur
einthesoi
lforcr
opuse.
 Actsasani nsul
atorthusmodifyi
ngthesoi
ltemperature.
 I
thelpst ocontr
olsoi
l er
osion.
 I
tcont r
olsweedsbysuppr essi
ngthem.
 Afterdecompositi
onor ganicmulchaddnut r
ient
st othesoi
lthusimprov
ingit
s
fer
til
it
y.
  Humus pr
oducedaf
terthedecomposi
ti
onofor
gani
cmul
chi
mpr
oves
soi
lst
ruct
ureandt
hewaterhol
dingcapaci
tyoft
hesoi
l.
Di
sadvant
agesofMul
chi
ng
 I
tisaf
ir
eri
sk.
 Providesabr eedinggr
oundaswel lasahidi
ngpl
acef
orpest
sthat
fi
nall
ymayat tackthecrops.
 Trapst helightshower sofr ai
nfallt
huslower
ingthechancesofr
aindr
ops
reachingthesoi l
.
 I
tisex pensi
vet oacquir
e,transportandappl
y.

Rout
ineFiel
dPr
act
ices
Thi
nning
 Removalofexcess,weak,damagedordiseasedseedl
ings.
 Al
lowstheremainingseedli
ngst
ogetenoughnut r
ient
sandmoi
stur
e.
 I
tisai
medatobt aini
ngoptimum pl
antpopulati
on.
Gappi
ng
 Fi
ll
i
ngthegapssoastomaintainproperpl
antpopulat
ion.
 Gapsoccurasar
esul
toffai
l
ur eofseedstogerminateordyi
ngofseedl
ings.
 I
tshoul
dbedoneearl
yenoughf ort
heseedlingst
ocat chupwit
htheotherpl
ant
s
Roguei
ng
 Thi
sistheremov alanddest
ruct
ionofadiseasedpar
tofaplantorthewhol
e
pl
ant.
 Thedest
ruct
ioncanbeachiev
edthroughbur
ningoft
heupr
oot
edplant
.
Pr
uni
ng
 Remov
alofex
traunwant
edpar
tsoft
hepl
ant
.
Reasonsf
orpr
uni
ngar
e:
 Toremov eold,unpr oductiveordi seased, damagedpar t
soft hepl ant.
 Totrai
nplantstot akeadesi rableshapef orex ampl efor
mat i
v epr uningi
ntea.
 Tocontrolcr
opl eaver ati
ohenceav oidingov er
bearing.
 Tocontroldi
seasesandpest sforexampl eant esti
abugsi ncof fee.
 Tofaci
li
tateotheroper at
ionssuchasspr aying,pi
ckingandseedi ng.
 Toreducewast ageofchemi calsappl i
edont hecrop.
 Toremov ebranchest hati nter
ferewi thtraf
fic,t
elephonelinesandv i
ew.
 Openupt heplantt oallowf reeaircirculati
onandex posureofl eav estosunl
i
ght.
Note:Toolsusedar es ecat eur ,
pr uningsawandpr uningkni fe.
Ear
thi
ng-
up
 Thi
sistheplacementofsoi
li
nf or
m ofaheaparoundthebaseoft
hepl
ant
.
 I
tismost l
ycar ri
edouti ntubercropssuchasI ri
shandsweetpotat
oest
o
i
mprovetuberformat
ion.
 I
tisal
socarriedouti
ngroundnutsandmaize.
  I
ngr
oundnutsi
tpr
omot
espr
oduct
ionofpodswhi
l
einmai
zei
tpr
ovi
dessuppor
t
t
opr
eventl
odgi
ng.

Cr
opPr
otect
ion
WeedCont
rol
 Weedsarepl
antsgrowingwher et
heyarenotwant ed,
thati
sapl
antoutofpl
ace.
 Suchpl
antsi
ncludeblackj
ack,
couchgrass,thor
nappleandMcdonald'
seye.
 Suchpl
antsshouldbeeradi
catedorcont
rol
ledusingrecommendedmethods.

PestCont
rol
 Croppestsar
elivi
ngorgani
smst hatareharmfult
othecrops.
 Theyincl
ude;
insects,
nematodes,rodents,
thri
psandmites.
 Theycausegreatdamagetocropsi nthefi
eldandst
oredproduce.
Cont
rolofCr
opDi
seases
 Adi seaseisanyal
terat
ioninthestateofanor gani
sm andfunct
ionsofaplantor
i
tspar ts.
 Diseasecausingor
ganismsar eknownaspat hogens.
 Theyi udef
ncl ungi
, vir
usesandbact eri
a.
 Diseasescausedbyf ungiareref
erredtoasf ungaldi
seaseswhilethosecaused
byv ir
usesandbacteri
aarerefer
redtoasv i
ralandbacteri
alr
especti
vel
y.
Har
vest
ing
 I
tist
hegat
her
ingoroft
hef
arm pr
oduceaf
termat
uri
ty.
Ti
meofhar
vest
ingdependson:
 Stageofmat uri
tyoft hecrops.
 Useoft hecrop.
 Tastesandpr eferencesofconsumer s.
 Weat hercondit
ions,henceliabi
l
ityt
ospoil
age.
 Moisture.
Met
hodsofhar
vest
ingi
sdet
ermi
nedby:
 Scal eoffarmingf orexampl elargescalef armi
ngmachinesareused.
 Ty peofcr opforex amplepy rethrum i
shar vest
edbyhand.
 Uni for
mi t
yi nripeningoft hecr opf orex amplewheatisharvestedbyuseof
combi nedhar vesterwhilecof feeisharvestedbyhand.
 Uni for
mi t
yinheightoft hecr opandsi zeofseed,fr
uit
sandflower
s.
 Financialstatusoft hefarmer .
 Par toftheplanttobehar vested.
Post
-Har
vestPr
act
ices
 Thesearet hepreparat
ionscar
ri
edoutoncr
oppr
oducebef
orei
tget
stot
he
consumer.Theyinclude;
 Threshi
ng/shel
l
ing.
  Dryi
ng.
 Cl
eaning.
 Sorti
ngandgr adi
ng.
 Dusti
ng.
 Processing.
 Packaging.
St
orage
Pur
poseofst
oragei
sto;
 Pr
eventspoil
age
 Maketheproduceavai
labl
eforf
utur
euse
 Toawaitgoodmarketpri
ces.

Requi
rement
sforpr
operst
orear
e:
 I
tshoul
dbeclean.
 I
tshoul
dbewel lventil
ated.
 I
tshoul
dberaisedf rom thegroundtopreventdampcondi
ti
ons.
 I
tshoul
dbedry .
 I
tshoul
dbestrongt ohol dcropproduce.
 I
tshoul
dbeeasyt ocl ean.
 I
tshoul
dbevermi n-proof.
 I
tshoul
dbesecur efrom theft.
 I
tshoul
dbetreatedagai nstpestssuchasweev i
ls.

TypesofSt
orage
 Tr
adit
ionalstor
agestr
uctur
es.
 Modernstoragest
ruct
ures.
Pr
epar
ati
onoft
heSt
ore
 Cl
eaningthestore.
 Maint
enance
 Dusti
ngthestorewithappropr
iatechemical
s.
 Cl
eari
ngthev egetat
ionar
oundt hestor
et okeepof
fver
min.

Cr
opPr
oduct
ionV:
(Veget
abl
es)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Av
eget
abl
eisanycr
opt
hati
sgr
ownandeat
enf
resh.
 Veget
abl
esar
eimpor
tantbot
hfornut
ri
ti
onal
andcommer
cial
reasons.
  Theyar
ecat
egor
izedont
hebasi
soft
hepar
tusedasf
ood.
 Suchpar
tsi
ncl
ude;
 Leav
es,
 St
ems,
 Root
s,
 Fr
uit
s,
 Fl
ower
s,
 Pods
 Bul
bs.
Veget
abl
esar
egr
oupedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies:
 Leafvegetablesforexamplekalesandcabbages.
 Rootvegetablesforexamplecar r
ots,beets,r
adishesandtur
nips.
 Frui
tvegetablesforexampleFrenchbeansandokr a.
 Stem vegetablesforexampleasparagus, l
eeksandspr i
ngoni
ons.
 Bulbvegetablesforexamplebulbedoni onsandgar li
c.

Tomat
oes(
Lycoper
siconescul
ent
um)
 Tomat
oesar
efr
uitv
eget
abl
eswi
del
ygr
owni
nKeny
a.
 Theripefr
uitmaybeeat
enr
aw cookedorpr
ocessedt
omaket
omat
osauces,
j
uicesandpast
es.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Al
ti
tude:0-2100m abovesealevel
.
 Rai
nfall
:7S0- 1300mm perannum.
 Soi
l
s: deep,ferti
l
eandwelldrai
ned.
Var
iet
ies
 Fr
eshmar
ketvar
iet
ies:
 Moneymaker
,
 Mar
globe,
hundr
edf
old,
 Beefeat
er,
 Hotset
,
 Supermar
mande
 Ponder
osa.
 Pr
ocessi
ngvar
iet
ies:
 Keny
abeaut
y,
  San-
mar
zano,
 Roma,
 Hei
nz13S0,
 Pr
imabel
,
 Rut
ger
shy
bri
d
 Cal
-J.
Nur
ser
yPr
act
ices
 Chooseasi
tewhi ownSol
chhasnotbeengr anaceaecr
opi
nthel
astt
hreey
ear
s.
 Nurserybedsarer
aisedabout15cm abovethegroundlevel
.
 Makedr i
ll
sof20cm apartand1cm deepdri
llandcovertheseeds.
 Provi
deshadeormul chmat er
ial.
 Watertwiceaday.
 Applyphosphat
icf
ertil
i
zersduringpl
ant
ing.
SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
 Thel
andshoul
dbedugdeepl
ytocont
rol
weeds.

Tr
anspl
ant
ing
 Seedlingsarereadyfortranspl
anti
ngwhent heyare10-
15cmhi
ghaf
teraboutone
mont h.
 Holesar emadeataspaci ngof60cm x90cm.
 Apply20gm ofDSPi nt heplanti
nghole.
 Transplantwit
haball ofsoilar
oundtheroot
s.
 Applymul charoundeachseedl i
ng.
 Transplanti
ngisnormal l
yintheeveni
ngoronacl oudyday.
Fi
eldMai
ntenance
 Earl
ycontr
olofweedsi
snecessar
y.
 Topdressi
ngisdoneaf
tercr
opestabl
i
shes.
 Pruni
ngandstaki
ngaredonetotr
aint
heplant
stogr
owv
ert
ical
l
y.
Pest
sCont
rol
s
 Amer
icanBol
l
wor
m
 Natur
eofdamage:bori
ngholesont
hef
rui
ts.
 Contr
ol:spr
ayi
ngi
nsect
ici
des.
 TobaccoWhi
teFl
y
 Natur
eofdamage:suckpl antsapfr
om theundersi
deoft
hel
eaf
,hencemay
t
ransmitvi
raldi
seases.
 Contr
ol:Dest
royinf
ectedpl
antandsprayi
nsect
ici
des.
Di
seaseCont
rol
 Lat
eBli
ght
 Cause:
Fungus
  Symptoms:drypat
chesonthel
eavesandf
rui
ts.
 Cont
rol:useoff
ungi
ci
des,cr
oprot
ati
onanddest
ruct
ionofaf
fect
edmat
eri
als.
 Bl
ossom-
endRot
Causedby;
 Toomuchni
tr
ogeni
near
lyst
ages.
 Ir
regularorinfrequentwater
ing.
 Calci
um deficiency.
 Control:Applycalcium ammonium ni
tr
ateandcor
rect
ionoft
heabov
e
pr
obl
ems.
Har
vest
ing
 Forcanning,
fruit
sshouldbeful
lyri
pe.
 Forfreshmar ket,f
rui
tsshouldbepar ti
all
yri
peandpackedincr
atest
oav
oid
damage.
 Thefruit
sshouldbegradedaccordi
ngt o;
 Size,
 Colour,
 Ripeness
 Freedom fr
om bl
emi
shes.

Cabbage
 I
tisaleafveget
abler
elatedtoot
herbrassi
cacr
opssuchaskal
es,caul
i
flower
,
Chi
nesecabbageandBrussel
sspr
outs.
 Cabbagel
eavesmaybeeat
enr
aw i
nsal
ads,st
eamed,boi
l
edorcookedi
na
var
iet
yofway
s.
 Thel
eav
escanal
sobef
edt
oli
vest
ock.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Alt
itude:
 Thosewi t
hsmal lheads:900-1500m abovesealevel
 Thosewi t
hLargeheads: 1800-2700m abovesealevel
.
 Temper at
ure:requi
recoolconditi
on.
 Rainfal
l:
 750- 2000mm perannum.
 Shoul dbewel ldi
stri
butedthroughoutt
hegrowingperiod.
 Soil
s:
 Deep,
 Fer ti
le
 Wel ldrai
ned.

Var
iet
ies
 Ear
lymat
uri
ng:
 Brunswick,
 Sugarloaf,
 Earl
yjersey,
  Copenhagenmar ket
,
 Chinesecabbage,
 Celerycabbage,
 Cafesplitskool
 Glori
a,mukuki ,
 Goldenacr e.
 Lat
emat uring:
 Drumhead,
 Savoy ,
 Perfect
ion,
 Winningstadt.
Nur
ser
yPr
act
ices
 Thebedsshoul dber aised,dimensi
on1m wi deandanyconv enientl
engt
h
(usuall
y2-3m i
nlengt
h).
 Makedr isof15-
l
l 20cm apart.
 Sowseedsbydr i
l
li
ngandcov ertoadept
hof1cm.
 Provideshadeormulchmat eri
al.
 Applyphosphati
cfert
il
izersandmi xt
horoughl
ywi
thsoi
ldur
ingpl
ant
ing.
 Wat ertwiceaday.
SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
 Cul
ti
vati
onshouldbedoneduri
ngthedryseasonsot
hatal
ltheweedsar
eki
l
led.
 Di
gholesatthespaci
ngof60cm x60cm.
 I
ncorpor
atef
army ardmanurei
nthesoil
.
Tr
anspl
ant
ing
 Wat ertheseedli
ngsbeforeuproot
ing.
 Seedlingsarereadyf
ort r
ansplant
ingaft
eronemont hthatiswhent
heyar
e1O-
15cm i nhei
ght.
 Selecthealt
hyandv i
gorousseedli
ngs.
 Transplanttheseedl
i
ngswi thball
sofsoilt
opreventrootdamage.
 Planttothesamedept hast heywereinthenurser
y.
Fi
eldMai
ntenance
 Appl
yfert
il
iz
ersduri
ngplant
ingandtopdr
essl
ater
.
 Cont
rolweedstoreducecompeti
ti
on.
PestCont
rol
 Di
amondBlackMot h
 Damage:Eatst
heundersi
deofthel
eafmakingwindowsorholesi
nthel
eaf
.
 Cont
rol
:Sprayrecommendedi
nsecti
ci
des.
 Cut
worms
 Damage:Att
acksthest
em att
hegroundlev
elcausi
ngheplanttof
all
.
 Cont
rol
:Sprayrecommendedi
nsecti
ci
des.
Di
seaseCont
rol
 Bl
ackRot
  Cause: Bacter
ia
 Sympt oms:Leavesturnyel
l
owandr ot
ti
ngofthest
em givi
nganoffensi
ve
odour,
 Control:Closed season,crop r
otati
on,use cert
if
ied seeds and spr
ay
appropriat
echemicals.
 Bl
ackLeg
 Cause:Fungus
 Symptoms:Brownt oblackspotsonseedl
i
ngsanddar
kcankeront
hest
em.
 Contr
ol:cr
oprotat
ion,dest
royinfect
edmater
ial
s.
Har
vest
ing
 Cabbagesarereadyf
orharv
esti
ng3-4monthsaf
tertr
anspl
ant
ing.
 Theheadsarecutwhentheyaresol
i
dandcompact .
 Harvest
edcabbagesaresol
dimmediat
ely
.
Car
rot
s(Daucuscar
ota)
 I
tisar
ootv
eget
abl
egr
owni
nthecool
areasofKeny
a.
 I
tiscommonl
yeat
enr
awi
nsal
adsbutcanal
sobecooked.

Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Alti
tude:0- 2,900m aboveseal evel
.
 Rainf al
l:
 750-1, 000mm.
 Wel ldistributedt
hroughoutthegrowingperi
od.
 Soils:
 I trequiresdeep,
 Fi net i
lth
 Wel ldrainedsoi l
sthatarefreefr
om obstacl
estoall
owf
orrootex
pansion.
 Temper atures:itrequi
rescoolt owarmt emperat
uresasv
eryhightemperat
ures
resultinthepr oduct
ionofpaleandshortroots.
Var
iet
ies
 Freshmarketvari
eti
esforex eCh
ampl ant
enayandNant
es.
 Canningvari
eti
esforexampleNantes
 Foddervari
eti
esforexampleOxhast.
LandPr
epar
ati
on
 Thefi
el
dshoul
dbewelldugtoadept
hofabout20cm.
 Thesoi
lcl
odsshoul
dbebrokent
ogiveafi
neti
lt
hbefor
epl
anti
ng.
 Manureshoul
dnotbeappl i
edasitinducesfor
kingwhi
chr educest
hecr
op
qual
i
ty.
Pl
ant
ing
 Carr
otsarepl
anteddir
ect
lyi
ntothemai nseedbed.
 Seedsaredri
l
ledint
orowsmade20- 30cm apart.
 Theseedsarethencover
edli
ghtl
yandt hesoilpr
esseddown.
 90kg/haofDSPshouldbeappl
iedatplanti
ngtimeinthedri
l
ls.
  I
tshoul
dbemi
xedwel
lwi
tht
hesoi
l
sbef
orepl
aci
ngt
heseeds.

Fi
eldPr
act
ice
 Thi
nni
ng--i
tisdone2weeksaf
terger
mi nat
ion.
 Weedcontr
ol-t
hefi
el
dshoul
dbekeptweedf ree.
 Ear
thi
ngupshouldbedonewhi
leweedingtoencour
ager
ootex
pansi
on.
.

 Topdressi
ng:af
terweedi
ng60kgofnit
rogenperhect
areshoul
dbeappli
edastop
dress.
 Ir
rigat
ion-t
hisshoul
dbecarr
iedoutwhereorwhentherei
snotenoughrai
nfal
l
.
PestCont
rol
 Carr
otsdonothav
emanyfi
eldpestsex
ceptt
hegreenaphids.
 Thesecanbecont
rol
l
edbyuseoftheappr
opri
atepest
ici
des.
Di
seaseCont
rol
 Occasi
onall
yat
tachedbythemil
dewsespeci
all
yinwetandhumi
denv
ironment
.
 Thi
nningcanbedonetoreducehumi
dcondit
ions.
Har
vest
ingandMar
ket
ing
 Carrot
sarereadyforhar
vest
ing3-5monthsaf t
erplant
ingdependi
ngont
he
var
iety
.
 Theyarel
i
ftedfr
om t
hesoi
landsol
dfreshorcanned.

Oni
ons(
All
i
um cepa)
 Onionsar
ebulbvegetabl
esgrowni
nthewar
m areasofKenya.
 Theyareusedasav eget
abl
einsal
adsandf
orf
lavouri
ngfoods,
soupsandst
ews.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Alt
itude:0-2,100m abov eseal evel
.
 Rainfall
:
 1, 000mm ofr ainpery ear
 I rri
gati
oni ndryareas.
 Soil
s:
 Requi reswel l
drainedf ert
il
esoil
s
 pHof6. 0-7.0.
 Temper atures:
 Oni onsareawar m climat ecrops.
 Howev er,somev ariet
iespr ef
ercoolcondi
tions.
 Theyr equir
eaf ai
rlyl
ongdr yperi
odf orr
ipeni
ng.
Var
iet
ies
 Redcreole,
 Tropi
canahy br
id
 Whitecreol
e.
LandPr
epar
ati
on
 Thel
andshoul
dbewel
lpr
epar
edl
eav
ingaf
inet
il
th.
  Far
my ar
dmanur
eat40-50t
onnesperhect
areshoul
dbeappl
i
edandmi
xedwel
l
wit
hthesoi
l
.

Pl
ant
ing
 Direct:Seedsaredr i
ll
edinrows30cm apartand8cm wit
hint
herows.
20kg/ haofDSPf er
ti
li
zeri
sused.
 Indir
ect:Seedsar eestabli
shedint
henur ser
iesbefor
etr
anspl
anti
ngt
hem i
n
rows30cm apar tand8cm wi t
hint
her ows.
 Shallowpl ant
ingisrecommendedf orbulbexpansi
on.

Fi
eldManagementPr
act
ices
Thi
nni
ng
 Iti
scarri
edoutonlyint hecropthathasbeendirect
lypl
ant
edsoasto
achi
evespaci
ngof8cm betweent
woplantswit
hint
herow.
 Thethi
nnedplant
sreferr
edt oasspri
ngonionsareusedasveget
abl
esi
n
sal
ads.
Topdr
essi
ng
 Calcium ammonium ni
tr
ateatt
herat
eof250kgperhect
arei
srecommended
fortopdressi
ngoni
ons.
 Thisisdone3mont hsaft
erpl
anti
ng.
PestCont
rol
Oni
onThr
ips:
 Thesecausesil
veri
ngandwi t
her
ingofl
eavesf
rom t
het
ipsdownwards.
 They ar
e control
led by spr
ayi
ng wit
h appr
opri
atei
nsect
ici
des such as
Diazi
nonorfenthi
on.
Di
seaseCont
rol
Pur
pleBl
otchandDowneyMi
l
dew
 Pur
plebl
otch;
 Char
act
eriz
edbyov algr
eyi
shl
esi
onswit
hpur
plecent
resonl
eav
es.
 Thi
scausesleafcur
li
nganddi
eback.
 Downeymi
l
dew;
 Charact
eri
zedbybr ownspor escover
ingtheleavesl
eadi
ngtodeat
hof
thewholepl
ant.
 The two diseases are ef
fecti
vel
y cont
rol
led by cr
op rot
ati
on and
appl
icat
ionofappropr
iat
efungici
des.

Har
vest
ingandMar
ket
ing
 Oni
onsar er
eadyf orharv
esti
ng5mont hsafterpl
anti
ng.
 Whenleavesstartdryi
ngthetopsarebrokenorbentatt
heneck.
 Thi
shastensthewi t
heri
ngofthestems.
 Thebulbsarethendugoutandl ef
ttodryinashadeforafewdays.
  Oni
onsar
egr
adedaccor
dingt
osi
zeandmar
ket
edi
nnet
sofabout14-
16kgs.

Li
vest
ockHeal
thI
(
Int
roduct
iont
oLi
vest
ockHeal
th)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Healthisthestat
eofthebodyi nwhi
challt
heorgansandsyst
emsar
enor
mal
andf unct
ioni
ngnormall
y.
 Diseaseisanydevi
ati
onfrom t
henor
malheal
thoftheani
mal
.

I
mpor
tanceofKeepi
ngLi
vest
ockHeal
thy:
 Healt
hyanimalsgiv
ehighincomeduet olowt r
eatmentcosts.
 Theproducti
veli
fespanofahealthyani malisl
onger.
 Highproduct
ion.
 Healt
hyanimalscanmulti
plyregularl
y.
 Healt
hyanimalsgiv
ehighqualit
ypr oductsforexampleeggs.
 Safet
yofconsumer sofl
i
vestockpr oducts.

Pr
edi
sposi
ngFact
orst
oLi
vest
ockDi
seases
 Theseareconditi
onswit
hinorar
oundt
heani
malt
hatmakei
teasyf
oranani
mal
tocont
ractadisease.
Theyi
ncl
ude:
 Ani
malfact
orssuchas;
 species,
 breed,
 age,
 sex
 colouroftheani
mal
.
 Envi
ronment
alf
act
orssuchas;
 chil
li
ng,
 beingrai
nedon,
 exposuretohotsun
 dampness.
 Managementf
act
orssuchas;
 poorfeedi
ng,
 housi
ng,
 handl
ing
 hygi
ene,
 over
crowding.
Si
gnsofI
LL-
Heal
thi
nLi
vest
ock
 Abnor malbehavi ourf orex ampleseparati
on from ther estoftheherd and
restl
essness.
 Abnor malpostureforex ampl elimpingandlameness.
 Ali
ment arycanal di
sfunct i
onsuchasbl oodst ai
nedfaecesandabnormal
defecati
on,diarr
hoeaanddy sentery
.
 Urinati
on:highfrequencyort oolowandhav ingstr
angecolour.
 Skin:roughwi t
hscalyski n,blist
ersontheskinandhairloss.
CausesofDi
seases
 Pat
hogeni ccauses;
 vir
uses,
 ri
ckettsia,
 bacteria,
 protozoa
 fungi.
 Physi
calcauses;
 fractures,
 dislocation,
 sprains.
 Nutr
iti
onal disor
dersforex
amplemilkfever
.
 Chemical causesforexamplepoi
soningbyagr
ochemi
cal
s.
Cat
egor
iesofDi
seases
 Not
if
iabl
edi
seases;
 Thesear ediseaseswhi chcausehi gheconomi closses.
 Anycaseshoul dber eportedtot heChi ef
s,D.O.s,vet
eri
nar
yof
fi
cer
sort
he
pol
ice.
 Ti
ck-bornediseases-Transmi ttedbyt i
cks.
 Breedi
ngdiseases-Tr ansmi t
tedthroughmat i
ng.
 Nutri
ti
onaldiseasesforex ampl emil
kf everandbl
oat .
 Parasi
ticdi
seasesf orexampleascar i
osis.
Gener
alMet
hodsofDi
seaseCont
rol
 Quarantine.
 Vaccination.
 Controlofv ectorsbyuseofacari
cidesandrotat
ionalgr
azi
ng.
 Disi
nfectingt heequi
pmentandbui l
dings.
 Useofpr ev ent i
vedrugs.
 Properfeedi ngofli
vestock.
 Cull
ingoft heani mal
swhi charecarr
ier
s/sl
aughteri
ngtheaff
ect
edani
mal
s.
 Useofar tificiali
nseminati
ontocontrolbr
eedi
ngdiseases.
 Propersel ect i
onandbr eedi
ngofanimals.
 Properhousi ngandhy giene,
 I
solati
ngsi ckani mal
s.
Appr
opr
iat
eMet
hodsofHandl
i
ngLi
vest
ock
Ani
mal
sar
ehandl
edf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
 Wheninspectingt heanimaltoascertai
nanyabnormali
tyorsignsofdi seases.
 Whenadmi nisteri
nganyf orm oft
reatmentsuchasdrenching,i
nject
ionand
masti
ti
scont rol.
 Whenspr ayi
ngorhanddr essi
ngtheani malwit
hchemicalstocontrolexternal
par
asit
es.
 Whenmi lki
ngt heanimal.
 When per f
ormi ng some oft he managementpr act
ices such as dehor ni
ng,
di
sbudding,castrati
on,hooftr
immi ng.
Whencar
ryi
ngoutt
heseact
ivi
ti
esani
mal
sshoul
dber
est
rai nac
nedi r
ush.
Ot
hermet
hodsofr
est
rai
ningani
mal
sincl
udet
heuseof
;
 hal
ter
s,
 r
opes,
 bul
lri
ng
 l
eadst
ick.

Li
vest
ockHeal
t I(
hI Par
asi
tes)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Apar asit
eisanor gani
sm whichobtai
nsit
slivel
i
hoodf
rom anot
heror
gani
sm
(host
)whi chsuf
fer
sdamage.
 Parasit
ism i
stheassoci
ati
onbetweenapar
asit
eandahost
.

Theef
fect
sofpar
asi
teont
hehostani
mal
are:
 Deprivi
ngthehostofi t
sfood.
 Suckingblood.
 Damagi ngtheor gansoft hehost.
 Causei r
ri
tati
onont heskinofthehost
.
 Destructi
onofhi desandsk ins.
 Transmissionofdi seases.
 Causeobst ruct
ioni nbodypassages.
Gener
alSympt
omsofPar
asi
tesI
nfest
ati
on:
 Emaciation.
 Potbell
iedconditi
on.
 Swell
ingsi nt
hejaworotherar
eas.
 Roughhai rorroughcoat
.
  Anaemi a.
 Di
ar r
hoea.
 Presenceofwor
m segment
sandbl
oodst
ainsi
nthedef
ecat
ion.
TypesofPar
asi
tes
Ther
earetwot y
pesofparasi
tes:
 Exter
nal(ect
o-par
asi
tes)
 Int
ernal
(endo-par
asi
tes)
Ext
ernalpar
asi
tesar
e;
 ti
cks,
 tsetsef
li
es,
 mi t
es,
 l
ice,
 fl
eas
 keds
Li
feCycl
eoft
icks
 Eggsarelai
dincracksont
heground.
 Theyhatchi n4-6weeksint
ol ar
vaewhi
chcl
i
mbont
hegr
asswai
ti
ngf
ora
passi
nganimal.
One-
HostTi
ck
 Thisrequi
resonehostt ocompletei
tsli
fecycl
e.
 Example:bluet ck(
i Boophilusdecol
orat
us).
 Prefer
redsites:face,neck
,dewlapandsideofthebody
.
 Diseasetr
ansmi tted:Redwaterandanaplasmosi
s.
Two-
HostTi
ck
 Thisrequirestwodi ff
erenthost stocompl et
eit
sli
fecycl
e.
 Exampl e:Theredl eggedt ick( Rhipi
cephalusever
ts)
 Prefer
redsi t
es:Ears,anus, udderandt hetai
l.
 Diseasetransmi t
ted:Redwat erandeastcoastfev
er.
 Example:Bontl eggedt ick(ambl yommaspp. )
 Prefer
redsi t
es:Udder ,scrot um andtailswit
ch.
 Diseasetransmi t
ted:Sweat ingsickness.
Thr
ee-
HostTi
ck
 Thi
srequi
rest
hreehost
stocompl
etei
tsl
i
fecy
cle.
 Exampl e:Thebrowneart ck(
i Rhipi
cephalusappendicul
atus)
 Prefer
redsi t
es:Ears,tai
lswit
chandar oundtheey es.
 Diseaset r
ansmitted:Eastcoastfev
erandr edwater.
 Bontticktransmithear t
water(amblyommaspp. )
Cont
rolofTi
cks
 Di
pping/sprayi
ng/handdr essingwit
hacari
ci
des.
 Rotat
ionalgraz
ing.
 Pl
oughingt hel
andtobr eakt heli
fecycl
e.
 Handpickingandkill
ing.
  Fenci
ngofthegrazi
ngfiel
dst
okeepoffotherani
mal
sincl
udi
ngwi
l
dgame.
 Burni
ngofgrasstoki
ll
them i
nvar
iousstages.

Endo-
par
asi
tes(
int
ernalPar
asi
tes)
 Endopar
asi
tesar
ehel
mint
hs.

Theycanbedi
vi
dedi
nto:
 Pl
aty
helminthes/fl
atwormswhichincl
ude;
 Tremat odes(f
lukes)
 Cestodes( t
apeworms).
 Nemato-helmint
hes/nematodes.
E.gRoundwor
ms.

Gener
alSympt
omsofHel
mint
hiasi
s
 Di
ar r
hoeawhichfoultheanal
andt ai
lregi
on.
 Dull
ness.
 Anaemi a.
 Bi
gst omach(potbell
i
edconditi
on).
 Presenceofworm segmentsinfaeces.
 Coughing.
Tr
emat
odes(
LiverFl
uke)
 Therearetwospeci esoffl
ukes:
 Fasciol
agigant ica
 Fasciol
ahepat ica.
 Fasci
olahepati
ca ismor ecommon.
 Iti
scommonl yfoundi ntheli
verandbi
l
eductofcat
tl
e,sheepandgoat
s.
 Liv
erfl
ukeisapr oblem i
nmar shyandl
owlyi
ngwetareas.
Li
feCycl
eoft
heLi
verFl
uke
 Adultflukeint heliv
eroft heprimaryhostlayseggs.
 Eggspasst hrought hebi l
eductintothesmal lintest
inesandar epassedoutin
faecesont ot hepast ure.
 Undermoi stcondi t
ions, theyhatchintoami racidium larvawhi chswimsaboutin
searchofasecondar yhost( f
reshwatersnails).
 Inthesnai l,
itdev el
opst hroughsporocyst,r
ediaandcer car i
a.
 Wheni tl eavest hesnai l
,thecercar
iagetsency stedonv egetat
ionandbecomes
met acercaria.
 Thisisswal lowedbyt hepr i
maryhostwi t
hgrass.
 They oungf lukemi gr atesintotheli
verthr
oughbl oodvessel swhenitmat ur
es.
Cont
rolofLi
verFl
uke
 Keepl i
vest
ockof fmarshyareasneartheriver
s/st
reams/l
akesanddams.
 Drenchaf f
ect
edani mals.
 Drainageofswampyar eas.
 Eradicat
etheintermediatehostbyuseofmol l
usci
cides.
 Providewatertoliv
estockinelevat
edtroughs.
Tapewor
ms
 Therearemanyspeci
esoft
apewor
ms
Eex
ampl
e;
 Taeniasol
i
um
 Taeni
asagi
nat
a.
Theadul
tsl
i
veinthesmal
lint
esti
nesofman( t
hepri
maryhost
).
 Theinter
medi ehostofTaeni
at asol
ium ispig.
 Theinter
medi ehostofTaeni
at asaginat sc
ai at
tl
e.
Li
feCycl
eofTapewor
m
 Adulttapewor msl i
vei nman' sintesti
neswher eitl
ayseggs.
 Eggsar epassedoutwi t
hf aeces,
 Thent heydev elopanout ercov eringknownaso nchospher e.
 Theeggsar eswal l
owedbyi ntermediatehost.
 Theout ercover i
ngisdi gestedandt hey oungwor m emerges.
 Thisbor esintot hebloodv esselsandi scarr
iedtospecifi
cmusclessuchast he
tongue, hear
t,thighmuscl es.
 I
tdev elopsintoanency stedf orm calledb l
adder -
wor m.
 Whent heanimali ski ll
edandmeati seatenraw orinani nadequat
elycooked
form,manget sinfectedbyt hebladder ¬-worm.
 I
nman,t hebladder-wor m ev aginatesandat tachesit
sel
fontot heint
esti
nalwal
l
wherei tdevel
opsi ntoanadul t
.
Cont
rolofTapewor
ms
 Meatshouldbewellcookedbeforeeati
ng.
 Useofdrugsinpri
maryhost.
 Meati
nspecti
onbymeati nspectors/v
eter
inar
yof
fi
cer
s.
 Useofpitl
atr
inesbyman.

Nemat
odes(
Roundwor
ms)
Commononesare;
 Ascar
issuum (
pigroundworms) ,
 Ascar
islumbri
coi
desf oundinmanandsheep
 Haemonchuscontortusfoundinsheep,cat
tl
eandgoats.
 Roundwormsarecommoni nwarm areasespeci
all
yinar
easwher
ethe
st
andardsofhygi
eneandsani t
ati
onarelow.
Nat
ureofDamage
 Damagei sdonetot
heli
verandl
ungt
issuesast
heymi
grat
eint
hebody
.
 Suckoutblood.
 Depri
vethehostoff
ood.
Cont
rolofRoundwor
ms
  Useofdrugs.
 Rotat
ional
grazi
ng.
 Useofproperst
ocki
ngrat
estoavoi
dov er
graz
ing.
 Pract
ici
nghighst
andar
dsofcl
eanli
nessandhygienesuchasuseofl
atr
ines.

Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
i I(
onI Nut
ri
ti
on)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Ani
mal sarefedforthepur
poseofpr oductionandbodymaint
enance.
 Theediblemateri
algivent
oanimalsiscalledfood.
 I
tisdigested,
absorbedand·uti
l
izedinthebody .
 Nutr
ientsareorgani
candinorganicsubstancescontai
nedi
nthefoodmat
eri
als.

Component
sofFoodmat
eri
al
 wat
er,
 pr
otei
n,
 car
bohy
drat
es,
 f
atsandoi
l
s,
 v
itami
ns
 mi
ner
alsal
ts.

Wat
er
Sour
ces
 Freewat
er(throughdri
nking)
 Boundwater(contai
nedinfeeds).
 Metabol
i
cwat er(obt
ainedfrom oxi
dat
ionoff
ood)
.
Funct
ions
 Regulatesbodyt emperat
ure.
 Transportagentinthebody.
 Uni v
ersalsol
ventinthebody .
 Givesshapetot hecell
s(tur
gidi
ty)
.
 Actsasal ubri
cant.
 Actsasconst i
tuentofbodyflui
ds.
Fact
orsDet
ermi
ningt
heRequi
rement
sofWat
erbyLi
vest
ock
 Product
ionl
evel
.
 Amountofdrymattereat
en.
 Temperatur
eofthesurr
oundi
ngar
ea.
  Ty
peofanimal
.
 Ty
peoffoodeat
en.
Pr
otei
n
Sour
ces:
 Gr
oundnutcakes,
 cot
tonseedcakes,
f
ishmeal
,
 meatmeal
.
Funct
ions:
 Growthofnewt i
ssues.
 Repairofwor
noutt i
ssues(bodybui
ldi
ng)
.
 Synthesi
sofanti
bodies.
 Synthesi
sofhormonesandenz ymes.
 Producti
onofenergyduri
ngstarv
ati
on.
Di
gest
ionofPr
otei
ns
I
nnon-
rumi
nant
s,pr
otei
ndi
gest
iont
akespl
acedi
nthest
omach.
 Foodissubj
ect
edtomechani
cal
breakdownthr
oughchewi
ngintosmall
parti
cl
es.
 Prot
eini
sactedonbyenzymestoturnint
oaminoaci
dwhichisassi
milat
edint
o
thebl
oodstr
eam.
I
nrumi
nant
s,pr
otei
ndi
gest
ioni
nit
ial
l
ytakespl
acei
nther
umen.
 Foodi sactedonbymicro-
organismsint
omi crobial
prot
ein.
 Later,enzymati
cacti
ontakesplaceinthe"tr
uest omach"orabomasum where
proteinsarebrokendownintoami noacidswhi charethenassi
mil
atedi
ntot
he
bl
oodst ream.

Car
bohydr
ates
Sour
ces:
 Cer
eal
s,
t
uber
s
 commer
cial
l
ymi
xedf
eeds.
Funct
ions:
 Supplyener
gyandheatt
othebody.
 Excessisst
oredi
nfor
m off
atfori
nsul
ati
onoft
hebody
.
Di
gest
ionofCar
bohydr
ates
 I
nnon-ruminants;
 carbohydratef
eedsarebrokendownbychewi ngint
osmallpart
icles.
 Then enzy mati
c acti
on f
urtherbreaks down car
bohydr
ates into gl
ucose,
fr
uctoseandgal act
osewhicharethenassimil
atedi
ntot
hebloodst r
eam.
 I
nruminants;
  mechanicalbreakdown ofcar bohydr
atef eeds i
sf ol
lowed by mi
crobial
acti
vi
ti
eswhichbr eakdowncel
lulosei
ntovolati
l
efatt
yacids.
 Theseareabsorbedthrought
her umenwalls.
 Some carbohydrates ar
e br
oken down byenz ymati
c act
ion i
nthe "t
rue
stomach"orabomasum.

Fat
sandOil
s
Sour
ces:
 Cottonseeds,
 soyabeans
 groundnuts.
Funct
ions:
 Supplyenergyandheattothebody.
 Excessisstoredasfatadi
poseti
ssues.
 Sourceofmet abol
icwateri
nthebody .
 Requir
edfort hedevel
opmentofneuralsy
stem.
 I
nsulatori
nt hebody.
Di
gest
ionofl
i
pidsi
nRumi
nant
s
 Fatsarehydrol
ysedintherumenintof
attyaci
dsandgl
ycer
ol.
 Othersarefermentedint
opropi
onicaci
d,
 Theshor t
erchainsarepassedt
ot hetr
uestomachwhereenzymat
icact
iont
akes
place.
Vi
tamins
Sources:
 Gr
eenmat
eri
als,
 dr
iedgr
ass
 f
ishl
i
veroi
l
.
Funct
ions:
 Prot
ectsthebodyagainstdi
seases.
 Regulat
ethefuncti
onsofallpar
tsofthebody
.
 I
tactsasaco- enz
ymei nthebody.
Ex
ampl
es:
 Vi
tami
nA,
 vi
tami
nB2
 vi
tami
nC,
 vi
tami
nE
 vi
tami
nK.

Mi
ner
als
Sour
ces:
 Sal
tli
cks,
  bonemeal
,
 l
egumes
 cer
eal
s.
Funct
ions:
 Form partoftheti
ssuessuchasbonesandt
eet
h.
 Worktogetherwi t
htheenz y
mes.
 Actasaci d-basebalances.
 Actaselectr
olyteint
hebody .
 Regul
ateosmot icbalanceinthebody
.
Exampl
es:
 Calcium,
 phosphor us,
 magnesi um,
 i
ron,
 i
odine,
 sodium
 chl
or ine.

 Cal
cium andphosphor
us-
 Neededf
orteet
handbonefor
mati
on.
 Lackoft
heseminer
alsl or
eadst i
ckets,
ost
eomal
aci
a.
 Lackofi
ronl
eadstoanaemia.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofAni
malFeeds
Thi
sisbasedonnut
ri
entcomposi
ti
on:
 Roughages.
 Concent
rates.
 Feedaddit
ives.

Roughages
 Ar
efeedsofl
owav
ail
abl
enut
ri
ent
speruni
twei
ghtandhi
ghf
ibr
econt
ent
.
Exampl
es:
 Dryroughages,
 succul
entroughages,
 resi
duesfrom agr
icul
tur
albypr
oduct
sandconser
vedmat
eri
als.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs
 Lowlev
elofavail
ablenutri
ent
s.
 Havehi
ghlevelofcalci
um especi
al
lyl
egumes.
 Goodsour
ceofv i
tami nA.
 Havehi
ghfibr
econt ent.
Concent
rat
es
 Ar
efeedsofhi
ghav
ail
abl
enut
ri
ent
speruni
twei
ght
.
 Exampl
es:
 Maizeger m andbr
an,
 maltextract
,
 mil
kpr oducts,
 soyabeans,
 oi
lseedcakes,
 meatmeal ,
 bonemeal
 bl
oodmeal .
Char
act
eri
sti
cs
 Lowfibrecontent
.
 Feedcontentisconsist
entl
yhigh.
 Highdigest
ibi
li
tyofthefeed.
 Highi
nnut r
ientcontent
.
FeedAddi
ti
ves
Thesear
esubst
ancesaddedt
othef
eedt
oincr
ease;
 pal
atabili
ty,
 medication
 orhormonest omakeani mal sproducemor e.
Ther
earetwot ypes:
 Nutri
ti
veaddi ti
ves,suchasmi neral
licks(macl
i
ck)
.
 Non-nutrit
ivesadditi
ves,suchas;
 medi cants(coccidi
ostat
s),
 Sti
lboest r
ol(usedinbeefani mals)
 oxytocin(toincreasemilkletdown) .
Funct
ions
 St
imulat
egr owthandproduct
ion.
 Improvefeedeffi
ci
ency.
 Pr
eventdiseasecausi
ngorganisms.
CompoundedFeeds
 Thesearethefeedspr
epar
edandmixedbyuseofmachi
nes.
 Thesefeedscanberound,
pel
l
eted,
penci
ls,
cubesormash.
Poul
tr
yfeedscanbecat
egor
izedas:
 Chickmashhavi
ng20%D.C.
P.gi
ventochi
cks.
 Growersmashhavi
ng16%D.C.
P.gi
ventogrowers.
 Layersmashhav
ing12-
15%D.C.
P.gi
ventolayer
s.
Meani
ngoft
ermsusedt
oexpr
essf
eedv
alues
 Nut
ri
ti
ver
ati
o(NR)
:
I
sthepr
opor
ti
onofpr
otei
ntocar
bohy
drat
esandf
ats.
I
nyoungani
mal
s1:
3:6
I
nol
dani
mal
s1:
8.
 Cr
udepr
otei
n(C.
P):
Ist
het
otal
amountofpr
otei
ncont
ainedi
naf
eed.
  Digest
ibl
eCr udePr otei
n( D.
C.P)
:Ist
hepor
ti
onofcr
udepr
otei
nwhi
chan
ani
mali
scapableofdi
gesti
ng.
 Cr
udeFi
bre(
C.F.
):
I sthetotalamountoff i
brecontai
nedi nafeed.
I tismainlyli
gni
nandcel l
ulose.
 Digest i
bleFi bre(D.F.
) :I
sthepor t
ionofthetotalf
ibr
econt ai
nedinaf eed
whichanani mal i
scapableofdigesti
ng.
 DryMat ter(D.M. )
:Isthemat eri
all
eftinafeedafterwaterhasbeenr emov ed.
 Star chequi valent(S.
E. ):I
stheamountofpur estar
chwhi chhasthesame
energyas100kgoft hatfeed.
 TotalDi gest i
bleNut rients( T.
D. N.)
:Isthesum ofal lthedigest
ibleorgani
c
nutr
ientssuchasf at
s,protei
ns,carbohydrat
esandf i
bre.
Computat
ionofLi
vest
ockRat
ions
 Rati
on:
Ist
heamountoff
oodt
hatwi
l
lpr
ovi
deessent
ial
nut
ri
ent
stoanani
mal
ina24
hourper
iod
t
oenabl
ethatani
mal
tomeeti
tsmai
ntenanceandpr
oduct
ionr
equi
rement
s.
 Bal
ancedr
ati
on:
 I
stherat
ionthatcont
ainsal
ltheessent
ial
nut
ri
ent
sinr
equi
redamount
s
andi
ntheri
ghtproport
ion.
 Mai
ntenancer
ati
on:
i
stheporti
onofaf
eedrequi
redbyanani
malt
ocont
inuewi
tht
hev
italbody
pr
ocesseswit
hnol
ossorgai
ninwei
ght
.
 Pr
oduct
ionr
ati
on:
 Ist
hefeedrequi
redbyani
malsov
erandabovemaint
enancerati
ontoenabl
e
t
heani
mal t
oproduce;
forexample;mil
k,eggs,wool
,gr
ow insi
ze,per
form work,repr
oduceand
f
att
en.

St
epsi
nrat
ionf
ormul
ati
on
 Fi
ndingoutt
heani
mal'sfeedrequir
ementbasedonbodyweight.
 Li
stallt
heavai
l
abl
efeeds,wit
ht hei
rnutri
entcomposi
ti
onandthei
rpri
ces.
 Cal
culat
etheamountofi
ngredientsrequi
redint
herat
iont
omeett heani
malsneeds.

Met
hodsusedi
nrat
ionf
ormul
ati
on
 Tri
alander r
ormet hod
 Pearson’ssquaremethod
 Graphicalmethod
 Li
nearpr ogr
ammi ng(useofcomput
ers)
Exampl
es;
MixaPigsr
ati
on22%pr
otei
nusi
ngsoy
abeanmeal
40%DCPandmai
zemeal
cont
aini
ng8%DCP.
Soy
abeanmeal (
14*
100)
=43.
75kg
32

Mai
zemeal(
18*
100=56.
25k
g
32

Di
gest
ionanddi
gest
ivesyst
ems
 Di
gest
ionist
heprocessthroughwhichfoodi
sbrokendownintosmal
lpar
ti
cl
es
i
ntheali
mentar
ycanalreadyforabsor
ptioni
ntot
hebloodst
ream.

Di
gest
ionoff
oodi
nli
vest
ockt
akespl
acei
nthr
eest
ages;
 Mechanical
breakdownandchewing
 Micr
obialbr
eakdownbybacter
iaandpr
otoz
oai
nther
umenofr
umi
nant
s
 Chemicalbr
eakdownbyenzymes.
Rumen-
 Breakdownoff oodbymi cr
o-organi
smsandalsostor
esf
ood.
 Synthesi
sofv i
taminB-complex.
 Synthesi
sofami noacidsfr
om ammoni agas.
 Protei
nsarebrokentopeptidesandami noaci
ds.
 Carbohydrat
esar ebr
okentov olat
il
efat
tyaci
ds.
Ret
icul
um:
 Separat
esl
argefoodpart
icl
esf
rom thesmallpar
ti
cl
es.
 Retai
nsfor
eignmater
ial
ssuchasstones,har
dwoodandsand.
Omasum:
 Breaksupf
oodbygri
ndi
ng.
 Reducti
onofwat
ercont
entf
rom t
hef
eedst
uff
.
Abomasum:
 Enzymati
cdigest
iontakespl
acehere..
 Contai
nssomemi crobeswhichdi
gestcel
l
ulose.
 Breaksupfoodbygrindi
ng.
 I
tisalsofoundi
nnon¬- r
uminant
s.
Compari
sonBetweenDi
gest
ioni
nRumi
nantandNon-
rumi
nants
 Di
ffer
ences
Rumi
nant
s Non-
rumi
nant
s  ,
 l Chewt
hecud.  l
 Donotchewt
hecud. 
. .
 2 Hav efourstomachchamber s-
thus  2
 Hav eonest omachchamber 
.
 pol
ygast r
ic. .
 -thusmonogast ric. 
 3 Regur gi
tatefood.  3
 Cannotr egurgitatef oodonce 
.
 4 Candi gestcellulose.Hav e .
 swallowed. 
.
  micro-organismsi nt her umen  4
 Hav enomi cr o-organisms 
  thatdigestcellulose. .
 i
nt hest omachhencecannot 
 5.Hav enoPt yalininsal i
vahence   di gestcel l
uloseex ceptthose 
  noenz ymat icdigestioninthemout h.
  ani mal swi t
hmi cr
o-organisms 
 6  Mostdi gestionandabsor pti
ontakes i
nt hecaecum. 
.   pl aceinther umen.  5
 Hav ePt yali
ni nt hesal i
vahence 
 7  Hav ealkal
inesal i
v aduetopr .
esence enz ymat icdigest ionst art
sinthe
.   ofammoni a.  mo
6 uth
 Mostdi gesti
onandabsor pti
on
  .
 t
iak
nt ee
hss
pma
lace
llintestines. 
   7
 Thesal ivaisneut ralpH. 
.
Funct
ionsoft
hePar
tsofPoul
tr
y
 Cr
op:
 Stor
ageoffood.
 Soft
eni
ngoffoodbysecr
eti
onsfrom smallgl
andsi
nthewall
s.
 Proventri
culus:Enz
ymesstartt
hebreakdownoffood.
 Gizzard:
-Cr
ushesandgri
ndsthecoarsefood(hassmal
lgr
itandgr
avel
).

Compar
isonBet
weenDi
gest
ionI
nRumi
nant
sandNon-
Rumi
nant
s

Si
mil
ari
ti
esBet
weenDi
gest
ionI
nRumi
nant
sandNon-
Rumi
nant
s
 Digesti
oniny oungr uminant
si ssi
mi l
artothati
nnon- ruminant
sast heydonot
haveadev elopedrumen- r
eti
culum complex.
 Fi
nal prot
eindigest
iontakesplaceinthesmalli
ntest
inesinbothcases.
 Wat erabsorpt
iontakesplaceinthecoloninbot
hr uminantsandnon¬ruminant
s

LivestockPr
oducti
onII
I…
(Selecti
onandBreedi
ng)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
  Thebreedingofanimalsisunderhumancont rol
,andthebreedersdeci
dewhich
i
ndivi
dualsshall
producethenex tgener
ati
on.
 Thebreedermakesachoi ce.
 Thebreedingofanimalsisbasedupont hefactt
hatcert
ainquali
ti
esaregeneti
c
,hencevaluabl
equali
ti
esar epassedonf r
om parent
stooff-spri
ngs.
 Thequali
tiescanbemai ntai
nedorimprovedinthenextgenerati
on.
Theper
for
manceofanani
mal
isi
nfl
uencedbyt
womaj
orf
act
ors;
 Geneticpotent
ial
 Theenv i
ronment ,whi chincludes:
 Feedi ng,
 Heal t
h,
 Car e
 Theecol ogicalcondi t
ions.
 Thegenet i
cpot ent
ial ofanani mali
sinheri
tedfrom it
sparents.
 Inselect
ionandbr eedingani malswithsuperiorcharact
eri
sticsareselect
edand
all
owedt omat e.
 Intheprocesst heytransmi tthesuperi
orcharacteri
sti
cstotheirof
fspr
ing.
 Whent hisisdoneov eralongper i
odoftime,itresul
tsinl
ivestocki
mpr ovement
.
Repr
oduct
ionandRepr
oduct
iveSyst
ems
 Repr oductionisthepr ocessbywhi chof f-spri
ngsar epr oduced.
 Allfarm animalsmul ti
plybymeansofsex ual r
eproduction.
 Itbegi nswi t
hf ertil
i
zationwhi chi st hef usionofmal eandf emalegametesto
form az ygote.
 Fertil
izat
iontakespl acei nternall
yi nthebodyoft hef emal e.
 Theembr yo(
zygot e)formeddev elopsi nsidebodyofmot her,fedandprotect
ed
untilendofgest ationper iod.
 Inpoul tr
y,theprocessi sdi f
ferentint hateggsar ef ert
il
izedi nter
nall
ybutl
aidand
developmentoft hechi ckt akespl aceout sideduringincubat i
on.
 In both mal eand f emal e,cer tain organsar especi ali
z ed fortheprocessof
reproduction.
 Someoft heseor ganssecr etf l
uidswhi char enecessar yf orthemov ementand
survivalofthegamet es(reproduct ivecells.)

Repr
oduct
ioni
nCat
tl
e
 Themal
erepr
oduct
iveor
ganspr
oducet
hemal
egamet
es,
thesper
mat
ozoans.
 Thesear
eint
roducedi
ntof
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem,
wher
etheyf
usewi
tht
he
sper
mtof
ormz
ygot
e.
 Thet
est
is:
 Therearetwot esteshangi
ngl ooselybet
weenhi ndlegs.
 Enclosedbylooseskin(scrotum)scrotum r
egulatetemperatur
eoftest
isf
or
optimum productionofsperms.
 Producespermat ozoa(
sperms) whicharestor
edi ncoil
edtubecal
led
epidi
dymis.
 Epi
didymi s:Storageofspermat ozoa.
 Sper
m duct
s:
 Convey
ssper
mf r
om thetest
isandur
inet
hroughthepenis.
 sphi
nct
ermuscl
escontr
acttoall
oweachtopassseparet
ly.
 Seminalvesi
clespr
oducefl
uidcal
ledsemem.
 semencar
ri
essper
msoutofpenisi
nflui
dfor
m.

 Prostategl and-producefl
uidt
hatneut
ral
i
zetheaci
diceffect
sofuri
neinthe
ur
ethrapreventi
ngdeathofsperms.
 Accessor ygl ands:Incl
udeseminal
vesi
cl
escowpersglandandprostat
egland.
 Urethra:Conveysurineandsemen.
 Peni
s:
 Surr
oundedbyasheat hwhichisanext
ensi
onofskin.
 I
tint
roducessper
msi ntothevagi
naofacowt hr
oughthev
ulv
adur
ingmat
ing.
 I
tisacopulat
oryorgan,al
sousedforur
inat
ion.
Ovar
iesandf
all
opi
ant
ubes(
ovi
duct
)
 Twoov ariesl ocatedinabdomen, lef
tandr i
ght.
 Produceov a/eggsandhor moneswhi chcont r
olsex ualcy cl
e.
 Oest r
ogenpr oducedbygr aafi
anf oll
icleinsi
deov aryinducesoestrus
 i
e.Heatper i
odsot hatthecowshowssi gnsofheat
 Afterev ery21day stheov aryreleasesamat ureov um andt hecowcomeson
heat .
 Theov um t ravel
st hroughthefallopi
ant ubestot heut erus.
 Ther eleaseandmov ementoft heov um downt ot heut erusi edo
scal
l vulati
on.
 Ifmat i
ngi sdoneatt histi
me, ferti
li
zationwillt
akepl ace.
 Thef ertil
i
z edeggi mplant
si t
selfontot heendomet rium( wall
sofuter
us)and
dev el
opsi nt ofoetus.

Fal
l
opi
ant
ubes:
 Fert
il
iz
ati
ontakespl
aceher
e.
 Alsoapassagefort
heeggfr
om t
heov
aryt
otheut
erus.
Theut
erus:
 Embryodevel
opshere.
 Thecervi
x:Cl
osest
heuter
us.
Thevagi
naandVul
va:
 Vul
vaistheext
ernalopeni
ngoffemalereproduct
ivesy
stem.
 I
tall
owsmat i
ngtotakeplacesothatsper
msar edeposit
edi
ntot
hev
agi
na.
 Thefoet
usandurineareremovedthroughthevul
va.

Pr
egnancy
 I
speri
odbet
weenf
ert
il
iz
ati
onofov
aandt
heex
pul
si
onoft
hef
oet
ust
hrought
he
v
ulv
a.
  Al edg
socal
l est
ati
onper
iod.
 I
ncat t
legestati
onper iodis270-285days.
 Endswi t
ht hebirt
hofacal f.
 Thereproductivetractundergoesaperi
odofrestduri
ngwhi chi
tisr
epai
redand
ret
urnstonor mal.
 Duri
ngpr egnancy ,
hor monecalledprogester
onei sproducedbythepl
acent
ato
maintai
nt hefoetusint heut
erus.

Par
tur
it
ion(
givi
ngbi
rt
h)
 Actofgi
vi
ngbir
thcal
ledpart
uri
ti
on.
 Thi
stimethef
oetusexpel
l
edthrought
hebi
rt
hcanal
.

Whenanani
mali
saboutt
ogi
vebi
rt
h,tshowss
i i
gns;
-
 Di stendedudderwhi chpr oducest hi
ckmi l
kyf l
uidcal
ledcol
ost
rums.
 Swol l
env ulv
apr oducingthickmucus.
 Looseandsl ackenedpel vicgirdl
e.
 Vi sibl
epi nbones.
 Gener alrestlessness.
 Animal par t
ur at
eswi t
hin2-3hour safterthissigns.
 Thecor rectpr esent at
ioniswi t
ht hefrontfeetfirst,
andtheheadoutst
ret
chedand
rest
ingi nbet weent hefee.
 Anyot herpr esent ati
oncal edma
l l
-pr
esent ationorbr eechpr esentati
on
andr equiresassi stance.

Repr
oduct
ioni
nPoul
tr
y
 Thecockhasnopeni sbutasmal lopeningneartheventt
hroughwhi chsper
ms
areemitt
ed.
 Cockhast est
eswithinthebody.
 Thehenhasel ongatedoviductf
orformati
onofanegg.
 Fert
il
iz
ati
onoccur sint
ernall
y.
 Duri
ngmat i
ngthecloacaoft hehenandt heventoft
hecockf iti
ntoeachother
andthensemeni spouredi nt
othecloaca,t
hensuckedtotheoviduct
s.
TheRepr
oduct
iveSyst
em ofaHen
Ovar
y
 Henhastwoov ariesbutonefunctional
.
 Ovaformedinov ari
es.
 3500-
4000ov apr esentinsi
deovaryheldbyfol
l
icl
e.
 Matureovum releasedv i
araptur
eoff ol
li
cl
e.
 Itmovesi
ntoov iductreceiv
edbyt hefunnel
.
Funnel
(i
nfundi
bul
um)
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ionoccurshere.
 Chal
azaealsoaddedtoyolk
.
 Ti
mehereis15mi nutes.
 I
tis11.
6cm long.
Magnum
 Thickalbumenisadded.
 Staysfor3hr
s.i
ts33cm l
ong.
I
sthmus
 I
ts10.6cm l
ong.
 Shell
membr anesadded.
 Deter
minesshapeofegg.
 Water,mi
neralsal
tsandvi
tami
nsadded.
 Takes15minutes.
Ut
erus(
shel
lgl
and)
 Cal
ci
um deposi
ted9i
e.
shel
laddedar
oundt
heegg.
 Pi
gment
sadded.
  Addit
ionofal
buminf
ini
shed.
 Stay
sherefor18-
22hour
s.
Vagi
na
 Shor
t,6.
9cm l
ong.
 Fort
emporalst
orageofeggbef
orel
ayi
ng
Cl
oaca
 Eggmovesoutofcl
oacathr
oughthevent
.
 Thecl
oacaext
entsoutt
opreventt
heeggfrom br
eaki
ng.
NB;
 Eggfor
mati
onnotdependedonfert
il
iz
ati
on.
 Eggfor
mati
ontakes24-
26hour
s.
 Thecomponent
sofeggareobtai
nedfrom bodyr
eser
vesoft
hehensbody
.

Sel
ect
ionofaBr
eedi
ngSt
ock
 Selectioni susedasat ool forli
v est ocki mpr ov ement .
 Abr eedi ngst ocki sagr oupofmal esandf emal eswhi chactaspar entsoff uture
gener ations.
 Selectioni st hepr ocessofal lowi ngcer t
ainani mal st obepar entsoff uture
gener ationswhi l
ecul li
ngot hers.
 Culli
ngi st her emov alofani mal swhi chdonotper formt othedesi r
edlev el,from
theher d.
 Theani mal sr etainedhav ecer t aindesi r
abl echar acteri
sti
cswhi chmaket hem
producemor e.
 Selectedani mal smakeupt hebr eedi ngstock.
 Thebr eedi ngst ockshoul dpasst hegoodqual iti
est ot hei
roffspr i
ngsf orbet t
er
performance, toi mpr ov ethel iv
est ock.
 Selectionpr ocessr epeat edf ormanygener ationsi ncreaseschancesoff ormat ion
ofdesi rablequal it
iesi nanani mal .
 Genet icall
yt er med as gene f requency (occur rence oft he genes t hatcar r
y
desirablechar acteri
stics.)
 Selectioni ncr easesoccur renceofdesi r
ablegenesanddecr easesoccur anceof
undesi rablegenes.
 Dur i
ngsel ection,t hechar acterist i
cst obesel ectedf orar efi
rststudiedcl osel yto
ascer t
aint hati tisnoti nfluencedbyt heenv i
ronment ,butmai nlybyt hegenet i
c
make- up.
 Selectionhel psi mpr ov echar act eristicswhi char ehighl yheri
table.
 Her i
tabilit
ymeanst hel i
kel i
hoodofapar ticulart rai
tt obet ransmittedt ot he
offspringandt heyar est r
ongl yinher ited.
 Achar acterl i
kemi l
ky ieldisl owl yher it
able,i.e.iti
sweakl yinherit
edandabi gger
percent ageoft hechar act erisaf fect edbyt heenv i
ronment .

The degr
ee to whi
ch sel
ect
ion af
fect
s a char
act
erdepends on t
he
fol
l
owingfact
ors;
 Theheri
tabi
lit
yofthecharact
er
 Thei
ntensit
ywi thwhi
chtheselecti
oni
sdone
 Thei
ntervalbetweengenerat
ionsandki
ndofsel
ect
ionbei
ngpr
act
iced.
Fact
orsToConsi
derWhenSel
ect
ingABr
eedi
ngSt
ock.
 Age
 Levelofper formance
 Physi
cal Fitness
 Healt
h
 BodyConf ormat i
on
 Temper amentorBehav i
our
 Quali
tyofpr oducts
 MotheringAbi l
i
ty
 Adaptabil
ity
 Prol
if
eration

 Age
 Youngani mals,
 Thosethathav enotparturatedformorethan3-t
imes,shoul
dbesel
ect
ed.
 Theyhav ealongerproduct i
veli
fe.
 Oldanimalsar epoorbreedersandlowpr oducer
s.
 Product
ionandbr eedingeffi
ciencydecl
inewithage.
 Level
ofper
for
mance
 Ani
malswi
thhi
ghestproduct
ionlevelsel
ect
ed.
 Per
for
mancebesti
ndicat
edbyr ecords.
Goodper
for
manceofani
mali
ndi
cat
edby;
 Highmi lk,
wool andeggproduct
ion,
 Goodmot heringabi
l
ity
 Highpr epotencywhichist
heabili
tyofaparentt
opassgoodqual
i
tiest
othei
r
offspr
ings.
 Theani malswi t
hpoorperf
ormanceshouldbecull
ed.
 Goodr ecordskeptandusedbythef ar
merforthi
spurpose.
 Physi
cal
Fit
ness
Ani
malsselectedshouldbefreefrom anyphy
sical
def
ect
e.
g.
 mono- eyed,
 limping,
 irregularnumberofteats,
 scr otalherni
a,
 def ecti
veandweakbackl i
ne

 Heal
th
 Si
ckanimalsdonotbreedwellandareexpensi
vetokeep.
 Ani
malsthatarer esi
stantt
odi seasespasst hesechar
act
eri
sti
cst
othei
r
of
fspr
ings

 BodyConf
ormat
ion
 Animalsforbr
eedi
ngtobesel
ectedaccor
dingt
oproperbody
conformati
on.
 Adairycowshouldbewedge-
shapedwithalar
geudder,
thi
n
l
egs, l
ongneck.
  Temper
amentorBehavi
our
 Ani
malswit
hbadbehav i
orsshoul
dbeculled.eg
 Canni
bal
i
sm, eggeat
ing,
aggressi
veness,
kicking

 Qual
i
tyofpr
oduct
s
 Sel
ectani
mal
sthatgi
vepr
oduct
sofhi
ghqual
i
ty.
 Mot
her
ingAbi
l
ity
 Animal
sselect
edshouldhaveagoodmot her
ingabil
it
y,
 Thati
sanimalswithgoodnat
ural
inst
inctt
owardsthei
ryoung
ones.
 Thiswi
llenabl
ethem t
oreart
heyoungonesupt oweaning.

 Adaptabi l
it
y
 Animalsselectedshouldbewel ladaptedtothepr
evail
i
ng
cl
imaticconditi
oni nthearea.
 Pr
olif
icacy
 Animalsselectedshouldbehi ghl
yprolif
ic.
 Thatis,animalswiththeabili
tytogiv
ebi rt
htomany
off
springsatat i
me( l
argerli
tt
er).
 Thisi
saqual i
tythatshouldbeconsideredwhenselect
ing
pi
gsandr abbi
ts.

Sel
ect
ioni
ncat
tl
e,andsheep,
Sel
ect
ioni
ncat
tl
e
Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ng;
 LevelOfPer formanceWhi chIncl
ude;
 Mi l
kYi el
dBut erContent.
 Lengt hOfLact ati
onPer i
od.
 Cal v
ingI nterv
als.
 AgeOfTheAni mal,
 Fer
til
i
ty,
 Physi
cal Fit
ness,
 Healt
hOfTheAni mal,
 BodyConf ormat i
on,
 Sui
tabil
it
yOfTheEnt erpri
se-Mil
kOrBeef

Sel
ect
ioni
nsheep
Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ng;
 Level ofper formancewhi chi
ncl
udes;
 Mot her ingabili
ty
 Gr owt hr ate
 Wool qual it
y
 Car cassqual i
ty
 Twi ningr ate
 Age
 Suitabil
ityt otheenterpr
ise-
woolormutt
on
 Flockingi nst i
nct
 Heal t
hoft heani mal
  Physi
calfi
tness
 I
nherit
abl
edef ect
s
 Fer
til
i
ty
 I
nherit
abl
edef ect
s.
 Fer
til
i
ty.

Sel
ect
ioni
nGoat
s
Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Fert
il
ity.
 Mother i
ngabili
ty.
 Growt hrat
e.
 Twiningrate
 Carcassquality
/dressi
ngpercent
age.
 Growt hrat
e.
 Suit
abili
tytotheenterpr
ise-mil
kormutt
on.
 Healt
hoft heanimal .
 Age.

Sel
ect
ioni
nPi
gs
 Considerthef oll
owing:
 Carcassqual ity
/dressi
ngpercent
age.
 Suit
abili
tytot heenterpr
ise(
baconorpor
k)
 Growthr at
e.
 Healt
hoft heani mal .
 Mother i
ngabi li
ty.
 Prol
if
icacy.
 Numberoft eats.
 Temper ament .
 Bodyf ormation.
 Age.
 Hereditydefects
Sel
ect
ioni
nCamel
s
 Heal
thoft
heani
mal
.
 Age.
 Temper ament.
 Foragingabi
li
ty.
 Fer
t i
l
ity.
 Levelofperf
ormance-
mil
k,meat
,furandt
ranspor
t.
Met
hodofSel
ect
ion
Thesei
ncl
ude:
 Ma sssel
ecti
on-Ani
mal
swit
hsuper
iorchar
acter
ist
icsar
esel
ect
edf
rom a
her
dandthenal
l
owedt
omateamongeachother
.
  Progenyt est
ing-assessi
ngonthebreedi
ngval
ueofanani
malonthebasi
sof
perf
ormanceofit
sof
fspri
ngs.
 Co ntemporarycompar i
son¬-compari
sonofper
for
mancebet
weenheif
ersof
thesameageandsexualmaturi
ty.
Br
eedi
ng
 Processofmati
ngselect
edmal
esandf
emal
est
opr
oduceof
fspr
ingwi
tht
he
desir
edchar
act
eri
sti
cs.

Reasons:
 Toexpandtheinherit
edpotent
ial
oft
heanimal
.
 Toimproveproducti
on.
 Toovercomepr oducti
onprobl
emscreat
edbyt
heenv
ironment
.
 Tosati
sfyconsumer stast
e.
 Foreconomicreasons.

Ter
msUsedi
nBr
eedi
ng
I
nher
it
ance
 Geneti
ct r
ansmi ssi
onofchar acter
isti
csfrom parentst
ooffspr
ings.
 Themechani sm ofi nherit
anceiscar r
ied byt hesexcells(gametes)and is
contr
oll
edbygenesf oundi nthechromosomes.
 Genesar ev eryti
nyunit sofinheri
tancecarryi
ngpar ti
cul
archaract
eri
sti
cs,such
ascolour,bodyshapeandamountofmi l
kproduct i
on.
 Chromosomesar egenet icmateri
alswhi chcarr
ygenes.
 Theyexistinpairspaternalandmat ernal
)inthenucleusfthebodycell
s.
 Theyareal waysconstantinnumber .

Domi
nantandRecessi
veChar
act
eri
sti
cs
 Adomi nantgeneisonethatsuppr essestheot
her
.
 Itproducesadomi nantcharacter
istic.
 Arecessivegeneisonethatissuppr essedbyt
heother
.
 I
tproducesar ecessi
vecharacteri
stic.

Hybr
idandHybr
idVi
gour
 Ah ybri
disanani
malwhi chistheproductofcr
ossi
ngani
malsoftwodi
ff
erent
breeds.
 Hy bridvigourorhet erosisisincreasedvi
gourandperf
ormancer
esul
ting
fr
om crossi
ngtwosuper
iorbreeds.
Epi
stasi
s
 Thisi
sthemaski
ngoftheef
fectofonegenebyanot
hergenewhi
chi
snon-
all
el
ic,
thati
ssi
tuat
edondi
ff
erentl
ocus.

Br
eedi
ngSyst
ems
I
nbr
eedi
ng
  Mat
ingofani
mal
swhi
char
erel
at Reasons:
ed.
 Toincr
easegeneti
cunifor
mi t
yinaher d.
 Usedtofi
xtherequi
redcharacter
ist
icsinnewbr
eeds.
 Toincr
easephenotypi
cuniformit
y.
 Togetprovensi
res.
Li
mit
ati
ons
 I
tcanbri
ngaboutl
ossofhybri
dv i
gour
.
 I
tmayleadt
odecli
neinfer
ti
li
ty.
 I
tmayleadt
ohighrat
eofpre-nat
almortal
i
ty.
Syst
emsofI
nbr
eedi
ng
 CloseBr eeding:matingbetweenver
ycl
oselyr
elat
edani
mals,f
orexamplesi
b-
matingandpar ent
ssib-mati
ng.
 Line Br eeding:mat ing ofdist
antl
yrel
ated ani
mal
st hathad a common
ancestorforexamplecousi
ns.
Out
breedi
ng
 Mat
ingofani
mal
swhi
char
enotr
elat
ed.

Reasons:
 Toi
ntroducenewgenesinanexist
ingbr
eedi
ngher
d.
 Toexploi
thet
erosi
sresul
ti
ngf
rom acrossbet
weentwobr
eeds.
 Todevelopanewbreedoragradeanimal
.
Li
mit
ati
ons
 Lackofuni
for
mi t
yinanimal
sthatresul
tfr
om outbr
eedi
ng.
 Desi
rabl
echaracter
ist
icsmaybelostduetov
ariati
on.

Syst
emsofOut
breedi
ng

 Cr
oss-
breedi
ng
Mat
ingofani
mal
sfr
om t
wodi
ff
erentpur
ebr
eeds.
 Out
-Cr
ossi
ng
Mat
ingofunr
elat
edani
mal
sfr
om t
hesamebr
eed.
 Upgr
adi
ng/
Gradi
ngup
Mat i
ngwher ethefemaleofacow gr
adestock(
local
s)i
smat
edwi
thapur
e
breedsi
re.
Theresul
tantanimali
sref
err
edt
oasahi ghgr
ade.

Mat
ingi
nLi
vest
ock

Mat
ingi
nCat
tl
e
 Heatsi
gnsoccurever
y21days.
 Theheatper
iodl
astfor18-
30hour
s¬onav
erage24hour
s.
  Cowshoul
dbeser
ved12-
18hour
saf
tershowi
ngt
hef
ir
stheatsi
gns.
HeatSi
gns
 Restl
essness.
 Mount i
ngonothersandwhenmount edonshest
andsst
il
l.
 Riseinbodytemperatur e.
 Dropinmilkproducti
oni nlactat
ingcows.
 Vulvaswell
sandbecomesr eddi
sh.
 Cl
earorslimymucusf r om thevulva.
 Bell
owingormooi ngfrequently.
Mat
ingi
nPi
gs
 Heatsi
gnsinpigsoccuraf
terev er
y21days.
 Theheatl
astsabout72hour s.
 Sowsorgil
tsshoul
dbeserv edin18-36hoursoft
heheatper
iod.
Si
gnsofHeat
 Restl
essness.
 Frequenturi
nat
ion.

 Swel
l
ingandr
eddeni
ngoft
hev
ulv
a.

 Cl
earorsli
mydischar
gefr
om thev
ulv
a.
 Fr
equentmountingonot
hers.
 I
trespondsver
ywellt
othe'r
idi
ngt
est
'.
Mat
ingi
nRabbi
ts
 Doesarer
eadyformati
ng6-7mont
hsofage.
 Heatsi
gnsoccurev
ery14days.
 Thedoeshoul
dbetakentot
hebuckandnotvi
cev
ersa.
Si
gnsofHeat
 Restl
essness.
 Frequenturinati
on.
 Swollenvulva.
 Thedoet hrowsher sel
font heside.
 Thedoer ubsher sel
fagainstthewalloranyothersoli
dobj
ect.
 Thedoet ri
est ocontactotherrabbi
tsinthenexthutchbypeepi
ng.

Met
hodsofSer
vicei
nLi
vest
ock
NaturalMati
ng
Advantages:
 I
tismoreaccurate.
 I
tisl
esslabor
ious.
 Usef
ulwhenheatsignsoff
emal
escannotbeeasi
l
ydet
ect
ed.
Di
sadvant
ages
  Inbreedi
ngisnoteasil
ycont rol
led.
 Transmi ssi
onofbreedi
ngdi seases.
 Extrafeedforthemaleisrequired.
 Largemal escaninj
uresmal lfemales.
 Wast ageofsemen.
 Iti
scumber someandex pensivetotranspor
tabul
ltor
emot
ear
eas.
Ar
ti
fi
ciali
nsemi
nat
ion
 I
ntr
oduct
ionofsemeni
ntot
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivet
ractbyar
ti
fi
ci
almeans.

Advant
ages
 Ther eiseconomi caluseofsemen.
 Itcontrolst ransmi ssionofbr eedingdi
seases.
 Siresthatar eunabl et oser v ecowsduet oheavywei
ghtorinjur
ycanproduce
sement oser vecows.
 Itpreventsl argebul lsf rom injuri
ngsmallcows.
 Itreducest heex pensesofkeepi ngamaleanimal.
 Asmal lscal efarmerwhocannotaf f
ordtobuyasuperi
orbullcanhav
ethecows
servedatal owcost .
 Semencanbest oredf orl
ong.
 Ithelpstocont rol i
nbr eeding.
 Iteli
minat est het hreatofkeepi ngdangerousbull
sfr
om t
hefarm.
 Itmakesr esearchwor keasi er.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Harmf ulcharacter
ist
icscanbespr
eadqui
cklybyonebul
ltot
heoffspr
ings.
 Itrequir
esski l
ledl
abour .
 Lowchanceofconcept i
onduet
odeathofsemenduri
ngstor
age.
 Iti
slaborious:
Embr
yoTr
anspl
ant
 I
tistheimplantati
onofanembr
yo( f
ert
il
iz
edov a)fr
om ahi
ghqual
i
tyf
emal
e
(
donor)i
ntheuterusofal
owgr
adefemale(r
eci
pient
).
Advant
ages
 Fastermult
ipl
i
cationofananimalwi
thsuperi
orchar acter
isti
cs.
 Iti
seasiert
otransportembry
osthanthewhol eanimal .
 Embr yoscanbest oredforalongper i
odawai t
ingt heav ai
l
abi
li
tybyreci
pient
females.
 Itsti
mulat
esmi l
kproducti
oninafemale(r
ecipient)thatwasnotr eadytopr
oduce
mi l
k.
 Lowgr adeani
mal scanbeusedinproduct
ionandr eari
ngofhi ghqual
it
yanimals.
 Offspri
ngsofasuperiorf
emalecanspreadquicklyinanar ea.
Di
sadvant
ages
 I
tisexpensi
ve.
 I
trequi
resski
ll
edper
sonnel
.
  I
trequi
resspeci
alequi
pmentf
orf
ert
il
iz
ati
onandst
orageofembr
yos.
Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ioni
nLi
vest
ock
 Par
tur
it
ioni
stheactofgi
vi
ngbi
rt
hinf
emal
eani
mal
s.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nCat
tl
e
 Thegest
ati
onper
iodi
ncat
tl
eis270-
285day
sav
eragi
ng280day
s.
Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ion
 Restlessness
 Enlargedorswol lenv ul
va.
 Clearmucusdi schargefrom thevul
va.
 Sl
ackeni ngofthepel vicmuscles.
 Fullanddi st
endedudder .
 Thickmi lkyfl
uidfrom theteats.
 Awat erbagappear sandbur stsj
ustbef
orecal
vi
ng.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nPi
gs
 Thegest
ati
onper
iodi
npi
gsi
sabout4mont
hsor3mont
hs,
3weeksand3day
s.
Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ion
 Restl
essness.
 Thev ul
vaturnsr
edandswell
s.
 Theudderbecomesf ullwi
thami l
kyfl
uidthesow st
art
stopr
epar
eanestby
col
lecti
ngsomebeddingsatonecomeroft
hepen.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nRabbi
ts
 Thegest
ati
onper
iodi
nrabbi
tsi
s28-
32day
s.
Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ion
 Prepar
inganestbyplucki
ngof
fhai
rfr
om herbel
l
y.
 Goesofffeedi
ng
 Restl
essness.
 Theudderdist
ends.

Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
ionI
V

(
Livest
ockRear
ingPr
act
ice)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Int
hemanagementofli
vest
ockther
ear
emanyact
ivi
ti
est
hatar
ecar
ri
edouton
ani
mal
stoenhanceproduct
ion.
 Theyr
equi
recar
einf
eedi
ng,
heal
th,
breedi
ng.
 Speci
fi
cmanagemental
soi
mpor
tanti
nbeeandf
ishf
armi
ng.
Rout
ingl
i
vest
ockr
ear
ingpr
act
ices.
 Ar
out
inei
saf
ixed/
regul
arwayofdoi
ngsomet
hing.
 doner
epeat
edl
yaf
teracer
tai
nper
iodoft
ime
Feedi
ngPr
act
ice
 Animal
sarefedtocaterf
orbot
hmaint
enanceandpr
oduct
ionr
equi
rements.
 Thesearespeci
altypesoffeedi
ngcarr
iedoutoncer
tai
nanimal
st ocaterf
or
speci
fi
cneeds.
Thesei
ncl
ude:
Fl
ushi
ng
 Thepract
iceofgi
vi
ngext
raqual
ityfeedtoananimal
aroundser
viceti
me.
 I
nsheepitisdone2-
3weeksbeforetuppingand3weeksaft
ert
upping.
 I
npigsiti
sdone3-4weeksbef
oreser v
ice.
I
mpor
tanceofFl
ushi
ng
 I
tincr
easesconcepti
onrates.
 I
tenhancesimplant
ati
onoft hez
ygote.
 I
nsheepitincr
easestwinni
ngpercentageby15-
20%.
St
eami
ngUp
 Gi
vi
ngextr
aquali
tyf
eedt
oananimalduri
ngt
hel
astweeksofgest
ati
on.
 I
ncatt
lei
tisdone6-
8weeksbef
orecal
vi
ng.
I
mpor
tanceSt
eami
ngUp
 I
tprov i
desnutr
ientsformaximum foetalgr
owt h.
 I
thelpsi nt
hebuildupofener gyf
orparturi
ti
on.
 I
tensur est
hebirthofahealthyani
mal.
 I
tpromot esgoodheal t
hofthemot her
.
 I
tincreasesandmai ntai
nshighmilkyi
eldafterbi
rth.
Cr
eepFeedi
ng
 Feedi
ngofyounganimalsfrom bi
rt
ht oweani
ng.
Pi
glet
s
 10daysol
d-introducedtocreeppel
lets.
 5weeksold-creeppell
etsmixedwit
hsowandweanermeal
s.
 8weeksold-weaning.
Lambs
 Runwitht
heirmother
sfornat
uralsuckl
ing.
 Bucks-i
ntr
oducedtosuccul
entfeedsandconcent
rat
es.
Ki
ds
 Meatgoat
skidssuckl
enatur
all
y.
 Dai
rygoat
s, f
edonmil
karti
fi
ci
all
y,
 Gi
ven0.5-
1.25li
tr
esuptothethi
rdweek.
 I
ntr
oducedtoconcent
rat
esat3-4months.
 Weanedat6-8weeksofage.
Par
asi
teandDi
seaseCont
rolPr
act
ices

Vacci
nat
ion
 Int
roduci ngact i
v ediseaseor gansmswhichar
ereducedi
nst
rengt
horv
irul
ent
int
otheani mals' bodytoinduceimmunity
.
Admi
nist
rat
ionofVacci nati
ondonet hrough:
 Byinjection.
 Orall
yt hrought hemout h.
 Byinhal ati
onthr oughthenose.
 Eyedr ops.
Dewor
ming
 Pract
iceofki
ll
i
ng/removi
ngint
ernalpar
asi
tesbyadmi
nist
eri
ngdr
ugsknownas
dewormers/anti
helmi
ti
cs.
HoofTr
immi
ng
 Cut
tingbackover
grownhoov
eswi
tht
hehel
pofahooft
ri
mmi
ngkni
fe,ahoof
cut
terorahoofr
asp.
I
mpor
tance
 Faci
l
itat
eeasymov ement .
 Cont
roloff
ootrotdisease.
 Faci
l
itat
emating-preventther
am f
rom i
njur
ingt
heewedur
ingt
uppi
ng.
Docki
ng/
tai
l
ing
 Thi
sist
her
emov
al(
cut
ti
ngof
t)oft
ail
sinsheepdur
ingt
hef
ir
stweekaf
terbi
rt
h.
I
mpor
tance
 Evendistr
ibuti
onofbodyfat.
 Faci
li
tateeasymat i
nginadultli
fe.
 Mini
mi sefouli
ngofthewoolwi t
hf aeces.
 Reduceincidencesofbl
owflyinfestat
ion.
Met
hodsofDocki
ng/
tai
l
ing
 Cut
ti
ngwit
hsharpknif
eorscal
pel
.
 Useofel
astr
atorandr
ubberri
ng.
Di
ppi
ngandSpr
ayi
ng
 Thesear emet
hodsofappl
yi
ngacar
ici
desont
heani
mal
stocont
rol
ext
ernal
parasi
tes.
Dust
ing
 I
tistheappl
icat
ionofchemi calpowdersont heani
malbodyoront
hewal
l
sof
t
heanimalhousetocontr
ol ext
ernalpar
asi
tes.
 I
tisusedt
ocontrolst
ick-
fastparasi
tesandfl
easinpoul
tr
y.
Br
eedi
ngPr
act
ices
Thesear
epr
act
icescar
ri
edoutt
oenhancesuccessf
ulbr
eedi
ng.
 Cr
utchi
ngandRi
ngi
ng
  Crutchi
ng -cutt
ing ofwoolaround t
heexter
nalrepr
oduct
iveor
gansof
femalesheep.
 Ringing-tri
mmingwoolar oundthesheat
hoft hepenisoftheramsto
faci
li
tat
emat i
ng.
 Tuppi
ngandSer
ving
 Tuppingrefer
stomatingi
nsheepandgoat
s.
 Serv
ingreferstomat
ingincat
tl
eandpi
gs.
 Raddl
i
ng
 Thi
si sthepracti
ceoffit
ti
ngtheramswithbreedi
ngchut
eswhichare
pai
ntedi
ndif
ferentcol
our
sduri
ngmati
ng
 toi
denti
fymatedewesandt oi
ndi
cat
etheact
iver
amshencehel
pincul
l
ing
oft
heweakrams.
I
dent
if
icat
ion
Thepr
acti
ceofput t
ingi denti
fi
cati
onmar ksonanimal.
 Brandi ng-bur ningmar ksont heanimalsski
n.
 Eart agging-pl acingmar kedplasti
cormetall
ict
agsont heanimalsears.
 Earnot chi
ng-cut t
ingdif
ferentshapesbeari
ngdif
fer
entv al
uesontheearlobes.
 Tat t
ooing-useofper manentinkordy etomarkanimalswithl
ightski
n.
 Neckst raporchai n-Fixingoftagsroundtheanimalsneckwithachainora
st
rap.
I
mpor
tance/purposeofIdent
if
icat
ion
 recordkeepi
ng
 Setti
ngdisput
esincaseanimalsgetmi
xedupi
nthepast
ure.

Debeaki
ng
 Cut
ti
ngabout1/
3oft
heupperbeakwi
thakni
fe,
sci
ssor
sorhoti
ron.

 I
mpor
tance
 Cont
rol
eggeati
ng.
 Cont
rol
canni
bal
ism.

Toot
hCl
i
ppi
ng
 Ther
emov
al(
cli
ppi
ng)oft
heneedl
e(cani
ne)t
eet
hinpi
glet
s24hour
saf
terbi
rt
h.
Cul
l
ing
 Remov
alofundesi
rabl
eani
mal
sfr
om aher
d.

Dehor
ning
 Remov
alofhor
nsorhor
nbudsf
rom anani
mal
.
I
mpor
tance
 I
tpr
event
sanimalsf
rom i
njur
ingeachother
.
 I
tmakestheani
maldoci
leandtheref
oreeasyt
ohandl
e.
  Foreasyt
ranspor
tat
ionandfeedi
ng.
 Prev
entsdest
ruct
ionoffar
m str
uctur
es.

Shear
ing
 Thepracti
ceofcutti
ngwool fr
om al
loverthebodyofasheep.
 I
tstart
sattheageof8mont hsandthendoneonceay ear
.
 Shouldbedonedur i
ngthedryseason.
 Toolsused:woolshear
s.
 Caremustbet akennottocuttheski
n,test
icl
es,
udder
,vul
vaandpeni
s.
Cast
rat
ion
 I
tist
her
ender
ingunser
viceabl
ethet
est
icl
esofamal
eani
mal
.
I
mpor
tance
 Tocontrol
breedi
ngdiseases.
 Tocontrol
breedi
ng.
 Forfast
ergrowthrat
es.
 I
ncreasequali
tyofmeatbyr emov
ingunpl
easantsmel
lespeci
all
yingoat
s.
Met
hodsUsed:
 Cl
osed/
bloodl
essmet
hod
 i
nvol
vesuseofburdi
zzoorr
ubberri
ngandel
astr
ator
.
 Ani
malsdonotbleedbutmaynotbe100%ef
fect
ive.
 Openmet
hod
 Asur gicalmethodusedforcast
rati
ngcocks,
pigl
etsandr
abbi
tswhoset
est
es
areinternal.
 Alsousedf orl
ambs,ki
dsandcalves.
 Animal sbleedalot.
 Howev er,
itis100%eff
ect
ive.
 Iti
snotr ecommendedf ormatureadult
s.
 Caponi
sat
ion
 Iti
sthepract
iceofmaki ngmalebi
rdslosetheirmalecharact
eri
sti
csbyuseof
hormones.
 Hormonesusedi ncl
udest i
l
boest
rolwhichisinject
edint
ot hebi
rdswhenthey
areonedayoldandf emalehormonesimplantedbeneaththeski
nattheneck.
 Bir
dswhichhav elostthei
rmalecharacter
ist
icsinthi
swayar erefer
redt
oas
capons.

ManagementDur
ingPar
tur
it
ion
 Par
tur
it
ioni
stheactofgi
vi
ngbi
rt
htof
ull
ygr
ownf
oet
us.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nCat
tl
e
 I
tisr
eferr
edtoascalvi
ng.
 Gest
ati
onperiodl
asts270-
285day
saft
erconcept
ion.
 Whenthesignsofpart
uri
ti
onar
eobser
vedthecowshoul
dbesepar
atedf
rom t
he
 restoftheherd.
 Normalcal vi
ngshoul dt ake2hour sandt henormalpresent
ati
onisthemuzzl
e,
faceorforeheadont opoft heforel
egsf i
rst.
 Incaseofot herpresentati
onst hemot hershouldbeassist
ed.
 Providethemot herwithpl ent
yofwat erandf eedaf
terpart
uri
ti
on.
 Iftheaf t
erbirthdoesnotcomeoutwi thin48hour sav et
eri
nari
anshoul
dbe
call
edtor emoveit.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nSheep
 I
tisref
erredtoaslambing.
 Gest
ati
onl ast
s21weeks( 150days)af
terconcepti
on.
 Theewel ambnatural
l
ywi t
houtanyprobl
em.
 I
fcomplicati
onsari
setheewesshouldbeassisted.

Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ioni
nSheep
 Udderbecomesf ul
l
.
 Teatsarebri
ghtredincolour.
 Restl
essnessandbleati
ng.
 Sl
ackeningofthehipmuscl es.
Af
tert
hesesigns'ar
eseent heewesshoul
dbeseparatedfr
om theothers.
 Thenormal pr
esentati
onisf
orel
egsandheadfi
rst
.
 Aft
erbi
rththemot hershoul
dbeall
owedtoli
ckthelambtoensur
et hecoati
sdr
y.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nGoat
s
 Iti
sr eferr
edtoaskidding.
 Ittakesplace150day safterconcept
ion.
 Nanni escarr
yingtwins,ki
daf ewday searl
ier
.
 Kidding nanniesshould bekepti n a cl
ean dryplacewhich shoul
d bewel
l
sheltered.
 Signsofpar t
urit
ionaresimilart
othoseofewes.
 Kiddingnanniesshouldbekeptwi thanotherfemal
eforcompany.

Par
tur
it
ioni
nPi
gs
 I
tisr
eferr
edt
oasfarr
owing.
 Gest
ati
onper
iod113-
117days(4mont
hs)
.
Si
gnsofFar
rowi
ng
 Thesowbecomesr estl
ess.
 Thereisenlargementoft hevulv
a.
 Musclesoneachsi deoft hetail
slacken.
 Thereislossofappet i
te.
 Theudderandt heteat
sbecomeenl arged.
 Thesowcol lectsbeddingmat er
iali
nonecomert obui
ldanest.
 Mil
kpr esentintheteats24hour sbeforefar
rowing.
Af
tert
hesi
gnsar eseen;
 Farr
owi ngtakesabout2-6hour sundernor malcondi
ti
on.
 Anattendantshouldbet heretoassistthemotherandpigl
ets.
  Ensur
ether
emoval
oftheaf
terbi
rt
htopr
eventthesowfrom eat
ingi
t.
 Thesowshoul
dbefedwel
landgi
venpl
entyofcleanwat
er.
Par
tur
it
ioni
nRabbi
ts
 I
tisrefer
redtoaskindli
ng.
 I
ttakesplace28-32daysaft
erconcept
ion.
 Provi
deanest i
ngboxandpl entyofdrysoftbeddi
ngsi
nthehut
cht
owar
dst
he
four
thweekofgest at
ion.
Si
gnsofPar
tur
it
ion
 Thedoepl
ucksof
fthef
urfr
om herbody
.
 Usesthef
urt
obuil
danestabout3-
10daysear
li
er.

BeeKeepi
ng(
Api
cul
tur
e)
 Beesar
einsect
swhi
chl
i
vei
nver
ywel
lor
gani
sedcol
oni
es.
Eachcol
onyconsi
stsof
:
 Queens-fert
il
efemalesthatbr
eedtoensuret
hecontinuit
yofthespecies.
 Drones-fer
ti
lemalesthatmatewit
hthequeenforreproducti
onprocess.
 Workers-non-f
ert
il
eorsteri
lef
emalesthatmai
ntai
nthecol ony.
Dut
iesofWor
ker
s
 Theyrearandnur sethebr
ood(eggs,l
arv
aeandpupae)
,queenanddr
ones.
 Theycollectnect
arandmakehoney .
 Theymaket hehoneycombs.
 Theyprotectthehives.
 Theycleant hehi
ve.
I
mpor
tanceofBees
 Coll
ectnectarf
rom f
lowers.
 Makehoney-anut ri
ti
ousproductusedbymanasf ood.
 Helpsincropspol
li
nati
onofpl ant
s.
 Beesproducewaxusedt omakecandl es.
 Theymakepr opol
is-abeepr oductwhichi
smedi
ci
nal.
Rout
ineManagement
Si
ti
ng/
locat
ingofanApi
ary
Fact
orst
oconsi
der
;
 Near nessoraccessi bi
li
tytonectarorfl
ower-pr
oduci ngv egetat
ion.
 Areaswi thshade.Beesaresensi t
ivet
othesun'sheatandr equiresomeshadeto
protectt hem.
 Safedi stancefrom humanr esi
denceandot herli
vest ock.
 Beesar esti
nginginsectsandcanbeahaz ardtohumansorot heranimals.
 Near nesst oasour ceofwaterforuseinthei
rnutri
tion.
 Agooddi st
ancefrom sourceofnoiseandotherdistur bances.
 Safetyf rom predatorsforexampl ehoneybadger s,ant s(safariants)
,bir
dsand
 ot
herpar
asi
tessuchaswaxmot
hs.
Feedi
ng
 Normal l
ybeesar eself-suff
icientinprovi
dingtheirfoodf rom t
hehoneyt hey
make.
 Howev er,dur
ing the dry season,t hei
rfeeding should be suppl
emented by
provi
dingasolut
ion(syrup)ofsugarwat erorgivi
ngmol asses.
 Thisshouldbeplacedstrategicall
ysothati
tiseasil
yaccessiblet
othebees.
Par
asi
tes
 Ant
s
 Waxmot hs
 Beelouse
 Honeybadger
Cont
rolofPar
asi
tes
 Useofphy si
calbarr
ier
ssuchasVasel i
ne/
greaset
ocont
rol
ant
s.
 Smoket hehivetocontr
olbeelouse.
 Suspendthehivetocontrol
honeybadgers.
 Burninf
ectedcombst ocontrolwaxmoths.
Di
seasesandCont
rol
 Af
ri
canbeesar
esel
dom at
tackedbydi
seases.
Har
vest
ingHoney
Fact
orst
oconsi
der
;
Stageofr
ipeni
ng:Honeymustbehar
vest
edwheniti
sful
lymatur
e.
Seasonoftheyear
:Harvest
edatt
heendoft
herai
nyseason.
Pr
ocedur
e
 Blowli
ghtsmoket hrought hehol
e.
 Thismakesbeessuckhoneyandbecomeengor gedanddoci
l
e.
 Lowerthehivetothegr ound.
 Openthehivetoex posehoneycombs.
 Brushthebeesoffthehoneycombs.
 Cutthehoneycombs, l
eavingasmall
mar
ginonthebar
sandkeept
hem i
na
cl
osedcontainer
.
HoneyPr
ocessi
ng
 Usingheati
nawat erbathtomel
tthehoney
.
 Crushi
ngandstrai
ning.
 Usingacentr
if
ugalextr
actor.
Pr
ecaut
ionsWhenHandl
i
ngBees
 Avoidex cessi
vesmoking.
 Thiskil
lsthebroodandlowersquali
tyoft
hehoney
.
 Usepr otecti
vecl
othi
ngtoavoidsti
ng.
 Protectthehivef
rom rai
nwater.
  Usecleanequi
pmentandcontai
nerstoavoi
dcontami
nati
onoft
hehoney
.
 Userecommendedmet hodofextr
act
inghoney
.
 UserecommendedtypeofhivesuchasKenyatopbarhi
ve.
Fi
shKeeping(
Aquacul
tur
e)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Thereari
ngorkeepi
ngoffi
shi
scal
l
edf
ishf
armi
ngandi
snor
mal
l
ycar
ri
edouti
n
speci
all
yprepar
edponds.
Agoodf
ish-
pondshoul
dhavet
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures:
 Si
teshoul
dbeonaf air
lyl
evelgr
oundwi thapermanentsuppl
yorsourceofwater
.
 Theareashoul
dhaveclayeysoi
ltoavoidlossofwat
erthr
oughseepage.
 Watermustbefreef
rom anypol
lutant
ssuchaschemi cal
sandotherwastes.
Const
ruct
ionshoul
dpr
ovi
def
or:
aninl
etforf
reshsupplyofwater,
aspil
l¬waychanneltotakeoffover
fl
oworex cesswater,
anoutl
ettodrai
noffthewaterwheni ti
snecessaryt
or epl
acepondwat
er,
afencetokeepoffpr
edatorsandotherint
ruders.
Feedi
ngFi
sh
 Fi
shnat
ural
l
yfeedonwor
ms,
insect
sandal
gaei
ntheponds.
Thesesour
cesoff
oodmustbesuppl
ement
edbyt
hrowi
ngi
nthepond;
 ki
tchenwast es,
 choppedv egetabl
emat
eri
alssuchascabbagel
eav
es,
 cereal
brans
 brewers'
gr ai
n.
ManagementPr
act
icest
oEnsur
eMaxi
mum Har
vestofFi
sh
 Controlofst ockingr at
e,thatisto,hav ether ecommendedpopul ati
onoff
ishina
pondatany onet ime.
 Harvestatt hecor rectmat ur
itystage.
 Thisisdonebyusi ngthef i
shingnetwi thcorrectmeshsi zestoavoi
dcatchi
ng
thefi
ngerlings.
 Avoidwaterpol lutioninthepondswhi chmaypoi sonfi
sh.
 Ensureadequat esupplyoff oodint hepond.
 Waterinthepondsshoul dbekepti nmot iontof acil
i
tat
eaerati
on.
 Maintainappr opriatedepth(level
)ofwat er.
 Controlpredatorsand/ orthieves.
 Drai
nandr efil
lpondswi t
hf r
eshwat erasnecessar y.
Har
vest
ingFi
sh
 Har
vest
ingorex
tract
ingf
ishf
rom t
hef
ish¬pondsf
orconsumpt
ion
Twomai
nmet hods:
 Hook-
and-l
inemet
hod:
 Thi
sissl
ow,inj
uressmall
fishandisi
neff
ici
ent
.
 I
tisonl
ysui
tabl
ef orsmal
l-
scal
efishi
ng.
 Useoff
ishi
ngnet
s:
  Thisist
hemosteff
ici
entmet
hodasl
ongasanetwiththecor
rectmeshsi
zes
i
sused.
 Harvest
ingmaybedone6-8mont
hsaft
ert
hei
ntroduct
ionoff
inger
li
ngsi
nto
thefi
shpond.
Mai
ntenanceoft
heFi
shPond
 Repai
ri
ngt hedykeoranyst r
uctureonit.
 Cl
eani
ngt hepondandr emov ingfor
eignmat
eri
als.
 Pl
anti
nggr asswherenecessar y
.
 Removingundesirabl
ev egetati
on.
 Removingthesil
t.
Fi
shPr
eser
vat
ion
Pr
act
icesbef
orepr
eser
vat
ion:
 Cleanthef i
shtoremovemudandanywor ms.
 Remov ingscalesandsl
ime.
 Openingt hefi
shont hesidetoremovethegutandt
hei
ntest
inesr
efer
redt
oas
gutti
ng. .
 Cleani
ngt heabdominalcavi
tythor
oughl
y.
 Keepingfishinopencontai
ners.
Met
hodsofPr
eser
vat
ion
 Freezi
ng
 Salt
ing
 Sundrying
 Smoking

Appr
opr
iat
eHandl
i
ngofLi
vest
ockDur
ingManagement
 Phy
sical
beat
ingshoul
dbeav
oided.
 Str
uctureswhichhelpinrestr
aini
nganimal
sshoul
dbeusedwhenev erappl
i
cable.
 Thecorrectmethodsofsecuringandcasti
ngani
malsshouldbeused.
 Useasl i
tt
lef
orceaspossi bl
e.
 Equipmentsuchasr opes,halt
ers,l
eadsti
ckandbul
lringsareusedt ohandle
ani
mal sappr
opriat
ely.

Far
m St
ruct
ures

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Farm struct
ures ar
e physi
calconst
ruct
ions on t
he f
arm used t
oincr
ease
eff
ici
encyinproduct
ion.

Const
ruct
ionofFar
m St
ruct
ures
I
nvol
ves:
Pl
anni
ngforf
arm st
ruct
ures;
Consi
der
;
 Farm acti
vit
ies.
 Si
zeoft heent er
pri
se.
 Futur
eoft heent er
pri
se.
 Accessibi
l
ity.
 Soi
l t
ype.
Si
ti
ngf
arm st
ruct
ures;
Consi
der:
 Thel ocationofthehomestead.
 Accessi bi
lity.
 Secur it
y.
 Drainage/ topogr
aphy.
 Winddi r
ect i
on.
 Relationshipbetweenthestruct
ures.
 Proximi t
yt osocial
ameniti
es.
 Farmer 'stasteandpref
erence.

Mat
eri
alsf
orConst
ruct
ion
St
ruct
uralMat
eri
alsandUse
Fact
orswhi
chdet
ermi
net
het
ypeofmat
eri
alst
ousear
e;
 durabil
i
ty,
 str
ength,
 l
abour ,
 avail
abil
it
y,
 workabil
it
y,
 servi
ceabil
it
y,
 cost
 sanit
ati
on.

St
onesandBr
icks
Advant
ages
 Stonesandbri
cksaredur
abl
e,easyt
odi
si
nfect
,resi
stantt
oweat
herandi
nsect
s
decayandareeasi
l
yavail
abl
e.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Theyar
ebul
kyandr
equi
reski
l
ledl
abourt
omaket
hem.

Pl
ast
icandSynt
het
icMat
eri
als
Thesei
ncl
ude;
  gl
ass,

 asbest
osf
ibr
e

 pol
ythenemat
eri
al
s.
Advant
ages
 Light,
 cheepdependi ngonqualit
y,
 easyt odisi
nf ect,
 canbemoul dedintoanyshape,
 aredur abl
e,
 cannotbedest royedbyinsect
sandf
ungus
 arewat er-
pr oof.
Di
sadv
ant ages
 Ar eeasil
ydest royed,
 fragil
e,
 veryex pensive
 requireskil
ledlabour.
Wood(
Timber
)
Advant
ages
 Theyarewor kabl
e,
 cheap,
 canber e-
used
 arefai
rl
ystrong.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Theycancat chfi
reeasi
ly
,
 decayifexposedtowater
 areaff
ectedbyfungusandinsect
s.

Concr
ete
 Isami xt
ureofcement,sand,aggr
egateandwater
 e.g.i
nmaki ngblockst
herati
ois1:2:
3;onepar
tcement
,twopar
tssandandt
hree
partsaggregat
e.
Uses
 Maki
ngpostsforfenci
ng.
 Maki
ngwall
sandf loorofbui
ldi
ngs.
 Maki
nggabionsandwat erchannel
stopr
eventer
osi
on.
 Maki
ngwatertroughs.

Advant
ages
Thesemater
ial
sar
e;
 dur
abl
e,wor
kabl
e,
  easytodisinfect
,
 cheaptomai ntain,
 fir
eresi
stant
Di
sadv
antages
 Thesemat erial
sare;
 expensiv
e,
 requi
reskil
ledlabour,
 bulky,
 cannotber eused

Ani
mal
handl
i
ngst
ruct
ures
 Thecrush–usedwhendoi ngfoll
owi ngactivi
ti
es;
 Spr ayingl iv
estockt ocont r
ol ti
cks,
 milking,
 exami ningsickani mal s,
 art
ificial i
nsemi nation,
 tr
eat ingani mals, egdr enching,vaccinati
on,
 dongr out i
nejobssuchasdehor ning,i
denti
fi
cati
onmarks,
 Thespr ayr ace-usedi nthecont rolofticksbysprayi
ngli
vest
ockwithacari
cides
 Thedip-machakost y pe,andt hepludgedi p.Thi
sisusedinthecont
roloft
icksby
di
ppi
ngl i
v estock

Far
m Bui
l
dings
Fact
orst
obeconsi
der
edi
nsi
tesel
ect
ion;
 Securi
ty
 Nearnesstoasourceofwat
er
 Topography
 Dir
ecti
onoftheprevai
li
ngwi
nd
 Dir
ecti
onofthesun
 Personalwhi
ms/tast
esandpref
erence
 Nearnesstomeansofcommunication.

Typesoff
arm bui
l
dings
 Housesf orfarm animals.
 Stor
esf orfarm produce.
 Stor
esf orequipment ,
toolsandsuppli
es.
 Buil
dingsforgrowi ngcropse.ggreenhouse.
 Buil
dingforprocessingplante.
gmi lkplant
.

Par
tsofabui
l
ding
 Thef
oundati
on,
 Thewal
ls,
 Ther
oof
I
ncl
ude;
 kingpost,
 rafters,
 struts,
 ti
ebeam,
 rafterbatt
en
I
ncl
ude;
 concret
efloor,
 foundat
ionwal l
,
 PVCsheet( damp-proofcourse)
 thecompact edfi
ll
(hardcore).

Fences
 Import
anceofFencei naFar m
 Keepoutint
ruderstot hefarm,
 Defi
netheboundar yli
nesoft hef arm.
 Paddocki
ngoffieldstomaker otationalgrazi
ngpossibl
e.
 Liv
efencesserveaswi ndbreaks.
 Fencesareusedinmi x edfarmingt opr ot
ectcropsfr
om. damagebyl
i
vest
ock.
 Fencesaddaestheticv al
uest othef ar
m.
 Iti
seasytocontrolbreeding.
 Iti
seasytoisol
atesickani malsf rom therestoftheher
d.
TypesofFences
 Deadfences.
 Barbedwirefences.
 El
ectri
cfence.
 Concret
ef ence.
 Chi
ckenwi refence(meshwir
efence)
.
 Wov enwirefence(chai
nli
nk)
.
 Woodenf ence.
Fenci
ngPr
act
ice
 Mat
er i
alsincl
ude;
 wires,
 staples,
 nail
s,
 posts,
 dropper s
 concr et
emat er
ial
s.
  Si
zeofposts:
 Generalpurpose2.5m by25cm i ndiamet
er
 Strai
nerunit
sandcor nerposts3m by30cm i
ndiamet
er:
 Di
stancebetweenthepost s:
 3m betweenposts, 10m ifdropper
saretobeused.
 200m betweenstrainerunits.
 Depthofhol
es-60cm.
Gat
ePost
s,Gat
esandSt
rai
nerUni
ts
 Gat
esshouldbehungonpostssepar
atefrom thef
ence.
 Mechani
cali
mplementsforex
ampletr
actorsrequi
re4.
0-4.
5m widt
hofgate.
 Ent
rancegat
esforpedest
ri
anscanbeaccommodat edwithi
nthefence.
St
epsi
nFenci
ng
 Locatet hecorners
 Clearthef enci
ngarea.
 Mar kgat es,st
rai
ners,passpl
acesandst
andar
dsbypeggi
ng.
 Digholest oproperdepths.
 Fi
xt hest andardposts.
 Fi
r m aroundpost sorapplyconcr
ete.
 Fi
xwi resonpost s.
 Fi
xt hedr oppers.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
csII
(
LandTenureandLandRefor
ms)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Landisani mport
antf act
orofproducti
on.
 Withoutl
anditisimpossiblet
opr acti
cetheagr
icult
uralbusi
ness.
 Howev ertheeffi
ciencyofutil
iz
at i
onofl andi
si nf
luencedtoal ar
geex
tentbyt
he
condit
ionofholdi
ngt heland.
LandTenur
e
 Landtenurei
sdefi
nedast
hepossessi
onofthelegalr
ight
stotheuseofland.
 Vari
ouskindsofr
ight
stot
heuseoflandgi
verisetodi
ffer
entt
enuresyst
ems.
LandTenur
eSyst
em
 Al
ll
andt
enur
esy
stemsf
all
int
otwomaj
orcl
asses,
namel
y:
Col
l
ect
iveTenur
eSyst
ems
Thi
sincl
udes:
CommunalTenur
eSyst
ems
 Thi
sinvol
vesthepossessi
onofri
ght
sov erl
andbyt hewholecommuni
ty.
 I
tworksquit
ewellundercondi
ti
onsofunli
mited,
landresour
ces.
Advant
agesofCommunalTenur
e
 Landl
esspr
oblem doesnotex
ist
.
 Landi
snotfragmented.
 Al
l
owsforf
reemov
ementofanimal
sinsear
chofbet
terpast
uresandwat
er.
 Pr
omot
escommunityspi
ri
tamongt
hemembers.
Di
sadvant
agesofCommunalTenur
e
 Noi ncenti
veamongt heuserstoconser vethel andr esources.
 Everybodyst ri
vestomax i
mizer eturnsf r
om t helandwi t
houtt hedri
vetoinvest
,for
exampl e,i
ntermsofsoi lconservationandmai ntenanceofsoi lfert
il
it
y.
 Ther eisat endencyofov er
stockingandcont inuouscr opping;whichleadstosoil
erosionandl ossoflandproduct i
vit
y .
 Asar esultofcommunalgr azingofl i
vestock,itisi mpossibletoimproveli
vestock
through;
 cont roll
edbreeding,
 pr operfeedi
ng,
 di seaseandpar asit
econt rol
.
 Sincet hereisnot itl
edeed,( cer t
ifi
cateofowner ship)i
ti svirt
uall
yimpossibl
et o
secur el
oanst odeveloptheland.
Co-
oper
ati
veTenur
eSyst
em
 Thiscategoryincl
udesv ar
iouscollect
ivearr
angement
sundert hegov er
nmentor
otheraut
horit
ies.
 Farmersvoluntar
il
ygrouptogetherandbuylandwhicht
heysubsequent
lyoper
ateon
co-oper
ati
vebasis.
 Examplesareco-oper
ativ
er anches.

Advant
agesofCo-
oper
ati
veTenur
e
 Nolanddisputes.
 Labouriswelluti
li
zed.
 Prof
iti
sdistr
ibutedaccor
dingtothenumberofshar
es.
 Resourceuseisenhancedf orhi
ghproduct
ion.

Di
sadvant
agesofco-
oper
ati
vet
enur
e.
 I
ncaseofpoormanagementev
ery
bodywi
l
lloose.

 Noi
ndi
vi
dual
tit
ledeedhencecannotsecur
eloans.

St
ateowner
shi
p
 Landi
sownedbyt
hewhol
est
ateandi
sref
eredt
oasgov
ernmentl
and.
Exampl
esi
nKenya;
 Ar
easnotal
l
ocat
edt
oindi
vi
dual
s
 Landunderl
ocal
count
ycounci
l
s/ci
ti
esandt
owns
 Landunderf
orest
,gamer
eser
veandpar
ks,
landf
ori
nfr
a-st
ruct
ureandpubl
i
cut
il
it
y

Advant
agesofst
ateowner
shi
p
 Gener
ati
onofi
ncomef
ort
hest
ate
 Al
ltheci
ti
zensbenef
itf
rom what
evercomesoutoft
hel
and.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Non-
compet
it
ivei
nter
msofpr
oduct
ion
 Noi
ndi
vi
dual
mot
ivat
ionwhenwor
kingont
hel
and.
I
ndi
vi
dualTenur
esyst
em
Thev
ari
ousfor
msofindi
vi
dual
landt
enur
ear
e;
 Owneroper
ator
,
 Pl
ant
ati
onandConcest
ion,
 Land-
lor
dism/
Tenancy

Owneroper
ator
 Thiscat
egoryincl
udesall
per
sonswhooper
ateonl
andt
owhi
cht
heyhave
absol
uteindi
vi
dualri
ghts.
 Examplesarethemajor
it
yofindi
vi
duall
andowner
sinareaswher
edemar
cat
ion
andregist
rat
ionofl
andhastakenpl
aceandti
tl
edeedsi
ssued.
Advant
ages
 Theowneri
sfr
eet
omakeper
manentpr
oduct
ionpl
ans.
 Theownercanpledget
helandti
tl
edeedt
osecur
eloans(
credi
t)f
rom l
endi
ng
agenci
esf
orfur
therdevel
opment
 Ani
ndi
vi
dual
ismot
ivat
edt
owor
khar
dert
hanwhenundercommunal
arr
angement
 Manageri
alf
ail
uresusual
l
yaf
fectsmal
luni
tsofpr
oduct
ionandar
ether
efor
e
negl
i
gibl
e.
 I
tiseasyf
ort
heownert
ogetagr
icul
tur
aladv
ice.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Costsuchasmachi
ner
yforpr
ocessi
ngmaybet
oohi
ghf
ort
hei
ndi
vi
dual
owner
 I
nnov
ati
onmaybei
nadequat
eduet
olowl
evel
sofeducat
ion.
 Lackofcapi
tal
toi
nvest
.
Pl
ant
ati
onandconcessi
on
 I
nthi
sfor
m ofl
andt
enur
e,t
hei
ndi
vi
dual
isusual
l
yacompanyoracor
por
ati
on.
 Mostoft
hem engagei
nthepr
oduct
ionofonl
yonecommodi
ty
 Theyar
eri
gidi
nthei
rpr
oduct
ionpl
ansandi
nmostcasesl
abouri
shi
redonwage
basi
s.
 Ex
ampl
ear
ecof
fee,
tea,
sugar
cane,
sisal
est
atesi
nKeny
a.
Advant
ages
 Hi
ghpr
oduct
ionf
rom t
hel
andhencehi
gheconomi
cgai
ns
 Al
l
owsf
orei
gner
stouseanddev
elopl
and
 Nol
anddi
sput
es
 Cr
eat
eempl
oymentf
ort
hel
ocal
peopl
e
 Gener
ategov
ernmentr
evenuet
hrought
axat
ion.
Di
sadvant
ages
 I
ndi
vi
dual
sownl
argepi
ecesofl
andwhi
l
eot
her
sar
elandl
ess
 Lar
gear
easofl
andmaybel
eftunder
dev
eloped.
 For
eigner
smayr
epat
ri
atepr
ofi
ttot
hei
rcount
ri
es.

Landl
ordi
sm andt
enancy
 Thearrangementherei
nvolvest
heownershi
poflandbyoneindi
vi
dual
orgr
oupof
i
ndiv
iduals(l
andl
ord)wholeasei
ttoanot
herindi
vi
dual(
tenant
).
 Alegal l
easespecifi
esthelengt hoftimedur i
ngwhi chthetenurei
soper
ati
ve;
andt hatservesasasecur i
tyoft enuretot hetenant.
 Theef fi
ciencyofproduct
ioni nt hi
sar rangementi sgreatl
yaffect
edbythelengt
h
oflease,itsl
egalbacki
ngandr entpay able.
Advant
ages
 Aper sonwi t
houtl
andcangetachancet ouseland.
 Al andlor dwhocannotoperatethel
and,foranyreason,cansti
llearnincomeby
l
easi ngi ttoaneedyt
enant
.
 Itisaf l
exibl
earr
angement;thati
s,i
tall
owsroom forchangeofpr oducti
onpl
ans
shoul dneedar i
se.
 Secur ityoftenur
egivest
het enanti
ncenti
vetoinvestdependi
ngont helengt
hof
tenur e.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Poorlanduseandl ow product
ionifthetenantdoesnothaveenoughfundsto
i
mpr oveonland.
 Tenantscannotproducelongterm cr
ops,
 Landlor
dscanex pl
oitthetenant
sbyov er
charging.
 Lackofincent
ivestoimprovelandbythetenantssincei
tdoesnotbel
ongt
othem.
LandReforms
Defi
nit
ion
 Landref
ormisanyorgani
zedact
iondesi
gnedt
oimpr
ovet
hest
ruct
ureofl
and
tenur
eandl
anduse.

For
msofLandRef
orm
LandConsol
i
dat
ion
 Thi
smeansbr i
ngi
ngorputt
ingt
oget
her,int
oonepi
ece;f
ragment
edpar
cel
sor
pi
ecesofl
andscat
ter
edov
eralar
gearea.

Theobj
ect
iveofl
andconsol
i
dat
ionar
e:
 Tosaveont imespentwhi l
emov i
ngf r
om onepi eceoflandtoanother.
 Tofaci
li
tateeff
ecti
veandef f
ici
entfarm pl
anning.
 Tocreateanincenti
veamongl andoper at
or stoi
nvestonanddev el
opl and.
 Tofaci
li
tatemechanizati
onandi mprovepr oduct
ionthr
ougheffi
ciency.
 Toimprovelevelofproducti
onthrougheffecti
vesupervisi
onoft
hel abourfor
ceand
soundfarmingmet hods,

LandFr
agment
ati
onandSub-
divi
sion
 Thi
sist
hesubdi
vi
dingofa(
lar
ge)pi
eceofl
andi
ntosmal
l
erpor
ti
ons.

 Someti
mesi tbecomesnecessarytosub-
divi
delandf ort
hefol
lowi
ngreasons:
 Tosellpartofthel
and.
 Thepar entmaywi shtosubdi v
ideanddi str
ibutehislandamongt hesons,
daught
er sandotherdependant
s.
 Thegov ernmentmaydeci detosubdi
videlargefarmsinordertosett
lelandl
ess
ci
ti
zens.

LandAdj
udi
cat
ionandRegi
str
ati
on
 Landadj
udi
cat
ioni
nvol
ves;

 Est
abl
i
shi
ngt
hel
egi
ti
mat
eowner
shi
p,

 Measur
ement
s(t
omakeper
manentboundar
ies)

 Recor
dingofl
anddet
ail
s.

 Oncelandhasbeenadj
udi
cat
ed,
andanydi
sput
esconcer
ningt
hesamel
andar
e
set
tl
ed,

 I
tist
henr
egi
ster
edi
nt Regi
he" sterofLand"
.
 Andt
heowneri
sissuedwi
thal
andt
it
ledeedorcer
ti
fi
cat
eofl
egal
owner
shi
p.

I
mpor
tanceofl
andt
it
ledeed
 Thelegal ownerofthelandhassecur i
tyoftenureandhenceani ncent
ivetoi
nvest
andimpr oveproducti
v i
ty.
 Af armercanmor tgaget helandbyof f
eri
ngl andt i
tl
ecer ti
fi
cateasasecur i
tyto
l
oaningagenci est
osecur ecapitalt
ofinancedev el
opmentpr ojects.
 Ifafarmerwhocannotoper at
et hefar
m, hecanst i
llear
ni ncomef r
om i
tbyleasi
ngit
.
 Disputesconcerni
ngl andboundariesand/orlandowner shipnol ongerari
se.
LandSet
tl
ementandReset
tl
ement
Def
ini
ti
on
 Landsett
lementmeanstheoccupati
onofl
andwhi chwaspr
evi
ousl
yuninhabi
ted.
 Landresett
lement
,ontheot herhand,isthetransf
erofpeopl
efrom anal r
eady
densel
ypopulat
edareat
oaspar sel
ypopul
atedone.
Obj
ect
ives
 Tosettl
et hel
andl essciti
zens.
 Toreli
evepopul ati
onpr essureindenselypopul atedareas.
 Toincreaseorpr omot eagricul
tur
al producti
v i
tybyfar
mi ngonlandt
hatwas
previ
ouslyunusedorl yi
ngidle.
 Tocreateself
-empl oymentthusimpr ovingthelivi
ngstandards.
 Landreclamation, especi
all
ybycr eati
ngt setsefl
y -
bar
rier
s.

Soi
landWat
erConser
vat
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Soi
landwat
erar
etwov
eryi
mpor
tantnat
ural
resour
cesi
nfar
ming.
 Theyshouldt heref
orebewel lmaint
ainedandusedwi thoutwastagetosust
ain
conti
nuouspr oduct
ion.
 Waterlossdur i
ng therainyseason should beprevented and ex
cesswater
conserv
edf orusedur i
ngscarci
ty.
 Soil
erosionmustbecont roll
edatwhatevercosti
fsoi
li
st obeconserved.
Soi
lEr
osi
on
 I
tist
her
emov
alandcar
ryi
ngawayoft
het
opsoi
lbyt
heact
ionofwat
erorwi
nd.
Fact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngSoilEr
osi
on
 Amountandi nt
ensit
yofrai
nfal
l
.
 Thesteeperthelandthehighert heveloci
tyofsur
facerunof
f.
 Thehigherthev el
ocit
yofsurfacer unofft
hegreat
erisi
tserosi
vepower
/ef
fect.
 Typeofsoi lf orexamplesandysoi lsaremor eeasil
ydetachedandcarri
ed
awaythanclay eysoi
ls.
 Soildepth;
 Thedeepert hesoil
,thel
ongeri ttakestobesatur
atedwithwater
.
 Landuse:
 Overstockingleadst obarenessoft helandandloosenessofthesoi
l.
 Deforestation-indiscri
minateremov aloftr
eesleadst oexposureofsoi
lto
heav yrainfal
landhight emperatures.
 Indiscri
mi nateburningofvegetationexposesthesoiltoer
osiveagent
s.
 Cleanweedi ngleavesthesoilbare.
 Pl
oughi
ngalongt
heslope.
 Monocul
tur
eorcont
inuouscul
ti
vat
ion.
 Gr
oundcover
 Tr
eesactaswi
ndbr
eaker
s.
  Rootsofvegetati
oncoverholdthesoil
parti
clest
ogether
.
 Leaffal
lactasmul chwhichreduceserosi
on.
 Leavesofvegetati
oncoverint
ercept
sraindropsr
educingthei
rer
osi
vepower
.
Agent
sofErosion
 Wa t
er-movingwat erhaserosi
vepower.
 Wind-windcarriesawaysoi l
.
 Humanbei ngs-t hroughman'sacti
vi
ti
essuchascul
ti
vat
ionandmining.
 Animal
s-t hroughov er
graz
ingandcreati
ngfoot
pat
hswheresoiler
osiontakes
pl
ace.

TypesofErosi
on
Raindrop(splash)-displ
acementoft hesoil
causedbyraindrops.
Sheet-uni
formremov alofsoi
li
nt hi
nlayersfr
om fl
atorgentl
yslopingareas.
Ril
l-remov
alofsoilf
rom smallburwelldefi
nedchannel
sorr i
ll
s.
 Gu l
ley-r
emov alofsoilf
rom channelswhichbecomepr ogressi
velydeeperand
wider.
RiverbankErosi
on-removal ofsoi
lal
ongriverbanksbytheri
verwat
er.
 Solifl
ucti
on-gr
avi
tat
ional
flowofsoilsat
uratedwithwater
.
Landsl i
des-massmovementofr ockdebr
isandsoi ldownasl
ope,
Forexampl
e;
 Sl
ipmov ementofeart
horr ockmassesf orashor
tdist
ance.
 Debri
ssli
de-mat er
ial
smov eatagr eat erspeed.
 Debri
sfall
-mov ementofmat er
ials/debrisalongver
ti
calcl
if
f.
 Rockfal
l-mov ementofrockdownav erysteepsl
ope.
 Rocksli
des-massofr ockmat eri
alst hatsli
dealongabeddingpl
ate,a
j
ointorafaul
tface.

Soi
lEr
osi
onCont
rolMeasur
es
Soi
lconser
vat
ionmeasur
escanbecl
assi
fi
edi
nto:
 Bi
ologi
calorcul
turalcontr
ol
 Physi
calorst
ructuralcont
rol
Bi
ologi
calorCul
tur
alCont
rolMeasur
es
Thesemeasur
esar
eappl
i
cabl
ewher
elandsl
opei ween2-
sbet 12%.
 Gr
assst
ri
ps/
fi
lt
erst
ri
ps;
 Thesear enar r
owuncul t
ivatedstri
psalongthecontourlef
tbetweencul
ti
vat
ed
str
ips.
 Covercr oppi ng;
 Theest abl
ishmentofacr opt hatspreadsoutovert
hesur faceoft
hesoi
lto
prov i
dei twithacov er
.
 Cont ourf armi ng;
 Car ry i
ngoutal llandoperati
onsalongt hecont
our.
 Mul chi ng;
 Cov eri
ngoft hesoilwi
theitherorganicorsynt
heti
cmat eri
als.
 Propercr oppi ngsyst emssuchas:
 Cr opr ot at
ion
 
Cor rectspaci ng

Int
er -cropping

Ridgi ng/furrowing

Stripcr opping
 Control ledgr azi ng;
 Properst ockingr at
e,rotati
onal graz i
ng.
 St
ripcr oppi ng;
 Growi ngcr opswhi chgi v
el it
tl
egr oundcov erinal t
ernatestri
pswit
hcr ops
suchasbeanswhi chhav eagoodgr oundcov er.
 Af
forest ation/ re-afforestat i
on.
 Aff or estation-gr owingoft r
eeswher enon-ex i
sted.
Re -af forest ation-gr owingoft reeswher etheyhav ebeencutdown.
Ag rof orest ry-l anduset hatinv olvesthegr owingoft reesincombinati
on
withcropsandpast uresonthesamepi eceofland.

Physi
calorSt
ruct
uralCont
rolMeasur
es
 Thesearesoiland wat erconservati
on measur
eswhich i
nvol
vemechani
cal
const
ruct
ionsontheearth.
 Theyareusedinareasofmoderateslopebet
ween13-
55%.
Theyi
ncl
ude:
 Tr
ashorst
onel
i
nes;
 Thesearerowsofheapedcr op'
resi
duesorstonesmadeal
ongt
hecontours.
 Fi
l
terst r
ips;
 Iti
nvol
vesthegr owingofanopencropintheuppersi
deoft
hesl
opefol
lowed
byadensecr optoreducespeedofwater.
 Thisi
ncreasesinfi
l
trat
ion.
 Ter
races;
 Arestr
uct
uresconst
ruct
edacr
ossasl
opet
oreducet
hel
engt
hofasl
opet
hus
reduci
ngr
un-of
f.
 Bencht
err
aces;
 Ar
econst
ruct
edwheretheslopei
s35-55%.
 Tr
eecr
opsaresui
tabl
eforsuchareas.

I
mpor
tanceofaBenchTer
race:-
 Reducesslopeoft heland.
 Conservessoilmoisture.
 Bett
erretent
ionofsoi l
fert
il
it
y.
 Narr
owbasedt er r
aces–Cannotal lowcul
ti
vati
onbymachines.
 Br
oadbasedt erraces-I swideenoughtoal
lowcul
ti
vat
ionbymachi
nes.
 Gr
adedt
err
aces:
 Haveadrai
nagechannel
tol
eadof fex
cesswat
ert
oav
eget
atedpl
ace.
 Theyshoul
dbeabout100m i
nlength.
 Levelt
err
aces:
 Havenoout
letchannel
s,
 Theaimist
ohav ewateri
nfi
l
trat
ing,
 Hencenowatercanfl
owfrom theendsoft
het
err
ace.
 Fanyaj
uu:
  Ar
idgemadebydi
ggi
ngachannel
andt
hrowi
ngt
hesoi
luphi
l
l.
 Fanyachi
ni:
 Inthi
scasethesoi
l i
sheapedont
helowersideofthechannel
.
 Bunds:heapsofsoi
l(ear
th)madeal
ongthecontour
.
 Cut
offdr
ains:
 Anopentrenchwit
hanembankmentont
hel
owersi
dei
ntowhi
chwat
erf
rom
thef
arm drai
ns.
Wat
erf
rom t
het
renchshoul
dbedi
schar
gedi
nto;
 Naturalwaterway
s,
 Art
ifi
cialwater
ways,
 Rockygr ound
 Grassland
 Gabi
on/
Por
ousdams:
 Gal
vani
zedwir
emeshbox
esf
il
ledwi
thst
oneswhi
char
ebui
l
tacr
osssl
opes
andgul
l
ies.
 Damsandr
eser
voi
rs;
 Dams-bar r
iersbuil
tacrossariver
/waterwayt
oholdandst
orewat
er.
It
r
educesspeedofr unof f
.
 Reservoir
s-t hesearelargest
oragetanks.
 Ridging-heapsofsoi l t
oreducethespeedofwater
,
Theyret
ainthewat erforsometime.

Wat
erHar
vest
ingMet
hods
 Waterharvest
ingandst
orageshoul
dbedonedur
ingt
her
ainyseasonst
oav
oid
wastage.
Thi
sshoul
dbedoneusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods:
 Roofcat
chment-tr
appingandcol
lect
ionofr
ainwat
erfr
om r
ooftops.
 Rockcatchment-waterishar
vestedbyconstr
uct
ingabarr
ieronthel
ower
si
deofal
argei
mper
viousr
ockt
otr
apsur
facer
unof
ffr
om t
her
ock.
 Weir
sanddams.
 Dam -abar
ri
erconst
ruct
edacr
ossar
iveroradr
yval
l
eysot
hati
tcanhol
d
water
.
 We ir
s-bar r
iersconst r
uctedacrossar i
verorastream toraisethewaterl
evel
andsti
ll
all
ow wat ertofl
owov erit
.
 Ponds-wat erretentionexcavati
ons'madetoholdexcesssurfacewater
.
 Retention ditches/ l
evelt erraces.
-These ar
et erraces const
ruct
ed wit
h
bl
ockedendst oretainwater.

Mi
cro-
Cat
chment
s
 Asyst
em ofhar
vesti
ngl
i
mit
edr
ainf
all
andst
ori
ngt
hewat
eri
nthegr
oundf
oruse
byt
heplant
edcrops.
TypesofMicrocat
chments;
 Triangul
ar/V-
shaped/Negar
ims;
 V¬-shapedbundsmeasur
ing25cm
 Arebui l
twithsoi
lfr
om theexcav
atedplant
inghol
est
odi
rectr
unof
fwat
er
towardsthebasi
nareaar
oundthebaseofeachpl
ant
 Semi-circularbunds;
  Formedar oundt hegrowingpl anttohol
dwateraroundtheplant
.
 Tr
apezoi dalbunds;
 Trapezoi
dalshapedbunds,whi chencl
osealargear eawherethecropsare
grown.
 Contourbunds/ f
ur r
ows;
 Thesearef urr
owsmadeal ongt hecont
our
sbetweent herowsofcropswhere
agro¬f
orestrytreesareintercroppedwit
h annualcrops.
 Pl
ant i
nghol es/ pits;
 Thesear eex t
ralargeplantingholesmadeandf i
ll
edwi t
hdryplantmater
ial
s
beforefi
ll
inginwi t
hsoi l
.

UseofMi
cro-
Cat
chment
s
 Sl
owdownt hespeedofsur facerunof
f.
 Usedduri
ngl andscapingofthecompound,parksandr
oadsi
denestar
eas.
 Recl
amationoflandf orfoodcropindryar
eas.
 Watercol
lectedandst or
edcanbeusedf orir
ri
gati
on
 Aff
orest
ati
oni ndryareas.

WeedsandWeedCont
rol
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Weedscauseheav
ycr
opl
ossesi
fnotcont
rol
l
ed.
 Thei
rcont
rol
isi
mpor
tantsoast
omai
ntai
nhi
ghqual
i
tyandquant
it
ypr
oduce.
Def
ini
ti
on:
 Aweedi
sanypl
antgr
owi
ngwher
eiti
snotr
equi
red.
 Andwhoseeconomi
cdi
sadv
ant
agesout
wei
ght
headv
ant
ages.
Har
mfulEf
fect
sofWeeds
 Weedscompet ewithcr opsf ornut r
ients,space, l
ightandsoi lmoi sture.
 Someweeds, forex ampl e,Strigasppar epar asitictocul t
ivatedcr opssuchas
maiz e.
 Someweedsl owert hequal it
yofagr i
culturalpr oducef orex ampl e:
 Mex icanmar i
goldgi vesundesi r
ablef l
av ourt omi lkifdairycowsf eedoni t
.
 Dev i
lshor sewhip,bl ackj ack,bristl
yf ox -
tailandot hersgetat tachedtosheep
wool thusl oweringi tsqual i
ty.
 Someweedsar epoi sonoust ohumanbei ngsandl i
vestockf orex ampl e:
Thor nappl e( Datur ast ramoni um)
Sodom appl e(Solanum i ncanum)
 Someweedshav eal lelopat hiceffectstocul tiv
at edcr ops.
 Wat erweedsbl ockirrigat i
onchannel s.
 Aquat i
cweedssuchasSal viniainLakeNai v
ashaandwat erhy acinthi nLake
Vi
ctor i
aaf f
ectf i
shing.
 Someweedsar ealternat ehost sforinsect s,pestsanddi seasecausi ng
organismsf orex ampl e:
 Wi doat(
l avenaf at ua)i sanal ternatehostf orr usts.
  Mal ow(
l mal vaver tici
ll
ata)i sanal ter
natehostforcot
tonst
ainer
s.
 Weedslowert hequal it
yofpast ur eforexample:
 Tickberry(Lant anacamar a)
 Nutgr ass( Cyper usr ot
undus) ,
 Manyat tagr ass( Eleusinej aegeri)
 Someweedsi r
r i
tatewor ker st husr educi
ngt heeffi
ci
encyinwhi cht
heyar
e
cont
roll
edforex ampl e:
 Doublet horn( Oxygonum si nuatum) ,
 Stingi
ngnet t
le( Urti
camassai ca),
 Dev i
l'
shor sewhi p(Achyr ant hesasper a)
.
Fact
orsCont
ri
but
ingt
otheCompet
it
iveAbi
l
ityofWeeds
 Theypr oducel argequant iti
esofseedsf orexampl epigweedandblackj
ack.
 Theirseedsremai nv iableint hesoilf
oral ongti
meawai ti
ngconduci
ve
germinationcondi t
ions.
 Theyhav eeffect iveseeddi spersal
mechani sms.
 Someweedspr opagat ebymeansofel aborateundergroundstor
agestr
uctur
es.
 Theyar eeffi
cienti nut i
li
z i
ngl i
tt
lemoisture,nutr
ientsandsunli
ght.
 Somehav eshor tl
ifecy cles.
 They hav e elabor ater ootsy stems f orsuppor t
ing the pl
antand absorbi
ng
nutr
ientsandwat er.

WeedCl
assi
fi
cat
ion

I
tisbasedon:
 Li
fecycl
esf
orex
ampl
e:
 Annuals-compl et
etheirl i
fecy cl
ei nonlyoneseason.
 Biennuals-compl etetheirlif
ecy clesint woseasonsonl y.
 Perennials-compl et
et heirli
fecy clei
nmor ethant woseasons.
 Mo rphology-l eafformat ionsuchassi ze, shapeandv enati
on.
 Broadl eavedweedsf orex ampl ebl ackj ack,lantana,pigweed,ox al
i
sand
others.
 Nar r
ow leavedweedsf orex ampl ecouchgr ass,setaria,nut
-gr
ass,manyat
ta
grassandot hers.
 Habitat-someweedsar et er
r est
rial(grow onl and)whi l
eothersareaquat
ic
(
growonaquat ic/marinecondi ti
ons).
WeedI
dent
if
icat
ion
 Weedsareident
if
iedbyt
heircommon(i
ndi
vi
dual)namesandbot
anical
names.
 Theyarenamedaccor dingtospeci
fi
cfeat
uresoraccordi
ngt opersonwho
i
dent
if
iedthem.

CommonName Bot
ani
cal
Name

 Bl
ackJack………………………Bidenspil
osa
 Mexi
canmari d………………Taget
gol esminut
a
 0x
ali
sl
sorr
el…………………….
.Oxal
isspp.
  Doubl et hor n……………………Ox ygonum si nuat um
 Thor nappl e……………………. .Dat urastramoni um
 Couchgr ass……………………. Di
. git
ariascal arum
 Nutgr ass………………………. .Cyper usr otundus
 Wander ingJew…………………Commel i
nabengal ensi
s
 Sowt histle………………………Sonchusol eraceus
 Dev il'
shor sewhi p………………. Achyr anthesasper a
 Macdonal d'seye/Gall
antsol di
er.Gal l
insogapar vi
fl
ora
 Sodom appl e……………………. Sol anum i ncanum
 Blackni ghtshade………………. .Solanum ni gr um
 Chi nesel antern…………………. Ni candr aphysal odes
 Brackenf ern……………………. Pt
. eri
dium aqui ll
ium
 Lov egr ass/Br istl
yfoxt
ail………. Set ari
aver ti
cill
ata
 Cleav er s…………………………Gal l
ium spur ium
 Stingi ngNet tl
e…………………. .Ur ti
camassai ca
 Fathen/ Goosef oot……………. ..Chenopodi um spp.
 Rapeweed………………………Br assi canapus
 Wi l
doat s………………………. .
.Avenaf atua
 Lant ana/ Tickber y………………Lant
r anacamar a
 Wat erhy aci nth…………………. Eichhor niacr assipes
 Striga/ Wi tchweed………………St r
igaher mont heca
 Creepi ngi ndigo…………………. Indigof eraspi cat a
WeedCont
rolMet
hods
Themet
hodsofweedcont
roldet
ermi
nedby:
 Theweedbei ngcontr
oll
ed.
 Weatherconditi
ons.
 Capit
alavai
labil
i
ty.
 Eff
ectonenv i
ronment.

METHODSOFWEEDCONTROLI
NCLUDE:
Chemi
calWeedCont
rol
–
 Theuseofchemi
cal
sknownasher
bici
dest
ocont
rol
weeds.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofHer
bici
des
Basedon:
 Formul
ati
on-t
hephy
sical
for
m oft
heher
bici
desf
orex
ampl
e:
 Li
qui
ds
 Wett
ablepowder
s
 Emulsi
on
 Dust
 Ti
meofAppl
i
cat
ion
 Pre-
emergence-appli
edbef
oretheplantedcropger
mi nates.
 Postemergence-appl
iedaf
tert
heplantedcropgerminates.
 Sel
ect
ivi
ty
  Sel
ect
ive.
 Nonsel
ecti
ve.

 ModeofAct
ion
 Contact-herbicidest
hatkil
lonlyt
hepartsofthepl
antwhichi
tcomesi
nto
contact.
 Translocat
edsy stemi
cherbi
cidest
hatwil
lki
ll
thewholepl
antev
enifi
t
comesi ntocontactwi
thonlyasmallpar
tofit
.
Met
hodsofHer
bici
deAppl
i
cat
ion
 Sprayi
ng-appl
icat
ionofsol
uti
ons.
 Dusti
ng-appli
cati
onofdust
s.
 Fumigati
on-appli
cat
ionoff
umigantsi
ntot
hesoi
l
.
Saf
etyMeasur
esi
ntheUseofChemi
cal
s
 Readmanuf acturer '
si nstructionsandf oll
owt hem.
 Wearpr otect i
vecl othi ngsuchasov eral
ls,breat
hingmask, gl
ovesandboots.
 Av oi
dinhalingt heher bicides.
 Washt horoughl yaf terhandl ingchemi cals.
 Donotbl oworsuchbl ockednoz zles.
 Av oi
dherbici dedr i
ftt ouni ntendedcr opsandot herpl ants.
 Av oi
dherbici dedr i
ftt ol i
vestockf eedandwat er
.
 Av oi
dspill
ingher bicidesi npast uresandf oddercr ops.
 Disposeof ftheempt ycont ainersproperlyforexampl ebury i
ngthem i
nthesoi
l.
 Donotwashspr ayingequi pmenti nwat ersourcesusedbyani malsandhuman
beings.
 Storechemi calsi nasaf eplace.
 Washt hespr ayingequi pmentt horoughly.
 Sinklef
tov erchemi cal sintot hesoilaft
ertheday '
swor k.

Advant
agesofChemi
calWeedCont
rol
 I
tisl
essl
abor
ious.
 Ef
fect
ivei
nthecont
rol
ofdi
ff
icul
tweedssuchascouchgr
assandsedges.
 Itdoesnotdisturbcroprootsandotherundergr
oundstr
uct
ures.
 Itmakest hecont r
olofweedsincert
aincropeasier
.
 Iti
sef f
ici
enti
nbot hwetanddrycondit
ions.
 Itdoesnotdest roysoi
lstr
uctur
e.
 Cheaperi nlar ge scal
e product
ion t
han the use ofmanualormechani
cal
cult
ivati
on.
Di
sadvant
agesofChemi
calWeedCont
rol
 I
trequi
resski
ll
edlabouri
nmixingandappl
icat
ion.
 Causeenvi
ronmentalpol
l
uti
on.
 Herbi
ci
deshavelongresi
dualeff
ect
swhichmayi nt
erf
erewi
thf
utur
ecr
ops.
 I
tisveryex
pensiv
e.
Mechani
calWeedCont
rol
 I
tinv
olv
est
hef
oll
owi
ngoper
ati
ons:

Ti
l
lage/
Cul
ti
vat
ion

Thisist
heopeni
ngandl
ooseni
ngupofthesoi
l
.

Itcanbedonebyhandt
ool
sortract
ordr
awnimpl
ement
s.
Advant
ages
 Cheapinsmallscal
eproducti
on.
 I
ncreaseswaterandairi
nfi
lt
rat
ioni
ntothesoil
.
 I
ncorporat
escropsresi
duesint
othesoi
l.
 Theearthi
ng-
updonedur i
ngtil
l
ageencouragesrootgr
owt
h.
Di
sadvant
ages
 I
fdonerepeatedlyitdestroyssoil
struct
ure.
 I
tisl
abori
ousandex pensi
veinlargescal
eproducti
on.
 I
tmaynotef f
ectivelycontrolweeds.
 I
tmayleadtosoi lerosionandlossofsoilmoist
ure.
 Damagecropr oots.

Sl
ashi
ng/
Mowi
ng–
 Mechani
cal
remov
alofshoot
sfr
om weeds.

 I
tisef
fect
ivei
nthecont
rol
ofannual
weeds.
Upr
oot
ing
 I
tisdonewhent
hecropsaretoocl
ose
 Toall
owmechani
cal
culti
vat
ionorwher
eweedsar
escat
ter
ed.
Cul
tur
alWeedCont
rol
I
tinvol
vest
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
act
ices:
 Mulching.
 Covercroppi ng.
 Croprotation.
 Ti
mel yplanting.
 Useofcl eanseed/planti
ngmater
ial
s.
 Properspaci ng.
 Properseedbedpr eparati
on.
 Fl
ooding.
Bi
ologi
cal
WeedCont
rol
 Theuseofl
i
vingor
gani
smst
ocont
rol
weeds.
Exampl
esar
e:
 Useofl
iv
estockt
ograzeandcontrolgrowthofweedsespeci
all
yinpl
ant
ati
ons.
 Useofweedeati
ngfi
shtocontr
ol aquati
cweeds.
 Useofmothstocont
rolcact
us.
 Li
mi t
ati
ons:themethodisnotreli
able.
Legi
slat
iveWeedCont
rol
/Quar
ant
ine
 Iti
nvolv
esgov er
nmentlawsandregulat
ionswhi
chpreventthei
ntr
oducti
onand
spreadofforei
gnweedsinacountr
yoranar ea.DonebyKEPHIS.
 L i
mi t
ations:Onlysampl
esarecheckedwhilet
hebulkofthemateri
alsmay
havesomeweedseeds.

Cr
opPest
sandDi
seases

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Croppest
sanddiseasesleadtohi
ghl
ossesi
ncr
oppr
oduct
ionhenceef
fi
ci
ent
cont
rolmeasur
esareneeded.
 Pr
opercont
rol
measur
esr
equi
ret
hef
armer
stobeabl
eto;
 I
dent
if
ytheseor
gani
sms,
 Knowt
hei
rli
fecy
cles,
feedi
nghabi
ts
 Thedamaget
heycauset
ocr
ops.

Cr
opPest
s

Def
ini
ti
onofaPest
:
 I
tisaliv
ingor
gani
sm thatdestr
oyscrops/t
reesei
therdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyby
i
ntr
oduci
ngpat
hogens(
diseasecausi
nggerms).

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPest
s
Pest
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othef
oll
owi
ng:
 ModeofFeedi
ng
 Pestswithbi
tingandchewingmout hparts-theycausephysi
caldamageand
reducethephotosynt
heti
careaoftheplant.
 Pestswi t
hpierci
ngandsuckingmout hparts-t heysuckoutthenutr
it
ious
plantsapandintheprocessmayintroducediseasecausi
ngorgani
sms.
 Cr
opsAt
tacked
 Somecroppest
sat
tackspeci
fi
ccr
opsf
orex
ampl
e,st
em bor
erspr
efercer
eal
cr
ops.
 St
ageofGr
owt
hofCr
opsAt
tacked
 Therearepestsofseedli
ngsatt
ackwhenthecropisy
oung,
forex
ampl
e
cutworms.
 Pestsoffr
uit
s-attackthecropsatf
rui
ti
ngstage.
  Pest
sofgr
ainsat
tackt
hecr
opswhent
hegr
ainsar
efor
med.
 Fi
eldandSt
oragePest
s
 Somepestsat
tackt
hecr
opswhil
einthef
iel
d.
 Otherpest
sat
tackt
hepr
oduceaf
teri
thasbeenhar
vest
edandst
ored.

I
dent
if
icat
ionofCommonPest
s
NameofPest Cr
opAt
tacked DamageDone Cont
rolMeasur
es

Ar
mywor
ms ( Cereal Def
oli
atet
he (
i)Ear
lypl
ant
ing
i
( cr
ops
(
Spodopt
era )
i Sugarcane whol
epl
ant (
ii
)Useofef
fect
ivei
nsect
ici
des
i
exempt
a) ) (i
ii
)Grasses
Cutwor
ms Young Cuttheseedl
i
ngs(i)Earl
ypl anting
(
Agr
oti
sSpp.
) seedli
ngs atthest
em base (
ii
)Useofsoi lapplied
i
nsec
(t
f
uici
de
migsants)
(i
ii
)Flood/ irr
igation
Bol
lwor
ms Cotton, Eatanddestr
oy (i
)Cr opr otati
on
(
Hel
i
athi
smi
ger
a) to
ci
tma
rust
o
,es,
mai
ze, thefr
uit
sand (i
i)Fieldhy giene
beans,
mil
l
et, seeds (i
ii
)Spr ay i
ngwi t
h
o
l
et
gh
uers
me i
(n
i
vs
)ec
et
ai
rc
li
d
ypes
l
anting
Mai
zest
alkbor
er Mai
zesor
ghum Dest
ruct
ionofthe (
i)Ear lyplant i
ng
(
Busseol
afusca) st
em andy oung (
ii
)Fi eldhy giene
and gr
owingtissues (
ii
i)Cr opr otation
(
Chi
l
opar
tel
l
us) (
iv)Useofst alkbor erdust.
Looper
s Cof
fee Makewi ndowsi n (
i)Useofef fective
(
Ascot
issel
ena cropleaves i
n
(
is
i ectici
de
)Useofpar s. asiti
cwasps,
r
ia) b
ai
r
ndshamel
dc eons
LeafMi
ner Cof
fee Makemi n ( Useofpar
nesi asiti
cwasps
(Leucoptera theleaves i (
n atura l
enemi es)
meyrickiandL. reducing ) (
ii
)Useofef fect i
ve
caff
eina) photosynthet
ic i
nsect ici
des.
area.
St
ainer
s Cot
ton Stainthecoton ( Useofpar
t asiti
ct achini
d
(
Dysder
cusspp.
) l
intreducing i
( f
Sl
i
pe
rs
ay ingwi thi nsecti
cides.
qualit
y )
i Cont
( rolalternat ehosts.
(
i Croprotati
on
Aphi
ds Sever
alcrops (i
)Transmi t i
)
( Natur
al enemi
esf
or
such v
i
i examp l
e,
(
Aphi
sspp.
) ascit
rus, vi
r al
diseases. l
adybirds
)
)
ma
coti
z
te
o,
n,beans. (i
i)Suckout (
ii
)Ov er
headirri
gati
on
cabbagesand sapleading (
ii
i)Useofinsecti
ci
des
others tostunted
growth.

Ot
herCr
opPest
sIncl
ude:
  Mealybugs-coffee
 Thri
ps-coffee
 Beet
les-fi
eldandstoragepests.
 Bi
rds -fi
eldpests-cereal
sandf r
uit
s.
 Rodents-f
ieldandstoragepests,
cereal
sandtuber
s.
 Nematodes-soilbornepests-tomatoes,
pot
atoes,
sunf
lower
,beans.
Har
mfulEf
fect
sofCr
opPest
s
 Pestssuchassqui rrel
sandr odents,unear
thplantedseeds,r esul
ti
nginpoor
germinat i
on.
 Somepest sl i
kenemat odes,termitesandmol esdamagecr opr ootscausi
ng
wilt
inganddeat hoft hecrops.
 Theyl owert hequal i
tyandquant i
tyoffarm pr
oduce.
 Theyi ncreaset hecostofpr oducti
onsincefarmerswilli
ncurexpensesi n
purchasingchemi calstocontrolthem.
 Theyt ransmi tdiseasestocropsf orexample,
aphidstransmitstreakvir
us
diseaseinmai ze.
 Chemi calsusedt ocontrolt
hepest scausepoll
uti
ont otheenvironment .
 Theyex t
ermi natethecropbyf eedingonthem forexampleeatingembr yoofthe
seed.

Cont
rolofPest
s
 Ifpestpopulat
ion causesdamagebey ond t
olerancet
hen i
tissai
dto have
reachedeconomicinjur
ylev
el(EI
L)hencecontrolmeasur
esshoul
dbeef
fected
beforet
hisl
evel
.
Bef
oreanycont
rolmeasur
eisef
fect
ed,
thef
oll
owi
ngshoul
dbeconsi
der
ed:
 Knowthelif
ecy cl
eoft hepest.
 Corr
ecti
dentifi
cat
ionoft hepest.
 Corr
ectassessmentoft hedamage.
 Theweatherconditions.
 Theval
ueoft hecropi nquest
ion.
 Thecostfact
oroft hecontrolmethod.

Met
hodsofCont
rol
l
ingt
hePest
s
 Cult
uralmethods.
 Physi
cal/mechanicalmeasur
es
 Bi
ologicalmethods.
 Chemical methods.
 I
ntegratedpestmanagement.
Cul
tur
alMet
hods:
 Thesearefarming pr
acti
ceswhi ch ai
m atr educi
ng thepestpopul
ati
on by
dest
royi
ng t
he li
fe cy
cle ofthe pests ei
therby exposi
ng t
hem to adver
se
condi
ti
onsordenyi
ngthem food.
Thesei
ncl
ude:
 Ti
mel
ypl
ant
ingt
oescapepestat
tack.
  Timel yhar vest i
ng.
 Propert ill
age.
 Closeseason: thisist heperiodwhenasuscept iblecr opisnotgr owni nor dert o
cont rol acer tainpest .
 Tr apcr oppi ng:Thesear ecr opswhi chat tr
actpest sdivertingt hem f r
om t he
mai ncr op. Thet rapcr opisgr ownt ogetherwi t
ht hemai ncrop.
 Cr opr ot at i
on:I tbreakst hel i
fecy cleofthepest .
 Plant ing r esi stantvar i
et i
es:These ar e pl ants wi t
h nat ur alpr otective
mechani smsagai nstpestf orex ampl ehai r
ycot tonagai nstjassidbugs,goose
neckedsor ghum agai nstbi r
ds,hi ghtil
leri
ngi nsor ghum agai nstshootf ly.
 Field hygi ene:Thi si ncludes r ogueing and r emov alofcr op r esidues whi ch
har bourpest sf rom field.
 Alt erat ionsofenvi ronment al condi ti
ons,suchas,cr eatinga
mi cro¬cl imat ewhi chi snotconduci vetopest sf orex ampleopenpr uningi n
cof fee.
 Cr opnut rit
ion:appl icat
ionoff erti
l
izersandmanur estomaket hecr opst rong
andabl et oescapepestat t
acks.
 De struct i
on ofal ternat ehost s,f orex ampl e,weeds l ike mal low whi ch
har bourcot tonst ainers.
 Us eofcl eanpl ant ingmat er ials.Thishel pst opr eventint r
oduct ionofcr op
pest s.
 Properspaci ng:i fwel lspacedsomepest sfindi tdiff
icul
ttomov ef rom onepl ant
toanot her .
 Us eofor gani cmanur e,f orex ampl e,farmy ard manur edi scour ageseel
wor ms( nemat odes) .
Chemi
calCont
rol
 Chemical
susedt
ocontrolpest
sareknownaspest
ici
des.
 Pest
ici
desar
eadmini
steredthr
oughdusti
ng,
spr
ayi
ngorfumi
gat
ing.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPest
ici
des:
Pest
ici
desar
ecl
assi
fi
edont
hebasi
sof
:
ModeofEnt
ry
 Stomach-ingestedbythepesttoget
herwi t
hthecr
opmat
eri
als.
 Contact-absor
bedthroughthebodytissues.
 Fumigants-thr
oughthebreathingmechanism.
 Syst
emi c-tr
ansl
ocatedtoal
l part
s.
ModeofAct
ion
 Respir
atorypoi
sons-i nt
erf
erewithbreathingmechanisms.
 Coagulant
s-causet hebloodofthepestt ocoagulate.
 Neurotoxi
ns-actont henervoussyst
em.
 Prot
oplasmicpoisons-causet hecel
l
st odi si
ntegr
ate.
Tar
getPest
s
 I
nsecti
cides-kil
li
nsectpests
 Moll
uscicides-ki
llsnai
lsandsl
ugs.
 Rodent
icides-kil
lrodents.
  Nemat
oci
des-ki
l
lnemat
odes.
For
mul
ati
on.
 Dusts,granulesandpowders
 Emulsifi
ableconcentr
ates.
 Miscibl
eliqui
ds.
 Wettablepowder s.
 Fumigant s.
Fact
orsThatAf
fectt
heEf
fi
ciencyofPest
ici
des
 Concent rati
onofthepestici
des.
 Weat hercondit
ionsatthet i
meofappl i
cati
on.
 Timing ofappl icat
ion -effi
ciencyishigh ifappli
ed when t
hepesti
smost
suscept i
ble.
 Persistenceofthepesti
cidehav i
nglongresi
dualef
fecti
nthesoi
l.
 Resistanceofthepests.
Advant
agesofChemi
calPestCont
rol
 Fast
er
 Immediat
eresul
tsar
eachi
eved.
 Lowlabourr
equi
rement
s.
Di
sadvant
agesofChemi
calPestCont
rol
 Expensiv
et obuy .
 Causepol l
utiontotheenvi
ronment.
 Requir
eski l
ledlabourt
oapply.
 Somepest icidesmaykill
benefi
ci
alorgani
smsandpr
edat
ors.
 Somet argetpestsmaybui l
dupresi
stance.
Mechani
calPestCont
rol
/Physi
cal
 Thi
sinvolv
estheki
ll
ingofthepest
susingphysi
cal
met hods.
 Orcreat
ingphysi
calbarr
ierst
opreventpest
sfrom gett
ingi
ntocont
actwi
tht
he
cr
ops.
Exampl
e:
 Fl
oodi ng/
irri
gation; f
orex ampl e,mol esar esuf
focatedthroughf l
ooding.
 Useofl et
hal t
emper atures: ei
thertoocol dortoohot .
 Suffocati
on;commonl yusedi ngrainst oragebi
nsbybei ngmadeai rtight.
 Trappingandki ll
ing,forex ampl e,r
at s.
 Creationofphy sicalbar r
iers,suchas, ratbaffl
ers,sti
ckymat eri
alsont reetr
unks.
 Properdrying:thismakest hem t oohar dt obedest r
oyedbypest s.
 Scaringdev i
cesespeci al
lyinr i
cepl antati
onstocont r
olbirds.
 Useofex plosiv
est hrownatbr eedingpl acesofbir
dst okil
l orscarethem away.
Bi
ologi
calPestCont
rol
 I
tinv
olv
est
heuseofl
i
vingor
gani
smst
oreducet
hepestpopul
ati
on.
Pr
edat
or Tar
getPest
 Parasi
ti
cwasp---
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
Whi t
efl
yinci
trus,
bol
lworms,st
alkbor
ers
 Bir
ds--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
--
-Cricket
s,l
ocusts,
cat
erpi
l
larl
l
ars.
 LadyBird--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
---
--
---
-Aphids
  Trachnidfli
es---
--
--
---
--
---
---
-cot t
onst ai
ner
 Prayingmant i
s--
---
--
--
---
---
--
gi antloppers
 Majimot oants--
--
---
--
--
----
--
scal es
 Cats- -
--
--
---
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
----
--
--
--mol es,
rats,
mice
 Brachonidwasps- -
--
---
---
--
-meal ybugs
 Chicken- -
--
--
--
--
--
---
cottonst ainer,l
arvaeofbeet
les,
grasshopper
s,cr
icket
s

Advant
ages
 Cheap
 Noenvir
onmentalpol
l
uti
on
 Savesonlabour
.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Takest
oolongtogett
hecorrectagent
 Dif
fi
cul
ttocont
rol
thepestef
fecti
vely
.

I
ntegr
atedPestManagement
 Iti
sanewmet hodwhi chinvol
vesthecombinat
ionofthemethodsmenti
oned
above.
 Theaimistohaveleasthazardstotheuserandtotheenvi
ronment
.
 Example,
att
ract
ant-pheromonesareusedtoattr
actpestst
ooneplacewher
e
theyar
esprayedander adi
cated.

Legi
slat
iveMet
hod/
Quar
ant
ine
 Legisl
ati
vemear
suresofpestcontrol
areeff
ectedbyt heKeny
aPl
antHeal
th
Inspect
orat
eSer
vice(
KEPHIS)throughseedinspect
ion.
Cr
opDi
seaseAndThei
rCont
rol
 Adiseasei
sanydev i
ati
onfr
om thenor malperf
ormanceorfunct
ions.
 Aplantdi
seaseisanyharmfulphy si
ologi
caldi
sorderi
naplantcausedby
pat
hogenicagentssuchasvir
us, bacteri
a,f
ungi.
 Thestudyofplantdi
seasei
scalledplantpathol
ogy.
Economi
cimpor
tanceofcr
opdi
seases
 Theyl
owercr opyiel
d
 Theyreducethequali
tyoft
heproducethusreduci
ngt heirmarketv
alue
 Theycausefoodpoisoni
ng.E.
gergotinwheat,aff
lat
ox i
ningraincr
opsbyf
ungus.
 Theyreducephotosynt
heti
car
eaoft hepl
ant.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionandi
dent
if
icat
ionofpl
antdi
sease
 Pl
antdi
seasear
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othei
rcausal
agent
s;
Fungaldi
seases;
 Fungi
arenon-gr
eenpl
ant
-l
ike.
 Someareparasi
ti
candot
hersaresapr
ophy
tic.
Par
asi
ti
cfungidi
vi
dedi
nto;
 Obl
i
gat
epar
asi
tes-t
hoset
hatdependonot
herl
i
vingor
gani
smsf
orf
ood.
 Fal
cul
tat
ivepar
asi
tes-
thoset
hatar
eabl
etol
i
veonbot
hthel
i
vinganddead
t
issues.
Examplesoffungaldi sease
 Panamadi sease( Fusarium oxysperium—bananas)
 Cigar-
endr ot(Ver ti
ci
li
um theobr omae) -
bananas
 Dieback–at t
ackt heti
psofshoot sandr oots
 Mildews-f
oliardi seaseofsev eralcrops
 Armill
ari
arootr ot(Armill
ari
amel l
ea)-
coffeeandt ea
 Dampi ngoff-diseaseofseedl ingsi nthenur sery
 Anthracnose( Col let
otr
ichum spp) -
coffee,beans,
tomat
oes.
  Fungusalsocausedamaget ost
oredgr
ainswhi
charenotproperl
ydr
iedorift
he
st
oreisdamp.
 Funguscausefoodpoisoni
ngandlowerseedvi
abi
l
ityf
orexampleAspergi
l
lus
fl
avuswhichproducesahighlyt
oxi
ccompoundcaleda
l ffl
atoxin.
Exampl
esoff
ungaldi
sease
Disease/caus Cropsattacked Sy
mpt
omsofat
tack Cont
rolmeasur
es
e
Lateblight Member sof Drypat
chesonthe -
Cr opr ot
ation
(Phytopthor
a Sol anaceae l
eavesandfr
uit
s -
effectivefungici
des
i
nfestans) family (
necrot
icl
esi
ons) -
treatedseeds
(potat
oes, -
resistantvari
et i
es
tomatos)
Rusts(Pucini
a Rice,wheat, Redandbr own -resistantv ari
eties
spp) sorghum, maiz
e pi
stulesont he -Recommended
l
eav es,shri
vel
ed fungi cides
grains -Ear lyplant ing
Smut Ust
s( il
ag Wheat,mai
ze, Blackpowdermass -Fieldhy giene,
ospp) sugar
cane ont hespikesandt
he -cer ti
fiedseeds,
ear -resistantv ari
eties,
-cropr otation
Bl s(
ast Pi
ri
cul
a Ri
ce -Smal lbluespor tson -Seeddr essing
r
iaor
yzae) l
eav eswi thgr ey -Resi stantv ari
etieseg
cent re. sindano
-Attacki nflorescence -Dest ruct i
onofaf f
ect
ed
tocause‘ ’
empt y plant s
heads’ ’ -fungi cides
Cof
feeBerr
y Cof
fee -Dar kbl otchesspot s -Resi stantv ari
etieseg
Di
sease(
CBD) on t hef l
ower s Rui ru11
(
Collet
otr
ichu -Brownconcent ri
c -Pr operpr uni ng
m coff
eanum) ri
ngsont hel eaves -Ef f
ect ivefungi cides
-Dar ksunken -strippung
woundsont he
berr i
es.

Bact
eri
alDi
seases
 Bacter
iaaremi cr
oscopicsingle-
cel
ledor
ganismswhichreproducebybinary
fi
ssi
on
 Transmi ssion;Thr oughi r
ri
gati
onwater,
seeds,f
erti
l
izer
s,manures,wind,
 rai
ndropsplash,i
nsects,soi
landmechanicalmeans.
Sympt
omsofBact
eri
alDi
seases
 Wil
ti
ng
 Canker
s(necr
oti
ct i
ssues)
locali
zednecr
osi
s
 Gal
lfor
mat i
onininfect
edtissues.

Exampl
esofbact
eri
aldi
seases
Cr
ops
Di
sease/
Cause Sympt
omsofAt
tack Cont
rolMeasur
es
At
tacked
 Hal
obl
i
ght Beans i
.Irregulardar klesionson 1 Useofr esi
stant
(Pseudomon leav esandpods. .vfari
et
orexi
es
ampleWai ri
mu. ,
as
phaseoli
col
a) i
i
. Yellowbandr oundthe i
i
.Effect
ivefungici
de.
lesionscal led"halo". i
i
i.Croprotati
on
i
i
i.Wat ersoakedl esions
Fusar
ium wi
l
tTomat
oes l
St untedgr owt h. i
.Useofr
esi
stantv
ari
eti
es.
(Fusar
ium .
i
i
. Yellowingandsheddi ng
oxysporum) ofleaves.
i
i
i.Wilt
ingoft
hepl
ant
.
Bl
ackar
m Cot
ton i
.Smal l
r oundspotsonthe i
.Fi
el
dhygiene.
(
Ant
homonas cotyl
edonsofy oung i
i
.Useofcerti
fi
edseeds.
mal
vacear
um seedli
ngs.
) i
i
. Thespot selongat
eto
form blacklesionsont
he
stem.
Bacteri
al tTomat
wi
l oes Uni
form.wi
lt
ingoft
hewhol
ei.Useofcer
ti
fi
edseeds.
( and
Pseudomon pot
atoes pl
antevenwi
thenough i
i
.Croprot
ati
on.
ao
ssl
anacear
u water
.
m)

Vi
ral
Diseases
 Vi
rusesaresmal l
li
vingor
ganismswhichcanonl ybeseenunderaver
ypowerf
ul
el
ectroni
cmi cr
oscope.
 Vi
rusesinter
ferewit
hphotosy
nthesi
s,respi
rat
ion,t
ranspi
rat
ionandni
tr
ogen
ut
il
izati
on
Sympt
omsofVi
ralI
nfect
ion
 Leafchl
or osis.
 Leafcurl
ing.
 Mosaic(l
i
ghtgr eenoryel
lowpat
ches).
 Malfor
mat ion(dist
ort
ion)
ofpl
antpar
ts.
 Rosett
es; Dev el
opmentofabnormal
lyshor
tint
ernode.
Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Thr
oughtheuseofinf
ect
edveget
ati
vemat
eri
alsandi
nsectv
ect
orsl
i
keaphi
ds,
mealy
bugsandleaf
hopper
s.

Vi
raldi
seases

Di
sease/
Caucr
ops
Sympt
omsofAt
tack Cont
rolMeasur
es
se At
tacked
Ratt
on Sugarcane Reddiscol
orat
ionont
he I Useofcl eanmat er
ial
s.
st
unti
ng vascu
bundll
ar
es. .
1 Treat
mentofseed
1 canes.
Maizestr
eak Mai
z e Yellowstri
pesal t
ernati
ngwi th i. Controll
eafhopper .
green,paral
lel
t othemi dri
b. .
i
i
.Useifcertifi
edseeds.
i
i
i.Fi
eldsanitati
on.
Greeni
ng Ci
tr
us i
.Yel l
owmot tl
ingoft heleaves. i
,Useofcleant ool
swhen
di
sease i Di eback. budding.
i
ii
. Prematur
eleaff al
l. 1 Controlofinsect
Leafmosaic Suz .
garcane, i
.Yel l
owmot tl
ing. 1 vect
i Conto
rrs
ol.
ofaphids.
.
.
 cassava. I Necr
osisofst
em. i
i
.Useofcleanmat eri
als.
pot
swea
et
o
tes. I i Seedtreatment.
Tr
ist
eza Cit
rus . Dwar
I f
ingof i
i
.St
ri
ppingaffect
edfruits.
. pl
ant
s. i
i Di
eback. i
i
.Useofcleanequipment
.
i
ofbudding.
.

Ot
herCausesofCr
opDi
seases
 Fl
oodingf ormingammoni awhichi
spoisonoustot hecropscausi
ngabur
ning
ef
fectonleav es.
 Chemicals:somemaybet ox
ic.
 Poorweat her:Ex
tremesofdayandni
ghttemper
atures.
 Str
ess:suchasi rr
egularwat
eri
ngasi
ntomatoblossom endrot.
Cont
rolofCr
opDi
seases
 Cult
ural method:Thisinvol
vesuseof
 Healt
hypl antingmat er
ial
s.
 Practi
cingf i
eldhygi
ene.
 Properseedbedpr eparati
on.
 Properspaci ng.
 Heattreatmentoft heplanti
ngmat er
ial
sforexampl
esugarcane.
 Properdryingofcer eal
sandpulsesto13%M. C.
 Growingdi seaseresist
antvari
eti
es.
Legi
slat
iveMet
hod
 Inv
olvestheimposi
ngofregul
ati
onsandlawsespecial
lyincaseofdi
sease
outbr
eakstopr
eventt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionandspr
eadofdi
seases.
Chemi
calCont
rol
 Usedasal
astr
esor
t.
Chemi
calcont
rolmeasur
esi
ncl
ude:
 Seeddressi
ngbeforeplanti
ng.
 Soilf
umigati
ontocontrolsoi
l bornedi
seases.
 Sprayi
ng:appl
icat
ionoffungicides.

Cr
opPr
oduct
ionVI

(
Fiel
dPr
act
icesI
I)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Ther
ear
emanycr
opscul
ti
vat
edi
nKeny
a.
 These cr
ops ar
e gr
own f
orv
ari
ous uses and r
equi
re di
ff
erentecol
ogi
cal
 condi
ti
ons.
Def
ini
ti
ons:
 Hybri
ds-Thesear
ecr
opvari
eti
esdev
elopedbycrossi
ngtwopurel
i
nes.
 Composit
es-Thesear
ecropvari
eti
esdevel
opedthr
oughrepeat
ed
massselecti
on.
 Cul
ti
var
s-thesear
ev ari
eti
esofcr
opswhi
char
ecul
ti
vat
edi
nagi
venar
ea.
Mai
ze
 Maingrowi
ngar
eas:Tr
ans-
Nzoi
a,Nakur
u,Uasi
nGi
shu,
Lai
ki
piadi
str
ict
sand
ot
hers.
 Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Alt
itude:Upto2000m abov esealevel.
 Temper ature:About25°C
 Soil
s:Freelydraini
ng,fer
ti
leloam soi
ls.
 Rainfal
l:750-12S0rnm cri
ti
calatsil
ki
ngandpol
l
inat
ionst
age.
 Var
iet
ies
 Highalti
tudeareas:Hybri
ds611, 613and614C.
 Medium alti
tudeareas:511,512,
622and632.
 Marginalrai
nfal
lareas:Katumani composi
teandMakuenicomposi
te.
 Coastregions:Coastcomposi t
eandKat umanicomposi
te.
SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
 Pl
oughingshoul
dbedeepanddonedur ingthedr
yseasont oeradi
cateweeds.
 Requi
remedium ti
lt
h.
 Pl
antspaci
ng75-90cm x20-30cm.
 Pl
anti
ngdoneattheonsetoftherai
ns.Thi
shelpstoreducepestatt
ack.
 Drypl
anti
nginareaswit
hinadequat
erainf
alli
snecessar
y.
Fi
eldMai
ntenance:
 Applyphosphati
cfert
il
iz
erdur i
ngpl
anti
ngatar ateof120kg/haP2O5
 Alsonit
rogenousfer
ti
li
zersastopdressattherateof200kgofASNorCAN.
 Controlweedsbycul t
ivat
ion,useofappropri
ateherbi
cides,upr
oot
ing,sl
ashi
ng
andmul chi
ng.

PestCont
rol
 Mai
zeSt
alkBor
er:
 Nat ur
eofdamage:Bor ingtheleavescausi
ngwindowingeff
ect,bor
ingt
he
stemsandcobs.
 Cont r
ol:Destr
uct
ionofprev
iousyearscr
opresi
due,cl
osedseasonandappl
y
chemi cal
s
 Ma izeWeevi ls:
 itisast oragepest.
  Damage:Boresholesint
othemaizegrains,
eat
ingthecont
ent
s.
 Cont
rol
:Properhygieneandsani
tat
ioninthest
ores.
 Useofchemical
ssuchasAct el
li
cSuper.
Di
seaseCont
rol
:
 Rust
 Cause:Fungus.
 Symptoms:Redorbr ownpustul
esont
he.
leaves.
 Contr
ol:Pl
antresi
stantv
ari
eti
esandcr
oprot
ati
on.

 Smut
s
 Cause: Fungus
 Symptoms:Bl acksootymassofsporesonmaiz eheadsorcobs(ear
).
 Cont
rol:Cropr ot
ati
on,gr
owingresi
stantvar
iet
iesanddestruct
ionofaff
ect
ed
pl
antpar t
s.
 Mai
zeSt
reakVi
rus
 Cause:Vir
us
 Symptoms:Yel l
owlongit
udinalst
ri
pespar
all
elt
ot hemi
dri
b.
 Contr
ol:Cert
if
iedseed,earl
yplant
ingandr
ogueing.
Har
vest
ing
 Harvestthecrop3-9monthsaft
erplant
ingdependingonvar
iet
y.
 Maizestalksarecutandst
ockedinthefield.
 Cobsr emovedbyhand.
 Forlar
gescaleharvesti
ng,
combinedhar vester
sar
eused.
 Yi
eldsabout3,OOOkgand4500kg/ ha.
Bul
rushMi
l
let
Ar
easwher
egr
own:
 Lowerar
easofKir
iny
aga,
 Embu,
 Meru,
 Part
sofMachakos
 Keri
oVal
ley
.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Al
ti
tude:Doeswelli
nareasbel
ow1200m.
 Rai
nfall
:500-
600mrnperannum.
 Soi
ls:Li
ghtsandysoi
ls.
 Var
ieti
es:Ser
ere2A,3A,6A,
17,16/
9
SeedBedPr
epar
ati
ons
Pl
oughingoflanddur
ingthedryseason.
Soi
lshouldbeoffi
netil
thsi
ncetheseedsar
esmal
l
.
Pl
ant
ing:
 Doneattheonsetoft
herains.
 Pl
antedbybroadcast
ingandrowpl
ant
ingataspaci
ngof60cm x15cm.
Fi
eldMai
ntenance:
 Weedingisdoneunt
ilt
il
ler
ing.
 Top-
dressi
ngisdonebyuseofsul
phat
eofammoni
a.

PestCont
rol
Bi
rds
 Natur
eofDamage:Eat st
heseedsatmi
l
kyst
age.
 Contr
ol:Bi
rdscar
ingdevi
ces.
Di
seaseCont
rol
Er
got
 Cause:Fungus.
 Symptoms:Headsbecomest i
cky.
 Contr
ol:Useofcer
ti
fi
edseeds,cr
oprot
ati
onanddest
ruct
ionofaf
fect
edcr
ops.
DownyMi
l
dew
 Cause:Fungus.
 Symptoms:Long, whit
ishl
i
nesonthel
eaves.
 Contr
ol:Croprot
ationandfi
el
dhygi
ene.
Har
vest
ing
 Donebycut ti
ngofftheheads.
 Dryi
ngoft heheads.
 Threshi
ngandwi nnowingofthegrains.
 Storedunderwellventi
l
ateddrycondit
ions.
 Yi
eldsabout1000kg/ hawit
hgoodmanagement.
Fi
ngerMi
l
let
 Ar
easwher
egr
own:West
ernKeny
aandUganda.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Al
ti
tude:0-
2400m abov
eseal
evel
.
 Rai
nfal
l
:900mm, dr
oughtresi
stanti
ntheear
lyst
ages.
 Soi
l
s:Freedr
aini
ngfer
ti
lesoil
s.
Var
iet
ies:
 Serer
ev ari
eti
esdev
elopedatSer
erei
nUganda.
 Ult
ralupin
 5.
18oat s.

LandPr
epar
ati
ons
 Theseedbedshoul
dbet
hor
oughl
ypr
epar
edt
oaf
inet
il
thduet
othesmal
lsi
zeof
theseeds.
  I
tal
sohel
pst
ocont
rol
weeds.

Fi
eldOper
ati
ons
Pl
ant
ing
 Fingermill
etshouldbeplantedasearl
yaspossi
blei
ntheseason.
 I
tisusuallybroadcast
edbyhand.
 I
fpl ant
edinrows, t
hefurrowsshouldbe30-
33cm apartandt
heplant
sshoul
dbe
thinnedto5cm apartwit
hintherows.
Fer
ti
li
zerAppl
i
cat
ion
 Sulphat
eofammoni
aatt
her
ateof125k
g/hai
srecommendedf
ort
opdr
essi
ng
fi
ngermill
et.
WeedCont
rol
 Cl
eanseedbedpr
epar
ati
on
 Upr
ooti
ng
PestCont
rol
:
 Bi
rdsar
econt
rol
l
edt
hroughscar
ing.
Di
seaseCont
rol
Headbl
ast:
 Cause:Fungus
 Symptoms:Brownspot
swi
thgr
eycent
resont
hel
eav
esandst
emsbel
ow t
he
i
nfl
orescence.
 Cont
rol:Useofresi
stantv
ari
eti
es.

Har
vest
ing
 I
ndivi
dualheadsarecutwithkni
ves.
 Headsaredried,t
hreshedandwinnowed.
 Yi
elds1650kg/ hawithgoodmanagement.

Sor
ghum
 I
tisgr
owninWest
ern,nor
ther
n,Ri
ftVal
l
ey,East
ernandsomepar
tsofCent
ral
Pr
ovi
nce.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Al
ti
tude:0-1500m abovesealevel
.
 Rai
nfal
l:420-630mm. I
tisdroughtresi
stant
.
 Soi
l
s:Fairl
yf er
ti
leandwelldrai
nedsoil
s.
Var
iet
ies
 Dobbsv
ari
ety.
 Ser
enavar
iet
y.
Fi
eldOper
ati
ons

Pl
ant
ing
 Broadcasti
ngtheseedsont hef
ir
mlypreparedseedbed.
 I
ntercroppedwit
hothercropsespeci
al
lymai z
eandbeans.
 Canbepl antedi
npurestandsataspacingof60cm x1 5cm
Fer
ti
li
zerAppl
i
cat
ion
 Respondswel
ltofar
myardmanur
e(FYM).
 I
norgani
cfer
ti
li
zer
sarenotcommonl
yusedingr
owi
ngsor
ghum.
PestCont
rol
 Bi
rdpest
s:Theyar
ethemostcommonsor
ghum pest
s.
 Theyi
ncl
ude
 quelea,
 aethiopi
ca(SudanDi
och)
,
 weaverbirds,
 starl
ingbir
d
 bishop'sbir
d.
 Theyar
econt
rol
l
edt
hrough;
 kill
ingthem usingexplosives,
 poi sonsprayingintheirbreedingpl aces
 useoff lamethr owers.
 Sorghum shoot -
fl
ycont r
oll
edbyear l
ypl anti
ng,closedseasonandappl
i
cat
ionof
i
nsectici
des.
 Stem borer-control
byuseofi nsect
icidesandf iel
dhy gi
ene.

Di
seaseCont
rol
Commonsor
ghum di
seasesi
ncl
ude:
 Leafbli
ght
 Anthracnose.
 Sootystri
pe.
 Loosesmut
 Headsmut
Smut
sarecontr
oll
edbyseeddr
essi
ng-
whi
l
etheot
herdi
seasesar
econt
rol
l
edby
gr
owi
ngr
esi
stantvari
eti
es.
Har
vest
ing
 Sorghum i
sr eadyforhar
vest
ing3-
4monthsaft
erplanti
ng.
 Headsar ecutof fusi
ngashar pkni
feaf
terwhichtheyaresun-
dri
ed,t
hreshed,
winnowedandst ored.
 Upt o3000kg/hectar
ecanbeobtai
nedwit
hgoodmanagement .
Beans
 Gr
owni
nal
lpr
ovi
nceswher
emai
zei
sgr
own.
Ecol
ogi
calRequi
rement
s
 Al
ti
tude:10.00-2100met
resaboveseal
evel
.
 Rai
nfall
:Averageof62Smm perannum.
 Soi
ls:Welldrai
nedloamysoi
lsri
chinor
gani
cmat
ter
.
Var
iet
ies
Var
iet
iesf
ordr
ybeans:
 RoseCoco,
 Mwez
iMoj
a,
 Canadi
anWonder
,
 Wai
ri
mu,
 Har
icot
,
 Mwi
temani
a.
Var
iet
yforcanni
ng:Mexi
can142.
Var
iet
iesf
orFrenchBeans:
 Pri
meur,
 LongTom,
 Saza,
 MasterPi
ece
 Monel.
SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
 Landshoul
dbeprepar
edearl
y.
 Pri
maryandsecondar
ycul
ti
vati
ondonet
ocont
rol
per
enni
alweeds.
SeedSel
ect
ionandTr
eat
ment
 Sel
ectwholesomeseedsf r
eefr
om damageandwrinkl
es.
 Seedsaredressedagai
nstbeanfl
y.
 Seedsshouldbeinocul
atedwit
happropr
iat
ebact
eri
a(nonedr
essedseeds)
Pl
ant
ing
 Pl
antedatt
heonsetofther
ains.
 Spaci
ng30-45cm x15cm.
 Appl
yphosphat
icf
ert
il
iz
erdur
ingpl
ant
ingt
ime.
 Pl
ant2-
4seedsperhol
e.
Fi
eldMai
ntenance
 Prov
idesti
cksforthecli
mbingvari
eti
es.
 Contr
olofweedsthroughshall
owculti
vati
on.
 Top-
dresswit
hni t
rogenousfer
ti
li
zerf
orexampleCAN.
Pest
Contr
ol
 Bean-Fl
y
 Natur
eofdamage:Feedsonthestemscausingswell
i
ngatt
heroots.
 Thi
sresult
sinwil
ti
nganddeath.
 Contr
ol:Dr
essi
ngofseeds,
earl
yplant
ingandspray
ingwi
thi
nsecti
cides.
 BeanBr
uchi
d(St
oragePest
)
 Natur
eofdamage:Makedarkcir
cularwi
ndowsont hegr
ains.
 Contr
ol:Cl
eanst
ores,
fumi
gati
on,andseeddressi
ng.

Di
seasesCont
rol
 BeanAnthr
acnose
 Cause' Fungus
 Sy mptoms:Brownorbl ackl
esionsontheundersi
deofthel
eaves,
podsand
stems.
 Control:Growi
ngresist
antvar
ieti
es,cr
oprotat
ion,
dest
ructi
onofcropr
esi
dues
andspr ayi
ngwithfungici
des.

 BeanRust
 Cause:Fungus
 Symptoms:Redbrownpustul
esonthel
eaves.
 Contr
ol:Pl
anti
ngr
esist
antv
ari
eti
esandspr
ay i
ngcopperf
ungi
ci
des.
Har
vest
ing
 Donedur i
ngthedr yseasonf ordrybeansandwhenthepodsar
edr
y.
 Threshi
ngandwi nnowi ngdone.
 Sorti
ngofrotten,offtypesanddamagedones.
 Sol
dt oNationalCerealsandPr oduceBoardwhendry.
 ForFrenchbeans, pickt hepodswhensoftandgr
een.
 Marketimmedi at
elyt oav oi
dshri
vel
li
ng.

Ri
cePr
oduct
ion
Ar
easwher
egr
own;
 MweaTaber eIr
rigat
ionScheme
 AheroPil
otSchemei nKanoplai
ns.
 Bunyalai
nBusia.
 BurainTanaRiver.
LandPr
epar
ati
on
 Pl
otsof0.4hectarearemadewi thbundsconstr
uctedaroundt
hem.
 Pl
otsarefloodedforfourday
s.
 Rot
av at
ors/j
embesar eusedtoworkthefl
oodedf i
eldsonthef
if
thday
.
 Thelandisthenlevel
l
edandal l
owedtodrain.
Wat
erCont
rol
 Duri
ngl andpr epar
ation,wat erlev el
shouldbeabout7. 5-10cm.
 Duri
ngl evelli
ngwaterlevel shoul dbe5cm
 Waterisdr ainedoffcompl etelyfordirectsowing.
 Fortr
anspl antedri
ce, waterlevel shouldbe5cm att r
anspl anti
ng.
 Waterlevel shoul
dbemai ntainedat1/ 3theheightofpl antunti
lmatur
it
y.
 Watershoul dbeallowedt of lowsl owlythroughthefields.
 Oldwatershoul dbechangedev ery2-3weeksi ftheflowofwat eri
snotpossi
ble.
 Waterintroducedshoul dalway sbewar mtoensur epol l
inat
ion.
Fer
ti
li
zerAppl
i
cat
ion
 S.Aappli
edint
henur sery.
 Rateof25kgSAforev erynurseryunitof18.5m x18.
5m.
 Phosphati
cfer
ti
li
zersbroadcastedint hefi
el
d.
 Rateof120kghaDSPbef oreplanti
ng.
 S.Aappli
edint
hef i
eldintwospl i
tsbeforeandaftert
ranspl
ant
ingatar
ateof
250kg/ha
Fl
oodi
ngi
nRi
ce
Fl
oodwat
eri
nri
cepr
oduct
ioni
simpor
tantf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;
 I
tprovi
desgoodconditi
onsf
orgr
owt
hsuchashi
ghhumi
dit
y.
 Ki
ll
ssoilor
gani
sms.
 Pr
eventsdeni
tr
if
icat
ion.
WeedCont
rol
 Cont
rol
l
edt hr
oughfl
oodi
ng.
 Appr
opri
ateherbi
ci
dessuchaspr
opani
landbut
achl
orar
eal
soused.
Har
vest
ingofI
ndust
ri
alCr
ops
 cot
ton,
pyr
ethr
um,
sugar
cane,
cof
feeandt
ea.

Har
vest
ingofCot
ton

St
ageofhar
vest
ing
 Takes4mont hst
omat ur
e.
 Harvestwhenbol
lsar
edryandf
ull
yopened.

Met
hodandPr
ocedur
e
 I
nKeny acottoni
spickedmanually
.
 Sortoutgr
adeAR( safi
)fr
om gradeBR
 (f
if
i)i
ntoseparat
econtai
ners.
Pr
ecaut
ions
 Harv
estduri
ngdrycondi
ti
onstopreventdir
ti
fyi
ngthel
i
nt.
 Avoi
duseofgunnybagstopreventcontaminat
ion.
 Avoi
dpicki
ngleav
es.
 Harv
estonweeklybasi
s.
Har
vest
ingofPyr
ethr
um
St
ageofhar
vest
ing
 Takes3-4monthstomature.
 Harvestt
hef
lowerswit
hdiscflor
etswhi
chhav
eassumedahor
izont
alposi
ti
on.
Met
hodsandPr
ocedur
e
 Pyr
ethr
um i
spickedmanual
ly.
 Fl
owersar
epickedbyt
wisti
ngtheheadssot
hatnost
em i
sat
tached.
Pr
ecaut
ion
 Cl
eanharv esti
ngshoul dbedone.
 Avoi
dpickingleav es.
 Fl
owersar eplacedi nwov enbasket
s.
 Over
blownf lowersar epickedandthrownoff
.
 Pi
cktheflower swhent hedewisdry.
 Harv
estedf l
ower sshoul dbetakentothef
actor
ythesameday.
 Avoi
dcompact ionofflowersinthebasket
.
 Harv
esti
ngi nt
er v
al,oncei ntwoweeksdur i
ngthewetseasonandoncei
na
monthdur i
ngt hedr yseason.
Har
vest
ingSugar
cane
St
ageofhar
vest
ing;
 Take14-
20mont
hsf
ort
hepl
antcr
opt
omat
ureand12-
16mont
hsf
ort
her
atoon
crop.
 Sampli
ng ofcanei
sdonebef
orehar
vest
ing t
o ascer
tai
nthecor
rectsugar
cont
ent.
Met
hodsandPr
ocedur
es
 Cutthecaneatthegroundlevelt
oav oi
dy i
el
dloss.
 Thegreentopsareremov edfr
om thecanes.
 Harv
estingmatchetisusedforcutt
ingthecane.
Pr
ecaut
ion
 Caneshouldbehar v
estedimmedi atel
yatmat ur
it
ytoavoidl
oweri
ngqual
i
ty.
 Thegr eentopsshouldber emovedi mmediatel
yaftercut
ti
ngtoavoi
dreduct
ion
ofsugarcontentbyenzymei nver
tase.
 Burntcaneshouldbeharvestedimmedi at
elyaft
erburni
ngtopr
eventr
api
d
i
nversi
ont omonosaccharides.
 Thecaneshoul dbeprocessedwithin48hours.

Har
vest
ingofCof
fee

St
ageofhar
vest
ing;
 Takes2-4year
sdependingont
hepr
uni
ngsy
stem.
 Harvestonl
yri
peber
ries.
Met
hodsandPr
ocedur
es;
  Handpi
cki
ngi
sdonesot
hatr
ipeber
ri
escanbesel
ect
ed.
 Dur
ingpi
cki
nghookedst
ickscanbeusedt
obendt
het
all
trees.
Pr
ecaut
ions
 Onlyt
heunif
ormlyr
ipeber
ri
esshouldbepicked.
 Over-
ri
peandunder
-ri
peberr
iesshoul
dbedr i
edandsol
dasbuni.
 Ri
pecherr
iesshoul
dbeprocessedonthesamedaytheyar
epicked.

Har
vest
ingTea
St
ageofhar
vest
ing
 I
ttakes2-4year
sfort
eat
omat
uredependi
ngont
hemet
hodofbr
ingi
ngy
oung
t
eaintobear
ing.
Met
hodandPr
ocedur
es
 Teaharvesti
ngisknownaspl ucki
ng.
 Fi
neplucking-2leav esandabudar eremoved.
 Coar
sepl ucki
ng-3l eavesandabudar eremov ed.
 Astr
aightfit
to(
str
aightstick
)isusedtoguidethepluckeront
heplucki
ngt
abl
e.
 Ti
ppi
ngi sdonebycut t
ingoffshoot
sthatappearabovethefi
tt
o.
Pr
ecaut
ions
 Pluckedt eaisplacedinwov en(wellv
enti
lat
ed)basketstopreventf
erment
ing
beforeitreachesthefact
ory.
 Thepl uckedteashouldbek eptinacoolpl
aceawaiti
ngtranspor
t.
 Itshouldbepr ocessedwit
hint hesamedayofharvest
ing.
 Harvestingisdoneonaweekl ybasi
sunderwetconditi
onsandonceaf t
erev
ery
twoweeksunderdr ycondit
ions.
For
ageCr
ops
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Thesear eplantswhi cheit
hergrownat ural
lyorar ecult
ivat
edbymantobeused
forfeedi
ngl i
vestock .
 Thet ermf or
agecr opsincl
udepast ur
eandf oddercrops.
 Foddercr opsarepur posel
ygrownf orfeedinglivest
ock.
 Theyar ecutorupr ootedwhenr eady
 Pastureisagr oundcov erofgrassorami x
tureofgr assandlegumesgr
azed
dir
ectlyorcutandf edtoli
vest
ock.
Cl
assi
fi
cati
onofPast
ures
 Accor
dingt
otypeofst
and.
 Ei
therpure
 Mixedstands.
 Accor
dingt
oecol
ogi
cal
zones.
 Lowalt
it
ude,
 Medium al
ti
tude,
 Highal
ti
tudepastur
es
 Accordingt ot
heest abl
i
shment.
 Natural
 Art
ifi
cial
past
ures.
Exampl
esofgr
asses
  Napier,
 Rhodes,
 Set
ar i
a,
 Molasses,
 Congosignal
,
 ki
kuyu,
 st
ar,
 Guatemala,
 Sudan
 Guinea.
Exampl
esofl
egumes;
 Lucern,
 Clover,
 Desmodi um,
 Glyci
ne,
 Styl
o,
 Centri
o,
Past
ureEst
abl
i
shment
SeedbedPr
epar
ati
on
 Thisi
nvol
vescl
eari
ngtheland,pr
imar
yandsecondar
ycul
ti
vat
iont
oaf
inet
il
th
becauset
heseedsaresmall.
 Thisi
sdoneduri
ngthedryseason.
Sel
ect
ionofpl
ant
ingmat
eri
als
 Selectseedsofhighger
minati
onpercentage,
 Freef r
om impuri
ti
esorbuycert
ifi
edseeds.
 Ifvegetat
ivemateri
al
sareused,sel
ectfr
om highy
iel
ding,
vigor
ous-
growi
ngand
healthyplant
s.
Tr
eat
mentofl
egumeseeds
 Legumeseedsar
einocul
atedwi
tht
hecor
rectst
rai
nofbact
eri
awhi
chf
ixni
tr
ogen
fort
hecr
op.
Pl
anti
ng
 Thi
sisdoneatthebeginni
ngoft
her
ains
Methodsofsowi ngar e;
 Directsowing,
 Undersowi ng,
 Over -
sowing
Over
sowi
ng
Thi
sisi
ntr
oduct
ionofapast
urel
egumei
nanex
ist
inggr
asspast
ure.
Under
sowi
ng
Theest
abl
i
shmentofapast
urei
nanal
readyex
ist
ingcr
opwhi
chact
sasacov
er
cr
op.
Seedsr
atedepend;
 Onpur it
yofseeds,
 Pasturespecies
 Whet herpur
eormi xedst
and.
Applyphosphat
icfert
il
iz
erwhenpl
ant
ingandl
atert
op-
dresswi
thni
tr
ogenous
fer
ti
li
zer.
Past
uremanagement
 Re-
seedi
ngorgappi
ng;Re-
seedi
ngi
sdonei
fthegr
assi
scompl
etel
y
denudated.
 Butifpart
ial
l
y,gappi
ngcanbedone
 Co ntrolofweedsbysl ashi
ng,
upr
oot
ingandmowi
ng
  Fert
il
izationofpast ures-donebyuseofmanur esandnitr
ogenousfert
il
iz
er.
 Topping;Thisi
stheremov alofstemmyfibrousmat er
ial
lef
tbehi
ndafter
gr
azi
ng.I
tallowsnewgr owt
haf t
erther
ains
 Controlofpest s-
donebyt rappi
ngofmol es,useofpesti
ci
desandbiologi
cal
means.
Past
ureUt
il
izat
ion
 Past
uresshoul
dbeut
il
iz
edatmat
uri
tywhennut
ri
ti
vev
aluei
shi
gh.
I
tisut
il
izedt
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods:
 Dir
ectgrazi
ng-thi
scanbedonethr
oughrot
ati
onalgr
azi
ngorher
ding.
 Zerograzi
ng-t
hisiswher
ethepast
urei
scutandfedtot
heanimal
sinthe
st
all
s.

Commonf
odderCr
ops
Edi
bleCana
 Alt
itude:1500-2000m abovesealevel
.
 Establi
shment:Youngtubersorbulbsareused.
 Spacing:1m x1m.
 Management :Doeswellwithappl
icati
onoffarmyar
dmanur
eandr
equi
resf
ert
il
e
l
and.
 Uti
l
izat
ion:Topsandtubersaresl
i
cedandfedtoli
vest
ock.
 Conser
vation:Bul
bsortuber
saresli
cedandst
ored.
Napi
erGr
ass
 Alt
itude:0-2000m aboveseal
evel.
 Establi
shment:St
em cutti
ngsorspl
it
s.
 Spacing:1m x50cm.
Management
:
 Appl
yphosphat i
cfert
il
iz
ersduri
ngplanti
ngtime.
 Top-dr
esswi t
hnitr
ogenousfer
ti
li
zersinspli
tappl
i
cat
ion.
 Cl
eanweedi ngwheny oung.
 Cutwhen6- 8weeksor1m- 1.
5m inheight
.
 Uti
li
zati
on:Cutstem i
sfedtoli
vestock.
 Conservat
ion:Ensi
ledwheninplenty.
TypesofNapi
erGr
ass:
 Banagr ass(broad-
leavedwit
hhair
yleaves)
 Cl
one( thi
n-stemmedandhai rl
ess)
 FrenchCamer oon(thi
n-st
emmedandnothai r
y).
 Pakist
anhybr id(t
hin-l
eavedwi
thhair
yleaves)
.
 Usedforsilagemaki ng.
Lucer
ne
 Al
ti
tude:1500-2500m aboveseal
evel
.
 Soi
l:Deepredsoilareideal
.
 Est
abli
shment :I
noculatedseedsar epl
ant
ed30-50cm apar
tint
herows.
 Management :Weedingandf ert
il
iz
erappli
cat
ion.
 Uti
l
izati
on:Cutwilt
edandf edtolivest
ockbef
orefl
oweringst
age.
  Conser
vat
ion:Hay,
sil
age,
dri
edmat
eri
alssuchascubesorpenci
l
s.
Mangol
ds
 I
sar ootcrop.
 Rootisuti
l
izedasli
vest
ockf
eed.
 Ri
peonesar eused.
Kal
es
 Leav
esusedasl
i
vest
ockf
eeds.
Guat
emal
aGr
ass
 Leav
esandst
emsusedasl
i
vest
ockf
eed.
Sor
ghum Gr
ass
Twovar
iet
ies:
 Col
umbusgrass
 Sudangr
ass.
 Est
abl
ishedfrom seedswhi
charedr
il
ledorbroadcast
ed.
 Col
umbusgr assshouldbedri
edbeforefeedi
ngtoanimalst
oav
oidhy
drocy
ani
c
andpr
ussicacidpoisoni
ng.
Desmodi
um (
Desmodi
um spp)
Twovar
iet
ies;
 Gr
eenl
eaf
 Si
l
verl
eaf
.
 Est
abli
shedfrom seedsonthor
oughlyprepar
edcl
eanbeds.
 Canalsobeinter
-plant
edwit
hNapiergrass.
 Cutandwil
tedbef oref
eedi
ngtoli
vest
ock.
Agr
ofor
est
ry,
treesusedasf
oddercr
opsi
ncl
ude:
 Leucaenia
 Call
iandra
 Atr
iplex
 Sesbania.
For
ageConser
vat
ion
For
agecanbeconser
vedas;
 Hay,
 Si
lage
 St
andingf
orage.
I
mpor
tanceoff
orageconser
vat
ion:
 Toreserveexcessfor
ageforuseduri
ngt i
meofshor t
age.
 Toavoidunnecessarywastageoffor
age.
 Conservedforagecanbesold.
 Tohavesust ai
nedsuppl
yoff eedf
orli
vestockt
hroughoutt
hey
ear
.
Methods
HayMaking
 Thi
sist
hedehy
drat
ionofgr
eenpast
urest
oamoi
stur
econt
entof16-
20percent
:
St
epsi
nhaymaki
ng:
 Cutthecropwhent hesunisshini
ng.
 Drythemat er
ial
sfor1-2day s.
 Windrowthedr ymat er
ialt
oallowforf
urt
herdr
ying.
 Balethedrymat er
ialsf
orstorage.
 Storeundershedorshel t
er.
Fact
orsDet
ermi
ningQual
i
tyofHay
 Stageofgrowt hatwhi chf or
ageishar vest
ed.
 Leafcontentoft heforagemat eri
al.
 Methodofhandl i
ngandcur i
ngthehay .
 Formi nwhichmat er
ialisfedtoli
vestock.
 Speciesofforageused.
 Amountoff oreignmat erial
sinforage.
Si
l
ageMaki
ng
 Thisisaf eedproducedbyconser
vingfor
agei
nsuccul
entf
ormt
hrought
he
processoffer
mentat
ionbyanaer
obi
cbact
eri
a.
St
epsi
nsi
l
agemaki
ng:
 Cutthecr opandt ransportitt
othesilo,
 Materialwithahi ghmoi sturecontentiswi l
tedinthesunf or4-48hour
sbefor
e
ensil
i
ng.
 Materialischoppedt oreasonablesizepiecesbeforefi
ll
ingint hesi
l
o.
 Spreadt hechoppedmat eri
alevenly
.
 Checkt emper at
ureifbelow31° C,needsfurtherfi
l
li
ng;ifabov e31°Ccompact
ion
i
snecessar y .
 Fil
l
ingshoul dbecompl et
ebyt heendoft het hi
rdorfourthday .
 Thesiloi scoveredwi t
h15cm ofst raw,sawdustt hen15cm ofsoi ltomakei
tair
andwat ertight.
 Atrenchi sdugr oundthesilotokeepof fsurfacewater.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heQual
i
tyofSi
l
age
 Mat
uri
tyst
ageoft
hecr
opwhencut
.

 Typeofcr op.
 Moisturecontentofthemat eri
al
 Addit
ivessuchasmol asses.
 Degreeofcompact ion.
 Si
zeofpi ecesensil
ed.
 Amountoff orei
gnmat er
ialsincludedinthesi
l
age.
 Amountofl eafoftheensi l
edmat eri
al.
St
andi
ngFor
age
 Thi
sisf
oragel
efti
nthef
iel
dtobeuseddur
ingt
hedr
yseason.

Li
vest
ockHeal
thI
II
:(Di
seases)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Li
vest
ockdi
seasesar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
ocausat
iveagent
sasf
oll
ows:
 Protozoandi seases-causedbyprotoz
oans.
 Bacterialdiseases-causedbybacteri
a:
 VIraldiseases-causebyv i
rus.
 Nut r
it
ionaldiseases-broughtaboutbynutr
it
ional
disor
der
s.

Pr
otozoanDi
seases
 EastcoastFever(ECF)
.
 Anaplasmosis(gal
lsi
ckness)
 Coccidi
osis
 Trypanosomiasis(
Nagana)
EastcoastFever
 Ani
mal satt
acked:Cattl
e
 Cause:Prot
ozoan.(Theil
eri
aparva)
 I
tisatick-
bornediseasetransmi
ttedbyr
ed-
¬leggedt
ickandbr
owneart
ick.
Sympt
oms
 Ri
seinbodyt emperat
ure.
 Swell
ingofl
ymphgl andsbel
owt
heear
.
 Di
ff
icult
iesi
nbreathi
ng.
 Dul
lness.
Cont
rolandPr
event
ion
 Contr
olofv
ector
sthr
oughdi
ppingandfenci
ng.
 Treat
mentbyuseofcl
exoni
ntheearl
ystages.

Anapl
asmosi
s(gal
lsi
ckness)
Ani
mal
sat
tacked:
 Catt
lebetween2mont
hsand2y
ear
s.
 Poul
try.
 Lambsandki ds.
 Rabbit
s.

Cause:Pr
ot oan(
oz Anapl
asmamar
ginal
e)
 Transmi
tt
edbyt hebluetick
 contami
natedsurgi
calinstr
ument
sandhy
poder
micneedl
es.
Sympt
oms
 Fever/ri
seinbodytemperat
ure.
 Constipati
onorharddung.
 Palenessinthegums,eyesandli
ps.
 Dropinmi lkpr
oducti
on.
Cont
rol
 Ti
ckcontrol
.
 I
ntramuscul
ari
nject
ionofant
ibi
oti
csandi
rongi
vi
ngi
nject
ions.
 Cocci
diosi
s

Cocci
diosi
sofPoul
tr
y
 Cause:Pr
ot oan(
oz Eimer
iaspp.
)
Sympt
oms
 Suddendeathofchicks.
 Whiti
sh,
yell
owandbl oodstai
neddiar
rhoea.
 Ruff
ledf
eather
s.
 Chi
cksbecomepar alysedbef
oredyi
ng.
 Chi
cksbecomeanaemi canddull
.
Cont
rol
 Di
sinfecti
onofchickhouse.
 Preventi
onofcontaminati
onoffoodandwaterwithdroppi
ngs.
 Useofpr ophy
lat
icdrugsforex
ampl e,
Cocci
diost
ats.

Tr
ypanosomi
asi
s(Nagana)
 Animalsatt
acked:cat
tl
e,sheepandgoats.
 Cause:Protoz
oanofthetrypanosomespeci
es,
 Vector
-tset
sefli
es.
Sympt
oms
 Fever.
 Dull
ness.
 Anorexia/
lossofappet i
te.
 Lossofbodycondi ti
on/ emaciati
on.
 Swollenlymphnodes.
 Lachrimati
onwhi chleadst obli
ndness.
 Diar
rhoea
 Roughcoatandsomet i
meswi t
houthairandmaybecr
acked.
 Swell
inginpar tsofthebelly.
 Dropinmi l
kpr od
ucti
o
/ni
' nlact
ati
ngcows.
 Lossofhai rattai
lend.
 Anaemi a.
 Aborti
onmayoccuri npr egnantfemales.
Cont
rol
 Treati
nganimalswit
htrypanocidaldr
ugs.
 Ef
f ecti
vevect
or(Tset
sefli
es)contr
ol
 Conf i
nementofwil
danimalsingamepar ks.

Bact
eri
alDi
seases
  Fowl ty
phoid
 Footrot.
 Contagiousabor
ti
on.
 Scours.
 Bl
ackquar t
er.
 Mastiti
s.
 Anthrax.
 Pneumoni a.
FowlTyphoi
d
 Ani
mal satt
acked:All
domest
icbi
rdswhi
chi
ncl
udechi
cken,
tur
keyandducks.
 Causes:Bacter
ia(Sal
monel
lagal
l
inar
um}
Sympt
oms
 Depr ession/ appearingverysi
ck.
 Respi r
ator ydi st
ress.
 Dullness.
 Droopi ngwi ngs.
 Sleepyey es.
 Anaemi ar esulti
nginpaleandshrunken
 combsandwat t
les.
 Greenishy ellowdiarrhoea.
Cont
rol
 Kil
li
ngal laffectedbirdsandproperdisposalofthecar
casses.
 Maintaini
nghy gi
eneinthepoultr
yhouse.
 Ensuringt hatt hehouseisdryandwel lvent
il
ated.
 Obtainingchi cksfrom rel
iabl
esources.
 Treatmentusi ngsulphurdrugswhichar emixedindri
nki
ngwat erormash.
 Forex ampl e:applicat
ionofFurazol
idone(Furazol
)att
herateof0.04%inmash
for10cont i
nuousday str
eatsthediseaseef
fecti
vel
y.
FootRot
 Iti
salsoreferr
edtoasf oul
-i
n-t
hefoot.
 Animalsattacked:cat
tl
e,sheepandgoats.
 However,itismostseri
ousinsheep.
 Cause:Bactera(
i Fusif
ormisnecrophorusandFusi
for
misnodosus)
.
Sympt
oms
 Ani
mal '
sfootbecomesswol l
en.
 Lamenessisobserved.
 Pusandr ot
tensmellcomeoutoft hehoof.
 Sheeparefoundkneeli
ngwhi l
egrazingwhent
hef
rontfeetareaff
ected.
 Ani
mal sspendmostoftheirti
mely i
ngdownwhenthehindfeetareaffect
ed.
 Emaciati
onduet ol
ackoffeeding.

Cont
rol
 Hygi
enei
nt heli
vi
ngplaces.
 Regul
arf
ootexaminati
onandhooftri
mming.
 Useofafootbathofcoppersul
phat
esol
uti
onat5-
10%sol
uti
onorf
ormal
i
nat2-
 5%sol ut
ion.
 Treat i
ngwoundsont hefeetwit
hant i
sept
ics.
 Affectedanimalsshoul
dbegi v
enant i
biot
icinj
ect
ions.
 Isolati
onofsickani
malsfrom heal
thyones.
 Av oiddampnessandmuddycondi tions.
Cont
agi
ousAbor
ti
on(
Brucel
l
osi
s/Bang'
sDi
sease)
 Ani
malsatt
acked:catt
le,sheep,
goat sandpigs.
o I
talsoaffectsman.
 Cause:
Bacteri
a
o Brucel
laabortusincatt
le,
o Brucel
lasuisi
npi gs
o Brucel
lamalit
ensisingoat sandsheep.
Sympt
oms
 Spont aneousabort
ionorprematur
ebirt
h.
 Ret ai
nedplacent
aifabort
ionoccursduri
ngt hel
aterst
agesofpregnancy
.
 Infert
il
it
yincowswhi l
ebullshav
elowl i
bidoandinfl
amedtest
isalsoknownas
orchiti
s.
 Ay ell
owishbrown,sli
my,odourl
essdischargefr
om thevul
vamayoccuraf t
ert
he
abor t
ion.
Cont
rol
 Useofar ti
fi
ciali
nsemi nat
ion.
 Slaught eri
ngaffectedanimalsfol
lowedbyproperdi
sposaloft
heircarcasses.
 Theat tendanttot heanimalsshouldavoi
dcontactwi
ththeabortedfoetus.
 Abl oodt estshouldbecar ri
edoutforal
lbr
eedingani
malstodetecttheinfect
ed
ones.
 Hy gieneintheani mals'houses.
Scour
s(whi
teScour
s)
 Ani
malsat
acked:cal
ves,pi
glets,l
ambsandkids.
 Cause:
Abacter
ium whichat
t acksyoungani
malsint
hef
ir
stweekofl
i
fe.
Sympt
oms
 Whiteoryel
lowi shdi arr
hoea.
 Pungentsmel l
i
ngf aeces.
 Fever.
 Anorexi
a/l
ossofappet i
te.
 Li
stl
essness.
 Sunkeneyes.
 Undigest
edmi lkandmucuswi t
hbloodspot
sobser
vedi
nthef
aeces.
 Faecalmatterstickst othehi
ndquarter
s.
 Suddendeat hifnot reatmenti
sgiv
en.
Cont
rol
 Maint
aini
nghygi
eneintheyounganimalhousi
nguni
ts.
 Avoi
dingdampnessont hef
looroft
hehouse.
 Fi
ngersoftheattendanttr
aini
ngcalv
est odri
nkmi l
kfr
om abucketmustbe
 di
sinf ected.
 Calvingshoul dbecarri
edoutinacleanarea.
 Hav esepar ateatt
endantsf
orthei
nfectedcal
vest
opr
eventdi
seasespr
ead.
 Replaci ngmilkwithwarm wat
ermix t
ure.
 Treatingaf f
ectedani
malswithant
ibioti
cs.
Bl
ackQuar
ter
 I
tisalsoknownasbl ackleg.
 Ani
mal satt
acked:Al
lrumi nant
sagedbetween8-18mont hs.
 Cause:Bacter
ia(Cl
ostri
dium chauveiandChauveisept
icum)
Sympt
oms
 Lameness.
 Fever.
 Fastandheav ybr
eathing.
 Cracki
ngont heswoll
enpar t
sift
ouched.
 Swelli
ngoft heaff
ectedpartsusual
lythehi
ndquar
ter
s,shoul
der
sandchestor
back.
 Dull
ness.
 Anorexi
a.
 Grunti
ngandgr i
ndi
ngoft eet
h.
 Animalstopschewingcud.
Cont
rol
 Treat
ing wit
hrecommendedant i
biot
ics.
 Vacci
nati
ngusi
ngblackquar
tervacci
neknownasbl ant
hax
.
 Buryi
ngthecar
cassdeeporburni
ngitcompletel
y.
Mast
it
is
 I
sani nfl
ammat i
onoftheudder
.
 Ani
mal satt
acked:Goat
s,cows,pi
gsandhumanbeings.
 Cause:Bacter
ia(St
rept
ococcusspp.orSt
aphyl
ococcusspp.
)
Pr
e-di
sposi
ngFact
ors:
 I
ncomplet
emi l
ki
ng.
 I
njur
iesontheudderandteats.
 Weaksphinct
ermusclesoftheteat
sal
l
owi
ngf
reef
lowofmi
l
k.
Sympt
oms
 Mil
kiswater
y,bl
oodst
ainedorcl
ott
ed.
 Swoll
enudder
Cont
rol
 Propermil
kingtechni
ques.
 Treatmentbyuseofantibi
oti
cs.
 Cull
ingofanimalswhichareoft
enat
tacked.
Ant
hrax
 Att
acksalldomesti
canimal
s.
 Cause:Bacter
ia(
Bacil
l
usanthr
aci
s)
Sympt
oms
 Suddendeath.
 Highfever
.
 Grindi
ngofthet
eet
h.
Pneumoni
a
 I
tisani
nfl
ammat ionoft
helungs.
 Ani
malsat
tacked:Cal
ves,ki
ds,l
ambs,
pigl
etsandpoul
tr
y.
Cause:
 Bact
eri
a(Mycopl
asmamycoi
des)
 dust
 wormsinthel
ungs.
Sympt
oms
 Dull
ness.
 Anorex i
a/ l
ossofappeti
te.
 Stari
ngcoat .
 Emaci ation.
 Breathingr api
dly
.
 Abnor mal lungsoundswhenbr eathi
ng.
 Coughi ngi ft
hechesti
spr essed.
 Fl
uctuat ingbodytemper at
ure.
 Nasal discharge.
Cont
rol
 Keepingyounganimalsi
nwarm pens.
 Propersani
tati
on.
 I
solati
onoftheaff
ectedani
mal
s.
 Treat
ingusingant
ibi
oti
cs.

Vi
ralDi
seases
 Rinderpest.
 Footandmout hdisease(
FMD)
.
 NewCast l
e
 Fowl pox
 Gumbor o
 Afri
canswi nef
ever
Ri
nder
pest
 Ani
malattacked:Cat
tl
eandwi
l
dgame.
 Cause:
vir
us.
Sympt
oms
 Harshstari
ngcoat.
 Ri
seint emper
ature.
 Eyedischar
ge(Lachri
mat
ion)
  Di
arr
hoeaanddysent
ery
.
 Ul
cersi
nthemouth.
FootandMout
hDi
sease
 Ani
malsatt
acked:Cat
tl
e,sheep,
goat
sandpi
gs.
 Cause:
Vir
us.
Sympt
oms
 Sharprisei
ntemperat
ure.
 Bli
ster
si nt
hemouth,hooves,
udderandt
eat
s.
 Lossofappeti
te.
Cont
rol
 Vaccinat
ion.
 Quaranti
ne
 nursi
ngwoundswi
thdi
si
nfect
ant
.
NewCast
le
 Ani
malsatt
acked:Poul
tr
y.
 Cause:
Vir
us.
Sympt
oms
 Dif
ficulti
esinbr eathi
ng.
 Beaksr emai nwi deopenandnecksar estrai
ned.
 Bi
rdsbecomedul l
.
 Thebi rdsstandwi theyescl osedallthetime.
 Anor exi
a/ l
ossofappet i
te.
 Nasal dischargeswhi chforcet hebirdstoshakethei
rheadst
ocl
eari
t.
 Bi
rdswal kwi t
hast aggeringmot ion.
 Paralysisofwi ngsandl egsmayoccur .
 Bi
rdshav etheirbeaksandwi ngsdown.
 Bi
rdspr oducewat erygreenishdiarrhoea.
 Bi
rdsl aysof tshell
edeggs.
Cont
rol
 Kil
l
ing al
lbir
dsand burni
ng t
hem fol
l
owed bycl
eani
ng and di
si
nfect
ing t
he
housesbefor
ebr
ingi
nginnewstock.

 Vaccinat
ionshoul
dbedonedur
ingt
hef
ir
st6weeksandt
hen2-
3mont
hsl
ater
.
 Quaranti
ne.
Fowl
Pox
 Ani
mal saf
fect
ed:Poul
tr
y.
 Cause:Avi
rusknownasavianf
ox.
Sympt
oms
Twot y
pesoff owlpoxwit
hdif
fer
entsy
mptoms.
 Cutaneoust y
pe
 Diptheri
ti
ctype
Thecutaneoustypeaff
ect
stheski
nandhasthef
oll
owi
ngsi
gns:
  Inj
ur i
esont hecombsandwat tl
es,
legs,ventandunderthewings.
 Lossappet it
e.
Thediptheri
ti
ctypeaffect
sinter
nalmembr anesandhast hefol
l
owi ngsymptoms:
 Inj
ur i
esint heinsi
deoft het hr
oatandmout hmembr anesr esul
ti
ngindif
fi
cul
t
breathingandswallowing.
 Eyesandnosepr oducesawat eryl
iqui
d.
 Lossofappet it
e.
 Dullness.
 Emaci ati
on.
Cont
rol
 Ki
ll
ingal
laf
fect
edbirdsf
oll
owedbyproperdi
sposal
oft
hei
rcar
casses.
 Vacci
nat
ingremai
ningheal
thybi
rds.
Gumbor
o
 I
tisalsorefer
redtoaspoul
tr
yAI
DS.
 Ani
mal satt
acked:Poul
tr
y.
 Cause:Av i
rusknownasBir
mavir
us.
Sympt
oms
 Theglandsabov et
hevent(bursa)becomeswol l
en.
 Dropi
neggpr oducti
on.
 Bir
dsdev el
oprespi
rat
orydi
stress.
 Lossofappetit
e.
 Lowwat eri
ntakebybir
ds.
 Lossofimmuni t
ymakingthebi r
dsmor esuscepti
blet
ooppor
tuni
sti
cdi
seases.
Cont
rol
 Vacci
nat
ion.
 Admini
ster
ingv
itami
nsandespeci
al
lyB12.
Af
ri
canSwi
neFever
 Ani
malsat
tacked:Al
ldomest
icat
edpigs.
 Cause:
Avi
rusknownasI r
idovir
us.
Sympt
oms
 Fever.
 Lossofappet it
e.
 Depression/dull
ness.
 Emaciation.
 Coughing.
 Nasaldischarge.
 Diar
rhoeai nseri
ouscondi
ti
ons.
Cont
rol
 Vaccinat
ion.
 Quaranti
ne.
 Ki
ll
ingallaff
ect
edanimal
sandproperdi
sposal
oft
hei
rcar
casses.
 Doublefenci
ngtokeepwil
dani
malsaway .
Nut
ri
ti
onal
Diseases/
Disor
der
s
Mi
l
kFever
 I
tisanon-infect
iousdiseasebroughtaboutbycalcium defi
ci
encyi
nani
mal
s
whi
chhav
er ecentlygi
venbirt
h.
 Ani
mal
sattacked:Cows,goatsandpigsthathav
erecentl
ygivenbi
rt
h.
Causes:
 Duetolowcal ci
um lev
elsintheblood.
 Whichleadstoani ncr
easeinthemagnesium andsugarlevel
intheblood.
 Mostlyoccursinhighproduci
ngcowsi nthef
irstf
ewmont hsoflact
ation.
 Thisi
sbecauset heseanimalsloosemorecal
cium thr
oughmi l
ksecreti
onthan
theyaregett
ingfrom t
hediet.
Sympt
oms
 Dul l
ness.
 Muscul artwitchingcausi
ngtheanimaltotr
emble.
 Stagger i
ngast heanimalsmov e.
 Animal fal
lsdownandsbecomesunconsci ous.
 Theani mal li
esdownoni tssi
deandt hewholebodystif
fens.
 Bodyf unctionssuchasur i
nati
on,def
ecati
onandmi l
ksecr et
ionst
ops.
 St omachcont entsaredr
awnintothemout hwhichl
atercauselungfev
erwhen
breathingin.
 Lossofappet i
te.
Tr
eat
ment
 Intr
avenousi nj
ect
ionofsolubl
ecal ci
um salti
nf or
m ofcalci
um boro-gl
uconate
,
60gmsdi ssolv
edin500ccofwat er.
 Keepingtheanimal i
nacomf ort
ablepositi
ononitsster
num.
 Givingfr
eshwat er
.
Not
e:Theanimalssuffer
ingfr
om milkfevershouldnotbegivenmedicineor
all
yfor the
f
oll
owingreasons:
 Itwill
notbeabl et
oswallowmedi ci
ne.
 Themedi cinemaygetintothelungstherebypromoti
nglungfever.
Cont
rol
 Part
ial
mi l
ki
ngfort
hefi
rst10days.
 Highyi
eldi
ngcowsshouldbegiv
enrat
ionscont
aini
ngphosphor
usandcal
ci
um.
 Givi
nghighdosesofVi
taminD.
Bl
oat
 Ani
malsatt
acked:Cat
tl
eandsheep.
 Cause:
Accumulati
onofgasesasaresul
toff
erment
ati
oni
nther
umen.
Sympt
oms
 Thelef
tsi
deisbl
ownup.
 Suddendeat
h.
Cont
rol
  Reli
evebyuseoft r
ocarandcannula.
 Chasingt
heani malar
oundifnot
icedear
ly.
 Drenchi
ngbyuseofst opbl
oat.
 Feedingruminant
swithdryroughagesduri
ngt
hewetseasonbef
oregr
azi
ngon
l
ushpastures.
Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
ionV(
Poul
tr
y)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Poultr
yi ndustr
yi nKeny ahasdev el
opedtremendouslyduetotheuseofarti
fi
cial
i
ncubat i
onandbr oodingandeasyav ai
l
abili
tyofhybri
dbirds,bothegger
sand
broi
lers.
 Poultr
ypr oductionhasbecomeaneasysour ceofi
ncomeandf oodf
ortherural
aswel lastheur bancommuni ti
es.
 The term poul tr
yi ncludes domest i
c birds such as t
urkeys,ducks,geese,
pheasant s,dovesandpi geons.
 Oflateost r
ichfarminghasbecomeal ucrati
veacti
vi
ty.
 Poultr
ypr oductionstartswit
hi ncubati
onofeggs.

Par
tsofanEgg
 Shell
 Forms10- 12%oft hewholeeggcont ent.
 Madeofcal ci
um andphosphorus.
 Protect
sthei nnereggcontent
s.
 Shell
membr ane
 Madeofi nnerandout ermembr anes.
 Lini
ngoft heeggshell.
 Constit
utes1%oft hetot
aleggcont ent
.
 Al
bumen( eggwhite)
 About55- 60%oft het
otaleggcontent.
  Iti
sdi vi
dedintochal aza,thi
ckandt hinal
bumen.
 Chalazaholdst heeggy olki
nposi t
ion.
 Albumenser vesasf oodfort hechi
ck .
 Yolk
 30-33%oft het otaleggcont ent.
 Supplyembr yowi thnutri
ents.
 Germinaldisc-Theembr yowhi chdev el
opsintoachicki
ffer
ti
li
zed.
 Vi
tell
i
nemembr ane-Gi vesthey ol
kitsroundshape.
 Ai
rsac
 Keepst heeggf reshbyal lowinggaseousex change.
 Providesoxygenf ortheembr yo
EggCandl
i
ng:
 Thisisthepract
iceofdet
ermi
ningt
hei
nter
nalqual
i
tiesofaneggbyex
ami
ningi
t
againstali
ghtsource.
Pr
ocedur
e
 Theeggisplacedonahol emadeona. cardboardbox .
 Thi
siscall
edacandlingbox .
 Asourceofli
ghtispl
acedint heboxdi
rect
lyundertheegg.
 Theobser
verthenlooksthroughtheeggagainstthesourceofl
ightbel
ow.
 Abnor
malit
iesonandwi t
hintheeggcanbeseent hroughthet
ransl
ucentshel
l
.
I
ncubat
ion
 Inv
olvest
heprov
isi
onoff
ert
il
eeggswi
tht
hepr
opercondi
ti
onf
orembr
yoni
c
devel
opment
.
Sel
ect
ionofEggsf
orI
ncubat
ion

 Shoul
dbeferti
l
e.
 Shoul
dbeofmedi um sizeabout55-60gmsinweight.
 Shoul
dhavesmoot hshell.
 Shoul
dbeov alshaped.
 Shoul
dnotbecr acked.
 Eggsshoul
dbecl eant oensurethatpor
esareopen.
 Shoul
dnothav eabnor malit
iessuchasbloodspots,
meatspot
sanddoubl
eyol
k.
.
 Eggsshoul
dnotbemor ethan5day sol
d.
 Eggsshoul
dbef reshthatiscoll
ectedwit
hinoneweek.
I
nter
naleggqual
i
tiescanbedet
ermi
nedt
hrought
heeggcandl
i
ngpr
ocess.

Met
hodsofI
ncubat
ion

Nat
ural
Incubat
ion
 Thisi
nvol
vestheuseofabroodyhenwhi
chsi
tsont
heeggst
opr
ovi
det
hem wi
th
condi
ti
onsnecessaryf
orhat
ching.
 Takes20-
21day s.
 Thehenisgi
venabout10-15eggs.
Si
gns'
ofBr
oodi
nessi
nPoul
tr
y
 Tendencytositonaneggaf t
erlayi
ng.
 Moulti
ngofthehen.
 Makingsomenoi seatt
helay
ingnests.
 Feather
sareraised.
 I
tbecomesaggr essi
vewhendistur
bed.
 I
tstopslay
ing.
Pr
epar
ati
onandManagementofNat
uralI
ncubat
ion
 Theheni sgi
v en"Chi naeggs"t ositont oinducebr oodiness.
 Whenbr oodyt hehenshoul dbepr ovidedwi t
hanest i
ngnestorasaucer
¬shaped
nestscoopedont hegr ound.
 Thenestshall belinedwi t
hsof tbeddi ngandferti
l
eeggspr ovided.
 Theeggsar eseti ntheev eningorni ght.
 Thebirdisdust edtocont rolexter
nal parasi
tes.
 Theheni sal
lowedthourout sidetof eedandex erciseeveryday.
 Brokeneggsshoul dber emov edimmedi at
ely.
 Thehenshoul dnotbedi sturbed.
Advant
agesofNat
uralI
ncubat
ion
 Iti
scheap.
 Highhatchabil
ity.
 Lowr i
skinvolved.
 Usefuli
nsmal l scal
eproduct
ion.
 Lessskil
lisrequired.
 Lesslabori
ous.
Di
sadvant
agesofNat
uralI
ncubat
ion
 Eggpr oduct
ionislowbecausethehenwi l
lnotl
ayeggsduringincubati
on.
 I
tisnotpossi bl
etoplanwhentoi ncubate.
 I
ft hehendiestheeggswi l
lbedestroyed.
 I
ft hehendesertstheeggsorrefusestositonthem t
hefarmerwi l
lincurl
osses.
 Onl yf
ewchickscanbehat chedatat i
mebyonehen.
 Diseasesandpar asi
tescoul
deasilybetransmit
tedt
ot hechicks.
Ar
ti
fi
cialI
ncubat
ion
 Thi
sist
heuseofar
ti
fi
ci
aldev
iceknownasani
ncubat
orf
orhat
chi
ngeggs.
Condi
ti
onsNecessar
yforAr
ti
fi
cialHat
chi
ngofEggs
 Temper ature-mai nt
ain at37. 5° C-39.4° Ct hroughoutto controlt her ateof
embr yonicdev el
opmentoft hechi ck. Highorl owt emperatur
esar elethal.
 Ventil
ati
on-Goodai rcir
culati
on.
 Carbondi oxide:oxygenr at
iomai ntainedat0. 03%: 21%.
 Relati
vehumi dit
y-Mai ntai
nedat60%.
 Hi ghhumi dit
yleadst omar shychi cks
 l owhumi ditythechickmayst icktot heshel l
.
 TurningofEggs–
 Done3- 4t i
mesadayt of acilit
ateuni form di st
ri
buti
onofheatf oruniform
developmentofchi ck.
 Tur nsl owly180°cl ockwi seal ongt heax istoav oi
dbreaki
ngt hebl oodv essel
s.
 Somei ncubatorshav eaut omat i
cturningmechani sm.
 Cleanli
ness-cl eaninganddi sinf ect i
ngt heincubat orwit
hformaldehy desolut i
on.
Advant
agesofAr
ti
fi
cialI
ncubat
ion
 Itfacil
i
tat
eslargescaleproduct
ionofchi
cks.
 Incubatorsareal
way sreadywhenneeded.
 Artif
ici
alincubat
ionleadst ohighereggproduct
ionbecausebr
oodi
nessi
nthe
hensi snotrequi
red,sotherei
smor eti
meforlayi
ngeggs.
Di
sadvant
agesofAr
ti
fi
cialI
ncubat
ion
 Hi
ghiniti
alcapi
talinbuy i
nganincubator
.
 Hi
ghlevelofmanagementandat tenti
onisr
equir
ed.
 I
tisnoteconomi calforonlyasmallnumberofeggs.
 Hi
ghrisksinvol
vedi nturni
ngtheeggs.
Br
oodi
ngandRear
ingofChi
cks
 Broodi
ngi st
hereari
ngofdayoldchicksupt
o8weeksoldfort
helay
erchicksand
2weeksf ort
hebroil
erchi
cks.
 Forsuccessf
ulbroodi
ngthesourceofthechi
cksshoul
dbeconsi
dered.
Sour
cesofChi
cks
Thef
oll
owingf act
orsshouldbeconsi der ed:
 Ther eputat
ionofthesupplier(hatchery).
 Timet akenbythechi cksi
nt r
ansit.
 Propersex i
ngandbr eedidenti
fication.
Br
oodi
ng
Nat
uralBr
oodi
ng
 Ahenisall
owedtotakecareoft
hechi
cks.
 Shepr
ovidesthem wi
thwarmthandsecur
it
y.
 Shest
ayswi t
hthechi
cksfor8weeksandthenr
eject
sthem.
Advant
ages
 Iti
scheap.
 Lesslabourisneeded.
 Suit
ableforsmallscal
e.
Di
sadvant
agesofNat
uralBr
oodi
ng
 Notpossi
blet
oproducelar
genumbersofchicks.
 Thehengoesoffl
ayi
ngdur i
ngbroodi
ngti
me.
 Onl
ypossibl
ewhenabr oodyhenisavai
l
able.
Ar
ti
fi
ci
alBr
oodi
ng
 Thechi
cksar
erai
sedar
ti
fi
ci
al
lyi
nast
ruct
ureknownasabr
ooderunt
ilt
heyar
e8
weeksol
d.
Br
ooderRequi
rement
s
 Temperat
ure-shouldbeabout35°
Cinthe15t
hweekandr educedt
o21° Cbyt he
t
h
8 week.
 Li
tter-woodshav i
ngswhicharecapableofabsor
bing60% moistur
ewi thout
showingwetnessshoul
dbeused.
 Spaceconfi
nement-Donebyuseofhardboar
dswhichareabout25cm highand
 form aci
rcul
arspace. Aspaceof1m2for25chicksisrequir
ed.
 Feedersandwat er
ers-shoul
dbeenoughforthechicksandev enl
ydist
ri
butedin
thebrooder.
 Venti
lat
ors-wi ndowsshouldbeenoughtoal
lowpr operairci
rculat
ionbutdi
rect
draughtshouldbeav oi
ded.
TypesofHeat
ersi
ntheBr
ooder
 El
ectri
cheaters-oneordinar
ybulb100watt
scanr aise30chicks.
 Oneinfra¬r
edbulb240wat tscanrai
se100chicks.
 Keroseneburners-Hurr
icanelampscanrai
se100chi cks.
 Charcoalburner
s-thesearespeci
all
ymadejikoswithheatdefl
ector
s.
Br
ooderManagement
Pr
epar
ati
onBef
oreChi
cksAr
ri
ve
St
art2-3day sbeforearri
val.
 Thebr ooderhouseshoul dbecleanedtoremoveoldl i
tt
erandthendisinf
ected.
 Newl it
ters5-1Ocm highshoul dbeputi nandcover
edwi t
habsorbent
materials/newspaper s.
 Equipmentshoul dbecl eaned,di
sinf
ectedandtestedtomakesur ethattheyare
working.
 Thebr ooderisl i
tabout6hour sbeforethechi
cksarri
ve.
 Feedandwat ershoul
dbepl acedintoshall
owcontainers.
 Brooderspaceshoul dbeconf i
nedwi t
hahar dboardt opreventchi
cksst ray
ing
farf
rom t hesour ceofheat.
ManagementAf
terAr
ri
valoft
heChi
cks
 Chicksar epl
acedinthebrooderduri
ngthedayt ofamili
ari
zewit
hthebr ooder
.
 Ifchicksarri
vestr
essedandweakt heyshouldbegi v
englucosesol
utioninthe
wat erer
s.
 Incaset heheatsourceischarcoalburnerstheyshoul dbecoveredwi thwire
mesh.
 Feedchi ckswi t
hchickmashwhi chislatermi x
edwi thgrowersmashast he
chicksgrow.
 Cleanwat ershouldbeprovi
dedandchangedr egularl
y.

 Const antattenti
onshoul dbegi vent othechi cksforthefir
st2weeks.
 Anyv icesshoul dbecheckedandcont r
olled.
 Anydeadchi cksshoul dber emov edassoonasseen.
 Ventil
ation shoul d be used t o controlt he t emperature and humidi
tyinthe
brooder .
 Const antdisinf
ect i
oni srequiredatt heent rancet oav oi
ddiseases.
 Brooderspaceshoul dbei ncreasedast hechi cksgrow.
 Debeaki ngshoul dbedoneat10day sold.
 Vaccinat i
onagai nstdi seasessuchasGumbor oafter2weeks, NewCastleat3-4
weeksandf owl typhoi dat7weeks.
 Dustingt ocont r
ol externalparasites.
 Grower s' mashshoul dbei nt
roducedgr adual lyat7weeksol d.
 Chicksar eremov edfrom t hebrooderwhent heyare8weeksol d.
 Onav eraget hechi ckusesabout1. 5kg-2. 2kgofchi ckmashbyt heti
mei ti
s8
weeksol d.
Temper
atur
eCont
roli
ntheBr
ooder
I
fthebr
oodert
emper
atur
esar
elowt
hef
oll
owi
ngshoul
dbedone:
 Brooderspacei
sr educed.
 Heatersarei
ncreased.
 Venti
lator
sareclosed.
I
fthebr
oodert
emper
atur
esar
etoohi
ght
hef
oll
owi
ngshoul
dbedone:
 Brooderspacei
sincr
eased.
 Heatersshoul
dbereduced.
 Venti
lator
sshoul
dbeopened.
Managementoft
heGr
ower
s
 Thegr ower sar ebirdsatt heageof9week st ot hepointofl
aythati
sat18weeks.
 Grower sshoul dbef edongr ower s' mash.
 Byt hist i
met hegrower sshoul dbeoccupy ingt hemai npoult
ryhouse.
 Sickbi rdsshoul dbei solatedandt r
eated.
 Af ootbat hf orconst antdi sinfectionshouldbepl acedattheent
rance.
 Eachbi rdisfed115gmsperdayofgr owers'mash.
 Greensandsol ubl
egr i
tshoul dal sobepr ovided.
 Cleanwat ershoul dbepr ovidedal ltheti
me( adilibi
tum).
 Drenchi ngagai nstinternalpar asitesshouldbedonebyaddi ngadewormerint
o
thewat er.
 Ver minsshoul dbecont rolled.
 Lit
tershoul dbekeptdr ybyt urning.
 Vacci nationshoul dbedoneasr equi r
ed.
 Lay erpul l
etsr equir
edi ml ylithouse.
Managementoft
heLayer
s
 Lay ers'mashshoul dbei ntroducedat18weeksandi ncreasedgr adually
.
 Thebi rdsst artl
ayingat18- 21weeks.
 Thebi r
dsshoul dbev accinatedagai nstNewCast l
eandf owl typhoid.
 Enoughf l
oorspacer oost s,f
eeder sandwat erersshoul dbepr ovi
ded.
 Eachhenshoul dbegi v en120gmsperdayofl ay er
s'mash.
 Cleanwat ershoul dbepr ov i
dedadl ibi
tum.
 Eggsshoul dbecol lectedt wiceadayatnoonandi nt heev ening.
 Green l eav es shoul d be pr ovi
ded t o keep t he birds busy t hus preventi
ng
cannibal ism andi mpr ov ethey el
lowcol ouroft hey olk.
 Grainsshoul dbegi veni naddi ti
ont othelay ers'mashatt her ateof65gmsper
birdperday .
 Solubl egr itoroy stershel lsshouldbepr ovi
dedatal lti
mesf oreffi
cientdigest
ion
andst r
ongshel l
edeggs.
 Lay ers shoul d be f ed accor ding t ot hei
rbodywei ghtand t he r at
e ofegg
product ionf orexampl ea70kgbagshoul dfeed100l ayersfor4-5day s.
 Enoughl ay ingnest sshoul dbepr ov i
dedatl east1per5l ayers.
 Thel ay i
ngbox esshoul dbedi mlylittoreduceeggeat i
ng.
 Debeaki ngshoul dbedonewhennecessar y
.
 Brokeneggsanddeadbi rdsshoul dbedi sposedof fproperly
.
 Thenon- lay ersandcanni balsshouldbecul led.
ManagementofBr
oil
ers
 Broi
lersar et ablebi rdskeptf ormeatpr oduct i
on.
 Theyhav ehi ghgr owt hr atesorhi ghf eedconv ersionratio.
 Theobj ect ivei st opr oduceaki logr am ofqual itypoultrymeatf r
om l essthant wo
kgofbr oi l
erf eed.
 Thebr oilerchi ckr equi r
esspeci al broil
erf eedf rom dayol dto4weeksofage.
 Broi
lerst arter s'mashorcr umbsshoul dbef ed.
 Thiscont ainscocci diostat,hi ghl evelofpr otein,vit
ami nsandt raceel ementsf or
earl
ygr owt h.
 From 4weekst o8weekst heyar egi venbr oi
lerfoll
ow- onmashorpel l
ets.
 Thisfeedcont ainshi ghl ev elofmet abol i
sabl eener gytoensur eagoodcov erof
subcutaneousf ati nt hef i
nishedbr oil
er.
 From 8weeksunt ilslaught erf i
nisherpel letsshoul dbegi vent oi
ncr easethesize.
 Adequat ecl eanwat ershoul dbepr ovidedatal ltimes(adl i
bit
um).
 Highlev el ofhy gieneshoul dbemai ntainedt or educemor t
ali
tyrate.
 Bir
dsshoul dbedust edwi thappr opr i
atepest i
cidestocont rolexternalparasi
tes.
 Dewor mi ngshoul dbedoner outinely.
 Vaccinat i
onagai nstcommondi seasesshoul dbedone.
 Deadbi rdsshoul dbedi sposedof fproper ly.
 Broi
lersshoul d bekeptunderdeep l i
ttersy stem,t hehouseshoul d bewel l
venti
latedandwel lli
t.
Poul
tr
yRear
ingSyst
ems
 ext
ensive,
 semiintensi
ve
 i
ntensiv
esy st
ems.
TheExt
ensi
veSyst
ems
Fr
eeRange
 Bi
rdsaresetf
reethroughoutthedaytofendfort
hemsel
ves.
 Bi
rdsareconf
inedinnightshelt
ersf
orthenight
.
 Ther
eisnosupplement at
ion.
Advant
ages
 Bir
dseatinsect sandgr eenleavestherefor
elessfeedisrequi
red.
 Cheapmet hod.
 Canni
bali
sm andeggeat ingarereducedsincethebirdsarenotcrowded.
 Manureisev enlyspreadi ntheruns.
 Lowlabourrequi rement.
 Bir
dsgetplent yofexercisesthushelpi
ngt okeepingoodhealth.
 Noneedtopr ovidegri
tasbi rdspicki
tfrom thesoil
.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Morelandisrequi
redifaf ar
merwant st
or earmanybi
rds.
 Bi
rdscanbest ol
enoreat enbypr edator
s.
 Eggsgetlosti
nthev egetati
onorstolen.
 Eggsgetdirt
y.
 Dif
fi
cultt
odeterminelayersfrom non-¬l
ayers.
  Bir
dsgeteasil
yinf
ectedwithdiseasesandpar
asi
tesoft
hear
ea.
 Breedi
ngprogrammei snoteasytof ol
l
ow.
 Bir
dscandestroycropswher eperi
meterf
enci
ngi
snotconst
ruct
ed.
 Lowproducti
vit
yperunitarea.
Semi-
Int
ensive
Fol
dSystem
Bi
rdsareconfi
nedi
nsmal lportabl
est r
uctur
escall
edfol
ds.
Afol
dmeasur es3.
5m l
ong, 1.
5m wi deand1.5m hei
ght.
 1/3ofthefol
disr
oofedwhi l
et heresti
senclosedwit
hwiremesh.
 Bir
dsgetplent
yofsunl
ight.
 Bir
dsgetfr
eshgrassasthef oldismov edtonewgrounds.
Advant
ages
 Manureisevenlyspr
eadint hefiel
d.
 Lessfeedi
susedbecausebi r
dseatgr ass.
 Reducesbuil
dupofpar asi
tesanddi seasessi
ncet
hef
oldi
smov
edof
ten.
 Bir
dsareprotect
edfrom pr
edat ors.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Fewbi r
dsarekeptperf old.
 Itisl
abori
oussincet hefoldsaremovedfrom onepl
acet
otheot
her
.
 Indivi
dualeggproduct i
onr ecor
disdi
ff
icul
ttokeep.
 Thefolddoesnotl astl
ongbecauseof
 highfr
equencyofhandl ing.
 Thereturnperunitareaofl andisl
ow.

I
ntensi
veSystem
DeepLit
terSyst
em
 Bir
dsar econfinedinahouset hroughoutt hei
rli
fe.
 Thef l
oorofthehousei smadeupofl itt
erwhichaccumul atesoverti
me.
 Enoughf eeder s,
waterersandlayingbox esareprovideddependi ngonthe
numberofbi rdsandspaceav ai
lable.
 Mov abl
eroost sandper chesmadeoft i
mberf r
amesshoul dbepr ovi
dedint
he
house.
 Str
essandv icesshoul dbewat chedcloselyandcont rol
led.
 Eggsshouldbecol l
ectedasfrequentlyaspossibletoprev entdi
rtandeggeati
ng.
 Thehouseshoul dbedi mlyl
it
.
 Thef l
oorspacer equir
ementshoul dbe1m2per2- 3birds.
Advant
ages
 Highst ockingrateperuni tareaofl
and.
 Lowl abourrequir
ement .
 Fastaccumul ati
onofmanur e.
 Ther eiscont r
oloffeeding,eggproducti
onandmov ementofbi
rds.
 Safet yofthebirdsisguar ant
eedfrom predat
ors.
 Nol ossofeggs.
 Usef ulmet hodwhenr earingbreedi
ngstock.
 Regul arcleaningoft hehousei snotnecessarysincethelit
terabsor
bst
he
 droppi
ngs.
 Easycoll
ect
ionofeggs.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Highincidenceofcanni bali
sm likeeggeat ing, f
eatherpluckingandt
oepeck i
ng.
 Pestsanddi seasecausi ngorgani smsaccumul ateint heli
tter
.
 I
ndividualrecor dsoft hebirdsar enotpossi ble.
 Maybedi f
ficulttof i
ndlit
ter.
 Eggsbecomedi r
tyiflai
dont hef loor
.
 Feedersandwat erersmaybecont aminatedbyt hel i
tter
.
 Thesy stem encour agesbroodinessinhens.
 Highinfestationofdi seasesifthemanagementi sbelowst andar
d.
 I
fthereisadi seaseout break,i
tcanspr eadv eryquicklythr
oughoutthehousedue
tothecommunal housing.
 Highcostofbui ldi
ngdeepl i
tt
erhouse.
Bat
ter
yCageSyst
em
 Bir
dsar econfi
nedincageswhi char
eplacedinthepoultr
yhouse.
 Thecagesar emadeofwi r
emesh
 Eachcagecont ai
ns1- 3bi
rds.
 Waterandf eedtroughstoget
herwitheggstr
aysar efi
tt
edalongthefr
ontsideof
thecages.
 Thefloorofthecagesshouldbeslanti
ngtoal
lowt heeggstorol
loutofthecages.
 Droppingsfrom t
hecagesf al
lfr
om behi
ndforeasycleani
ng.
Advant
ages
 Recor dsar eeasi lykeptt herefor
ecul l
ingi seasy.
 Birdsdonotbecomebr oody.
 Mor eeggsar ecol l
ectedduet orestrictedmov ementofthehensandcomplete
cont r
ol ofeggeat ing.
 Tendermeati sobt ainedf rom thecul lsbecausethemuscl eshavenotbeen
toughenedmuch.
 Handl i
ngi seasi ert hani ntheothersy stemsandi ndi
vi
dualat t
ent
iont
ohensis
given.
 Stockingr atei sv eryhi gh.
 Vicesar egreatlyr educed.
 Eggsar ecleanbecausehensdonotst epont hem.
 Thesy stem caneasi l
ybemechani sed.
 Birdsdonotcont ami nat ethefoodandwat er.
 Sickbi rdscanbedet ectedeasi l
yandi sol at
edfortr
eatment
.
 Wi refl
oor spr eventr e-infestati
onofpar asit
icwormsandcoccidiosi
s.
 Nobul ly i
ngdur ingf eedi ng.
 Lowl abourr equirement .
Di
sadvant
ages
 I
niti
alcostsf orcages,equi
pmentandhousear eex
cessiv
elyhigh.
 Requireshighl evelofmanagement .
 Highermaint enancecostswher eaut omationi
sused.
 Bi
rdsmaygetf ati
gueduetol ackofex er
cisest
husloweri
ngproducti
vi
ty.
 I
ncaseofdi seaseout br
eak,spreadingisveryf
ast.
 Bi
rdsdev el
opbr uisesoncombs, breastsandtoesastheysti
ckthei
rnecksout
-t
o
 feedandwalki
nthecages.
 Notuseful
whenr ear
ingbr
eedi
ngstockandther
ear
ingofbr
oil
ers.
 Cannotbeusedforbroodi
ngyoungchi
cks.

St
ressandVi
cesi
nChi
cken
 Stress is a condit
ion imposed on the bi
rds maki
ng t
hem di
stur
bed and
uncomf ortabl
e.
 Stressreducesproductionandbr
ingsaboutpoorper
for
mance.
 Vicesarehabi t
sdevelopedbyani
mals.
 Theseaf fectpr
oducti
onandhealthofthebi
rds.
 Usuallytheyarebadhabi t
s.
CauseofSt
ressi
nPoul
tr
y
 Suddenchangesi nrouti
nemanagement .
 Presenceofst rangersi
nthepoult
ryhouse.
 Presenceofani malsandv er
mins.
 Toomuchnoi se.
 Const antandpoorhandl i
ng.
 Suddenweat herchanges.
 Disturbanceoft hepecki
ngorder
.
 Ov ercrowdi ng
 Poorhy giene.
 Diseaseandpestat t
ack.
 Lackoff oodandwat er
.
Cont
rolofSt
ress
 Poult
ryhouseshouldbekeptquietandconstr
uctedawayfr
om noi
se.
 Poult
ryhouseshouldbeinsul
atedtomaintai
nconstantt
emper
atur
es.
 Parasi
tesanddiseasesshoul
dbecontroll
ed.
 Changeinrout
inemanagementshoul dbegradual.
 Enoughfeedandwat ershoul
dbepr ov
ided.
Vi
ces
 Feat
herpecki
ng.
 Canni
bali
sm (
toeandv
entpecki
ng)
.
 Eggeati
ng.
Pecki
ngandCanni
bal
i
sm
 Si
tuat
ionwher
ebi
rdspeckateachot
herr
esul
ti
ngi
ndeat
hori
njur
y.
Ef
fect
s:
 Featherandbodygr owthrateISreduced.
 Lossofbirdsduet odeathmayr esul
tfrom canni
bali
sm.
 Cull
i
ngr ateisincr
eased(economicloss).
 Theappear anceofthecarcassisspoil
edtherebyreduci
ngi
tsmar
ketv
alue.
CausesofCanni
bal
i
sm
 Ov
ercrowdi
nginthehouse.
 Hi
ghtemperat
uresint
hepoult
ryhousemaki
ngt
hebi
rdsuncomf
ort
abl
e.
  Toobr ightl
ight .
 Externalparasiteinfestat
ion.
 I
nadequat eandi ncorrectfeedi
ng.
 I
dlenessoft hebi rds.
 Greedinessoft hebi rds.
 Disturbancesoft hepecki ngorder
.
 Prolapsesoft her ectum whichoccur
soncei
nawhi
l
e.
 Brightli
ghtint helyingbox es.
Pr
event
iveMeasur
es
 Amplespaci ngshouldbepr ovi
dedont hef loor,f
eeder
s,wat
erer
sandl
ayi
ng
boxes.
 Overheati
ngshouldbeav oi
deddur i
ngbr oodi
ng.
 Thehouseshoul dbedimlyli
tforthelayers.
 Layi
ngnest sshoul
dbedar kenedandabov etheground.
 Dusti
ngshoul dbedonetocont r
olexter
nal parasit
es.
 Provi
deenoughbal ancedrati
on.
 Bir
dsshouldbekeptbusy .
 New/ st
rangebir
dsshouldnotbeal l
owedi nthehouse.
EggEat
ing
Avi
cei
nfl
uencedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Pr
esenceofbr okenorsoftshel
l
edeggs.
 I
dlenessofthebirds.
 I
nadequat el
ayingnests.
 Mineraldefi
ci
encies.
 Br
ightlighti
nthelayi
ngnests.
 Greedinessoft
hebi r
ds.
Pr
event
iveMeasur
es
 Eggsshouldbecoll
ectedregularl
y.
 Layi
ngbox esrai
sedabovet heground.
 Layi
ngbox esshoul
dbedar kened.
 Bir
dsshouldbegivenbalancedration.
 Debeaki
ngshouldbedoneasneedbe.
 Bir
dsshouldbekeptbusywi t
hgreens.
 Bir
dsshouldbekeptaccordingtoagegr oups.
 Inj
uredbi
rdsshouldbeisolatedandt r
eat
ed.
Mar
ket
ingofPoul
tr
yPr
oduct
s
 Poul
tr
ypr
oduct
sincl
udeeggsandmeat
.
Mar
ket
ingofEggs
 Eggsar
edel
i
cat
eandper
ishabl
efoodsandhav
ethehi
ghestv
aluewhenf
resh.
Thef
act
orsconsi
der
edwhensor
ti
ngoutandgr
adi
ngeggsf
ort
hemar
keti
ncl
ude:
 Size/weightoftheegg-l ar
geeggsf etchhighpri
cest
hansmallones.The
averageweightshoul
dbeabout57gms.
 Shapeoft heegg-Thenormaleggshapei sov
al,wi
thabr
oadendandanarrow
end.
 Cleanli
ness-Consumerspr
efercl
eaneggs.
  Colouroftheshell-Br
owneggsarepopularwit
htheconsumers.
 Candlingquali
ti
es-candlingisdonet odeter
minef r
eshnessoft
heeggsand
presenceofanyothereggabnormal
it
ies.
 Shellt
exture-shouldbesmoot
handwi thoutcr
acks.
Poul
tr
yMeat
Broi
ler
sareslaught
eredatt
heageof1- 2.
5monthsol
dwit
hali
feweightof1.5-
2kgs.
Thebirdsareki
ll
edanddressedi
nacl eanwaybefor
ebei
ngwrappedincleanbags
readyforsal
e.
 Themeati ssoldi
nhotel
sandrestaurants.
 Whol ebi
rdscanbesoldli
veinl
ocalmar ket
s.

Li
vest
ockPr
oduct
ionVI(
Cat
tl
e)

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Cat
tl
epr
oduct
ioni
sawi
del
ydi
str
ibut
edent
erpr
isei
nKeny
a.
 Mostf
armingcommunit
ieschoosebetweentheexot
icandt
he'l
ocalbr
eedsor
t
hei
rcr
ossesdependi
ngontheenvi
ronmental
condi
ti
ons.
 Whereasthebackboneofbeefindustr
yinKeny ai
smadeupoft hei ndi
genous
animal
sandt heircr
osses,andbasedi nt hesomewhatdri
erareas,the-
dai
ry
i
ndustr
yismai nl
ybasedontheex ot
icbreedsandthei
rcr
ossesandcommoni n
thewett
erregi
onsofKenya.
 Whatev
erproduct
ionunder
taken,
ther
etur
nsdependmost
lyont
hemanagement
l
evel
sprov
idedtotheseani
mals.
 Apr
oduct
iveher
dst
art
swi
thgoodmanagementoft
hey
oungst
ock.

Rai
singofYoung·St
ock.
 They
oungoneofcat
tl
eisknownasacal
f.
Feedi
ngDai
ryCal
ves
 Newbor ncal vesshoul dbegi v
encolost
rumswithi
nthefi
rst3-
5day
softheirli
fe.
 Co lostrum i simpor tantfort
hef ol
l
owingr
easons:
 I tishighlydigestible.
 I tcontainsant i
biotics.
 I tishighlynut r
it
ious.
 I tservesasal axative.
 I tishighlypalatable.
 Calvescanbef edusi ngnatur
almethod(di
rectsuckl
i
ng)orart
ifi
ci
all
y/bucket
feeding.
Nat
uralMet
hod
 I
nthi
smet
hod,
cal
vessuckl
ethemot
herdi
rect
ly.
Advant
ages
 Thecal
ftakesmil
katbodytemperat
ure.
 Themil
kisfreef
rom cont
aminant
s.
 Lesspr
oblemsofscouri
ng.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Underf
eedi
ngoft hecal
fmayresul
t.
 Cowsmaynotl etdownmil
kincasethecalfdi
es.
 Di
ffi
cul
ttokeepaccurat
eproducti
onrecor
ds.

Ar
ti
fi
cial
/BucketFeedi
ng
 Thecal
fist
rai
nedt
ofeedf
rom t
hebucketi
mmedi
atel
yaf
terbi
rt
h.
Thecal
fist
rai
nedasf
oll
ows:
 Wellmeasuredmi l
kisputinacleanbucket.
 I
ndexfingeri
sinsertedi
ntothemouthoft hecalf
.
 Theheadoft hecalfisl
oweredslowlyint
ot hebucketunt
ilt
hecalfst
art
stodri
nk
themil
k.
 Thefi
ngeriswithdrawnslowlyasthecalfconti
nuestodri
nkfrom t
hebucket
.
 Theprocedureisrepeat
eduntilt
hecalfgetsusedtotheprocess.
Advant
ages
 Easyt
okeepaccur
atepr
oduct
ionr
ecor
d/mi
l
kyi
el
dsoft
hecow.
 Possi
blet
oregul
atet
heamountofmi
l
kgi
vent
othecal
f
 Thecowdoesnotneedt
hepr
esenceoft
hecal
finor
dert
oletdownmi
l
k
 Easyt
omai
ntai
nhi
ghhy
gienest
andar
ds.

Di
sadvant
ages
 Labor
ious
 Cal
fmaybegi
vencol
dmi
l
k
 Equi
pmentusedandt
hest
ockmanmaybedi
rt
yleadi
ngt
oscour
s

Pr
epar
ati
onofart
if
ici
alcol
ost
rums
I
ngr
edient
sused
 Af
resheggwhi
ppedi
n0.
86l
i
tresofwar
m wat
er
 Li
tr
eofwar
m wat
er
 Onet
easpoonf
ulofcodl
i
veroi
l
 Onet
abl
espoonf
ulofcast
oroi
l
 Note;col
ostrumsisf
edtot
hecal
vest
hreet
imesadayf
ort
hef
ir
st4day
sofl
i
fe
andthereaf
tertwi
ceaday.
Weani
ngofcal
ves
Ear
lyweani
ng
 Cal
fisf
edonwhol
emi
l
kupt
othet
ent
hweekt
heni
tisweaned
 Cal
fisgi
venmi
l
kequal
to10%ofi
tsbodywei
ghtupt
othe8thweek
 Af
ter8thweek
,mi
l
kisr
educedgr
adual
l
yby1kgunt
ilweani
ng
 Cal
fisgi
venear
lyweani
ngconcent
rat
esandsof
tfor
age

Ear
lyWeani
ngGui
de
Agein Whole Concent
rat
es(
kg/
d
weeks milk(kg/
day
) ay)
1 Col
ostrumsad -
l
ibi
tum
2-3 5 -
4-5 6 0.
25kg/day
6-7 6 0.
5kg/day
8-9 5 0.
75kg/day
10-11 4 1.
00kg/day
12-3 - 1.
50kg/day
14-15 - 2.
ookg/day
16 - 2.
ookg/day

Lat
eweani
ng
 Cal
fisf
edonwhol
emi
l
kupt
othe3rdweek
,whenmi
l
kisr
epl
acedgr
adual
l
ywi
th
ski
m mil
k.
 Attheageof3weekst
hecal
fisi
ntr
oducedt
ocal
fpel
l
etsorpenci
l
sandgr
een
fodder
.
 Thecal
fisgi
venpl
ent
yofcl
eanwat
er.
 Thecal
fcont
inuest
obegivenaddi
ti
onal
ski
m mil
kuptot
heageof14weeks
whenmaximum amountofmil
kisgi
ven.
 Ski
m mil
kisr
educedfr
om 14weeksto16weekswhenweani
ngi
sdone.

Lat
eweani
nggui
de
Agein Wholemil
k Concent
rat Skim
weeks (
kg/day
) es mi l
k
(kg/
day) (kg/day
)
1 Col
ostrumsad - -
l
ibi
tum
 2 3.
5 - -
3 4 - -
4 4.
5 0.
25kg/day 1
5 4.
0 0.
5kg/day 3
6 3.
0 0.
75kg/day 5
7 - 1.
00kg/day 7
8-
14 - 2.
00kg/day 8
15 - 2.
00kg/day 4
16 - 2.
00kg/day 4

Rear
ingofr
epl
acementst
ock
 Thereplacementstocki
ncludesyoungheif
ersandbul
l
swhi
chhav
ebeen
sel
ectedforbreedi
ngtoreplacet
heoldstock.

ManagementPr
act
ice
 Par
asi
tecont
rol
-
Spr
ayi
ngagai
nstex
ter
nal
par
asi
tesanddewor
mingagai
nst
i
nter
nal
par
asi
tes.

 Di
seasecont
rol
-
Cal
vesar
evacci
nat
edr
out
inel
yagai
nstdi
seasessuchas;

 Bl
ackquat
er-
at4mont
hsol
d.

 Ant
hraxandBl
ackquat
erat6mont
hsol
d

 Br
ucel
l
osi
s-3-
8mont
hsol
d(hei
fer
s).

 Cast
rati
on-formal
ecal
vesnotsel
ect
edf orbreedi
ng.
 I
denti
fi
cati
on-Suit
abl
emethodsareused.Itall
owsproperr
ecor
dkeepi
ng.
 RemovalofExtraTeats;
 Theseteat
sareknownassupernumerar
yteat
swhi
chmakemi l
ki
ngofthe
ani
maldiff
icul
t.
 Theyar
eclippedof
fwit
hteatcl
i
ppers.
 Dehor
ning/Disbudding-Theremovalofhor
nbudsusi
ngsui
tabl
emethods.
Cal
fHousi
ng
Requi
rementofaCal fPen;
 Shouldbecl eanandeasyt oclean.
 Bewar m anddr y
.
 Haveadequat espacetoall
owex er
ciseandfeedi
ng.
 Shouldbepr oper l
yli
tandall
owsunlightf
orVitami
nD.
 Haveproperdr ai
nagetoavoiddampness.
 Draughtfreet opreventchi
l
li
ng.
 Bewellventilatedtoall
owfreshair
.
TypesofPens
Thesecanbe;
 permanent
 mobil
e/movabl
e.
Per
manentPens
 Haveasoli
dfloorr
aisedabovetheground.
 Thefl
oorshouldbeslant
edfordrai
nage.
 Const
ruct
ednearthemi l
kingparl
our
.
Mobi
l
e/Movabl
ePens
 Haveanopenfl
oortoal
lowgr assi
ntothepen.
 Easi
lymovedfr
om oneplacetoanothert
oav oi
dsoil
i
ng.
 Keptout
doorsi
nthepasturestoal
l
owt hecalft
onibbl
eonpast
ures.
Si
ngl
eHousi
ng
 Calvesshouldbehousedsingl
yupt
otheageof3weeks,
whentheyar
eputi
n
grouppens.
 Thisistoavoidthem l
i
cki
ngeachot
herandswal
l
owinghair
swhi
chfor
m
i
ndigesti
bleball
s.

Mi
l
kandMi
l
king
 Mil
kisthewhi
tel
act
ealsubst
ancesecr
etedbyt
hemammar
ygl
andsoft
he
f
emalemammal
s.

Composi
ti
onofMi
l
k
 Protei
n-Caseinandwhey.
 Fat-Butterf
at.
 Carbohydrat
es-Lact
ose
 Mineral
s-mai nl
ycal
ci
um andphosphor
us.
 Water
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingMi
l
kComposi
ti
on
 Ageoft heani mal .
 Condit
ionsoft heanimal.
 Stageofl actati
onandpr egnancy
.
 Complet enessofmi l
ki
ng.
 Typeofbr eed.
 Seasonoft hey ear.
 Typeoff oodeat en.
 Physi
ologi calconditi
onssuchasdiseases.

Mi
l
kSecr
eti
onandMi
l
kLet
-down
 Milkissecret
edbythemammaryglandswhi
chisanaccessor
ygl
andoft
he
repr
oducti
vesyst
em.
 Themammar ygl
andofacowi
sknownasanudder
.
St
ruct
ureoft
heUdder
Theudderi
scomposedoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts:
 Alveol
uscel l
s-synthesi
zeandsecr etemi l
k.
 Lobule-agr oupofalveoluscel
l
s.
 Lobe-Sev erall
obulesgroupedtogetheranddr ainedbyl act
if
erousduct
s.
 Glandcist
er n-spacewher emil
kcol l
ectsfrom thelobes.
 Teatcist
ern-Aspacewher emilkcollectsbef
oreemi ssion.
 Teat-Anor ganwhichdrainseachquar teroft
heudder .
Mi
l
kSecr
eti
on
 Thepr ocessofmilksecret
ionisknownasl actogenesi s.
 Thedigestedfoodistakent otheudderv i
abloodv essels.
 I
nt heuddert henut r
ient
sar ecarri
edi ntot healveolicel
lswheremet abol
ic
reacti
onstakeplacetobuil
dupt hesenutri
entsintomilk.
 A hormone p rol
actine is secreted by pituit
ary gland whi
ch br
ings about
l
actogenesis.
 Themi l
ksecretedisthenst oredintheupperpar tsoft heudderwait
ingtobe
rel
eased.
Mi
l
kLet
-Down
 Thepr ocessofmi
lklet-
downoccur snatur
all
ywhent heani
mali
ssti
mulated.
 Milksecretedmovesfrom alv
eolarr
egionthr
ought heductstot
heglandcist
ern.
 Ox ytocin,ahormonesecr etedbythepitui
taryglandcausesthecont
racti
onof
theuddermusclesforcingthemilkdownthet eat
s.
  Oxyt
ocinhormonelast
s7- 10mi nut
esi
nt hebloodstr
eam hencef
astmi
l
kingi
s
i
mportanttowit
hdr
awt hemilk.
 Mil
kiswithdr
awnfrom thet
eatsbygent
lysqueezingt
hem.
Fact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngMi
l
kLet
-Down
 Presenceofthecalf.
 Presenceofthemi l
kman/ mi
lker.
 Rattl
ingofthemilkequipment.
 Si
teoft hefood/f
eedingtheanimal.
 Massagi ngorwashingtheudder.
 Si
ghtoft hemilkparl
our.
Fact
orsI
nhi
bit
ingMi
l
kLet
-Down
 Beati
ngtheanimal/infl
i
cti
ngpaintotheani
mal.
 Presenceofst
ranger sandanimal
sforexampledogs.
 Poormi l
ki
ngtechniques.
 Absenceofthecalf(incasethecowisusedtoit
).
Cl
eanMi
l
kPr
oduct
ion
Thef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orsar
eessent
ialf
orcl
eanmi
l
kpr
oduct
ion:
 Aheal
thyl
actati
ngcow.
 Aheal
thyandcleanmi l
ker.
 Cl
eanandproperlyconstr
uctedmilkingparl
our
.
 Cl
eananddisinf
ectedmilkingequi
pment .
 Pr
operhandl
ingoft hemilkaft
ermilking.
Mi
l
kingPr
ocedur
e
 Theanimalsar ebroughtneart hemi l
kingpar l
our15-20mi nutesbef oremil
kingto
geti
ntothemoodofbei ngmi l
ked.
 Mil
kingmat eri
alssuchasequi pment , f
eeds,ropes,stool
sandsal vearecoll
ected
andplacedneart hemi l
kingpar lour .
 Theanimalsar eall
owedi ntothemi l
kingst al
lonebyoneast hemi l
kingproceeds
asfoll
ows:
Theanimal isrestr
ainedi nthest all.
Feediswei ghedandpl acedint othef eedt r
ough.
Theudderi sthoroughlywashed, disinf
ectedanddr iedwithacl eancloth.
Ast r
ipcupi susedtot estformast iti
soneachquar ter.
Milki
ngpr oceedsbysqueez i
ngt het eatswiththef ul
lhand.Ifmachi nemi l
ki
ng
theteatcupsar eplacedont het eats.
Forhandmi l
kingstartwi t
hthehi ndquar t
ersandfinishwiththef orequart
ers.
Fastmi l
ki
ngshoul dtakeabout8mi nutesthenendwi thstri
ppingt heudder.
Themi lki
swei ghedandr ecor ded.
Theanimal isthenreleased.
Dr
yCowTher
apy
 Thisist
heinf
usionofanti
biot
icsint
ot het
eatcanalofacowt
hati
spr
epar
ingf
or
dryi
ngoff.
 Itpr
event
sbacteri
ali
nfect
ionwhichleadst
omast i
ti
s.
Mi
l
kPr
oduct
s
 Pasteuri
zedmi l
k-mi lkthati
sheat edandcooledimmedi at
ely.
 Ultr
aHeatTr eated(UHT)-mi l
kheatedtoat emper at
ureof130-135C,packedand
thencooled.
 Butter-Milkbutt
erfatseparatedbyapr ocessknownaschur ni
ng.
 Cream -Alayerofis:thatcol
lectsatthetopofthemi l
kwhenl ef
ttostand.
 Cheese-Mi lkprot
einswhi chhav ebeencompr essed.
 Ghee-Mi lkfatmadef rom heatngcr
i eam orbutt
er.
 Skim mil
k-Mi lkwithoutbutterf
at.
Mar
ket
ingofMi
l
k
 TheKeny aDai ryBoar dr egul
atest heproducti
on and sal
eofmi
l
kand mi
l
k
productsthroughv ari
ousDai r
yCo- oper
ati
veSociet
ies.
 Processorsanddi str
ibutorsofmilkandmilkproductsi
ncl
ude;
o KCC,
o Br ooksideDairies,
o Tuz o,
o Del amer eDairi
es
o Limur uDairies.

Mar
ket
ingofBeef
Donebyt
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 I
ndi
vi
dual
fanner
sthr
ought
hel
ocal
slaught
erhouse.

 Li
vest
ockmar
ket
ingdi
vi
si
on.

 Keny
aMeatCommi
ssi
on.

 Far
mer
'sChoi
ce.
Far
m PowerandMachi
ner
y

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Far
m poweri
sanyf
orm ofener
gyusedi
nthef
armt
odowor
k. .

Sour
cesofFar
m Power

HumanPower
 Perf
ormslightt
asks.
 Quali
tyofworkproducedi
svari
able.
 Takesalongtimetocomplet
eat ask.
Ani
malPower
 Donebydr
aughtani
mal
ssuchascamel
s,donkey
s,hor
sesandel
ephant
s.
  Usedi
nlandpr
epar
ati
onandt
ranspor
tat
ion.

Di
sadvant
ages

 Sl
ow.
 Ani
malsareli
abl
etosi
cknessandgett
ir
ed.
 Needenoughfood.
Wi
ndPower

 Topumpwat erfr
om bor
ehol
es.
 Towinnowcropssuchasbeans,
fingermi
l
letandr
ice.
 Gener
ateel
ectri
ci
ty.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Noteasyt
ocont
rol
andmaynotbeav
ail
abl
ewhenneeded.
Wat
erPower
 I
rr
igat
ion.
 Gri
ndi
ngmi l
l
s(t
ogr
indmai
zegr
ains)
.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Di
ff
icul
ttousei
nthef
arm becausei
tisnoteasyt
ocont
rol
.
Bi
omas
Thi
sincl
udes:
 woodorchar
coal
 bi
ogaspower
.
Char
coal
/WoodFuelEner
gy
Uses
 Prov
idesheatf orboi
l
ingwaterandcooki
ng.
 Dehydrat
ingofsomecr ops.
 Curi
ngoft obacco.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Exhausti
ble.
 Itcannotbeuseddir
ectl
yinsomefarm operat
ions.
 Largequanti
ti
esarerequi
red.
 Theyarebulkyhencedif
fi
cultt
otr
ansport.
Bi
ogas
Uses
 Pr
ovi
desheatandli
ghtf
orcooki
ng,
boi
l
ingwat
erandl
i
ght
ing.
 Pr
oducesel
ectr
ici
ty.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Onlypossi
blewherethereareanimalsunderzer
ograz
inguni
t.
 Iti
slabour
-consuming.
 Largequanti
ti
esofdungarer equi
red.
 Cannotbeuseddirectl
yinsomef arm oper
ati
ons.
Fossi
lFuel
s
Thesei
ncl
ude:
 coal
,
 pet
rol
eum oi
l
s
 nat
ural
gas.

Uses
 Pet
rolordi
eseli
sburnedi
nint
ernalcombust
ionengi
nestopr
oducepower
.
 Ker
oseneisthemainsour
ceofpowert ol
i
ghtrur
alhomes.
 Nat
uralgasisusedf
orcooki
ng,heati
ngandl
ight
ing.
El
ect
ri
calPower
I
tincl
udes:
 hy
dro-
elect
ri
cal
power(
HEP)
,
 geot
her
mal
,
 nucl
ear
 powerst
oredi
nbat
ter
ies.
 Nucl
earener
gyi
sapot
ent
ial
sour
ceofpowerwhi
chhasnoty
etbeenusedi
nthef
arms.

UsesofEl
ect
ri
calPower
 Runsst
ati
onar
ymachi
nessuchasmi
l
li
ngmachi
nes,
gri
ndi
ngmi
l
ls,
cool
i
ngmachi
nesandwat
er
pumps.
 Suppl
i
esheatandl
i
ghtf
oroper
ati
onsofbr
ooder
s.

Di
sadvant
ages
 Cannotbeuseddi r
ectl
yinsomef ar
m oper
ati
ons.
 Lackofel
ectri
cit
yintheruralareas.
 Powerfai
lur
escanl eadtohighlosses.
 Iti
scostl
ytoinstal
landmai nt
ain.

Sol
arEner
gy
Ener
gyobt
ainedf
rom t
hesun.
Uses
 Provi
desheatandl i
ght.
 Usedbyal l
theplantsinphotosynthesi
s.
 Dehydrat
ingcropssuchasv egetabl
es,maizegr
ains,
beansandhay .
 Boil
swaterwhichdr i
vesturbinestoproducepowerforminoruses.
Di
sadvant
age
 Lowconcentrat
ionofenergyoncloudydays.
 Expensi
veIncoll
ect i
ngandconcentr
ati
ngequipment
.
 Cannotbeuseddi rect
lyi
nsomef ar
m oper
ations.
 Requir
esskil
l
edl abourtoi
nst
allandmaint
ain.
Tr
act
or
 Thet
ract
orhasani
nter
nal
combust
ionengi
newhi
chbur
nspet
rol
ordi
esel
topr
oducepower
.
 Thi
spoweri
sthenpassedtothegearboxf
rom wher
eiti
str
ansmi
tt
edi
nvar
iousway
s.
 Thecommontract
orengi
neisafourstr
okecycl
eengi
ne.
Thef
ourst
rokesar
e:
 I
nductionstroke.
 Compr essi
onst r
oke.
 Powerst r
oke.
 Exhauststroke.
I
nduct
ionSt
roke
 Pi
stonmov esdown.
 I
nletval
veopens.
 Fuelandai
rgetint
othecy
li
nder
.

Compr
essi
onSt
roke

 I
nletvalv
eiscl
osed.
 Pi
stonmov esupthecy
li
nder.
 Fuel-
airmix
tur
eiscompressed.
PowerSt
roke
 Aspar
kispr oducedatsparkpl
ug,i
gni
tingt
hefuel
-ai
rmixtur
e.
 Thei
ncreasedpressurefor
cesthepi
stondownthecyli
nder.

ExhaustSt
roke–

 Exhaustval
veopens.
 Pi
stonmov esupthecyl
inder
.
 Burnedfuel
-ai
rmixt
ureexpel
l
ed.

Advant
agesoft
heFourSt
rokeEngi
nes
 Producehighpowerwhi chcandoheav yfarm work.
 Haveef f
ici
entfuelandoil
util
i
zati
on.
 Perfor
m awi derangeoffarm operat
ions.
 Areeffecti
vel
ycooledwithwaterthusallowingtheproduct
ionofl
argeengi
nesi
ze.
 Exhaustgassesareef f
ecti
vel
yexpell
edf rom t
hecy l
i
nders.

Di
sadvant
ages
 Areex pensi
vetobuyandmaint
ain
 Theiruseisli
mitedi
nsomeareas;
 Tractorcanonlybeusedonfl
atorgentl
yslopi
ngar
eas
 Requireskil
l
edpersonnel
andsupportser
vices

TheTwoSt
rokeEngi
nes
  Foundinsmal
lmachi
nessuchasmower
s,mot
orbi
kes,
andwat
erpumpswhi
chdol
i
ghtj
obsi
n
thefar
m.
 Al
lthecy
clesar
ecompl
etedi
ntwost
rokesoft
hepi
ston.
Thesest
rokesar
e;
I
nduct
ionandcompr
essi
onst
roke
 Thepi
stoni
satt
hebot
tom
 Pi
stonmov
esupuncov
eri
ngt
hei
nletpor
t
 Fuel
-ai
rmi
xur
eisdr
awni
n
 I
gni
ti
onoccur
swhent
hepi
stonr
eachest
het
op
 Pi
stoni
sfor
ceddownwar
dcompr
essi
ngt
hemi
xtur
eint
hecr
ank.
Powerandexhaustst
roke
 Thepi
stoni
satt
het
op
 I
gni
tedgasespr
oducepr
essur
ewhi
chf
orcet
hepi
stondownwar
ds
 Thepi
stoncov
erst
hei
nletpor
tandt
rapsf
reshf
uel
-ai
rmi
xtur
eint
hecr
ankcase
 Pi
stonmov
esf
urt
herdownt
ouncov
ert
heex
haustpor
t
 Fuel
-ai
rmi
xtur
etr
ansf
err
edf
rom t
hecr
ankcaset
othecombust
ionchamber
.

WhatAdvant
agesoft
wost
rokeengi
ne?
 Cheapt
obuyandeasyt
omai
ntai
n
 Economi
cal
inf
uel
consumpt
ion
 Canbeusedi
nawi
der
angeoff
arml
and,
incl
udi
nghi
l
lyar
eas
 Candosmal
ltasksi
nthef
arm whi
chwoul
dbeun-
economi
cal
todousi
ngt
hef
ourst
rokeengi
ne.
Whatdi
sadvant
agesoft
wost
rokeengi
ne?
 Theypr
oducelesspowerhencecannotbeusedf orheavydut
ies.
 Theyar
eineff
ici
enti
nburni
ngfuelt
opr oducepower .
 Theyar
eaircooledt
husli
miti
ngthesiz
eoft heengine.

Syst
emsofaTr
act
or
Themoderntractorhast hef
ollowingsyst
ems:
 Thef uelsy stem.
 Electri
calsy stem
 Ignit
ionsy stem
 Coolingsy stem
 Powert ransmi ssi
onsystem.
TheFuelSyst
em

Suppl
i
esf
uel
tot
heengi
ne.
Cat
egori
zedint
otwot
ypesdependi
ngont
hef
uelused.
Theseare:
 Thepet
rol
fuel
system.
 Thedi
eself
uelsy
stem

ThePet
rolFuelSyst
em
Consi
stsof
:
 Fue ltank-st or ageoff uel.
 Fue lfi
lter-remov esf orei
gnpar t
icl
esf r
om thefuel
.
 Car burettor–
 atomi sesf uel intospr ay.
 introducesf uel -ai
rmi xt
ureint
otheengi nes.
 Regul atesf uel-airintosuitabl
epr oport
ions.
 Fue lpump-f or cesf uel i
ntothecarburett
or.
 De l
iverypi pe-connect sal lt
hedev i
ces.

Mai
ntenance
 Cl
eani
ngt
hecarburet
torregularl
y.
 Cl
eani
ngt
hefuelf
il
terinpetr
ol .
 Cl
eani
ngt
heholeinthefueltankcap.
TheDi
eselFuelSyst
em
Consi
stsof
:
 Fue ltank-stor
ageoffuel
.
 Fue li
njecti
onpump-pumpsdi eselt
hroughinj
ect
ionnoz
zlesandbr
eaksi
ntof
inespr
ay.
 Fue lfi
lt
ers-removeforei
gnpar
ticl
esfr
om thefuel
.
 De l
iverypipes-connectt
hevar
iousdevices.

Mai
ntenance
 Repl
aci
ngthefuelfi
l
ter
.
 Bl
eedi
ngincaseairist
rappedint
hesyst
em.
 Cl
eani
ngthesedimentbowl r
egul
arl
y.

St
ruct
uralandFunct
ionalDi
ff
erencesBet
weenPet
rolandDi
eselEngi
nes
Pet
rol
engi
ne Di
esel
Engi
ne
 1  1
Ithasacar buret
tor  I
thasaninject
ionpump.
. .

Fue2l
andairar emixedi
nthecar
bur
ett
or  T
2hefuel
andairaremixedwi
thi
nthe
. .
bef
 oreitget
si nt
otheengi
ne.  cyl
i
nder.
 3
Fueli
signi
tedbyanel
ect
ri
cspar
k.  F
3ueli
signit
edbycompressi
onofai
rand
. .
  fuel
mixturei
nthecy
li
nder.
I 4
tpr
oducesli
tt
lesmokebecause  I
4
tproducesalotofsmokesi
ncet
hedi
esel
. .
p
et
roli
s compl
etel
yburnt
.  i
sn otcompl
e t
elybur
nt.
  5
Petr
ol engi
neisli
ghti
nwei
ghtand  I
5
tisr
elat
ivel
yheav
yinwei
ghtandsui
ted
. .
s
ui
tedforli
ghtduti
es.  f
orheavyduti
es.

El
ect
ri
calSyst
em
Consi
stsoft
hefol
l
owi
ng:
 Bat t
ery
 Conv er
tschemi cal energyintoelectr
icalenergy.
 St oreselectr
icalener gyproducedbyt herunning
 Ignit
ionci r
cuit-prov i
det heelectri
cal r
equiredbyt hespar
kplugs.
currentthatproducesaspar kintheengi ne.
 Gener atorcircuit-providet heelect
ricalcurrentthatst
art
stheengine.
 Lightingcircuit-supplyt heelectri
calcurrentrequiredf
orthel
ight
ingsyst
em.
 Startermot orci r
cuit-st art
st heengine.

Car
eandMai
ntenanceofaTr
act
orBat
ter
y
 Thelev
elofelect
rolyteshouldbekeptj ustabovet hepl
atebytoppi
ngwi t
hdist
il
ledwater
.
 Corr
odedterminalsshouldbescr appedcleanandsmear edwithgr
ease.
 Thebatt
eryshouldbet ightl
yfix
edi naboxt oav oidspi
l
lageanddamage.
 Thebatt
eryshouldbef itt
edcorrectl
yont hetractor.
 Thebatt
eryshouldbechar gedregular
lyandper iodi
cal
ly.
 I
ncaseofl ongstoragethebat t
erycontentsshoul dbekeptupsi
dedown.
 Thegeneratorf
anbel tshouldalwaysbef uncti
onal t
oensurethebatt
eryisal
way schar
ged.

I
gni
ti
onSyst
em

Consi
stsof
:

 Igniti
on-changethelowv ol
tagefr
om thebat
ter
ytohi
ghvol
tagecurrentr
equi
redbyt
hespar
k
plugs.
 Conde nser-absorbsthesel
f-i
nducedcurr
enti
nthepr
imar
ycircui
t.

 stor
escur r
entforashor tt
ime.
 passeselectr
iccurrenttot
hedi st
ri
but
or.
 Di
str
ibutor-dist
ribut
est hehi
ghv olt
agecurr
entt
othespar
kplugs.
 Cont
actbr eaker-Int
er r
uptsthenormalfl
owofcurr
enti
nthepri
maryci
rcui
t.
St
atet
heMai
ntenancepr
act
icescar
ri
edont
heI
gni
ti
onSyst
em
Thecarbondepositsonthespar kplugelectr
odesshouldberemoved.
 Thespar kplugswhoseel ectr
odesar ewor noutshoul
dber epl
aced.
 Thecont actbreakerpointsshoul dbecleaned.
 Thebr eakerpointsshouldbeadj ust
edsot hatt
heyli
ebetweenO. 30mm and0.
50mm.
 Thecondensershoul dber eplacedregularl
y.
 Thei gni
ti
onsy stemsshoul dal waysbekeptdr y.
 I gni
ti
onwireswi t
hpoori nsulati
onshoul dberepl
aced.

Cool
i
ngSyst
em
 Thecool
ingsyst
em ai
msatpr
event
ingt
heengi
nef
rom ov
erheat
ingwhi
chwoul
dcausepi
ston
zei
sur
einthecyl
i
nder.
  Somet
ract
orengi
nesar
ecool
edbyai
rwhi
l
eot
her
sar
ecool
edbywat
er.

St
atet
heChar
act
eri
sti
csofAi
rCool
edEngi
nes
 Theyar
esi
mpl
einconst
ruct
ion.
 Theyhavefi
nsandafanbladewhichassi
ststhecir
cul
ati
on.
 Theyarel
ighti
nwei
ghtfortheyhavenoradi
atorsandwaterj
acket
s.

Li
mit
ati
ons
 Theygethotqui
cklyanduseheavyl
ubri
cat
ingoi
l.
 Thecooli
ngisnotadequat
eunderal
lcondi
ti
onsespeci
all
ywhencar
ryi
ngheav
yloads.

Wat
erCool
edSyst
ems
 I
tconsistsoft
her
adi
ator
,wat
erj
acket
s,wat
erhoses,wat
erpump,t
her
most
atandaf
anni
ng
mechanism.
 Wat
eri
susedt
oabsor
bheatf
rom t
heengi
nebl
ockatar
easonabl
erat
e.

Car
eandMai
ntenanceofWat
erCool
i
ngsyst
em
 Thewat
erpumpsshoul
dbel
ubr
icat
edr
egul
arl
y.
 Cleanwatershoul
dbeusedi ntheradi
atorandt r
ashremovedfrom t
hef
ins.
 Al
l pi
pesshouldbefi
tt
edtight
lytoavoi
dbl ockage.
 Theradiat
orshoul
dbef i
l
ledwithcl
eanwat erbef
orestar
ti
ngtheday'
swork.
 Fanbelttensi
onshoul
dbecheckedr
egul
arl
yandi
ftoot
ightort
ool
ooseshoul
dbeadj
ust
ed
accor
dingl
y.
Lubr
icat
ionSyst
em
 Thi
ssy
stem i
sai
medatsuppl
yi
ngoi
ltoal
lpar
tsoft
heengi
newher
efr
ict
ioni
sli
kel
ytooccur
.
I
mpor
tanceofLubr
icat
ionsyst
em
 Ithelpstoincreasetheeffi
ci
encyofthemachineandr educestherateofwearandtearofmoving
parts.
 Itreducestheheatcr eat
edbytherubbingsur
facesandact sasaseal bet
weenthem.
 Itactsasacl eaningagentbecauseitwashesoffal
lthedust,dir
t,sootandmetalchi
ppingsf
rom
theoilpathstot hesump.
TypesofLubr
icat
ionSyst
ems;
 Spl
ashf eedtype
 Forcefeedtype
 Oil
mi sttype
TypesofLubr
icant
s
 SAE10-Thi
sist
hinengi
neoi
lwhi
chgi
vesl
i
ttl
epr
otect
ionwhenheat
ed.

 SAE50-Thi
sist
hickerengi
neoi
lwhichi
srecommendedforpr
otect
ingthebeari
ngs.
 SAE90-100-Thesear etr
ansmissi
onoi
lswhichar
erecommendedf orclut
ch,gearbox
,wheel
 l
ubr
icat
ionandbal
lbear
ings.

Not
e:SAE-Soci
etyofAut
omobi
l
eEngi
nes.
Car
eandMai
ntenanceofLubr
icat
ionSyst
ems
 Oldorcontaminatedoi
lshouldnotbeusedforlubri
cat
ion.
 Oilshoul
dbedr ai
nedwhenst i
ll
hottoavoi
dsticki
ngont hewallsoft
hesump.
 Theoilfi
lt
ersshouldberepl
acedwhennecessar y
.
 Thecor r
ectty
peofoilshoul
dbeusedaspert hemanuf actur
ers'i
nst
ruct
ions.
PowerTr
ansmi
ssi
onSyst
em
 Thefunct
ionofthi
ssyst
em i
stotransf
erpowerfrom t
hetr
act
orengi
net
othedr
iveshaf
t,t
he
wheelaxl
e,t
hepowert
akeof
fshaf
tandthehydraul
i
csystem.
 Thesy
stem consi
stsoft
hecl
utch,
gearbox
,di
ff
erent
ial
andt
hef
inal
dri
ve.
Thepowert
ransmi
tt
edf
rom t
heengi
nei
smadeavai
l
abl
eforuset
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Thepropel l
ershaft-itconnectsthegearboxt othediff
erenti
al.
 Thepowe rtakeoffshaf t(PTOshaf t)¬-Itislocatedattherearpartofthet
ract
orandrotat
es
att
hesamespeedast hecrankshaftoftheengine.
 Hydrauli
csyst em -i
tisoperatedbytheuseofal evernearthedri
versseat.
 Iti
sconnectedt ot
he3- pointl
inkageandhel pst olowerorraiseimplementsmountedonthe3-
poi
ntli
nkagessuchaspl oughs,mowers, pl
antersandspr ay
ers.
 Dr
awbar–
 Iti
saone-pointl
i
nkageatt
herearpartoft
het
ract
or.
 I
tservesfort heatt
achmentoft r
ail
ed i
mpl
ementsthatcan beused dur
ing har
rowi
ng,
t
ranspor
tat
ionorrol
l
ing.
Tr
act
orSer
vici
ng
 Theai
m oft
ract
orser
vici
ngi
stokeept
het
ract
ori
ngoodandef
fi
ci
entwor
kingcondi
ti
ons.
 Tr
act
orser
vici
ngi
sei
ther
;
shor
t
l
ongt
erm.
Li
stt
heShor
tTer
m Tr
act
orSer
vici
ng
I
tincl
udes:
 Checki ngt heengi neoi ldail
ybyuseofadi pstick.
 I ft
heoi llevelislow, i
tshoul dbeadded.
 Thef uellevelshoul dbecheckedatt hest artofev eryday 'swor kandaddedi fnecessary.
 Wat erlevelinther adiatorshoul dbecheckedandi fpossi bl
et oppedup.
 Thel eveloftheel ectrol
y t
eshoul dbecheckeddai lyandt oppedupwi thdi
sti
l
ledwat eraccordi
ngl
y.
 Nut sandbol tsshoul dbet ight
enedev eryday.
 Lostnut sandbol t
sshoul dber epl
acedbef oretheday 'swor k.
 Gr easeshoul dbeappl i
edbyuseofgr easegunt hr ought heni pples.
 Lar gesedi ment sfr om thesediment sbowl shoul dber emov ed.
 Thet yrepressur eshoul dbecheckeddai lybeforet heday '
swor k.
 Thef anbel ttensionshoul dbecheckedt oensur et hatitdeflectsbetween1.9cm and2. 5cm when
pushed.
 Thebr akeshaf tbear i
ngshoul dbegr eased.
 Thebr akef l
uidlev eli
smai ntainedatt herecommendedl evel.
LongTer
m Ser
vices
  Theengi
neoi
lshoul
dbedr
ainedcompl
etel
yfr
om t
heoi
lsumpandr
epl
acedwi
thnewoi
l
.
 Thegearboxoilshouldbecheckedandr ef
il
ledasrecommended.
 Theoili
nthedif
ferent
ialshouldberepl
acedasrecommended.
 Thel
inkageandt hepull
eyattachmentshoul
dbegr eased.
 Thepull
eyoill
evelshouldbecheckedandaddedi fneedbe.
 Thedir
tyoil
shouldber emovedandr epl
acedwithcleanone.

Far
m Machi
ner
y
Tr
act
orDr
awnI
mpl
ement
s
 Thesear
eimpl
ement
swhi
char
eat
tachedt
othet
ract
ordur
ingoper
ati
on.
St
atet
het
wocat
egor
ies.Tr
act
orDr
awnI
mpl
ement
s

 One-pointhi tchimpl ement s;

 Ar eattachedt othet ract
oratonl
yonepointthati
s,thedrawbar .
 Theyi ncludeal l
trail
edi mpl
ementssuchasthet r
ail
ers,heav
yhar r
ows,pl
antersandroll
ers.
 Thr
eepoi nthi t
chi mpl ement s;
 Ar eimpl ementsat tachedtothetract
oratthreepointsthatis,t
hetopli
nkagepointandt wo
lowerlinkagepoi nts.
 Theyar eoperatedbyt hehydr
aul
icsyst
em.
 Theyi ncludepl oughs,mosthar rows,sub¬soil
er,planter
s,mower ,ri
dgers,sprayer
sand
rotavator s.

Tr
ail
ers
 Theyareone-poi
nthi
tchimplements.
 Theyareusedfortr
ansport
ationofgoods.
 Smalloneshavetwowheelswhi l
ebigoneshav
efourwheel
s.

Mai
ntenance
 All
themov i
ngpartsshouldbelubr
icated.
 Tyrepr
essureshouldbeadjust
edtot hecorr
ectpressure.
 Wornouttyresshouldberepl
aced.
 Loosenutsandboltsshouldbeti
ghtened,worn-
outonesshouldberepl
aced.
 Theimplementsshouldbekeptunderasheddur i
ngl ongstor
age.

Pl
oughs
 Theyarepr
imaryti
ll
agei
mplements.
 Thecommont ypeofpl
oughsi
nclude:
 Di scpl
oughs.
 Moul dboardpl
oughs.
Di
scpl
oughs
 I
tismadeupofheav
yst
eel
concav
edi
scsof60-
70cm di
amet
er.
Par
tsandFunct
ionsofadi
scpl
ough
Thehit
chmast :
 I sanat t
achmentf orthet hreepoi nthi
tch.
 Madeupoft wosi del i
nksandat opli
nk .
 Thesear epar tsconnect edt ohy drauli
csy st
em ofat r
actorforli
ft
ingandpul
l
ing.
 Thebeam: Supportsall otherpar t
s.Italsoaddswei ghtforbetterpenetr
ati
on.
 Depthwheel :
 Usedwhendr i
v i
ngonhi ghway ,
 italsocont rolsthedept hofploughi ng.
 Maynotbepr esenti nalldiscploughs.
 Thes tandar dorl eg:Connect sthedi scst othebeam.
 Thehub: All
owst hedi scst orotatesmoot hlyhencedoesthecut ti
ngoffurr
owsli
ces.
 Thes craper s:Removet het rashandmudorsoi l
whichclingtothediscs,
 Di scbl ades: Cutandi nvertthefurrowsl i
ces.
 Re arfur r
owwheel :Cont r
olsthedept hofdiggingandstabil
isesthediscs.

Adj
ust
ment .
 Thecutt
ingangl
eshoul
dbeadjustedat35°-50°fr
om t
heIi
neoft
rav
el.
Achi
evedbypiv
oti
ngthebeam orthest
andard.

Dept
hofdi ggi
ng:Thisi
scorr
ect
edbychangi
ngt
hehei
ghtofdept
hwheeloradj
ust
inghy
draul
i
c
syst
em andaddingwei
ght
s.
Car
eandMai
ntenanceofDi
scPl
ough
 Checkf orloosenutsandbol t
sandrepl
acethem.
 Sharpent hediscbladesifbl
unt.
 Lubricatetherotat
ingpartsbyuseofoi
l/
greasetor
educefr
ict
ion.
 Painttheex posedpartsf
orex ampl
ethebeam/fr
amework.
 Cleant heimplementattheendofeachday '
sworkbef
orest
orage.
 Storetheimpl ementsinashed.
 Theunpai ntedpartsshouldbecoat
edwitholdengi
neoil
topreventr
ust
.
UsesofaDi
scPl
ough
Usedi
nar
easwi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons:
 Vir
ginlandwit
hmanyobstacl
es.
 Landwi t
htoomuchtrashort
all
veget
ati
on.
 Openinguppastur
eland.

Moul
dboar
dpl
oughs
 Thispri
maryti
ll
ageimplementi
ssuit
edi
nar
easwi
thoutobst
acl
essuchasst
ones,
treest
umps,
androots.
 Itgi
vesaunif
orm dept
hofploughi
ng.

Par
tsandFunct
ionsMoul
dboar
dpl
oughs

 Shar e:Thismakesthehor i
zontalcutandst
artsthetur ningofthefurrowslices.
 Moul dboar d:Conti
nuestheturni
ngoft hef
urrowslicesandpul ver
izesthesoil.
 Di sccoulter:Makesav er
ti
calcutinthesoil
tosepar atet hefurr
owsl i
cefrom theun-
ploughed
l
and.
 Sk im coulter
:Remov esanytrashfrom bet
weent hef urrowslices.
Fr
og: I
tisthepartwheretheshare,mouldboardandt hel andsideareattached.
  Lands i
de:Stabi
li
zest
hepl
oughandabsor
bsthesi
defor
cescreat
edwhenf
urr
owi
stur
ned.
 Shin:Leadi
ngedgeofamouldboar
d.
 Knifecoult
er :
Isaver
ti
cal
kni
fewhichcut
str
ashandeart
haheadoft
heshar
e.

Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Lubricatetheroll
i
ngpar tsf
orexamplewheelbeari
ngsanddisccoul
terbeari
ngs.
 Paintscratchedpar t
softheplough.
 Sharpent heshareorr epl
aceifwornout
.
 Checkal ll
oosenut sandboltsandrepl
acewherenecessary.
 Cleant heimplementaf t
ereachday'
sworktoremov esoi
l,
mudandt rash.
 Forlongst orage,keepunderashedandapplylubr
icant
s.

Adj
ust
ment
Depth:
 Cont r
olledbyrai
singorloweringthedepthwheel
.
 Cont r
olledbyhydraul
iccontroll
everset
ti
ng.
Pi
tch:contr
oll
edbyal t
eri
ngthelengthofthetopli
nk.
 Fr ontfurrow width:Control
ledbycr ossshaftadj
ust
mentl
everorbyr
otat
ingt
hecr
ossshaf
t
cr
ank.
 Lat er
allevelli
ng:Contr
oll
edbyt ract
orli
ftr
od.

Oper
ati
onal
dif
fer
encesbet
weenadi
scandamoul
dboar
d
Di
scPl
ough Moul
dboar
dPl
ough
 1
 Sui
tabl
eonf
iel
dwi
thst
ones,  1
 Cannotbeusedonf
iel
dswi
thst
one,
. .
 r
oot
sandst
umps.  r
oot
sorst
umps.
 2
 Doesnoti
nver
tthef
urr
owsl
i
ces  2
 I
nver
tst
hef
urr
owsl
i
cescompl
etel
y.
. .
 compl
etel
y. 
 3
 Mor
esecondar
yoper
ati
onsar
e  3
 Fewersecondar
yoper
ati
onsar
e
. .
 necessar
yaf
teri
thasbeenused.  needed.
 4
 Cut
satv
ary
ingpoi
nts.  4
 Oper
atesatuni
for
m dept
h.
. .
 5
 Noteasi
l
ybr
okenbyobst
acl
es.  5
 Caneasi
l
ybebr
okenbyobst
acl
es.
. .
 6
 Requi
resl
esspowert
ooper
ate.  6
 Requi
resmor
epowert
ooper
ate.
. .

Har
rows
 Theyar
esecondar ycult
ivat
ioni
mplement
s.
 Ther
earedi ff
erenttypesofharr
ows.
 Thecommononesar e:
 disc,Har r
ows
 springtineHar r
ows
 spiketoothhar r
ows.

Di
scHar
rows

 I
tcompr
isesofasetofgangswi
thconcav
edi
scs.
Uses
 Mixingthesoi
lpar
ti
cl
es.
 Levell
i
ngtheseedbedbybr
eaki
ngl
arge
 l
umpsofsoi l.
 Kil
l
ingweeds.
Di
skhar
rowscanbecl assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othear
rangementoft
hegangssucha;
 st andem,
 doubl etandem
 offsettandem.
Dept
hAdj
ust
ment
 Addi
ngwei ght
sontheharrows.
 Useofhydrauli
cfor
ce.
 Useofl
ightorheavyharr
ows.
 Useofregulat
ingwheel
s.
Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Checkforl
oosenutsandbol
tsdai
l
y.
 Lubri
catet
heshaft
sandbeari
ngs.
 Cleanandoil
bef
orestor
age.
Spr
ingTi
neHar
row
 I
smadeupoff
latandcur
vedt
ineswhi
chactasspr
ings.

Uses
 Levelsandsmoothenst
heseedbed.
 Breaksthesoi
lcl
ods.
  Mi
xestrashandsoi
lthuspr
event
ingwi
nder
osi
on.
 Aer
atesthesoi
l.
Adj
ust
ment
s
 Dept
hiscont
rol
ledbythehori
zontal
connecti
ngli
nkanddept
hwheel
.
 Fori
ndi
vi
dualti
ne,usecr
ossbarandlooseni
ngthescr
ews.
Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Checkf
orloosenut
sandbol
tsandt
ight
ent
hem i
fnecessar
y.
 Cl
eanaft
eruse.
 Oi
lthel
evermechani
sm.

Spi
keToot
hHar
rows
 Consi
stsofametalfr
ameworkwithri
gidmet alspi
keswhi
chbr
eakupt
hesoi
lbyv
igor
ousl
y
hi
tt
ingl
argel
umpsofsoil
sasi
tispul
l
edthroughthesoil
.
Uses
 I
tsmoothensandcompactsthesoi
l.
 I
tbreaksbi
glumpsofsoil
int
osmallpar
ti
cl
es.
 Canbeusedforcul
ti
vat
ingsmallcr
opsi
fwell
set
.
Subsoi
l
ers
 Heavyandrequir
ehighhorsepowert
opul
l
.
 Pl
oughingdepthof51-90cm.
Funct
ions
 Br
eakupcompactedsoi
l
.
 Br
eakupthehar
dpan.
Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Cl
eanitaft
eruse
 Checkthepoi
ntandi
fwor
nout
,repl
acei
t.
 Oi
lwhennotinuse.
Ri
dger
 I
tisdoubl
emoul
dboar
dpl
oughusedt
omaker
idgesandf
urr
ows.
 I
tisusedt
opr
eventwat
erl
oggi
nganddr
aini
ngt
hroughf
urr
owsf
oreasyhar
vest
ingofr
ootcr
ops.

Rol
l
ers
 Thi
si sanequi
pmentusedt
ocompactt
hesoi
lgent
lyespeci
al
lywher
eti
nyseedsar
etobe
pl
anted.

Rot
avat
ors:(
Rot
arycul
ti
vat
ors)
 Workont hepr
inci
plesofhighspeedofrevolvi
ngfl
ailbl
adeswhichbeatandcutt
hesoi
ltoget
her
wi
thtrash.
 I
tisanequipmentforbothprimaryandsecondaryt
il
lageoper
ati
ons.
 I
tisdr
ivenbytheP.T.O.shaftofatr
actor
.
Uses
  Breaksuplar
gesoilpart
icl
esint
osmallones.
 Mixestheveget
ati
onandt hesoil
.
 Achievest
wooperationsinonepass.

Adj
ust
ment
s
 Forwardspeedofthet
ract
orgivesaf
inet
il
thoft
heseedbeddonethr
ought
hegear
box
.
 Depthofworkdonebycontrol
ofdepthwheel
.
 Sl
ipclut
chmaybr eaki
ncasethekniv
escomeacrossobstr
uct
ions

Mower
s

Uses
 Cutt
inggrassforhayorsil
agemaki
ng,
 cut
ti
ngov ergr
owngr ass
 cl
earingt
hef i
el
d.

Reci
procat
ingMower
Par
tsandFunct
ions
 Swat
hst
ick:Keepsthecutcr
opfal
li
ngcor
rect
ly.
 Swat
hboard:Toremovethecutcr
op.
 Shoe:
Hasar
unnert
oabsor
bthewei
ghtandwear
.
 Cutterbar:I
saflatbarwhi
chgui
desthef
inger
s.
Wearpl
ate:Count
eractsdownwar
dfor
ceandholdsthekni
ves.

Adj
ust
ment
s
 Toadj
ustkni
fer
egi
sterbymov
ingt
hewhol
ebarawayort
owar
dst
hey
oke.
 Kni
fel
ead:
Theout
ershoeshoul
dbeadj
ust
edt
obeout
ert
hant
hei
nnershoeby4cm.

Mai
ntenance
 Checkforloosenutsandbol
tsandt
ight
enwher
enecessar
y.
 Keepknifesecti
onsharp.
 Lubri
catetheknif
eparts.
 Checkknif
etol
edgerpl
atecupf
orbestcut
ti
ng.
 Keepall
thepar
tsti
ght.

Rot
aryMower
s
 Cut
ti
ngedgeconsi
stsoft
wobl
adesf
it
tedopposi
tet
oeachot
heronhor
izont
aldi
sc.

 Thecut
ti
ngbl
adesswi
ngr
oundathi
ghspeedhor
izont
all
ytot
hegr
oundhencecut
ti
ngi
sef
fect
ed.

Adj
ust
mentandMai
ntenance

 Bl
adesshoul
dbesharp.
 Guar
dstobefit
tedar
oundt
hebl
adest
opr
otectt
heoper
atorf
rom f
lyi
ngobj
ect
s.
  Lubri
catet
heP.T.
O.shaft
s.
 Checkthegear
-boxoi
lregul
arl
yandf
il
ltot
her
ightl
evel
ifnecessar
y.
Pl
ant
ers
 Theyar
emachi
nesusedf
orsowi
ngseeds.
 Ther
ear
etwotypes:
 Rowcropplant
ers.
 Seeddri
l
ls.

Funct
ionsoft
hePl
ant
ers
 Metert
heseedandfert
il
iz
ersf
rom seedandfert
il
iz
erhopper
.
 Opentheseedfur
row.
 Deposi
ttheseedi
nthefurr
owthr
ought hedel
iv
erytubes.
 Covert
heseed
Funct
ionsofPar
tsofaSeedPl
ate
 Fi
ll
erplate:
givespr operseeddepth.
 Fal
ser i
ng:all
owst heseedt ofal
lfr
om t
heseedplatei
ntotheboot
.
 Knockoutpawl: pushest heseedsoutofthecel
lbytherol
l
eracti
on.
 Cut-
offpawl:prev entsmor ethanoneseedremai
ninginaplat
ecell
.
 Cel
ls:shapedhol est oholdtheseed.

Adj
ust
ment
s
 Adj
ustthecoulter
sdept hfortherightcr
op.
 Fi
xtherightseedplate.
 Pl
acetheplanteri
nt helevelposit
ion.
 Al
ltheshaftsshouldbef r
eetot ur
n.

Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Checkal
lloosenuts,bolt
sandt i
ght
enthem.
 Cl
eanandoi lt
heplanteraft
eruse.
 Greaset
hedr i
vesprocketsregul
arl
y.

Seeder
s
 Thegr
aindr
il
lsowsgr
ainsofwheat
,bar
ley
,oat
s,peas,
beansandal
fal
faseeds.
Par
tst
hatcanbeadj
ust
edt
ochanget
hesowi
ngr
ate;
 Sel
ectthesi
deoft hefeedwheelr
ecommendedont hedr
il
lchartsf
ort
heseed-
rat
e.
 Changethespeedoft hewheel
sbychangingthegear
sorsprocket
sorbot
h.
 Changetheposit
ionofthefeedgat
einthecup.
 Usereducer
sbelowt hefeedwheel
.
Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Keepseedandfert
il
izerhoppersdryandcl
eanaf
tereachday
'swor
k.
 Checkthedri
veshaftandlubri
catethem.
 Pai
ntthepart
sforexampleferti
li
zer
 hoppertobeshi
ny
Combi
neHar
vest
er
 Use
 Harvestingcer
ealcr
opsforex
ampl
emai
ze,
wheatandbar
ley
.
Iti
sdesi
gnedt odothefol
l
owing:
 Cut ti
ng
 Thr eshi
ng.
 Wi nnowing
 Baggi ng
Par
tsofaCombi
neHar
vest
er
 Cutt
erbar-cutsthegrainhead.
 Pi
ckupr eel
-dir
ectcropintothecut
terbar,
 El
evator-channel
sthecutgraintothethreshi
ngdrum.
 Winnowingran-fanstrashupontoast r
awwal keranddi
rect
sitoutoft
hecombi
nehar
vest
er.

 Del
i
ver
ytube-del
i
ver
sthecl
ean.
grai
nsi
ntoacol
l
ect
ingt
ankf
rom wher
eiti
sbagged.
Mai
ntenanceofaCombi
neHar
vest
er
 Loosenut
sandbolt
sshoul
dbetight
ened.
 Removeallf
orei
gnmat
eri
alsst
uckinthemachi
neatt
heendoft
heday
'swor
k.

Ri
dger
s
 Theyar
eusedf
orhar
vest
ingt
ubercr
opsandf
ormaki
ngf
urr
owsorr
idges.
Mai
ntenance
 Lubr
icat
ethemov
ingpar
ts.
 Cl
eant
hei
mpl
ementaf
teruse.
 Stor
eunderashed.
 Repairorrepl
aceworn-outorbrokenpar t
s.
 Loosenut sandbol
tsshouldbet i
ghtened.
 Unpaintedpart
sshouldbeoiledduri
ngl ongst
orage.
 Sharesshouldbesharpenedifblunt
.

For
ager
s
 Theyar
etr
act
ormount
edandoper
atedbypowerf
rom t
heP.
T.O.
shaf
t.
 Usedf
orhar
vest
ingf
oragecr
opssuchasNapi
ergr
ass,
sor
ghum andmai
ze.

Mai
ntenance
 Ti
ght
enl
oosenut
sandbol
ts.
 Lubricatemov i
ngpart
s.
 Storeinashed.
 Cleanaf tertheday'
swork.
 Repai r/
replacewornoutorbr
okenpart
s.
 Unpai ntedpartsshoul
dbeoil
edtoprev
entr
ust
.

Mai
zeShel
l
ers
 Thesear
est
ati
onar
yimpl
ement
swhi
char
eei
therhandort
ract
ordr
iven.
  Theyconsi
stof
.ar
otat
ingdi
scwhi
chshel
lmai
zegr
ainsf
rom cobs.

Mai
ntenance
 Greasingmovingpart
s.
 Remov i
nganystuckmai
zecobs.
 Repairorrepl
acewornoutorbr
okenpar
ts.
 Storeinashed.

Ani
malDr
awnI
mpl
ement
s

OxPl
ough
 Ox-
ploughi
sasi
mpl
ety
peofamoul
dboar
dpl
oughwhi
chi
spul
l
edbyapai
rofox
en,donkey
sor
camels.

Expl
aint
hef
unct
ionsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
tsofanox-
plough

 Mainbeam -I tisthemai ncomponentontowhichal

ltheot
herpar
tsar
eattached.
 Moul dboar
d-I tinvertsthecutf ur
rowsli
ceupsi
dedown.
 Ploughshar e-Itcutst hefurrowsli
ces.
 Landwheel -Itregulatesthedept hofpl
ough.
 Draftrod-Iti
sont hisrodt hatachaini
sconnect
edonwhichayokei
sli
nked.
 I
tfor
mst
hedr
aughtmechani
sm oft
hepl
ough.

Whatar
etheAdvant
agesofanOx-
PloughOverTr
act
or¬Dr
awnPl
ough?
 Lessski
ll
isr
equir
edtooperat
eit
.
 Useful
wheretr
actor
scannotbeusedf
orex
ampl
est
eepsl
opes.
 Cheaptobuyandmaint
ain.

Whatar
ethedi
sadvant
agesofanOx-
PloughOverTr
act
or¬Dr
awnPl
ough?
  Mucht
imei
swast
edi
ntr
aini
ngox
en.
 Tedi
ousandl
abor
ioust
othedr
iveroft
heani
mal
sandt
hecont
rol
l
eroft
hei
mpl
ement
.
 Ani
mal
scanbesi
ckori
npoorphy
sical
stat
e.
 Ex
tral
andi
srequi
redasgr
azi
ngf
iel
dsf
ort
heox
en.

Adj
ust
ment
s
 Dept
hofpl
oughi
scont
rol
l
edbyt
hel
andwheel
anddr
aftr
od

Car
eandMai
ntenance
 Shar
penorr
epl
aci
ngoft
hewor
noutshar
e
 Repl
acementofwor
noutpar
tssuchashooksanddr
awbarassembl
y.
 Oi
l
ingt
heshi
nypar
tse.
gmoul
dboar
d
 Washof
fthesoi
laf
teruse.
 Pai
ntt
hehandl
es,
beam andbr
acest
opr
eventr
ust
ing.

Ox-
DrawnCar
t
 Thesear
esmal
lcar
ri
ageshar
nessedt
otheani
mal
sbyay
oke
 Thesmal
lcar
tshav
eonl
ytwowheel
sbi
ggeroneshav
efour
.
 Theyar
epul
l
edbyani
mal
sinsi
ngl
esori
npai
rs
 Car
tsar
eusedf
ort
ranspor
t.

Mai
ntenance

 Mov
ingpar
tsshoul
dbeoi
l
ed
 They
okeshoul
dber
epai
redwhenwor
noutorr
epl
acedi
fnotr
epai
red
 Ty
repr
essur
eshoul
dbecheckedandadj
ust
edaccor
dingl
y
 Repai
rot
herdamagesont
hecar
t.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
csI
II
:

(
Product
ionEconomi
cs)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Theagr
icul
tur
alsect
ori
sakeypl
ayeri
ntheeconomyofourcount
ry.
 Itisamaj orempl
oyerandbr
ingsal
otofnat
ionali
ncomet
hroughf
orei
gn
exchange.
Nat
ionalI
ncome
 Thesearethet
otalear
ningsf
rom goodsandser
vicespr
oducedbyacount
ryi
na
peri
odofoneyear.
Rel
ati
onshi
pBet
weenFi
rm andHousehol
d
 Ahouseholdisconsi
deredt
obeaunitcompr
isi
ngaf ar
merandfami
l
ymember
s.
 I
tproducesrawmat er
ial
sandconsumesmanufact
uredgoods.
 Af irm on t he otherhand,i s any manufacturi
ng orpr ocessing uni
twhi ch
consumesr awmat eri
alsandpr oducesmanufacturedgoods.
 Bothhousehol dandf i
rm generateincome,whi
chi ntur
n,isusedt o:
 I mpr ovet hest andard oflivi
ngoft hehousehold member sbypay ing for
essentialgoodsandser vi
ces.
 Thef i
rmsbui ldmor eindustri
est ocreat
emor eempl oymentandr evenue
throughsal ar
iesandwages.
 Fi nance gov ernmentpr oj
ectst hrough t
axes and hence f urt
hernat ional
dev el
opment .

Gr
ossDomest
icPr
oduct(
G.D.
P.)
 Thi
sist
hesum t
otal
ofal
lgoodsandser
vicespr
oducedi
nacount
ryi
naper
iod
ofoney
ear
.
Gr
ossNat
ionalPr
oduct(
G.N.
P.)
 Isthesum totalofG.D.P.andthedif
fer
encebetweenincomei
nfl
ow(revenue
comingintothecount ryfr
om outsi
de)andincomeoutfl
ow(moneygoingout
ofthecountrybyforeigninvest
ors)
.
 Itr
epresent
st hetot
al i
ncomeear nedwit
hinthecount
ryandfr
om abr
oad.

PerCapi
taI
ncome
 IstheGrossNat
ionalI
ncome( i
ntermsofrev
enue)di
videdbythenumberof
peoplel
i
v i
ngint
hecountry
.
 Iti
snotagoodmeasur eoftheeconomicwell
-bei
ngofthepeopl
e becauseof
theunevendi
str
ibut
ionofi
ncomeamongt hem.
Cont
ri
but
ionofAgr
icul
tur
etoNat
ionalDevel
opment
 Theint eractionbetweenhouseholdandthefirm gener
atei
ncomewhichis
usedt ofinancef urt
herexpansi
onofthefi
rms.
 Thiscreat esmor eempl oy
mentandr ev
enue.
 The gov ernment t ax
es t he i
ncome tof i
nance nati
onaldevel
opment
programmessuchas;
 heal th,
 educat ion,
 wat er ,energy
 communi cat
ion.

Fact
orsofPr
oduct
ion
 Afact
orofproduct
ionisany
thi
ngt
hatcont
ri
but
esdi
rect
lyt
oout
put
,thati
s,i
t
i
saproducti
veresource.
 Pr
oduct
iver
esour
cesusual
l
yempl
oyedi
nthepr
oduct
ionofgoodsandser
vices.
I
nclude:
 Land
 Labour
 Capi
tal
 Management
Land
 Asafactorofproduct
ion,ref
erstothenat
uralcharact
eri
sti
csandproper
ti
esofa
gi
venareaofland.
 Thekeyfact
orhereisproductiv
ityf
orexamplesoilf
ert
il
it
y,pr
esenceofwaterand
miner
alsandisalwaysfix
edandhasnogeogr aphicalmobil
it
y.

Labor
 Besi
desbeingaconsumer ,
humanbei
ngsarealsoafact
orofproduct
ion.
 Theyprovi
det helabourf
orce(
humanpower)requi
redi
ntheproducti
onprocess.
 Labourisassessedintermsofpr
oduct
ivi
tyandnotmerenumber sofworkersor
 l
abourer
s.
 Labouri
smeasur
edi
nter
msofmanhour
s,manday
sormanmont
hs.
Thel
abour
er'
spr
oduct
ivecapaci
tydependsonsuchf
act
orsas;
 age,
 health,
 stateofnutri
ti
on
 levelofeducati
on.
 Theamountofwor kandtheef
fi
ci
encywi
thwhi
chi
tisper
for
meddet
ermi
nest
he
qual
i
tyoflabour.
Capi
tal
 Capi
tal
ref
erstoal
lman-
madeasset
sthathel
plandandl
abourt
opr
oduce.
 I
tiscat
egori
zedi
nto:
 Fi
xed/dur
able;
 Worki
ngcapital
 Li
quidcapit
al

Fi
xed/
dur
abl
e;
Capi
talf
orexampl
e
 machi ner
y,
 buil
dings
 permanentimpr ovement
sonl
andl
i
kef
ences,
 roads,
 i
rri
gationfaci
l
iti
es
 water¬supplysy st
em.

Wor
kingcapi
tal
;
Whi
chi
ncl
udeconsumergoodssuchas;
 fert
il
izer
s,
 l
ivestockfeeds,
 fueli
nst or
e,
 pesti
cides.

Li
qui
dcapi
tal
;
Forexampl
e;
 readymoney,
 bankdeposi
ts,
 sharesi
nfi
nancial
inst
it
uti
ons.
Management
;
 I
tisaprocessofdecisi
onmaki ngi
nt hef
arm.
 Managersusetheirknowledgeandjudgmentt
odecidehowt
ocombi
net
heot
her
t
hreeproduct
iveresourcesint
hebestwaypossibl
e.

 Theymakepl
ans,ex
ecut
ethem andbeart
her
isksorconsequenceswhi
chsuch
 pl
ansent
ail
.
Pr
oduct
ionFunct
ion
Def
ini
ti
on
 Product
ionfuncti
oni saphysi
calrel
ati
onshi
pbetweeninputsandoutput
sina
product
ionprocess.
 Ittel
lsthequant i
tyofoutput(pr
oduct)thatmaybeex pect
edfrom agiv
en
combinati
onofinputs.
 Product
ionfuncti
onmaybeex pr
essedintabl
efor
m orgr
aphical
lyasacurv
e.

Exampl
es:

Feedi
ngpi
gsf
orpor
kpr
oduct
ionatvar
yingl
evel
sofconcent
rat
efeed.
1.
Uni
toffeed Bodywt. Mar gi
nal
Gains(
kg) pr
oducts
(kg)
0 212 -
10 222 10
20 238 16
30 251 13
30 261 10
50 269 8
60 275 6
70 280 5
80 283 3
90 285 2
100 286 1

TypesofPr
oduct
ionFunct
ions
 Aproduct
ionf
unct
ionassumest
hreef
ormswhi
chmaybet
reat
edasdi
ff
erent
t
ypes:

 I
ncr
easi
ngRet
urns
 Const
antRet
urns
 Decr
easi
ng(
Dimi
nishi
ng)Ret
urns

I
ncr
easi
ngRet
urns
 I
nthi
stype,eachaddi
ti
onal
uni
tofi
nputr
esul
tsi
nal
argeri
ncr
easei
nout
putt
han
t
heprecedi
ngunit
.
  Thi
sshowst
hatr
esour
cesar
eunderut
il
iz
ed.
Const
antRet
urns
 Theamountoft hepr oductincr
easesbyt hesameamountf
oreachaddi
ti
onal
i
nput;
thati
sconst antr
eturnstoi
nputfact
or.
 Agai
nhereresourcesareunderutil
i
zed.

Decr
easi
ng(
Dimi
nishi
ng)Ret
urns
 Here,
eachaddit
ional
uni
tofi
nputr
esul
tsi
nasmal
l
eri
ncr
easei
nout
putt
hant
he
pr
ecedinguni
t.

 Resour
ceusei
sst
ret
chedt
othemax
imum.

 I
tist
hemostcommonl
yencount
eredf
ormi
nagr
icul
tur
alent
erpr
ises;

 I
tgi
vesr
iset
othel
awofDi
mini
shi
ngRet
urns.
Exampl
es:
 Feedi
ngdairycowsformil
kproduct
ionwit
hvary
ingamountsoffeed.
 Cropresponsestoappl
i
cati
onofvaryi
ngamountsoff
ert
il
iz
ers.
 Useofv ar
yinguni
tsofl
abouronfi
xeduni
tofl
and.

Economi
cLawsandPri
nci
ples
TheLawofDi
mini
shi
ngReturns

 Thel awofdi
mini
shi
ngret
urnsstat
esthat
;
i
’
’fsuccessi
veuni
tsofonei
nputareaddedtofi
xedquant
it
iesofot
heri
nput
sapoi
nt
i
seventual
lyr
eachedwher
eaddi
ti
onalpr
oduct(
out
put
)peraddi
ti
onaluni
tofi
nput
decl
i
nes.’
’
 Thi
slawisencount
eredpr
act
ical
l
yinall
for
msofagr
icul
turalpr
oducti
on.
 I
tisusef
uli
ndetermini
ngt
hemostrat
ional
andpr
ofi
tabl
elevelofpr
oduct
ion.

Exampl
e:
Pr
oduct
ionofmai
zeatv
ary
ingl
evel
sofN.
P.K.f
ert
il
iz
erappl
i
cat
iononaf
ixedar
eaof
l
and.

UnitofNPK Total Margi

nal
Ferti
l
izer Yi
e
Produ
lsct Pr
oducts
(bags) (
bags)
30 10 -
60 27 17
90 42 15
120 56 14
150 63 7
180 65 3
210 65 0
 240 60 -
5
270 52 -
8
300 42 -
10

Zonesofapr
oduct
ionf
unct
ioncur
ves

Zonesofapr
oduct
ionf
unct
ioncur
vest
hesear
e:
 I
rrat
ional
z oneorZoneI
.
 Rati
onalzoneorZoneII
 I
rrat
ional
z oneorZoneI
II
.

 Thet hr
eezonesarear
riv
edatbydrawi
ngtwoperpendi
cul
arl
i
nest
hrought
he
product
ionf
unct
ioncur
ve,oneatMP=APandanot
heratMP=O.
 I
nZoneIresourcesarenotful
l
yutil
i
zedwhi
lei
nZoneI
II
,ex
cessi
veappl
i
cat
ionof
r
esour
cesleadstoproduct
iondecl
i
neorl
oss.
 I
tisnoteconomi
cal
topr
oduceatt
hesel
evel
s.
 I
nZoneI
Iresour
cesar
emax
imal
l
yut
il
iz
edr
esul
ti
ngi
nmax
imum pr
oduct
ion.
 I
tist
her
efor
eeconomi
cal
(orwi
se)t
opr
oduceatt
hisl
evel
.

Pr
inci
pleofSubst
it
uti
on
St
ates-
’
’i
ftheout
puti
napr
oduct
ionpr
ocessi
sconst
ant
,iti
spr
ofi
tabl
etosubst
it
ute
onei
nputf
act
orf
oranot
her
,asl
ongasi
tischeapert
hani
tsnextal
ter
nat
ive.
’
’

 Thi
spr
inci
plei
sappl
i
cabl
einasi
tuat
ionwher
emor
ethanonev
ari
abl
einput
 fact
or sareused.
 Forex amplefeedinghayandconcent ratesformilkproduction, f
army ar
dmanur e
andphosphat i
cf ert
il
iz
ersintheproduct i
onofmai z e.
 Thebasi cproblem thattheproducerwi shestosol vewhent woi nputfactor
sare
usedi ncombinat i
onisinwhatpr oporti
onsmustt hev ar
iabl
ei nputsbecombi ned
i
nor dertoproduceatami ni
mum costandhenceat t
ainmax imum pr ofi
t.
 To sol vethe abov e probl
em,t he pr oducermustdet er
mi ne the leastcost
combi nati
onofinputsused.
 Thel eastcostcombi nationisattai
nedatapoi ntwher et heMar gi
nalRat eof
Subst i
tut
ion(MRS)equal stheinverseofpr i
ceratioofthefact or
si nv
olved.

Thati
s:
x
2=PX1

X1=PX2

X1-fir
stinputf
act
or
X2-secondinputf
act
or

-change(
incr
easeordecr
ease)

P-pr
ice(
costofi
nputf
ator
s)

Exampl
es:
 Produci
ng20bagsofmai zeusi
ngvary
ingcombinat
ionsoffar
myardmanureand
phosphatef
ert
il
iz
ers.
 Pri
ceoff ar
my ardmanur e( FYM)isKShs10/
-peruni tandthatofphosphat
e
fer
ti
li
zeri
sKshs50/ -perunit

X2(
MRS)
X1(
P-f
ert
) x
2(N-
fer
t)
X1
100kguni
ts 100kg
I uni
ts
9.
00 -
 2 4.
00 5.
1
3 2.
80 1.
20
4 2.
40 0.
40
5 2.
00 0.
40
6 1.
80 0.
20
7 1.
65 015
8 155 0.
10
9 1.
45 0.
10
10 1.
45 0.
05

I
ntheaboveexampl e,t
hefollowingassumpt i
onsaremade:
 Af i
xedquant i
tyofout
putist obeproduced.
 Inputfactor
sincombi nati
onsubsti
tuteforoneanotheratvar
yingr
ates.
 Relati
vepr i
cesofinputfactorsdonotchangedr asti
cal
lyduri
ngtheperi
odof
production.

NOTE:onei
nputf
act
orsubst
it
utesf
ort
heot
heratdi
mini
shi
ngv
ary
ingmar
ginalr
ateof
subst
it
uti
on.

Pr
inci
pleofEqui
mar
ginalRet
urns
 Thi
spr
inci
plest
at ’
’
es;Thatt
hel
astuni
tofani
nputf
act
orspenti
none
enter
pri
seyieldsamar ginalr
etur
nexactl
yequaltothemarginalr
etur
near
ned
fr
om thelastuniti
nvestedineachoftheotherent
erpr
ises.
’
'

Exampl
e
 Ifthel astshs.
100/-spentbuy i
ngcat tl
ef eedwi l
lret
urnmor ethanshs.100/ =
spentonbuy i
ngfert
il
izerforgrowingmai ze,theniti
sadvisabl
et opurchasemor e
feedupt oapointwherethel astshs.l
OO/-spentoni twil
lret
urnex act
lythesame
asthel astshs.
100/-spentonf erti
l
izers.
 Thisconcepti sonlyrelevantinasi t
uati
onwher efarmersdonothav eadequate
capitaltoempl oyinput supt othel evelwher emar gi
nalr evenueequalst he
mar ginalcost
.

Thepr
inci
pal
ofPr
ofi
tMaxi
mizat
ion
 Theprof
iti
sdefi
nedasthediff
erence,inmonetaryter
ms, bet
weent het
otal
ret
urns(
income)andt
otalcosts(expenses)i
napr oducti
onprocess.
 Prof
itmaximi
sati
onai
msatobt ai
ningthehighestret
urnsatami nimum costper
 uni
tofi
nputf
act
orused.
 Thi
scanbedonebyconsi
der
ingt
woconcept
s.
Mar
ginalConcept
 Profi
tismax i
mi sedwhenthemargi
nal(addi
ti
onalorex
tra)rev
enue(
MR)i
sequal
to,orsli
ghtl
yhigherthan,
themargi
nalcost(
Mc).
 Atthispointeveryaddedinputf
act
orbringsinhi
gherretur
nsthant
heex
penses
i
ncur r
edininvestingi
t.

NetRevenueConcept
s
 Profi
tissaidtobemax imizedi naproducti
onprocesswhent heNetRev enue
(di
ff
erencesbetweent
otalr
ev enueandtot
alcost
s)isthehighestthati
s;
NR=TR-TC.
 Thisisarri
vedatbyanalyzingt hetot
alcostandt ot
alrevenueear nedf
rom a
part
icul
arenter
pri
seandthensubt r
acti
ngthefor
merf r
om thelatt
er.

When calcul
ati
ng t
he pr
ofi
tusi
ng what
everconcept
,the f
oll
owi
ng
assumpt
ionsaremade:
 Costofi
nputs(suchasf er
ti
li
zers,l
abour)r
emai nsconstantdur
ingtheper
iodof
pr
oducti
on.
 Pri
ceofthepr
oduce( pr
oduct)remainsunchanged.
 Fi
xedcostsar
eignoredthatisonlyvary
ingcostsdir
ectl
yinvol
vedareconsi
der
ed.

Far
m Pl
anni
ng
 Planni
ngi
stheprocessofest
abl
i
shi
ngt
heor
gani
zat
ionalobj
ect
ivesanddef
ini
ng
themeansofachi
evingt
hem.
Fact
orst
oconsi
deri
ndr
awi
ngaf
arm pl
an.
 Si
zeoft hefarm.
 Envi
ronment alfactors.
 Thecur r
enttrendsi nlabourmar ket
s.
 Farmer'sobjecti
vesandpr ef
erences.
 Possibl
eproduct i
onent er
pri
ses.
 Exi
sti
ngmar ketcondi t
ionsandpr i
cet r
ends.
 Avai
labil
it
yandcostoff arminputs.
 Governmentr egulati
ons/ pol
i
cy .
 Securit
y.
 Communi cationandt r
ansportfacil
i
ties
Far
m Budget
ing
 Farm budgeti
ngistheprocessofesti
matingt
hefutureout
comesofapr
oposed
far
m plan,
 Thati
s; t
hefutur
eincomesandex pensesofaf
arm plan.
I
mpor
tanceofFar
m Budget
ing
 I
thel
pst
hefar
mi ndeci
sionmaking.
 I
thel
pst
hefar
mert opr
edictf
uture
 r
etur
nst
hati
splanni
ngahead.
 Ithel psthefarmert o avoi
dincurri
ng l ossesbyi nvesti
ng i
nlessprofi
table
enterpri
ses.
 Ithelpsthefar
mert osecurel
oansfrom f i
nancialinsti
tut
ionssuchasAgr
icul
tural
FinanceCorporationandcommer ci
albanks.
 Itensuresaperiodicanalysi
softhefarm busi ness.
 Itactsasarecor dwhichcanbeusedf orfuturereference.
 Itpinpoi
ntsstr
engt hsorweaknessesinf arm operations.

TypesofBudget
s

Par
ti
alBudget
 I
trepr
esentsfi
nanci
aleff
ect
sonminorchangesi
naf arm or
ganisati
on.
 I
tisnecessar
ywhenaf armerwant
storepl
aceorreduceenter
prise.

Compl
eteBudget
 Acompl et
ebudgetisnecessarywhent hefarmerwantstostar
tanewbusiness
whereboththevar
iabl
ecostsandt hef
ixedcostsar
elikel
ytobeaffect
ed.
 I
tinv
olvesamajorchangeorr eor
ganiz
at i
oninthef
arm busi
ness.

Agr
icul
tur
alSer
vicesAvai
l
abl
etot
heFar
mer
:
 Agri
cul
tur
alproducti
onef f
ici
encyisgr
eat
lyi
ncr
easedbyser
vicesr
ender
edt
othe
far
mingcommuni ti
esby ;
 Governmentinsti
tuti
ons
 Non-gover
nment alorgani
zati
ons.
Someoftheseser
vicesare:
 Extensi
onandTr ai
ning:
 BankingServi
ces:
 Credit
:

Ext
ensi
onandTr
aini
ng:
 I
nthef
iel
dandi
nfar
mer
'st
rai
ningcent
res.

Banki
ngSer
vices:
 Theseenablest
hef armer
stosav
esomeoft
hei
rfar
mincomeandi
nvest
them i
nfut
urepr
ojects.
Cr
edi
t:
 Cr
edi
tisaf
inanci
alassi
stanceadv
ancedt
oagr
icul
tur
alf
armer
stof
inancet
hei
r
 f
arm pr
ojectsandrepayitwi
thi
nter
est
.
 I
tisaborrowedresource.

TypesofCr
edi
t
 Cr
edi
tiscat
egori
sedaccor
dingto;
 Timeofrepayment
 Thetypesofproj
ect
st obefi
nanced.
Exampl
esar
e:
Shor
t-
ter
m Cr
edi
t
 Repayabl
ewithinoneyearandi
sadv
ancedf
ort
hepur
chaseof
;
 seeds,
 fer
ti
li
zers,
 animalfeeds.

Medi
um-
ter
m Cr
edi
t
 Repayablewit
hin2-5y earsandi
susedt
ofi
nancepr
oject
ssuchas;
 fenci
ngmat eri
als,
 purchaseofliv
est ock,
 li
ghtfarm equi
pment.

Long-
ter
m Cr
edi
t
 Repayableper iodi supt o15y ear
sandev enmor e.
 I
tisgi
v enf orthel ong-ter
m ordur ableproj
ectssuchas;
 pur chaseofl and,
 const ructionofsoi landwat erconserv
ationstr
uctur
es,
 farm bui ldings,
 irr
igationpr oj
ectsforperennialcashcropsforexample;
 cof fee,
 f arm machi nery
 i mplement s.
Sour
cesofCr
edi
t
 Co-operativesocieti
esanduni ons.
 Cropboar ds.
 Commer cialbanks.
 Agri
cul t
uralFinanceCor porat
ion.
 I
nsur ancecompani es.
 I
ndividualmoneyl enders.
 Sett
lementf undt rustee.

Ar
ti
fi
cialI
nsemi
nat
ionSer
vices:
 Prov
idesfar
mer
swi t
hsemenf r
om improv
edorsuper
iorbul
l
stoi
mpr
ovet
hei
r
l
iv
estockher
dst
hroughcont
rol
l
edbreedi
ng.
Agr
icul
tur
alResear
chOr
gani
zat
ion
 Thesedevel
opandpassontofar
mers,i
mprovedproduct
iontechniquesaswell
ascropandli
vest
ockspeci
eswit
hbett
erper
formanceindif
ferentecologi
cal
zones.
Mar
ket
ingOut
let
s
 Theseareagenci
esthatensureef
fecti
veandeffi
ci
entconv
eyanceoff
arm
producet
opointsofprocessi
ngandconsumption.
 Theyarelar
gel
ycropmar keti
ngboardsorcor
porati
onsandcooper
ati
vesoci
eti
es.
Vet
eri
nar
ySer
vices
 I
nthefi
el
dareveter
inar
yoffi
cerswhohel
pthef
armeri
ntr
eat
ingandcont
rol
l
ing
l
i
vest
ockdi
seasesandparasi
tes.
Far
mInputSuppl
i
es
 Farmersar eablet oobt
aintheirf
armi nputsfr
om organi
zat
ionssuchasco-
operat
ivesandpri
v at
ecompanies.
 These organi
zati
ons bri
ng i
nputs cl
osert othe f
armersforexample Keny
a
FarmersAssociat
ionandpri
vateagro¬v
ets.

Tr
act
orHi
reSer
vices
 Thi
si nvol
veshi
ri
ngoftr
act
orsandmachi
ner
yatacostbyf
armer
swhoar
enot
pri
vi
legedtoownthei
rown.

Sour
ces
 Ministr
yofAgr i
culture
 Pr
ivatecontractors.
 I
ndividual
farmer s.
 Otherservi
cepr ovider
s.
Ri
sksandUncer
tai
nti
esi
nFar
ming
 Uncer
tai
nty-
i
sthest
ateofnotknowi
ngaboutf
utur
eev
ent
sorout
comes.
 Ri
sks-
ist
hedi
ff
erence(
div
ergence)bet
weent
heex
pect
edandt
heact
ual
out
come.

TypesofRi
sksandUncer
tai
nti
es
 Fl
uctuat i
onofcommodi typr
ices.
 Physi
cal yiel
duncer tai
nty.
 Owner shipuncer t
ainty
.
 Outbr
eakofpest sanddi seases.
 Si
cknessandi njury.
 Newpr oduct
iont echnique.
 Obsolescencef orex amplemachiner
ymaybecomeout
dat
edorobsol
etewi
thi
na
 shortti
me.
 Deathofei
therfar
merorli
vest
ock
.
 Natural
cat
astrophi
essuchas;
 fl
oods,
 drought
,
 eart
hquakes,
 stor
m andstr
ongwi
ndswhi
chmaydest
roycr
opsorki
l
ltheani
mal
s.
Waysi
nWhi
chFar
mer
sAdj
ustt
oRi
sksandUncer
tai
nti
es
 Div
ersifi
cati
on.
 Sel
ect i
ngmor ecert
ainent
erpr
ises.
 Contracti
ng.
 I
nsurance.
 I
nputr ati
oni
ng.
 Fl
exibil
it
yinproducti
onmethods.
 Adoptingmodernmet hodsofproduct
ion.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
csI
V:

(
Far
m Account
s)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Fi
nancialandphysicalrecor
dsi faccur
atel
ykepti
nthef
arm ser
veasv
ery
i
mportanttool
sindecisi
on-maki
ng.
 Ther
ecor
dsar
ekepti
nsev
eral
booksandst
atement
sasf
oll
ows:
Fi
nanci
alDocument
s
Theyi
ncl
ude:
 I
nvoices.
 Receipt
s.
 Del
iverynotes
 Purchaserecords.

AnI
nvoi
ce
 Thi
sisadocumenti ssuedbythesell
ertot
hebuyerforgoodstakenoncr
edi
t,
andpaymenttobedonelater
.
 Theori
ginal
isgi
ventothebuyeranddupl
i
cat
eret
ainedbysel
ler
.
Thei
nvoi
ceshowst
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Thebuyerandsell
er.
 Dat
eoftransact
ion.
 Amountinvol
ved.
 I
nvoi
cenumber .
ARecei
pt
 Thisisadocumenti
ssuedbyt
hesel
l
ert
othebuy
erwhencashpay
mentf
or
goodsdel
i
ver
edismade.
I
tshowst
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Thebuyerandthesell
er.
 Dat
eoftransact
ion.
 Amountinvol
ved.
 Ser
ial
number

Del
i
ver
yNot
e
 I
tisadocumentwhichshowsthatt
hegoodshavebeendel
i
v er
ed.
 Therecei
verv
eri
fi
esthegoodsandthensi
gnsonthedel
i
verynote.

Feat
ures:
Thedel
i
ver
ynot
eshowst
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Goodsdeli
veredasperorder.
 Quali
tyorcondit
ion.
 Peopl
einvolvedinthet
ransact
ion.
 Dateofdeli
very.
Jour
nal
:
 I
ti sabookoffirstentryshowingarecordofallbusi
nesst
ransact
ionsar
rangedi
n
theorderinwhicht heyoccur.
 I
t spagesaredividedverti
cal
lyint
ofivesect
ions.
 Theinformati
oni spostedtotheledger
I
nvent
ory:
 Thi
sisal
i
stofal
lthepossessi
on/
asset
sit
em byi
tem andt
hei
rmar
ketv
alue.
 Suchit
emsar el
and,l
iv
estock,
tool
sandequi
pmentandcropsi
nthestor
e.
 Val
uati
onisanest i
mationoftheval
ueofeachassetorit
em,basedonmar
ket
pri
ceorcostofpr
oducti
on.
LocalPur
chaseOr
der
:
 Issuedbythepurchasi
ngof f
icerofthesuppl
ierforexampleschool
.
 Itshowspeopleinvol
vedinthet r
ansacti
on,t
y pesandamount sofgoodsor
der
ed
anddates.
 Itshoul
dbewr i
tt
enandsi gnedbyt heauthor
isedoffi
cer.
 Itiswri
tt
enindupli
cateandtheor i
ginali
sgiventothesuppli
er.
Financi
alBooks
Ledger:
 Isabookwhichcontai
nsindi
vidualaccount
s.
 Iti
saprinci
plebookofaccountsinwhichentr
iescont
ainedi
nal
ltheot
herbooks
areent
ered.
  Iti
sastorehouseofallthetr
ansacti
ons.
 Eachpagei snumber edandv er
ti
call
ydivi
dedintotwoequalpar
tsnamel
ycr
edi
t
anddebit
.
 Eachpartisfur
thersub-di
vi
dedintofoursect
ions.
CashBook:
 Itisabookwher et
ransact
ionsinvol
vingcashorchequepay
ment sar
e
recorded.
 Iti
nv ol
vescashorchequepay mentsandr eceipts.
 Iti
sdi vi
dedintotwopart
s-debitandcr edi
tside.
 Allther ecei
ptsofcashorchequear er ecordedont
hedebitandall
pay mentsarerecor
dedont hecredit
side.

Exampl
e:Ent
ert
hef
oll
owi
ngent
ri
esi
nthecashbook.
 1.
7.05-Receivedshs.2,000f r
om Ndetebycheque.
 2.
7.05-
BoughtD. A.
P.ferti
li
zerandpaidchequeofshs.
5,000.
 3.
7.05-
Receivedshs. 5,
000cashf rom Ngala.
 4.
7.05-Pai
dwat erbil
lforshs400i ncash.
 9.
7.05-
Paidtelephonebi llof1,
500bycheque.
 11.
7.05-Depositedshs. 2,
000inthebank.
 20.
7.05-Withdrewshs. 2,000from t
hebankforhomeuse.

CashBookr
ecor
d
DR - CR
Dat
e Det
ail
s Cash Bank Dat
e Det
ail
s Cash Bank
1.
7.05 Recei
vedf
rom Ndet
e 2,
000 2.
7.05 D.
A.P 5,
000
3.
7.05 Recei
vedf
r a 5,
om Ngal 00 4.
7.05 Wat
erbi
l
l 400
11.
7.0 Cash 0,
200 9.
7.05Tel
ephonebi
l
ll 500
5 0 20.
7.0 Cash 2,
000
5

Fi
nanci
alStat
ements
CashAccountSheet
 Iti
nvolvestherecordingofsal
esandr eceipt
s,pur
chasesandex pense.
 Eachsal eorpur chaseisent
eredtwice,onceinthetotalcol
umnandoncei nt
he
analysi
scolumn.
 Thesum ofal ltheentri
esinthetotalcol
umnshoul dal
way sequalthesum oft
he
entr
iesinallt
heot hercolumns.
 Thecashanal ysisaccountsheetisgivenabove.
TheBal
anceSheet
 I
tisafi
nanci
alst
atementofasset
sandliabi
l
iti
esr
ecor
dedonagi vendat
e.
 I
tshowsthefi
nancial
posi
ti
onofaf ar
m busi
nessataglance(
snapshot
).
Asset
sar
eit
emsownedbyt
hef
armer
,
Thesei
ncl
ude:
 Proper
ty(money,goodsandbui l
dings)
.
 Debtsrecei
vabl
efrom otherpeopl
e.
 Goodsandser v
icespaidforinadvance.
Asset
scanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo:
 Fi
xedassets:
assetsofper
manentnat
ureandnoteasi
l
yconv er
tedi
ntocash.
 Cur
rentasset
s:asset
swhichcanbeeasi
lyconv
ert
edintocash.

 Li
abi
l
iti
esar
ecl
aimst
othef
armer
'spr
oper
tysuchasbankover
draf
t
anddebtspayable.
Theyar
edivi
dedinto:
 Cur
rentl
i
abi
l
iti
es-debt
swhi
chmustbepai
dwi
thi
nashor
tti
me.
 Longterml
i
abi
l
iti
es-debt
swhi
char
epay
abl
eov
ermanyy
ear
sorov
eral
ong
peri
od.
Pr
ofi
tandLossAccount
 Prepar
edattheendofacal endary
ear .
 I
tisaf i
nalaccountwhichsummar isesthesaleandrecei
pts(
incomefl
owingi
n
thebusi
ness)andthepurchasesandex penses(
fl
owingoutoft
hebusi
ness)
.
 Not
e: I
fasset
saremorethanli
abi
l
iti
esthent
hebal
anci
ngfact
ori
snetcapi
tal
(in
t
hel
iabi
li
tysi
de)hencet
hefar
m businessi
ssai
dtobesol
vent
.
 Ift
heliabil
it
iesar
emor ethantheassets,thent hebal
anci
ngfact
ori
saloss(int
he
assetside)hencethefarm businessisinsolvent.
 Tocalculateprof
itorloss,account,v
aluationisdonebyhavingani
nventor
yofall
theassets.
 Valuat
ionoft heassetsisdeterminedbymar ketpri
ceandcostofproduct
ionfor
machineryandbui l
dingsasdepr eci
ati
onf actor,i
satt
ached.

For
matofabalancesheet
Bal
ancesheetofKat
il
oschool
as31-12-
2009

Asset
s ShsCt
s Li
abil
i
ties Shs. Ct
s.
.
.
Fi
xedAsset
s Long-
term Li
abi
l
iti
es
Land Long-
termloanforl
and
devel
opment
 Bui
l
dings Loanspay
abl
eov
er15y
ear
s
Fencesandot
herst
ruct
ures
Curr
entAssets Curr
entLiabili
ti
es-
Li
vestock -
Debtspay able
Debtsrecei
vabl
e -
Credit
sfrom f r
iends
Cashinbank -
Short-
ter
ml oans
Cashi
nhand
Sub-
tot
al Sub-
tot
al
Tot
al Tot
al

Format
Pr
ofi
tandLossAccountofKi
thekoFar
m at31-
12-
2009
Sal
esandReceipt
s Shs. Ct
s. Pur
chase&Ex
penses Shs. Ct
s.
.I
I ncomeduringthe I
. Openingvaluat
ion
year
2. Debtsr
ecei
vabl
e 2. Expendi
tureduringt
hey
ear
Debtspay
abl
eBal
ance
3. Cl
osi
ngv
aluat
ion 3.
(
being
Bal
ance(
bei
ngal
oss) f
arm apr
ofi
torneti
ncome)
TOTAL TOTAL

Agri
cul
tur
alEconomi
csV
(
Agr
icul
tur
alMarketi
ngandOrgani
zat
ions)
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Agri
cul
tur
almark
eti
ngi
saneconomicacti
vi
tywhi
chi
nvol
vest
hedi
str
ibut
ionof
far
m pr
oducef
rom t
hef
armt
ot heconsumer.
Mar
ketandMar
ket
ing
 Marketisaninst
it
uti
onfort
heex changeofgoodsandser
vicesoraplacewhere
sel
li
ngandbuy i
ngofgoodstakesplace.
 Marketi
ngreferstothefl
ow ofgoodsandser v
icesf
rom theproducert
ot he
consumers.
Mar
ket
ingFunct
ions
  Transpor tati
on - Mov ement of goods f rom pr oduct
ion centres to t
he
consumpt ioncent res.
 Buy i
ngandsel li
ng-Pur chaseofgoodsf rom t hepr oducertobesol dt ot
he
consumer .
 Storage-Agr i
cultural productsar eseasonal hencest orageisnecessary.
 Processi ng-Changi ngofr awf or mintout i
lisableform.
 Gradingandst andar di sat
ion-Sor ti
ngi ntouni f
orml otsofcer t
ainquali
ti
es.
 Assembl i
ng-Col lectingt hefarm pr oducef rom thefar mt othemarketcentr
es.
 Collecti
ngmar keti nformat i
on– Toknow t hepr ices,supplyanddemandof
certaincommodi ties.
 Adv ert
ising-Maki ngt heconsumer sawar eoft heproduce.
 Bear i
ngofr i
sks-Suchasf i
rerisk,pricefl
uct uati
on.
 Financingorex pendi tureonot herpr ocesses.
 Packagi ngorput tingi ntosmal lpacksandl abel l
i
ng.
 Packingorput t
ingpr oduceI ncont ainerssuchasbags.

Mar
ket
ingAgenci
esandI
nst
it
uti
ons
 Middlemen(it
ineranttr
ader)-arethepeopl
ewhobuyf r
om t
heproducerandsel
l
t
oot heragencies.
 Wholesaler
s-Buyi nbulkandsellt
ot her
etai
ler
s.
 Retai
ler
s-Buyf r
om thewholesal
ersandsell
insmal
luni
tst
otheconsumers.

Pr
obl
emsi
nMar
ket
ingAgr
icul
tur
alPr
oduce
 Farm producear ebulky,thatiswei ghtandv olumear ehighbutl owinmonet ar
y
valuethusdiffi
cultt
otranspor t
.
 Mostoft heagr i
cult
uralproductsar eperi
shableforex amplemi l
k,veget
ablesand
fr
uits.
 Storageproblems( si
ncet heyarebul kyt
heyr equir
eal otofspace).
 Lackofpr opertransportsystem sinceagricult
uralproductsareintheruralar
eas
andt hemar ketaresit
uatedinur bancentres.
 Lackofmar ketinformationhencef armersar eexploi
tedbymi ddlemen.

Pr
iceTheor
y
 Pri
ceistheamountofmoneypai
dinexchangeforgoodsorservi
ces.
 Pri
cetheoryi
sconcer
nedwit
hthedeter
minati
onofpriceofanycommodity.
 Pri
ceisdeter
minedwher
edemandf orandsupplyofanycommodi t
yareequalt
o
eachother
.
Demand
 Iti
sthequant
it
yofanycommodit
ywhichispur
chasedatanypr
icewit
hinagiv
en
ti
me.
 Thelaw ofdemandstat
esthatquant
it
ydemandedchangesinver
selywit
hthe
pri
ce.
DemandCur
ve
  Thecur
vesl
opesf
rom l
eftt
ori
ghtdownwards.
 Thi
smeanspeopl
ebuymoreatlowerpr
icesandv
icev
ersa.

DemandCur
ve

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heDemandofaCommodi
ty
 Populati
on
 I
ncomeoft heconsumer .
 Newi nventi
ons.
 Tasteandpr ef
erenceoftheindi
vidual
.
 Pri
ceoft hesubstit
utecommodities.
 Pri
ceex pectat
ions.
 Adverti
sement.
 Cult
ureandsoci alv uesoft
al heconsumers.
 Pri
ceofcommodi ti
eshavingjoi
ntdemandforex
ampl
etr
act
orsanddi
esel
.
El
ast
ici
tyofDemand
 I
tist
her
esponsi
venessofdemandt
oachangei
npr
ice.
 El
ast
ici
tyofdemand=Per
cent
agechangei
nquant
it
ydemanded
Percent
agechangei
npri
ce
TypesofEl
asti
cit
yofDemand
 El
asticdemandi sonewheretherati
oismor han1
et .
 Uni
taryelast
ici
tyisonewheretherati
oisequalto1.
 I
nelasti
cdemandi sonewheretheratioi
slessthan1.
 Suppl
y
 Suppl
yisthequanti
tyofanycommodi tywhichisoffer
edf orsal
eatanypr i
ceata
gi
venti
me.
 Thelaw ofsuppl
ystatesthatwhenpr iceri
ses,quanti
tysuppliedi
ncreasesand
whenpri
cefall
squantit
ysupplieddecr
eases(otherf
actorsheldconstant
).
 Thecurv
er i
sesfr
om leftt
orightupwards.
 Thi
smeanst hatpeopl
earewi l
lingt
ooffermoreforsal
eathi gherpr
ices.

SUPPLYCURVE

SUPPLYCURVE

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingSuppl
yofaCommodi
ty
 Numberofsel lers
 Pri
ceofsubst it
utecommodi ti
es.
 Newt echnology.
 Pri
ceex pectat
ion.
 Peaceandsecur it
y.
 Weathercondi t
ions.
 Poli
cyoft hegov ernment.
 Costofpr oducti
onoft hecommodit
ies.
El
ast
ici
tyofSuppl
y
Thi
sref
erst
other
ateatwhi
chquant
it
ysuppl
i
edchangesduet
oachangei
npr
icel
evel
.

.
. Percentagechangei
nquant
it
ysuppl
i
ed
El
ast
ici
tyofSuppl
y= Per
centagechangeinPri
ce
TypeofEl
ast
ici
tyofSuppl
y
 El
asti
csuppl
yonewher etherat
ioi
smor han1
et .
 Uni
tar
yelast
ici
tyofsuppl
yisonewher
etherat
ioi
sequal
to1.
  I
nel
ast
icsuppl
yisonewher
ether
ati
oisl han1
esst .
 Oneoft
heproblemsofagr
icul
tur
alpr
oducei
sthatsuppl
ydoesnotr
eadi
l
yadj
ust
t
opri
cechanges.
Equi
l
ibr
ium Pr
ice
 Isthepri
ceatwhi chdemandandsuppl yar eequal.
 Thatmeanswhat everi
sofferedforsal eatt hemar ketisbought
.
 Inthegraphbel ow,thequant i
tysuppl i
edanddemandedar eequalatapriceof
Shs.300andquant i
tyof80kg.
 Atthispoi
ntt hepri
ceishighert hanshs. 300t hent hesupplywil
lbegreat
erthan
demandandt herewil
lbesurplushencepr icewi l
lfall
.
 If
,ont heotherhand,thepr i
ceisl essthanshs. 300demandwi llbegreat
erthan
supplyhenceshor t
ageandr i
seinpr ice.

Agr
icul
tur
alOr
gani
zat
ion
 Agri
cul
turalorganiz
ati
onsareagenci
eswhich,t
hroughthei
ract
ivi
ti
es,pr
omot
e
agri
cul
turaldevel
opment.
 Theseorganizati
onsar
eco-oper
ati
vesandst
atut
oryboar
ds.
Co-
oper
ati
ves
 Aco-operat
ivei
sanorganisati
onofpeopl
ewi
thacommonai
m ofpool
i
ngt
hei
r
r
esourcestoachi
evet
heirobject
ives.
Funct
ionsofCo-
oper
ati
ves
Aco-
oper
ati
vesoci
etycar
ri
esoutt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:
 Coll
ectingandassembl i
ngmember s'
produce.
 Processingthefarm pr
oduceaft
ercoll
ecti
on.
 Transportat
ionofmember s'
producetomar ketpoi
nts.
 Negotiati
onoffairpr
iceswit
hthepurchasi
ngagenciesfort
hemember
s'pr
oduce.
  Purchaseanddi str
ibuti
ont omember soffar
mi nputs.
 Storageofmember s'producebeforet
ransmissi
ont omarketpoint
s.
 Prov i
sionofcredi
tfacil
i
tiestomember soneasyt erms.
 Trainingandeducationofmember sonimprovedf ar
mingtechni
ques.
 Offeri
ng far m machineryservicestotheirmember son hiretermsforfar
m
operat i
ons.
 Co-oper at
ivesmayi nvestinot hervi
ableventuresandt heprofi
tsreal
i
sedare
sharedamongmember sinfor
m ofdivi
dendsorbonuses.
For
mat
ionandSt
ruct
ureofCo-
oper
ati
ves
Thef
ormat
ionofaco-
oper
ati
vet
akest
hef
oll
owi
ngst
ages:
 Indi
v i
dualswi thcommoni nt er
estcol l
ectt ogethertofor m apr i
maryco-oper at
ive
society
 Atleastten( 10)member squal i
fyforr egistr
ati
on.
 Each pr i
mar y co-oper at
ive soci ety electt heirof fi
ce bear ers consi
sti
ng of
chairman, secretaryandt reasur er
.
 Severalprimar yco- operati
v esocietiesareusual lyamal gamat edtoform adistr
ict
co-operati
v eunion.
 Terti
ary co- operative uni ons ar e nat ion¬wide or gani z
ati
ons t o which the
secondar yco-oper ativ
euni onsar eaf fi
li
ated.
 Exampl esar eKeny aPl antersCo- oper at
iveUni on,Keny aFar mersUni on,Keny a
Co-operativeCr eamer i
es,Co- operativeBankofKeny a, etc.
 Apexor ganizations. Thisisrepresent edinKeny abyKeny aNat i
onalFederat
ionof
Co-
oper at
iveswhi chisanaf fil
iateoft heInternati
onal Co-oper at
iveAll
i
ance.
Pr
obl
emsFaci
ngCo-
oper
ati
ves
Co-
oper
ati
vesencount
ert
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
obl
emsi
nthei
roper
ati
ons:
 Manager
ial
probl
emsar
isi
ngf
rom:
 Fi
nancialmi smanagementduet opooraccount i
ng.
 Corrupt i
onandmi sappr opri
ati
onofco¬oper ati
ver esourcesbythepersonnel
inthesy st em.
 Lackofadv isoryser vicesontechnicaloperat
ions.
 Inabil
ityt o meett he setobligati
ons ofpr oviding credi
tfaci
li
ti
es due to
mal practices.
 Thenatureofagr i
cultural pr
oductsandassoci at
edpr oblems.
 Bulkinesshencedi f f
icult
iesi
ntransportat
ionandst orage.
 Perishabilityofpr oducehencedi f
fi
culttosustainqual i
ty.
 I
nadequat ecapi taltoi nvestintheco¬operati
v eundertakings.

 Tr
ansportpr
obl
emsduetopoorr
oads.
 Thishamper
sthepr
oduceget
ti
ngtothemar
ketpoi
ntsi
nti
me.
St
atut
oryBoar
ds
 Ast atut
oryboar
disanor gani
zat
ionestabl
i
shedbyanActofParl
i
amentand
charged wit
ht he runni
ng ormanagi ng ofa cer
tai
nindust
ry wi
thi
nthe
governmentsect
or.
Mar
ket
ingBoar
ds
 Someoft hestatutoryboardsar echar gedwi t
hthemar ket
ingofcertai
nfar
m
produceandar ethuscall
edmar ketingboards.
 Exampl es ar
et he Cof f
ee Boar d,Py ret
hrum Board,Cot t
on Seed and Li
nt
Mar ket
ingBoard,TeaBoar ds,Nat i
onalCerealsandProduceBoard,KenyaMeat
Commi ssion,
theDai r
yBoardofKeny aandot her
s.
 Theirmarketi
ngfunctionsaretolookf ormarketandbett
erpri
ces.
Resear
chOr
gani
zat
ion
 Thesear eresearchcentreswhi chamongot hert hi
ngs,carryoutresearchand
tr
ial
son:
 Dev el
opmentofnewv ar
ietiesandcul ti
varsofcr ops.
 Breedingdiseaseandpestr esistantvari
eti
esofcr opsandt ypesofanimals.
 Adapt at
ionsofcr opandl ivest
ockspeci est oecol ogicalcondi
ti
onsofcer tai
n
areas.
 Useoff erti
l
izersandpest i
cidesoncr opsinspeci f
icareas.
 Dev el
opmentofear l
ymat ur i
ngandhi ghy i
eldi
ngspeci es.
 Soiltest
ingandcr opanaly sis.Advisoryserv
icesofagr o-economicaspects.
Ot
herOr
gani
zat
ions
KenyaNat
ionalFar
mer
s'Uni
onnegot
iat
esf
or:
 Reasonableandaf for
dablepr
icesoffar
minput
s.
 Bett
erpricesforfar m pr
oduce.
 Bett
ercreditfacil
it
ies.
 Bett
ercont r
ol ofdi
seasesandpest .
Agr
icul
tur
alSoci
etyofKenya
 Organi
z esagri
cultural
showsi nt hecountry.
 Encouragesimpr ovementofl i
vestockthroughexhi
bit
ionsandeducat
ingfar
mers
 Organi
z estherunningofy oungfar mers'
clubs.
 Organi
z esandf i
nancest hepl oughingcontest
sdur i
ngwhi chf
armerslear
nthe
modernt echni
quesofseedbedpr epar
ati
on.
 Publi
sh" KenyaFarmer s"magaz i
nes.

YoungFar
mer
sand4-
KCl
ubs.
Thesear
est
udentor
gani
zat
ionswhoseobj
ect
ivesar
e:
 Toexposethey oungst udentsandencouragethem t
oappr eciateagr
icult
ureasa
prof
essi
oninthei rcareer.
 Toencouraget hey outhtodev el
opleadershi
pqualit
iest hroughassignmentof
smallf
armingpr ojects.
 Organi
zing st
udent s exchange pr
ogrammes wi th othercl ub member s bot
h
l
ocall
yandabr oad.
 Todevelopbetterf armingskill
sthr
oughjudgingcompet it
ions,annualral
li
esand
camps.
Agr
icul
tur
alBasedWomenGr
oups
 Thesear
eself
-hel
pgroupswhoseobj ect
iveistoupl
if
ttheeconomi
cst
atusof
thei
rmember
sbycarr
y i
ngoutagr
icul
turalr
elat
edact
ivi
ti
es.

Thei
rsuccessdependsont hef ol
l
owi
ngf
act
ors:
 Commi t
mentoft hei
rleaders.
 Moti
vati
onoft hemember s.
 Sacr
if
iceforeachother.

Agr
ofor
est
ry

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 InKenyal anduseischangingf r
om extensi
vemet
hodsoff
armi
ngt
omor
e
product
iveandsust
ainabl
eint
ensi
vemethods.
 Agr
ofor
est
ryi
samet
hodoff
armi
ngwhi
chhasbecomei
ncr
easi
ngl
yimpor
tant
.
Def
ini
ti
on
 Thisisthepracti
ceofintegrat
ingav ar
iet
yofl anduse
 Itcombi nestreegrowing,past ur
eandcr oppr oduct
ionpr
act
iceont
hesame
pieceoflandtoimprovet heoutputoftheland.

For
msofAgrofor
est
ry
 Agr
ofor
estr
y;
 I
tisacombi
nat
ionoft
rees/
shr
ubsandcr
opsi
nagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ion.
 Si
l
vopast
oral
:
 I
tisacombi
nat
ionofgr
owi
ngt
ree/
shr
ubs,
past
oral
andkeepi
ngofl
i
vest
ock.
 Agr
osi
l
vopast
oral
:
 I
tisacombi
nat
ionofgr
owi
ngt
rees/
shr
ubs,
ani
mal
s,past
ures,
andcr
ops.
I
mpor
tanceofAgr
ofor
est
ry
 Envi
ronment alpr
otecti
on.
 Sourceofincome.
 Aff
orestati
onforti
mberpr oducti
on.
 Maintenanceofsoilfer
ti
li
ty.
 Aestheti
cvalue.
 Laboursavinginfi
rewoodcol l
ecti
on.
 Sourceoffoodandf eed.
 Sourceoffuelwood.

I
mportantTreesandShr
ubsf
orPar
ti
cul
arPur
poses
 Eucalypt
usSpp;
 Ti
mber
,
  Beeforage,
 Fuelwood,
 Medicinal
,
 Producti
onofessent
ial
oil
s.
 Acaci
aSpp;
 Leavesandpodseatenbyani
mal
s,
 Prov
isionofshade.
 Caj
anuscaj
an(
pigeonpeas)
;
 Prot
einousfeedforhuman,
 Usedasf odder
 Fi
rewood.
 Cr
otonmegal
ocar
pus(
crot
on)
;
 Fuelwoodti
mberf
orpol
es
 Handlesf
orhandt
ool
s.
 Er
ythr
inaabyssi
nica(
fl
amet
ree)
;
 Woodcar vi
ngs,
 Beeforage,
 Nit
rogenfix
ati
on
 Medici
nal.
 Mar
khami
alut
ea(
mar
khami
atr
ee)
¬;
 Ti
mberf orconst
ruct
ion,
 Shade,
 Soi
lprotect
ion,
 Beeforage.
 Gr
evi
l
lear
obust
a(si
l
kyoak.
)
 Ti
mber ,
 Fuelwood,
 Fodder,
 Beeforage,
 Soil
protect
ion,
 Windbreaker
 Shade.
 Sesbani
asesban(
sesbani
a);
 Fodder,
 Nit
rogenfi
xat
ion,
 Shade,
 Fuelwood.
 Cal
l
iandr
acal
othyr
sus(
cal
l
iandr
a);
 Fuelwood,
 Fodder,
 Nit
rogenfix
ati
on,
 Shade,
 Beeforage.
 Per
seaamer
ican(
avocado);
 Fodder
,
 Frui
tproduct
ion,
 Shade,
 Fuelwood.
  Mangi
fer
aindi
ca(
mango)
;
 Frui
tproducti
on,
 Shadetrees,
 Windbreak,
 Soil
protecti
on,
 Fuelwood.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofAgr
ofor
est
ryTr
eeSpeci
es:
 Fastgr owthrate.
 Deepr ooted.
 Nit
rogenf i
xati
onabili
ty.
 By-productpr oduct
ionabil
it
y.
 Bemul ti
purposeinnature.
 Shouldnotpossesscompet it
iveabil
it
ywit
hmaincr
op.
.
 Hav ecoppi ci
ngandl oppi
ngabili
ty.
 Hav eappr opri
atecanopy-shouldnotshadeot
her
s.
 Nutrit
iousandpal atabl
e.
Tr
eesandShrubst
oAvoi datCert
ainSitesandReasons
 Eucal
ypt
usSpp.
-shoul
dnotbeplant
ednearwat
ersour
cesbecausei
twoul
d
absor bt hewat er
.
 Eucal ypt usSpp.- shouldnotbepl antedont hear abl
el andast her oot
shav e
allelophat hiceffect sonot herveget
ationi ncludingcrops.
 Tal ltreesshoul dnotbepl antednearf ar m buildi
ngsbecauset heymayf al
land
damagi ngt hebuil
dings,theirrootswillbreakt hebui l
dingstonesgr aduall
y.
 Bushyt reesorshr ubsshoul dnotbenearf arm buil
dingsast heymayhar bour
predat or s.
 Tal ltr eespl antedwi thmai ncr opofal owercanopyi nterceptther ai
nfal
l,
affectingt hegrowthoft hemai ncrop.
 Cypr ess t r
ees have l eav es which pr oduce aci dityi nt he soi lpreventi
ng
under gr owthbeneatht hetree.
 Theset reesshouldnotbepl antedwi t
hint hefar m butattheper iphery.
Tr
eeNur
ser
y
 Treenurseri
esarestruct
uresusedtor
aiset
reeseedli
ngsunti
ltheyarereadyfor
tr
ansplant
ing.
 Thereare2mai ntypes:
Barerootnur series:
Thesear soknownas'
eal Swazi land'bedswheretheseedl
ingsar
eraiseddi
rectl
yinto
thesoi
l
.
Advant
ages
 Cheapandlesst i
meconsuming.
 Requirel
esslabour
 Occupyasmal lspace.
 Manyseedli
ngsar erai
sedi
nasmallspace.
 Transpor
tat
ionofseedli
ngsi
seasy.
Di
sadvant
ages
  Rootdamagewhenupr ooti
ngtheseedli
ngs.
 Dif
fi
cul
ttotransport
.
 Lowersurv
ivalrat
eaftertr
ansplant
ing.
Cont
ainer
izednur
ser
y:
 Theseedli
ngsinthistypeofnurser
yar
erai
sedi
ncont
ainer
ssuchaspot
s,
pol
ythenebagsort
ubesandti
ns.
Advant
ages
 Highersurv
ival
rat
eaftert
ranspl
ant
ing.
 Nor ootdamage.
 Successfuli
nari
dareas.
Di
sadvant
ages
 Labourintensi
ve.
 Dif
fi
culttogetcontai
ner
s.
 Sometimesi tmaybedif
ficul
ttogett
her
ightt
ypeofsoi
ltousei
nthe
contai
ners.
SeedCol
l
ect
ionandPr
epar
ati
on
SeedCol
l
ect
ion
Seedsshoul
dbecol
l
ect
edf
rom;
 Adapt abl
et r
ees,
 Highy iel
ding,
 Healthy
 Resistanttopests/diseases.
 Themot herplantshouldbeident
if
iedf
ir
st.

Thef
oll
owi
ngmet
hodsusedt
ocol
l
ectseeds.
 Shakingthetree.
 Gatheringf
rom underthet
ree.
 Loppingofthet r
ee.
 Cli
mbi ngonthet r
ees.
 Hookingmet hod.

SeedPr
epar
ati
on
 Thisdonewhenseedsar ecoll
ect
edfrom afreshfr
uit
,theyshouldbesoakedin
water,thenwashedanddr i
ed.
 Cleaningandsor ti
ng:donet oremoveimmatureseeds,r
ottenseeds,
brokenor
damagedseeds.
 Drying:Donebysun- dryi
ngorov endryi
ng.
 Seedt esti
ng:thi
sdetermi nes;
 Seedqual i
tyforpercentagepuri
ty,
 Seedwei ght,
 Moi st
urecontent,
 Ger mi nat
ionpercentage.
 Seedsshoul dbest or
edi ndrycont
ainersatr
oom temperatur
e.
  Seedt reatment :seedsar etreatedfi
rsttobreaktheseeddormancyandensure
rapi
dger mination;
 Hotwat ertreatment :usedt osoft
ent heseedcoattomakeitmoreper
meable
towat er.
 Exampl esofseedswhi chrequir
et hi
st r
eatmentareleucaeni
a,call
iandra
anda caci a.
 Mechani calbr eaki
ng:donebyni cki
ngt heseedcoatwi t
hakni f
eforeasy
entranceofwat erf
orex ampleseedsofc rot
ontrees.
 Li ghtburning:appliedtothewat tl
et r
eeseeds.

Nur
ser
yManagement
Thefoll
owi
ngar
ethepr
act
icescar
ri
edouti
nthenur
ser
ywhent
heseedl
i
ngsar
e
growi
ng:
 Mul
chi
ng:
 Ai
mi storeduceexcessi
v eevaporati
on,
 Moderatesthesoi
ltemper at
ure,
 Whenitdecaysiti
mpr ovesthesoilstr
uct
ure,
 Reducestheimpactofther ai
ndrops.
 Weedi
ng:
 Donet
oreducecompet
it
ionf
orgr
owt
hfact
orsbyupr
oot
ingt
heweeds,
 Useashar
ppoint
edsti
ck.
 Wat
eri
ng:
 Donebyuseofawat er
ingcan
 Donetwiceadayinthemor ni
ngandintheeveni
ng.
 Pr
ickingout:
 Iti
stheremovalofseedli
ngsi
nanov er
crowdedareatoanot
hernur
ser
ybed,
 Thisal
lowstheseedli
ngstogrowstr
ongandhealthy.
 Rootpruning:
 Iti
sthecutt
ingoftherootsl
ongert
hanthepots.
Rootpr
uni
ngi
sdonef
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;
 Makeli
fti
ngeasi
er
 Encour
agefastestabl
ishment.
 Reducedamaget otheseedl
ings.
 Encour
agedevelopmentofashortdenseandst
rongr
oot
ingsy
stem.
 Shadi
ng:
 Donetoreducet
heint
ensi
tyofsunl
ight.
 Darkcondi
ti
onsshoul
dbeavoided.
 Pestanddi
seasecont
rol
:
 Useofappr opri
atechemi cals,
 Sterili
z at
ionofsoilthr
oughheatt reatment
,
 Fenci ngt oprotectseedli
ngsagai nstanimaldamage.
 Hardeni ngof f:
 Itist hepr acti
ceofpr eparingseedl i
ngstoadapttotheecol
ogi
calcondi
ti
ons
prev ail
ingintheseedbed.
 Iti nvol v
es gradualr educt ion ofshade and watering 1-
2weeks bef
ore
transpl anti
ng.
 Tr
anspl ant ing:
  Thepracti
ceoft
ransf
erri
ngseedl
i
ngsf
rom t
henur
ser
ybedt
othemai
nfi
el
d
wher
et heygr
owtomat ur
it
y.
Pr
ocedur
eofTr
anspl
ant
ing
 Holesaredugear lybef oretranspl
anti
ng.
 Topsoili
smi xedwi t
hcompostmanur e.
 Theseedlingsarewat eredwel l
adaybef or
etransplanti
ng.
 Theseedlingsarer emov edfrom thenurseri
escarefull
ywithaballofsoilf
ort
he
barerootseedli
ngsandr ootstr
immedf orthecontainer
izedseedl
i
ngs.
 Theseedlingisplacedi nt heholeatthesamehei ghtitwasinthenurser
y.
 Thecontainerisremov edcar ef
ull
y.
 Thesoili
sr et
urnedi ntot heholeandf i
rmedaroundt heseedli
ng.
 Theseedlingiswat eredandmul ched.
Car
eandManagementofTr
ees
 Pr
ot ection:
 From damagebyani mal ssuchasgoat sandcat t
lebyeat i
ngt hel eaves.
 Itisdonebyf encingt hef i
el
dsorusi ngsmal lpolesar oundeachseedl ingwi th
orwithoutwi renet ti
ngs, canbedonef orindi vidualtreesoranent ir
efield.
 Pr
uni ngandt ri
mmi ng:
 Pr uni ngist her emov alofex t
r aorunwant edpar tsofapl ant.
 Theunwant edpar tmaybeduet obr eakage,ov er cr
owdi ng,pest sor
diseaseat t
acksandov erpr oduct i
on.
 Pr uni nginiti
at esgr owthofshoot sandt rainsthet reet ohav ether equired
shape.
 Regul arcut ti
ngbackoft het reesi sknownascoppi cing,
 I ti s done att he begi nni ng ofeach cr oppi ng season t or educe
compet it
ionf orwat er,
mi ner als, nut ri
ent sandsunl i
ghtwi t
hcr ops.
 Themat eri
al spr unedorcoppi cedar eusedasf uelwoodorf orf odder
crops.
 Gr
af ti
ngol dt r
ees:
 Thi si sthepr act i
ceofuni tingt wosepar atewoodyst ems.
 Thepar twitht her oot i
ngsy stem i sknownasr oots tock( base)
 Thepar twhi chi sgr aftedont ot her ootstocki scal edas
l cionwhi chhas
budst hatdev elopi ntot hef utur epl ant.
 Theabi l
ityoft hesci onandt her oot stockt of orm asuccessf uluni onis
knownasc ompat ibility.
 Met hodsofgr aftingi ncl udewhi port onguegr afti
ng,si degr afti
ngand
appr oachgr afting.

Agr
oforest
ryPracti
ces
 All
eyCropping/Hedger
owI
nter
¬cr
oppi
ng:
 Thegr
owi
ngofmul
ti
pur
poset
reesandshr
ubst
oget
herwi
thcr
ops.
Benef
it
s
 I
mpr ov
esoilf
erti
l
ityt
hroughni
trogenfi
xat
ionandor
gani
cmat
ter
.
 Prov
isi
onofgreenmanur e.
 Usedasfenceandmar kboundari
es.
 Actsaswindbreaks.
 Suppressweeds.
 Sourceofti
mberandf uel
wood.

 Mul
ti
-st
oreycr
oppi
ng;
 Thi
sisthegrowingt
oget
heroft r
eesofdi
ff
erenthei
ghts.
 Thesystem i
sbasedoncropswhichcantol
erateshadi
ng.
 Thetr
eesandcropsfor
m diff
erentl
evel
sofcanopywhi chl
ookl
i
kest
orey
.
Benef
it
s
 I
ncreaseswat erconser vati
onforpastures.
 Noneoft hecropsort reesincl
udedwi ll
beshaded.
 Actaswi ndbreakforcrops.
 Createssuit
ablemi cro-
climateinthearea.
 Treesareusedf ortimber ,
fuelwoodandf or
age.

 Woodl
ots(
far
mfor
est
s)
 Thesearepl
otsofl andsetasi
def
ortreesonly.
 Theyareest
ablishedinthehil
l
yandlessproducti
vepartsofthefar
m.
 Fastgr
owingtreespeciessuchasEucalyptusspp.shouldbegrown.

Si
tesf
orAgr
ofor
est
ry:
 Farm boundaries-pr ovi
delivefences.
 Riverbanks-pr otectwatercatchmentar eas.
 Homest eads-pr ovisi
onofshadeandwi ndbreak
 Terraces-forsoilconservati
on.
 Steepslopes-ascont ourhedgestoencour agewat
erseepage.
Tr
eeHarvest
ingMet
hods
 Pol
lar
ding;
 Thisistheextensi
vecutti
ngbackoft hecrownofthetreeabout2-
3met
ers
abovethegroundlevelt
oharvestal
lthesi
debranches.
 Itst
imulat
esthedevelopmentofanewcr ownandbranches.
 Coppi
cing;
 Cut ti
ngthemai nstem ofthetreecomplet
el ghtof1
yatahei 0-50cm above
thegr ound.
 Thet reeshouldbecutinasl anti
ngangl
e.
 Loppi ngorsi depr uning;
 Ther emov alofsel
ectedbranchesofthetr
ee
 Donet oproducefuel
woodandf odder
.
 Shaki ngoft het r
ee;
 Thi sisamet hodofharvesti
ngpodsandseedsf rom t
reeswi
thoutcut
ti
ngt
he
tree.
 Cuttingback;
  Thetreei
scutfr
om t
hebaset
oal
l
ow new gr
owt
hasdonei
ncof
feewhen
changi
ngt
hecycl
e.
 Thi
nni
ng;
 Theremovalofsomeoft
het
reesgr
owi
ngi
nli
nest
ogi
vet
her
emai
ningt
rees
enoughspacetogr
ow.