Unit 10-BC Notes HW Review Student
Unit 10-BC Notes HW Review Student
Unit 10-BC Notes HW Review Student
0, Wikipedia
UNIT 10:
INFINITE SEQUENCES
AND SERIES
10.1 Series and Convergence
Topic 10.1-Defining Convergent and Divergent Infinite Series
An infinite series is defined as the summation of a sequence with an infinite number of terms.
That is, if 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is an infinite sequence, then
Infinite Series
∞
We will find that when a sequence of partial sums converges, then the series will also converge. This
lesson begins with a look at geometric series and telescoping series. The next lesson will explore
p-series and harmonic series.
Infinite sums are called series. We want to investigate limits of sequences of numbers.
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 7 15 2𝑛𝑛 − 1 1 2𝑛𝑛 − 1
� 𝑛𝑛 = + + + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑛 , , , ,..., ,⋯ � = lim
2 2 4 8 2 2 4 8 16 2𝑛𝑛 2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 2𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
EX #1: Write the indicated partial sums 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 for the series
𝑛𝑛
1
�
2𝑛𝑛−1
𝑛𝑛=1
A. 𝑆𝑆1 B. 𝑆𝑆2
C. 𝑆𝑆3 D. 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛
∞
For the infinite series � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 the nth partial sum is given by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 + � � � + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
𝑛𝑛=1
If the sequence of partial sums 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 converges to S, then the series converges.
The limit S is called the sum of the series.
If 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 diverges, then the series diverges.
615
Topic 10.2 – Working with Geometric Series
Geometric Series
∞ ∞
A geometric series is 𝑛𝑛 2
� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 + � � � +𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 + � � �, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0𝑛𝑛 or � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛−1
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛=1
𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 � 𝑟𝑟 1 − 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = = 𝑎𝑎1
1 − 𝑟𝑟 1 − 𝑟𝑟
8 8 8
EX #2: Consider the infinite geometric series 8 + 5 + 25 + 125 + � � �
C. Write the infinite series using summation D. Find the 4th partial sum, 𝑆𝑆4
notation.
EX #3: Find each of the following, if possible. If not possible, explain why.
∞ ∞ ∞
A. 1 2𝑛𝑛−1 B. 4𝑛𝑛 − 7𝑛𝑛
� 2 𝑛𝑛 + � 𝑛𝑛 �
3 5 5𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=0
616
Properties of Infinite Series
Given two convergent series ∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 where A, B, and c are real numbers.
If ∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴 and ∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 𝐵𝐵, then the following series converge to the given sums.
∞ ∞ ∞
Telescoping Series
Let’s investigate a fun series where the terms collapse like an old-fashioned spyglass or telescope.
This type of series is not used very often, but they are fun to consider.
EX #4: Use partial fractions and to find the sum of the series.
∞
1 1 1
� = + +���
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1 1(2) 2(3)
𝑛𝑛=1
1
EX #5: Given the sequence 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 , explain the difference between the sequence 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 and
𝑛𝑛+1
the series ∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
EX #6: Write a geometric series for the repeating decimal 0. 05 as the ratio of two integers.
617
Topic 10.3 – The nth Term Test for Divergence
If ∑ an
n =1
converges, then lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0 .
𝑛𝑛→∞
EX #7: Determine whether each series converges, diverges, or not able to determine.
∞
𝑛𝑛2
A. �
5𝑛𝑛2 + 4
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝑛
B. �
𝑛𝑛3 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
1
C. �
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
618
Formulas and Term Values from nth Term Partial Sums
∞
𝑛𝑛 + 2
EX #8: The nth partial sum of a series � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is given by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 + 5
. Write a rule for 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝑛2 + 2
EX #9: The nth partial sum of a series � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is given by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛+1
. Find 𝑎𝑎6 .
𝑛𝑛=1
619
Series and Convergence
10.1 Homework
Problems 1 – 4, Find the sequence of partial sums, 𝑆𝑆1 , 𝑆𝑆2 , 𝑆𝑆3 , 𝑆𝑆4 , 𝑆𝑆5 .
1 1 1 1 4 5 6
1. 1+ + + + + ⋯ 2. 2+1+ + + + ⋯
3 5 9 11 5 7 9
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
3. −1 4. 3
� �
𝑛𝑛! 2𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
Problems 5 – 10, Determine whether the following series converge or diverge. Justify your answer.
∞ ∞
5. 3𝑛𝑛 + 2 6. 𝑛𝑛!
� �
2𝑛𝑛 − 5 2𝑛𝑛! + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
7. 𝑛𝑛 8. 4𝑛𝑛+1
� ln �
2𝑛𝑛 + 5 5𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
620
∞
9. 1 1 1 1 10. 1
+ + + + ⋯ �
3 7 11 15 𝑒𝑒 2𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
Problems 11 – 14, Find a formula or term values for the nth partial sums given below.
11. Find a rule for 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 given: 12. Find a rule for 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 given:
7𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛 + 3 𝑛𝑛 + 5
∞
15. −2
�
𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛 + 2
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
16. 2
�
𝑛𝑛2 + 4𝑛𝑛 + 3
𝑛𝑛=1
622
10.2 The Integral Test and p-Series
Topic 10.4-Integral Test for Convergence
In the last lesson we explored methods for finding the exact sum of geometric and telescoping
series. In the next several lessons, we want to focus our efforts on whether or not a series
converges to a sum and not necessarily find the value of that sum. The convergence tests that
follow apply to series with positive terms. So far, we have seen two tests, they are stated here::
∞ ∞ ∞
� 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 � 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛+1
A geometric series is in the form 𝑛𝑛=0
or or , 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
, where a is
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
While looking at the first few terms of a sequence of partial sums helped us with geometric and
telescoping series, we will see many cases where this won’t help. That means you will need to be
skilled at using all of these tests to determine convergence or divergence.
The remainder of the chapter will cover each of these tests:
623
Exploring the Integral of a Series
The integral test allows us to compare a series to its integral in order to prove convergence or
1
divergence. Let’s explore the idea by completing the table below for 𝑥𝑥2 .
𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚
RHS4 = __________________________________
∞
1
2. Find the 5th partial sum of �
𝑛𝑛2
5
𝑛𝑛=1
1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
3. 1
𝑥𝑥 2
To use this test, f MUST BE CONTINUOUS, POSITIVE, and DECREASING on the interval 1, ∞ .
Also, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛).
∞ ∞
∞ ∞
624
EX #2: Apply the Integral Test to each of the series below.
∞ ∞
1 𝑛𝑛
A. � 2 B. �
𝑛𝑛 +1 𝑛𝑛2 +1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
1 1
Let’s explore why 𝑛𝑛2
converges but 𝑛𝑛
does not. Consider the following grouping of terms in the
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
harmonic series ∑ : 1+ + + + + + + + + +⋯+ +⋯
𝑛𝑛 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 16
1
A. Show that the sum of each group of fractions in the series is more than 2
.
1 1 1 1 1 1
B. Now consider the terms in the series �
𝑛𝑛2 : 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + ⋯
Group the terms after 1, in any way that you like. Show that they are never greater than 0.65.
625
Topic 10.5-Harmonic Series and p-Series
p – Series
∞
1 1 1 1 1
A series in the form � = + + + ⋯ + +⋯ is called a p-series, where p is a
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 1𝑝𝑝 2𝑝𝑝 3𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝
𝑛𝑛=1
positive constant.
∞
1 1 1 1
For 𝑝𝑝 = 1, the series � = 1 + + + ⋯+ + ⋯ is called a harmonic series.
𝑛𝑛 2 3 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
p – Series Test
∞
1 1 1 1 1
The p-series � 𝑝𝑝
= 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑝 + ⋯
𝑛𝑛 1 2 3 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
1. ______________________________ if 𝑝𝑝 > 1
∞ ∞
1 1
A. � B. �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 3
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
1
C. � 4 D. � 𝑒𝑒 −𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛=1
𝑛𝑛=1
626
∞
1
E. �
𝑛𝑛2 −1
𝑛𝑛=2
∞
1
F. �
ln ln 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=3
627
The Integral Test and p-Series
10.2 Homework
Problems 1 – 4, Expand the series or write an explicit rule to determine the sum of the convergent
series. Find the sum, if geometric, or approximate the sum by using 6 terms.
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞ 𝑛𝑛
1. 2 2. −1
� �
5 2
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛𝑛
3. 2 4. 1 1 1 1
� 3 + + + +⋯
3 2 5 10 17
𝑛𝑛=1
Problems 5 – 12, Verify that the Integral Test can be applied. Then use the Integral Test to determine
the convergence or divergence of each series.
5. ∞ 6. ∞
3
� � 4−𝑛𝑛
2𝑛𝑛 + 5
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
628
∞ ∞
ln 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1
7. � 2 8. �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛2 + 2𝑛𝑛 + 2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
1 4𝑛𝑛
9. � 10. �
𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑛𝑛 3𝑛𝑛2 +1
𝑛𝑛=2 𝑛𝑛=1
∞
1 2 3 𝑛𝑛
11. � 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 −𝑛𝑛 12. + + + ⋯+ 2 + ⋯
5 8 13 𝑛𝑛 +4
𝑛𝑛=0
∞
1 1 1 3
15. 1+ + + +. . . 16. � 5
2 3 4 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
sec 2 𝑛𝑛 − tan2 𝑛𝑛 1 1 1
17. � 18. 1+ + + +. . .
𝑛𝑛 16 81 256
𝑛𝑛=1
630
10.3 Comparison of Series
Topic 10.6: Comparison Tests for Convergence
Let’s explore two new tests for positive-term series that will help us determine convergence or
divergence. These new tests will allow us to compare a “complicated series” that is similar to a
“simpler series.” We will look at the Direct Comparison Test and the Limit Comparison Test.
1 1
Let 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑛𝑛
and 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
. Write out the first five terms of each series.
1. � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
2. � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛=1
3. Complete the statement with ≤, ≥, or = . The series 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ____________𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 for all values of n ≥ 1.
4. Notice that an is a geometric series. Find the sum.
∞
5. Using your findings from questions 3 and 4, what can you conclude about � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 ?
𝑛𝑛=1
Suppose that � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 and � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 are series with positive terms. Let 0 < 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ≤ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 for all n.
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
Verbally Speaking
If you think the series converges, compare it to a converging series. The series you compare
it to, should be larger.
If you think the series diverges, compare it to a diverging series. The series you compare
it to, should be smaller.
631
EX #1: Determine whether the following series converge or diverge.
∞ ∞
7 2𝑛𝑛
A. � 3 B. �
𝑛𝑛 1 + 3𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 − 1 8𝑛𝑛2 + 1
C. � 3 D. �
𝑛𝑛 + 3 2𝑛𝑛3 − 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
1 1
Let 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑛𝑛
and 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑛𝑛
. Write out the first five terms of each series.
−1
∞
1. � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
2. � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛=1
632
The Limit Comparison Test
∞ ∞
Suppose that � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 and � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 are series with positive terms.
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
If lim = 𝐿𝐿 such that 0 < 𝐿𝐿 < ∞,
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
This test is a great tool for comparing a “messy algebraic series” with a p-series. Just beware that
you must choose a p-series with an nth term of the same magnitude as the messy series under
consideration.
∞ ∞
1
For example, given � choose the p-series � 1
2
3𝑛𝑛 − 5𝑛𝑛 + 7
𝑛𝑛=1
𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛=1
NOTE: You only need to consider the highest powers of n in the numerator and the denominator.
EX #2: Apply the Limit Comparison Test to each of the series below.
∞
2
A. �
𝑛𝑛3 +4
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝑛4 + 5
B. �
4𝑛𝑛5 − 2𝑛𝑛3 + 3
𝑛𝑛=1
633
Comparison of Series
10.3 Homework
Problems 1 - 6, Use the Direct Comparison Test to determine the convergence or divergence of the
series.
∞ ∞
1 3𝑛𝑛
1. � 2
2. �
3𝑛𝑛 + 2 4𝑛𝑛 +5
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
1 ln 𝑛𝑛
3. � 4. �
𝑛𝑛(3𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
1 5𝑛𝑛
5. � 3 6. �
2 𝑛𝑛 − 1 2𝑛𝑛 −3
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=2
634
Problems 7- 12, Use the Limit Comparison Test to determine the convergence or divergence of
the series.
∞ ∞
5 𝑛𝑛 + 2
7. � 𝑛𝑛 8. �
3 +1 𝑛𝑛2 +𝑛𝑛 + 3
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
5𝑛𝑛2 1
9. � 10. �
2𝑛𝑛3 + 4 𝑛𝑛3 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
2 + 3𝑛𝑛 3𝑛𝑛2 − 1
11. � 𝑛𝑛 12. �
2 +5 4𝑛𝑛5 + 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
13. 1 14. 2𝑛𝑛
� 5 − �
5 6𝑛𝑛 − 3
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
15. 1 16. 4
� 𝑛𝑛 �
3 +1 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 4)
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ 3 ∞
17. 𝑛𝑛 18. 1
� �
𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛2 −4
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=2
∞ ∞
19. 1 1 20. 𝑛𝑛
� − �
𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛 + 2 𝑛𝑛2 + 1 3
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
636
10.4 Alternating Series
Topic 10.5: Harmonic Series and p-Series
This section will introduce us to alternating series that contain both positive and negative terms.
Let’s start by revisiting the harmonic series.
2. Use the number line below to plot the sum of your new series.
1. Every 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is positive 2. lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0 3. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , for all 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞
Verbally Speaking:
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
−1 𝑛𝑛2
A. � B. � (−1)𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛3 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=2
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑛𝑛
C. � −1 𝑛𝑛+1 D. � (−1)𝑛𝑛−1
2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
For some convergent alternating series, the partial sum SN is a useful method to approximate the
sum S of the series. We call the error that is involved in using S ≈ SN the remainder, where
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 = 𝑆𝑆 − 𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁 .
If a convergent alternating series satisfies the condition 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , , then the absolute value
of the remainder 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 involved in approximating the sum S by SN is less than or equal to the first
unused term. That is, 𝑆𝑆 − 𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁 = 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 ≤ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 .
In other words, if the three conditions (alternating, decreasing in magnitude, and having a limit
of 0) are met, you can approximate the sum of the series by using the nth partial sum 𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁 , and
your error will be bounded by the absolute value of the first truncated term.
638
Topic 10.10: Alternating Series Error Bound
EX #2: If a series is alternating and converges absolutely, then the sum of the series can be
approximated by adding the values of the terms, with an error of the absolute value of
the first unused term.
∞
𝑛𝑛+1
1
For example, � −1 can be approximated to an error of 0.01 by adding together
𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + = 0.828
4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81
1. The next unused term is _____________. Therefore, the error in your estimation is _________________.
2. Use your calculator to find the sum of the first 200 terms. ___________________________.
3. What is the error in your estimation from the 200 terms? ___________________________.
∞
(−1)𝑛𝑛−1
EX #3: Given the series �
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=1
A. Approximate the sum, S, of the series by using its first four terms.
1
B. Explain why the estimate found in (A) differs from the actual value by less than 100 .
639
Topic 10.9: Determining Absolute or Conditional Convergence
EX #3: Determine which of the following are absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent,
or divergent.
∞ ∞
−1 𝑛𝑛−1 −1 𝑛𝑛−1
A. � B. �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
cos 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
C. � −1 𝑛𝑛
0.01 𝑛𝑛 D. �
𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
640
10.4 Alternating Series Homework
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
3. −3 4. cos(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
� �
𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛 [ln 𝑛𝑛 ]
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=2
∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 ∞
5. −1 6. (−1)𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛2
� �
3
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛2 + 4
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
641
Problems 7- 9, Use your calculator and give an answer correct to three decimal places.
∞
−1 𝑛𝑛
7. A. Approximate the sum of the series by using the first four terms � 𝑛𝑛 .
2 𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛𝑛
−1
8. A. Use the first five terms to approximate the sum of the series � .
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=0
B. Why does the estimate differ from the actual value by less than 0.009?
∞
−1 𝑛𝑛+1
9. A. Approximate the sum of the convergent series � so that the error will be
𝑛𝑛4
𝑛𝑛=1
less than 0.001.
B. How many terms are needed? How do you know that your approximation is
guaranteed to be within 0.001 of the exact value? Justify your answer.
∞ ∞
−1 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛 + 1
12. � 13. � −1
3𝑛𝑛 3𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
−1 𝑛𝑛 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
14. � 15. � sin
𝑛𝑛 ln(𝑛𝑛) 2
𝑛𝑛=2 𝑛𝑛=1
643
10.5 The Ratio and Root Tests
Topic 10.8: Ratio Test for Convergence
In this last chapter of our course, we will explore the Ratio Test which is a test for absolute
convergence. It is quite useful on series that converge quickly and on some of the more difficult series.
For example, series that involve factorials or exponentials are often best suited to this test.
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
1. � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 converges absolutely if lim <1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
2. � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 diverges if lim > 1 or lim =∞
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
3. If lim = 1 , the Ratio Test is inconclusive. Use another test!
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
∞
𝑛𝑛 + 1 !
B. �
3𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
EX #2: Show that the Ratio Test is inconclusive for the following.
∞
𝑛𝑛
� 3
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
644
Topic 10.9: Determining Absolute or Conditional Convergence
The Root Test for convergence or divergence works well for series that involve nth powers. It’s
important to note that the Root Test is always inconclusive for any p-series.
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
2. � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 diverges if lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 > 1 or lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =∞
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛→∞
𝑛𝑛
3. The Root Test is inconclusive if lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =1
𝑛𝑛→∞
EX #3: Use the Root Test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
A. �
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝑛3
B. �
3𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
C. �
1 + 𝑛𝑛3
𝑛𝑛=1
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Strategies for Choosing a Test
We have now explored 10 tests for determining the convergence or divergence of an infinite series.
At times, more than one test can be applied. But your goal should be to choose the most efficient
test.
EX #4: Let’s looks at some guidelines for choosing an appropriate test with the following examples.
∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞ ∞ ∞
𝜋𝜋 1 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛
A. � B. � C. � D. � 2
3 4𝑛𝑛 + 1 4𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
(−1)𝑛𝑛 2 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛!
E. � F. � G. �
3𝑛𝑛 + 1 3𝑛𝑛 + 1 3𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
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Summary of Tests for Sequences and Series
∞
Telescoping Series � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 − 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝐿𝐿 Sum: 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛→∞
𝑛𝑛=1
∞ If 𝑝𝑝 = 1 this is a
1
p-Series Test � 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 > 1 0 < 𝑝𝑝 ≤ 1 divergent harmonic
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 series
∞
Remainder
� −1 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 0 < 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
Alternating Error Bound:
Series Test 𝑛𝑛=1
𝑆𝑆 − 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
∞
(AST)
� −1 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 ≤ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞
𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞ ∞
Integral Test � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Remainder
𝒇𝒇 is positive, � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 1 1
∞
continuous, and 𝑛𝑛=1
converges, then diverges, then 0 ≤ 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 ≤ � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
decreasing 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) series converges series diverges 𝑛𝑛
∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 Inconclusive if
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 lim >1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
Ratio Test � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 lim <1 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 lim =1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 or = ∞
∞ 𝑛𝑛 Inconclusive if
𝑛𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 >1
Root Test � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 < 1 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞ lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 1
𝑛𝑛=1 or = ∞ 𝑛𝑛→∞
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
lim = 𝐿𝐿 > 0 L must be finite
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
Limit Comparison ∞ lim = 𝐿𝐿 > 0 and positive. Then
∞ 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
Test � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 either both series
and � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 and
(LCT) 𝑛𝑛=1 converge or both
𝑛𝑛=1 diverges
series diverge.
converges
647
10.5 Ratio and Root Tests
Homework
Problems 1 – 6, Use the Ratio Test to determine the convergence or divergence of the series.
∞ ∞
1. 𝑛𝑛 2. 5𝑛𝑛
� 𝑛𝑛 � 2
5 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
3. 𝑛𝑛3 4. 𝑛𝑛!
� 𝑛𝑛 �
5 3𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
5. 𝑛𝑛 6. −1 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛𝑛
� 2 �
𝑛𝑛 +1 𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
648
Problems 7- 12, Determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
7. � 8. � 𝑒𝑒 −4𝑛𝑛
4𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=0
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑛𝑛
9. � 10. �
ln 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=2 𝑛𝑛=2
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 3𝑛𝑛
11. � 12. �
31+2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑛𝑛
15. � 2 16. �
2𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=2
∞ ∞
5 cos 𝑛𝑛
17. � 18. �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 1
19. � 20. �
6 𝑛𝑛2 +1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
650
10.6 Intro to Taylor Polynomials
Topic 10.11: Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximations of Functions
In this exploration activity you will learn how to construct a Taylor Polynomial from scratch.
_________________________________
4. What degree polynomial would this approximation need to be? _________________________________
A Quadratic Approximation at x = 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓(0)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (0)
𝑓𝑓 ′′ (0)
6. Use the table above to find values for 𝑎𝑎 = ______________ 𝑏𝑏 = _____________ 𝑐𝑐 = _________________
In the exploration, our polynomial approximation matched the value of cos 𝑥𝑥, it’s first and second
derivative at the center, 𝑥𝑥 = 0. Let’s try to make that match more precise by using an even higher
order approximation centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
651
EX #1: Using the same procedure, write the sixth degree Taylor Polynomial for 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥.
Function we are
Quadratic Approximation
approximating
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 (4) 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 (5) 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 (6) 𝑥𝑥
Function we are
Polynomial Solve for a,b,c, . . .
approximating
𝑓𝑓(0)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (0)
𝑓𝑓 ′′ (0)
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 0
𝑓𝑓 (4) 0
𝑓𝑓 (5) 0
𝑓𝑓 (6) 0
Write the sixth degree Taylor Polynomial approximation of cos 𝑥𝑥 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0, also known as
a Maclaurin Polynomial of degree 6. Graph your result to see how close your approximation
models cos 𝑥𝑥.
cos 𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑃𝑃6 𝑥𝑥 =
652
10.6 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations
Topic 10.11: Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximations of Functions
In this lesson we will find a process to write a polynomial function that will approximate functions
such as sin 𝑥𝑥 , cos 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and ln 𝑥𝑥. These approximations are known as Taylor Polynomials. In fact,
the tangent line approximation 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑎)(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) is a Taylor Polynomial of degree 1 that
approximates 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for x near a. If 𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎, this special case is called a “Maclaurin” polynomial.
Now you know how to construct a Taylor Polynomial from scratch. The following formula will be
extremely important for the rest of this unit. You must know it by heart!
If 𝑐𝑐 = 0, then
𝑓𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 0
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 2!
𝑥𝑥 2 + 3!
𝑥𝑥 ⋯+ 𝑛𝑛!
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
EX #1: Suppose that 𝑓𝑓 is a function which has continuous derivatives, and that
𝑓𝑓 2 = 1, 𝑓𝑓 ′ 2 = −3, 𝑓𝑓 ′′ ; 2 = 5, 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 2 = −7 .
Write the Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for 𝑓𝑓 centered at 𝑐𝑐 = 2.
EX #2: Use the formula above to construct a Taylor polynomial that approximates 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥
centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 of degree 5, a Maclaurin polynomial.
653
EX #3: Write an nth degree Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥
You will be required to memorize the Maclaurin polynomials for the three functions we created. It is
important to recognize them in (general form) sigma notation.
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒙𝒙 =
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒙𝒙 =
𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 =
654
Technology Tip: You can access the Taylor Command on the TI-89 under the F3 menu or on
the TI-Nspire Menu:4:C:1. The syntax for either calculator is as follows:
TI 89 or TI Nspire: taylor (expression, variable, order or degree, center)
Both utilities will default to a center of 0 if you don’t type a center. This is a good tool
for checking your work. But all work is required to be written on the AP Exam.
What is the error in your approximation? Recall error is 𝑓𝑓 1.5 − 𝑃𝑃5 (1.5) =_______________
C. How does the error for 𝑃𝑃5 (2) compare to the error for 𝑃𝑃5 (1.5)?
In order to use Taylor polynomials effectively, we will use Taylor’s Theorem to estimate the size
of the error. The remainder given in the theorem is called the Lagrange form of the remainder
or the Lagrange error bound. This gives us a bound for the error, not the exact value of the error.
For now, let’s think about the error as follows:
Error = actual − approximation
655
Taylor’s Theorem
If a function 𝑓𝑓 is differentiable through order 𝑛𝑛 + 1 in an interval containing 𝑐𝑐, then for each 𝑥𝑥 in
the interval, there exists a number 𝑧𝑧 between 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑐𝑐 such that
𝑓𝑓 ′′ 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 2
+ ⋯+ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) where
2! 𝑛𝑛!
𝑓𝑓 (𝑛𝑛+1) 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛 + 1 !
We will explore errors and accuracy with Taylor’s Theorem in the last lesson of this unit.
EX #7: Suppose that the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is approximated near 𝑥𝑥 = 3 by a third-degree Taylor
polynomial: 𝑇𝑇3 𝑥𝑥 = 4 − 5 𝑥𝑥 − 3 2 + 6 𝑥𝑥 − 3 3
A. Find the values for 𝑓𝑓(3), 𝑓𝑓 ′ (3), 𝑓𝑓 ′′ (3), and 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ (3).
B. Does 𝑓𝑓 have a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither at 𝑥𝑥 = 3? Justify your answer.
656
Taylor Polynomials
10.6
Homework
Problems 1-4, Find the nth term Taylor Polynomial for f centered at x = c .
1. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑛𝑛 = 3 , 𝑐𝑐 = 4
𝜋𝜋
2. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑛𝑛 = 5, 𝑐𝑐 =
2
𝜋𝜋
3. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑛𝑛 = 3, 𝑐𝑐 =
4
4. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥, 𝑛𝑛 = 5, 𝑐𝑐 = 1
5. Suppose 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is a function which has continuous derivatives and is approximated near 𝑥𝑥 = 0
1
by a fifth degree Taylor polynomial 𝑇𝑇5 𝑥𝑥 = 5 𝑥𝑥 5 − 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 1. Give the value of each
of the following.
657
6. Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function which has derivatives of all orders for all real numbers. Assume
𝑓𝑓 4 = 2 , 𝑓𝑓 ′ 4 = −3, 𝑓𝑓 ′′ 4 = −1 , 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 4 = 5.
A. Write the Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for 𝑓𝑓 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 4.
8. Given 𝑃𝑃2 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 2 is the second-degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓𝑓 about 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
What can you say about the signs of 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑐𝑐 if 𝑓𝑓 has the graphs pictured below? Explain
your reasoning.
A.
B.
9. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 , 𝑛𝑛 = 3 10. 1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥+1 , 𝑛𝑛 = 4
659
10.7 Lagrange Error Bound and Accuracy
Topic 10.12: Lagrange Error Bound
At this point in our study of Calculus, we have explored many methods to approximate values for
a function. We could simply estimate by looking at a graph, use tangent line approximations or
Euler’s method, and now Taylor polynomials.
When we use Taylor polynomial approximations it would be a good idea to know how accurate
they are to the exact values of an infinite series. The function value by the Taylor polynomial can
be defined by the concept of a remainder defined as
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥)
So, the absolute value of the remainder 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) is called the error.
Error = 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥)
Graphically
In order to use Taylor polynomials effectively, we will use Taylor’s Theorem to estimate the size
of the error. The remainder given in the theorem is called the Lagrange form of the remainder
or the Lagrange error bound. This gives us a bound for the error, not the exact value of the error.
Taylor’s Theorem
If a function 𝑓𝑓 is differentiable through order 𝑛𝑛 + 1 in an interval containing 𝑐𝑐, then for each 𝑥𝑥 in
the interval, there exists a number 𝑎𝑎 between 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑐𝑐 such that
′
𝑓𝑓 ′′ 𝑐𝑐 2
𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) where
2! 𝑛𝑛!
𝑓𝑓 (𝑛𝑛+1) 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛 + 1 !
660
Instead of finding the exact error of our approximations, we will use two rules that will help us
find an upper bound for the error. In this way, we will know the most that our approximation is
off the actual mark.
1. If the series is an Alternating Series, the error will be no greater than the absolute value of the
first unused term (remember this rule from the previous unit).
2. If a non alternating series is approximated, we will use Taylor’s Inequality Theorem (Lagrange
Form of the Remainder) stated below.
𝑀𝑀 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 where 𝑐𝑐 is the center.
𝑛𝑛+1 !
M (for maximum) is defined to be the maximum value of 𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛+1 (𝑎𝑎) where 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑐𝑐.
Bounds on 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) found using this form are also called Lagrange error bounds.
For 𝑛𝑛 = 0, Taylor’s Theorem states that if f is differentiable in an interval containing c, then for
each 𝑥𝑥 in the interval, there exists a between 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑐𝑐 such that
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 −𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑎)(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐) or 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑥𝑥−𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥−𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛+1
2. The expression 𝑛𝑛+1 !
represents______________________________________________________________________,
𝑥𝑥−𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛+1
and the product � max 𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) will tell us __________________________________________________.
𝑛𝑛+1 !
𝑛𝑛+1
3. If the max 𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) on the interval between the center, 𝑐𝑐, and the value 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, is not given or
𝑛𝑛+1
𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) . If you don’t know the maximum or the interval, assume the interval is from
__________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. Two facts about the error, or 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥). First, if we increase n by adding more terms to the polynomial,
the remainder will ___________________________ in size. Second, as we move away from the center of the
polynomial, the size of 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) will usually __________________________________.
661
EX #1: The function f has continuous derivatives for all real numbers x. Assume that 𝑓𝑓 3 = 5,
𝑓𝑓 ′ 3 = 2, 𝑓𝑓 ′′ 3 = −4 , 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 3 = 7.
A. Write a third-degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓𝑓 about 𝑥𝑥 = 3 and use it to approximate 𝑓𝑓(3.2).
Give three decimal places.
B. The fourth derivative of 𝑓𝑓 satisfies the inequality 𝑓𝑓 4 (𝑎𝑎) ≤ 35 for all 𝑥𝑥 in the interval
[3, 3.2]. Use this information to find a bound for the error found in (A).
C. Find an interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] such that 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑓𝑓 3.2 ≤ 𝑏𝑏. Give three decimal places.
EX #2: Estimate sin 0.5 using a Maclaurin polynomial. What is the least degree of the polynomial
that assures an error smaller than 0.001?
662
EX #3: Let 𝑃𝑃3 (𝑥𝑥) be the third-degree Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓𝑓. Using information from the graph
4 1 1 1
of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 shown below, show that 𝑃𝑃3 4
− 𝑓𝑓 4
< 400
.
4
Graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥)
1
EX #4: Use the Maclaurin series for 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 to estimate accurate to four decimal places.
𝑒𝑒
663
EX #5: Using the Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥.
𝜋𝜋
A. Write the fourth-degree polynomial and use it to compute cos 12
.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 1
B. Use the Lagrange error bound to show that 𝑓𝑓 12
− 𝑃𝑃4 12
≤ 5000 for 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1.
C. Use the fourth-degree Taylor polynomial for cos 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to find an approximation for
cos 0.8 and determine the accuracy of the approximation.
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Lagrange Error Bound
10.7 and Accuracy Homework
Problems 1 - 8, Use Taylor’s Inequality to determine the error bounds of the approximations.
1 1 1
1. 𝑒𝑒 ≈ 1 + 1 + + +
2! 3! 4!
2 4
0.4 0.4
2. cos 0.4 ≈ 1 − +
2! 4!
3. Estimate the value of 𝑒𝑒 1.5 by using a Taylor polynomial centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 2, find the least degree
of the polynomial needed to have an error less that 0.001.
4. Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function having derivatives of all orders for all real numbers. The third-degree
Taylor polynomial for 𝑓𝑓 about 𝑥𝑥 = 1 is given by 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 6 − 9 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 4 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 . Suppose
𝑓𝑓 4 (𝑥𝑥) ≤ 6 for all x on the interval [0,1]. Use the Lagrange error bound to justify why 𝑓𝑓(0)
is negative.
665
5. Find a 4th degree Taylor polynomial for ln 𝑥𝑥 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 4.
6. Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥
A. Write a 2nd degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) about 𝑥𝑥 = 4.
C. Find the Lagrange error bound for the approximation on the interval; [4, 4.1]
4
C. If 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 4 for all x, find the Lagrange error bound for the approximation.
8. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) be a function that is continuous and differentiable at all real numbers. Assume 𝑓𝑓 4 = 5,
𝑓𝑓 ′ 4 = 7, 𝑓𝑓 ′′ 4 = 18, 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 4 = 24. Also, 𝑓𝑓 4 (𝑥𝑥) ≤ 45 for all 𝑥𝑥 in the interval [4, 4.2].
A. Find a 3rd degree Taylor polynomial about 𝑥𝑥 = 4 to estimate 𝑓𝑓(4.2).
667
10.8 Power Series and Interval of Convergence
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 ′′ 𝑐𝑐 2
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑐𝑐 3
𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐
1! 2! 3! 𝑛𝑛!
EX #1: Some important details to consider. Some functions shown below will not generate a
Taylor polynomial at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 because the function or one of its derivatives don’t exist there.
Determine which functions present problems and explain why.
E. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 F. 𝑦𝑦 =
1
centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 4
𝑥𝑥−3
668
There are two issues you want to consider. First, we’ve seen that, except for geometric or
telescoping series, we can’t sum most series with an infinite number of terms; and also, not all Taylor
series will converge for all values of 𝑥𝑥. But, we will show how infinite Taylor series (Taylor
polynomials with an infinite number of terms) will be exactly equal to their parent functions
for x-values that converge.
EX #2: Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥
A. Construct a Taylor polynomial of degree 4, centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 1.
B. Then use your calculator to compare the original function to your approximation. What
do you notice?
C. Write out the general term for the series and then put it in sigma notation.
One of my favorite pi facts is that we only need 39 digits of pi to calculate the circumference of the
observable universe to within the width of a hydrogen atom. WOW, now that’s a tiny error! So, are
you wondering why in the world we are doing this? Well, we’re doing this because polynomials
are so much easier to work with than some of the transcendental functions. Often, an accurate
approximation is just as good as the exact value.
669
When does a power series converge or diverge?
Hey, we just spent two weeks on convergence tests in the last unit!
What test do we use for determining convergence?
In general, the Ratio Test (sometimes the Root Test) should be used to determine the radius of
convergence. Then we can use all of the other tests we learned on the endpoints to determine
the interval of convergence.
In summary, the Ratio Test is used to find the radius and interval of convergence. The Ratio Test
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1
says that a series will converge if lim < 1, so we will find the lim and then
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
determine the value(s) of 𝑥𝑥 for which the limit is less than 1.
NOTE: Every time you are asked to find the interval of convergence, you must check to see
if the endpoints are included in the interval.
670
EX #4: Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence. Be sure to check the
endpoints.
∞ 𝑛𝑛
A. 𝑥𝑥 − 2
�
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
B. � 𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=0
∞
C. −1 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛+1
�
2𝑛𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛𝑛=0
671
∞
D. −3 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
�
𝑛𝑛=0
𝑛𝑛 + 1
A Brief Summary
∞
1
Many functions can be written as power series � 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 +. . . =
valid −1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1. 1 − 𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛=0
A function written as a power series with center at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 is called the Taylor series with
center at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐.
By increasing the degree of the Taylor polynomial of a function, the approximation becomes
more accurate.
Sometimes the Taylor series of a function converges only for certain values of 𝑥𝑥. So, it is
necessary to fund the radius/interval of convergence.
There are some functions that are not equal to the sum of their Taylor series, but we are not
responsible for these in our course or on the AP exam.
672
Power Series and Interval of
10.8 Convergence Homework
Problems 1 – 8, Find the radius and interval of convergence for each of the following series.
Be sure to check endpoints.
∞
1. � −1 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
2. � 𝑛𝑛! (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
−1 𝑥𝑥 − 4
3. �
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛𝑛
2𝑥𝑥 − 3
4. �
𝑛𝑛 5𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
673
∞
4𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
5. �
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
6. �
2𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛=0
∞
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
7. �
𝑛𝑛=0
𝑛𝑛2 + 3
∞
(−1)𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
8. �
𝑛𝑛2 + 2
𝑛𝑛=1
𝑛𝑛
If 𝑓𝑓 is represented by a power series 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 for all 𝑥𝑥 in an open interval containing 𝑐𝑐,
(𝑛𝑛) ′ 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 (𝑐𝑐) 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐
then 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = and 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 2
+ ⋯+ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛! 2! 𝑛𝑛!
NOTE: Be sure you understand that this theorem says if a power series converges to f(x), the series
must be a Taylor series. It does not say that every series formed with the Taylor coefficients
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 (𝑐𝑐)/𝑛𝑛! will converge to 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). The formal definition of Taylor series is stated below:
675
EX #2: Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series and find the radius of convergence.
𝑡𝑡
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 − 𝑡𝑡 3
When differentiating a Taylor series, just take the derivative term-by-term. The radius of
convergence of the derivative will be the same as the original series. However, the interval of
convergence could change. Be sure to check the endpoints.
1
EXAMPLE: If 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1−𝑥𝑥
, find 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥):
676
Taylor Series and Integration
We can also integrate Taylor Series term-by-term given that integration is the inverse operation of
differentiation.
EX #4: Find a power series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = tan−1 (2𝑥𝑥) using substitution and integration.
Binomial Series
𝑘𝑘
The last series we want to develop is for a function of the form 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 which is called the
binomial series. If k is any number and 𝑥𝑥 < 1, then
∞
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘(𝑘𝑘 − 1) 2 𝑘𝑘(𝑘𝑘 − 1)(𝑘𝑘 − 2) 3
1 + 𝑥𝑥 =� 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
𝑛𝑛 2! 3!
𝑛𝑛=0
1
EX #5: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1+𝑥𝑥 4
677
1
678
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
10.9 Homework
Problems 1 – 8, Write the basic Maclaurin series representation, in general form, for each of the
following:
3. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 4. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
5. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1 6. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1
1 − 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑥𝑥
9. Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 . Write the first three terms and the general term.
679
11. Find a Taylor polynomial of degree 𝑛𝑛 = 4 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 centered at 𝑐𝑐 = 1. Then, use 𝑃𝑃4 (𝑥𝑥) to
approximate ln(1.1).
𝑥𝑥2
cos 𝑥𝑥−1+
14. Use a known Maclaurin series to evaluate lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 4
cos 𝑥𝑥 3 −1
16. Express ∫ 𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 as a power series.
B. Find the derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), write out the first 3 nonzero terms, and the general term.
C. Use your answer from part (A) to find a Maclaurin series for the integral of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 .
681
2 3 4
18. Let 𝑇𝑇4 𝑥𝑥 = 8 − 3 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 7 𝑥𝑥 − 2 − 4 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 5 𝑥𝑥 − 2
A. Find 𝑓𝑓(2) and 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ (2)
𝑥𝑥
D. Is it possible to find 𝑓𝑓(1) using the given information? Explain why or why not.
19. Let 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) be a function with continuous derivatives and that 𝑔𝑔 6 = 2, 𝑔𝑔′ 6 = −3, 𝑔𝑔′′ (6) = 1
and 𝑔𝑔′′′ 6 = −2.
A. Find a second-degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑔𝑔 about 𝑥𝑥 = 6.
682
10.10 Representing Functions as Power Series
Topic 10.15: Representing Functions as Power Series
In the last section, we explored Taylor and Maclaurin Series shortcuts, term-by-term differentiation
and integration techniques. We can find a power series for a rational function by using our knowledge
𝑎𝑎
of geometric series if the function can be written in the form 1 − 𝑟𝑟 . Recall that a geometric
∞
𝑎𝑎
series of the form � 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 converges to the sum 𝑆𝑆 = , where a is the first terms of the series
1 − 𝑟𝑟
𝑛𝑛=0
and r is the common ratio, if 𝑟𝑟 < 1 . The geometric series diverges if 𝑟𝑟 ≥ 1 .
6
EX #1: Find a power series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥+2 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0. Give the first four nonzero terms and
the general term. Find the interval of convergence.
EX #2: You can find a power series for a rational function by using long division. Let’s try
6
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥+2
and compare the result to EX #1.
Let’s explore some manipulation techniques that can be used to find other series which include:
1
EX #4: Find a Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2
.
A. Give the first four nonzero terms and the general term.
C. Use your calculator to compare 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) to the first five terms of the series from part A.
1
What do you notice on the interval from 𝑥𝑥 = 2
to 𝑥𝑥 = 2 ?
684
EX #5: Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 2 . Use substitution in a known power series to
A. Find a Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Give the first four nonzero terms and the general term.
B. Gregory’s series converges for −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1. Let 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and determine the resulting series
called Leibniz’ formula.
685
𝑥𝑥 2
EX #7: Find a power series representation for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 1−2𝑥𝑥 2
686
Representing Functions
10.10 by Power Series Homework
Problems 1- 4, Find the Maclaurin series representation for each of the following and the radius
of convergence.
1. 1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
1 − 𝑥𝑥 3
𝑥𝑥
2. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑥𝑥
3. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
9 + 𝑥𝑥 2
4. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
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Problems 5 - 8, Find a Taylor series about 𝑥𝑥 = 0 for each of the following.
sin 𝑥𝑥
5. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥
1
6. � 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 + 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 1
7. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥
2
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
8. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥
1
11. 2 1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 1 − 𝑥𝑥 3
12. Use a 6th degree Taylor polynomial centered about 𝑥𝑥 = 0 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 to approximate cos 1 .
689
INFINITE SEQUENCES and SERIES Name ______________________________________________
UNIT 10 TEST REVIEW
(−1)𝑛𝑛
1. Given the nth term of a sequence is , write the first four terms.
𝑛𝑛!
Find
2. 𝑛𝑛2
lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ ln 𝑛𝑛
Find the nth term of each sequence and use it to determine whether the sequence converges
or diverges. If it converges find the sum.
3 4 5 6
2, 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 , ⋯ 5 5 2 5 3
3. 4. 1 + 4 + �4� + �4� + ⋯
5. Use the nth Term Divergence Test to determine whether or not the following series
converge:
∞ ∞ ∞
A. 𝑛𝑛3 + 4𝑛𝑛2 − 1 B. 𝑛𝑛! C. 1
� � �
3 − 3𝑛𝑛 + 5𝑛𝑛3 2𝑛𝑛! + 1 𝑛𝑛3
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
1 2 𝑛𝑛
8. Nth Term Test: 9. Geometric Series Test: � 2 �− �
� 3
𝑛𝑛=1
√𝑛𝑛2 + 1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
10. Ratio Test: 3𝑛𝑛 11. Integral Test: 𝑛𝑛
� 3 �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛2 +
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
14. Direct Comparison Test: 3𝑛𝑛 15. Limit Comparison Test: � 𝑛𝑛 + 1
� 𝑛𝑛
5 +1 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛2 + 3)
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛𝑛 2
20. Approximate the sum of the series by using the first five terms. � . Find the
maximum amount of error for this approximation. 𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛𝑛
21. A. Approximate the sum of the convergent series � so that the error will be
less than 0.001. (2𝑛𝑛)!
𝑛𝑛=0
B. How many terms are needed? How do you know that your approximation is
guaranteed to be within 0.001 of the exact value? Justify your answer.
22. It is possible to determine convergence of a 23. If the terms in a sequence 𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛 , alternate in sign,
sequence by inspecting the first 100 terms. then the sequence converges.
24. If 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ≤ 0 and ∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 converges, then 25. If the terms, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , of a series tend to zero as n
∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 converges . increases, then the series ∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 converges.
∑ ( −1)
n
|𝑎𝑎 | 27. The series 2n converges.
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 |𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1| = 1 then lim n an = 1 n =0
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛 n →∞
28. If 0 < 0.5𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 < 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 for all n and ∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 diverges, 29. If the sequence {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 } and {𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 } are
then ∑ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 diverges. convergent, then {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } is also convergent.
Determine whether the series converges or diverges using any test. Identify the test used.
∞ ∞
30. 𝑛𝑛(3𝑛𝑛 ) 31. 3𝑛𝑛
� �
(𝑛𝑛 + 1)! 4𝑛𝑛2 + 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
32. sin 𝑛𝑛 33.
� 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑒𝑒 −𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=0
35. Suppose that the function 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is approximated near 𝑥𝑥 = 2 by a third-degree Taylor polynomial:
𝑇𝑇3 (𝑥𝑥) = 6 − 3(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + 4(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3 .
A. Find the values for 𝑔𝑔(2) , 𝑔𝑔′ (2) , 𝑔𝑔′′ (2), and 𝑔𝑔′′′ (2).
36. Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function which has derivatives for all orders for all real numbers.
Assume 𝑓𝑓(5) = 3, 𝑓𝑓 ′ (5) = −2, 𝑓𝑓 ′′ (5) = 1, 𝑓𝑓 ′′′ (5) = −4.
A. Write the Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for 𝑓𝑓 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 5.
38. Use a known Maclaurin series to find a Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 cos(𝑥𝑥 2 ).
A. Write the first four nonzero terms and the general term.
1
41. Find a power series centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 given 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 + 5𝑥𝑥 2
1
42. Use a fourth-degree Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 to approximate 𝑒𝑒 . If �𝑓𝑓 (5) (𝑥𝑥)� ≤ 𝑒𝑒 on
[−1, 0], find the maximum error for your approximation.
43. For 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = sin(−𝑥𝑥) write the Taylor polynomial and find |𝑅𝑅3 (𝑥𝑥)| for 𝑓𝑓 centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 0.