Research Methods

Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)

Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore

Define research and its types.

The word research is derived from the Middle French “recherché” which means
“to go about seeking”, the term itself being derived from the old French term
“recerchier” a compound word from “re”+”cerchier” or “searcher”, meaning
search. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.

Gowin Colibao put forward a very broad definition of research. According to him
research includes any gathering of data, information, and facts for advancement
of knowledge. Creswell also states that research is a process of steps used to
collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue.
Research is a highly scientific and systematic investigative process employed to
increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts.

It can be divided into two general categories: (1) Basic research, which is inquiry
aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, and (2) Applied research, which is effort
aimed at using basic research for solving problems or developing new processes,
products, or techniques.

Explain research problem/statement of the problem/research gap/niche.

The first and most important step in any research is to identify and delineate the
research problem: that is, what the researcher wants to solve and what questions
he/she wishes to answer. A research problem may be defined as an area of
concern, a gap or niche in the existing knowledge, or a deviation in the norm or
standard that points to the need for further understanding and investigation.
Although many problems turn out to have several solutions (the means to close
the gap or correct the deviation), difficulties arise where such means are either
not obvious or are not immediately available. This then necessitates some
research to reach a viable solution.

A good research problem should address an existing gap in knowledge in the field
and lead to further research.
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
To write a persuasive problem statement, you need to describe (a) the ideal, (b),
the reality, and (c) the consequences.

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses
the question: What is the problem that the research will address?

What are the goals of a statement of the problem?

The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized

problem (something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-
defined problem; one that can be resolved through focused research and careful
decision-making.

Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose
of the research project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will
also serve as the basis for the introductory section of your final proposal, directing
your reader’s attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will
address and providing the reader with a concise statement of the proposed
project itself.

A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than
enough for a good statement of problem.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of the problem?

A good research problem should have the following characteristics:

It should address a gap in knowledge.

It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research

It should lead to further research

The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data

 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and
resources

The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

Difference between research question and hypothesis?

Definitions

A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess, while a research question is simply

the researcher wondering about the world. Hypothesis are part of the scientific
research method. They are employed in research in science, sociology,
mathematics and more. Research questions are part of heuristic research
methods, and are also used in many fields including literature, and sociology.

Structure

As its name suggests, research questions are always written as questions.

Hypothesis are written as statements preceded with the words "I predict." For
example, a research question would ask, "What is the effect of heat on the
effectiveness of bleach?" A hypothesis would state, "I predict heat will diminish
the effectiveness of bleach."

Before Writing
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Before writing a hypothesis, the researcher must determine what others have
discovered about this subject. On the other hand, a research question requires
less preparation, but focus and structure is critical.

For example, a researcher using a hypothesis would look up studies about bleach,
information on the chemical properties of the chemical when heated and data
about its effectiveness before writing the hypothesis. When using a research
question, the researcher would think about how to phrase the question to ensure
its scope is not too broad, too narrow or impossible to answer.

Writing Conclusions

When writing the conclusion for research conducted using a hypothesis, the
researcher will write whether the hypothesis was correct or incorrect, followed by
an explanation of the results of the research. The researcher using only a research
question will write the answer to the question, followed by the findings of the
research.

What is Hypothesis?

Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence. This is

the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into a
prediction. It includes components like variables, population and the relation
between the variables. A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test
the relationship between two or more variables.

Types of Hypothesis

There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:

 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Simple hypothesis

Complex hypothesis

Directional hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis

Null hypothesis

Associative and casual hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis

It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent

variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster.
Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is
the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis

It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or
more independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight
loss, glowing skin, reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high
blood pressure and some cancers.

Directional Hypothesis

It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome.

The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example-
children aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having
higher IQ levels than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and
direction of effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship
exists between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of
the relationship.

Null Hypothesis

It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative

statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a

change in the other variable. Whereas, causal hypothesis proposes a cause and
effect interaction between two or more variables.

Examples of Hypothesis

Following are the examples of hypothesis based on their types:

Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple

hypothesis.

All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.

If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps
less.
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Literature Review

Q1. What is literature review? Discuss sources for literature review.

The Literature

The Literature refers to the collection of scholarly writings on a topic. This

includes peer-reviewed articles, books, dissertations and conference papers.

When reviewing the literature, be sure to include major works as well as studies
that respond to major works. You will want to focus on primary sources, though
secondary sources can be valuable as well.

Primary Sources

The term primary source is used broadly to embody all sources that are original.
Primary sources provide first-hand information that is closest to the object of
study. Primary sources vary by discipline.

In the natural and social sciences, original reports of research found in academic
journals detailing the methodology used in the research, in-depth descriptions,
and discussions of the findings are considered primary sources of information.

Other common examples of primary sources include speeches, letters, diaries,

autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts, photographs,
and drawings.

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or secondhand data or

information.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources.

Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are

considered secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of
results with few details on the methodology. Other examples of secondary
sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work.
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Q2. What is the importance of literature review?

Doing a careful and thorough literature review is essential when you write about
research at any level. It is basic homework that is assumed to have been done
vigilantly, and a given fact in all research papers. By providing one, usually offered
in your introduction before you reach your thesis statement, you are telling your
reader that you have not neglected the basics of research.

It not only surveys what research has been done in the past on your topic, but it
also appraises, encapsulates, compares and contrasts, and correlates various
scholarly books, research articles, and other relevant sources that are directly
related to your current research. Given the fundamental nature of providing one,
your research paper will be not considered seriously if it is lacking one at the
beginning of your paper.

1. It Creates a Rapport with Your Audience

A literature review helps you create a sense of rapport with your audience or
readers so they can trust that you have done your homework. As a result, they
can give you credit for your due diligence: you have done your fact-finding and
fact-checking mission, one of the initial steps of any research writing.

As a student, you may not be an expert in a given field; however, by listing a

thorough review in your research paper, you are telling the audience, in essence,
that you know what you are talking about. As a result, the more books, articles,
and other sources you can list in the literature review, the more trustworthy your
scholarship and expertise will be. Depending on the nature of your research
paper, each entry can be long or short. For example, if you are writing a doctoral
dissertation or master’s thesis, the entries can be longer than the ones in a term
paper. The key is to stick to the gist of the sources as you synthesize the source in
the review: its thesis, research methods, findings, issues, and further discussions
mentioned in the source.

2. It Helps You Avoid Incidental Plagiarism

 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Imagine this scenario. You have written a research paper, an original paper in
your area of specialization, without a literature review. When you are about to
publish the paper, you soon learn that someone has already published a paper on
a topic very similar to yours. Of course, you have not plagiarized anything from
that publication; however, if and when you publish your work, people will be
suspicious of your authenticity. They will ask further about the significance of
repeating similar research. In short, you could have utilized the time, money, and
other resources you have wasted on your research on something else. Had you
prepared a literature review at the onset of your research, you could have easily
avoided such mishap. During the compilation of your review, you could have
noticed how someone else has done similar research on your topic. By knowing
this fact, you can tailor or tweak your own research in such a way that it is not a
mere rehashing of someone else’s original or old idea.

3. It Sharpens Your Research Focus

As you assemble outside sources, you will condense, evaluate, synthesize, and
paraphrase the gist of outside sources in your own words. Through this process of
winnowing, you will be able to place the relevance of your research in the larger
context of what others researchers have already done on your topic in the past
(See Reference 1).

The literature review will help you compare and contrast what you are doing in
the historical context of the research as well as how your research is different or
original from what others have done, helping you rationalize why you need to do
this particular research (See Reference 2).

Perhaps you are using a new or different research method which has not been
available before, allowing you to collect the data more accurately or conduct an
experiment that is more precise and exact thanks to many innovations of modern
technology. Thus, it is essential in helping you shape and guide your research in
the direction you may not have thought of by offering insights and different
perspectives on the research topic.
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Q3. What are different types of literature review?

Depending on your area of specialization, a literature review can take various

forms: argumentative review, integrative review, historical review,
methodological review, systematic review, and theoretical review (See Reference
1).

An argumentative review is written to present an opposing view to a given

position. This will be valuable to persuade others to join you in supporting your
thesis.

An integrative review is composed of examinations and critical analysis on a given

topic to introduce a need for a new research. For example, you can use it on the
spreading of a pandemic plague, arguing how the old methods of gathering and
analyzing the data were inadequate and how modern technology, such as DNA
analysis, will help make the same research more accurate.

Similarly, a historical review will assess all the historical records of scholarship
chronologically while methodological review examines the research methods
alone—collection of data, their critical analysis, interpretation, and research
results, for example.

A literature review in any field is essential as it offers a comprehensive overview

and recapitulation on the given scholarship from past to present, giving the
reader a sense of focus as to which direction your new research is headed (See
Reference 3).

Q4. What are different benefits of conducting literature review?

While there might be many reasons for conducting a literature review, following
are four key outcomes of doing the review.

Assessment of the current state of research on a topic. This is probably the most
obvious value of the literature review. Once a researcher has determined an area
to work with for a research project, a search of relevant information sources will
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
help determine what is already known about the topic and how extensively the
topic has already been researched.

Identification of the experts on a particular topic. One of the additional benefits

derived from doing the literature review is that it will quickly reveal which
researchers have written the most on a particular topic and are, therefore,
probably the experts on the topic. Someone who has written twenty articles on a
topic or on related topics is more than likely more knowledgeable than someone
who has written a single article. This same writer will likely turn up as a reference
in most of the other articles written on the same topic. From the number of
articles written by the author and the number of times the writer has been cited
by other authors, a researcher will be able to assume that the particular author is
an expert in the area and, thus, a key resource for consultation in the current
research to be undertaken.

Identification of key questions about a topic that need further research. In many
cases a researcher may discover new angles that need further exploration by
reviewing what has already been written on a topic. For example, research may
suggest that listening to music while studying might lead to better retention of
ideas, but the research might not have assessed whether a particular style of
music is more beneficial than another. A researcher who is interested in pursuing
this topic would then do well to follow up existing studies with a new study, based
on previous research that tries to identify which styles of music are most
beneficial to retention.

Determination of methodologies used in past studies of the same or similar

topics. It is often useful to review the types of studies that previous researchers
have launched as a means of determining what approaches might be of most
benefit in further developing a topic. By the same token, a review of previously
conducted studies might lend itself to researchers determining a new angle for
approaching research.

Upon completion of the literature review, a researcher should have a solid

foundation of knowledge in the area and a good feel for the direction any new
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
research should take. Should any additional questions arise during the course of
the research, the researcher will know which experts to consult in order to quickly
clear up those questions.

Q5. What are different uses/purposes of literature review?

The purpose of a literature review is to:

Provide foundation of knowledge on topic

Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other
researchers

Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open

questions left from other research

Identify need for additional research (justifying your research)

Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and to
other works

Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a case for
why further study is needed.
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Methods Section

Q1. What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative approaches?

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or

confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish
generalizable facts about a topic.

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as

numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts,

thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth
insights on topics that are not well understood.

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions,

observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and
theories.

The differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect

and analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research
questions.

Qualitative versus quantitative research

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and

formulating a theory or hypothesis

Analyzed through math and statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing,

categorizing and interpreting
 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables Mainly expressed in words

Requires many respondents Requires few respondents

Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions

Key terms: Key terms:

testing, measurement, objectivity, replicability understanding, context,

complexity, subjectivity

Q2. How to analyze qualitative and quantitative data?

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but

has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The
method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical

analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are
often reported in graphs and tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

Average scores

The number of times a particular answer was given

The correlation or causation between two or more variables

The reliability and validity of the results

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of

text, images or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

 Research Methods
Muhammad Nadeem Anwar (Assistant Professor of English)
Government Graduate College of Science, Wahdat Road Lahore
Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of
words or phrases

Thematic analysis: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and
patterns

Discourse analysis: Studying how communication works in social contexts.