SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY

SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.

Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Clinical and counseling psychology are interrelated.
POINTERS TO REVIEW They tackled almost the same problems and use the same
I. Introduction to Psychology
I. Biology and Psychology
II. Sensation and Perception methods but differ in degree of severity.
1 INTRODUCTON TO PSYCHOLOGY III. Social Psychology
Psychology • How the behavior of a person or a group influences the
 Scientific study of behavior and mental processes behavior of another person or group.
 Goal • How people learn attitude and emotions, skills, actions,
 To describe, new perceptions, new ways of speaking and of living
 explain, with others.
 Predict, and control • These behaviors are learned through interaction,
2 Types of Behavior communication and interpersonal relationships.
1) Overt behavior- can be observed or seen by others. • How social contexts shape thinking and behavior.
2) Covert behavior- can be observed or seen only by IV. Developmental Psychology
the person performing it. • How human being grows and changes from conception
Theory to death.
 Allows one to: • Domains of development; physical and motor,
 Propose reasons for relationships among events intellectual, personal, emotional, moral and social.
 Derive explanations • Sequences and rate of maturation, size and ability in
 Make predictions relation to age.
 Psychological theories combine statements about V. Personality Psychology
behavior, mental processes, and biological • Studies human differences, factors that make the
processes. differences and development.
Fields of Psychology • Understanding of personality is based on many
• Clinical • Counseling perspectives; psychoanalytic, social learning, behavioral,
• School • Educational humanistic, cognitive.
• Developmental • Personality VI. Industrial/Organizational Psychology
• Social • Environmental • behavior of workers at working places; industries,
• Experimental • Industrial companies, institutions or at any working situation.
• Organizational • Human factors • various aspects of behavior in relation to work interest,
• Consumer • Health efficiency, satisfaction, diligence and commitment
• Forensic • Sport leading to maximum production and profit.
Fields of Psychology • causes of low production as related to human behavior.
• Psychology is divided in to many branches. • workers’ level of motivation, morale, working
• Divisions are caused by differences of: schedules, working routines as related to their attitudes
 Methods and values.
 Aspects of behavior to be studied VII. Experimental Psychology
 Objectives • studies basic causes of behavior, biological and social,
 Interest that cut across different species.
 training and background of psychologist. • formulate theories that can be applied in other
Fields of Psychology situations.
I. Clinical Psychology VIII. Physiological Psychology
• It deals with behavior problems, emotional disorders • It studies biological basis of behavior, the function of
and behavior that indicate that the person is abnormal. the body and behavior. Example the causes of anger,
• Employs Psychotherapy- a procedure of treating brain and memory, secretion of hormones and emotional
abnormal behavior using interview techniques. arousal, genes and behavior patterns.
II. Counseling Psychology IX. Educational Psychology
• It deals with helping people to make decision about • is an applied branch of psychology because it applies
life; knowledge of general psychology in teaching and
work, education or marriage. This is applied in learning.
institutions, schools or in society. • Every branch of psychology contributes something in
Educational psychology.
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
1
Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Understanding the scope of other branches of • Accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition
psychology is important for the teacher. Psychoanalysis
• Founded by Sigmund Freud
• Theory of personality
• Proposes that people’s lives are influenced by
Ancient Contributors to Psychology unconscious ideas
 Aristotle
 Democritus
 Socrates • Method of psychotherapy
Psychology as a Laboratory Science • Helps patients gain insight
• Gustav Theodor Fechner • Seeks socially acceptable ways to express wishes and
- Published Elements of Psychophysics (1860) gratify needs
• Wilhelm Wundt Biological Perspective
- Established the first psychological laboratory • Seeks relationships between:
(1879) • Brain, hormones, heredity, and
Structuralism evolution
• Founded by Wilhelm Wundt • Behavior and mental processes
• Breaks conscious experiences • Charles Darwin
into objective sensations, • Most adaptive organism manages
subjective feelings, and mental to mature and reproduce
images Cognitive Perspective
• Belief – Mind functions by • Looks at mental processes to understand human nature
combining objective and • Studies those things that are referred to as the mind
subjective elements of Humanistic–Existential Perspective
experience. • Humanism - Stresses on human capacity for self-
Functionalism fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and
• Founded by William James decision making
• Focused on behavior in • Existentialism - Stresses on free choice and holds
addition to the mind or people responsible for the choices made
consciousness. • Based on the works of Carl Rogers and Abraham
• Used direct observations to Maslow
supplement introspection Psychodynamic Perspective
• Influenced by Darwin’s theory • Neoanalysts - Contemporary psychologists
of evolution who follow theories derived from Freud
• Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained • Famous psychologists include Karen Horney and Erik
Behaviorism Erikson
• Founded by John Broadus Watson - Focus more on conscious choice and self- direction
• Focus is on learning observable behaviors than unconscious processes
• Observable behaviors – Behaviors observable by Perspectives on Learning
specialized instruments • Behaviorist view
• B. F. Skinner believed that learned behavior is behavior • Learning occurs through learning histories, situations,
that is reinforced and rewards and not through conscious choice
• Reinforcement: Stimulus that follows a response and Social–cognitive theorists
increases the frequency of the response • Suggest that :
Gestalt Psychology - People modify and create their environment
• Founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and - Cognition plays a key role
Wolfgang Köhler - People engage in intentional
• Focuses on perception and its influence on thinking and learning through observation
problem solving Sociocultural Perspective
• Perceptions are more than the sum • Focuses on the influence of
of their parts ethnicity, gender, culture, and
• Learning is active and purposeful socioeconomic status on
behavior and mental processes
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Ethnicity • Blind study
• Members of an ethnic group share cultural heritage, - Placebos are administered on the participants
race, language, or history • Double-blind study
Sociocultural Perspective - Participants and observers are unaware of who is
• Gender: Culturally defined concepts of masculinity and taking a drug and who is taking a placebo
Ethics of Research with Humans

femininity
• Involves cultural expectations and social roles • Ethics review committee and ethical standards:
Steps Involved in the Scientific Method - Review proposed studies according to ethical
• Formulate a research question guidelines before granting approval
• State the hypothesis - Weigh the potential benefits of research against the
• Test the hypothesis potential harm
• Draw conclusions based on findings - Individuals need to provide informed consent before
• Apply critical thinking participation
- Do not confuse correlation with cause and effect - Records of research participants and clients are kept
- Consider the selection factor in correlations confidential
Samples and Populations • According to the APA’s ethical standards,
• Sample psychologists may use deception when:
• Segment of population • They believe the benefits of the research outweigh its
• Population harm
• Complete group of interest • They believe the individuals might have been willing to
•Representative samples allow generalization of findings participate
Random and Stratified Sampling if they had understood the benefits of the research
• Random sample • Participants are debriefed later
- Each member of a population has an equal chance of • Animals are used when research cannot be carried out
selection with humans
• Stratified sample • Animals may be harmed only when:
- Subgroups are represented proportionally • There is no alternative
• Problem in generalizing from research • Benefits of the research justify the harm
- Volunteer bias: Bias represented by studying Principles of Critical Thinking
people who volunteer to participate • Be skeptical
Methods of Observation • Insist on evidence
• Case studies • Examine definitions of terms
- Clinical studies • Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments
- Sometimes used to investigate rarities • Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence
• Surveys • Consider alternative interpretations of research
- Used to collect information that cannot be observed evidence
directly or studied experimentally • Do not oversimplify
• Naturalistic observation • Do not overgeneralize
- Observe subjects in their natural environment • Apply critical thinking to all areas of life
- Unobtrusive measure SUMMARY
Correlation • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
• Follows observation mental processes
• Correlation coefficient • The earliest known contributors to psychology were
- Expresses strength and direction of the relationship Aristotle, Democritus, and Socrates
between variables • There are several broad and influential perspectives in
• Suggests, but does not prove, cause and effect psychology
Experimental Method • Ethics review committees check for any potential harm
• Demonstrates cause and effect through in research methods
scientific method with the help of: 2 BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY
- Independent and dependent variables Neurons
- Experimental and control groups
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
- Specialized cells of the nervous system that receive and • Have unique chemical structures and fit into specific
pass messages receptor sites
- Vary according to function and location • Loose neurotransmitters are either broken down or
- Include a cell body, an axon, and dendrites reabsorbed by the axon terminal (reuptake)
- Maturation of an individual lengthens axons and • Excitatory and inhibitory functions determine whether
proliferates the dendrites and terminals a neuron will fire
Glial cells • Excite - Cause other neurons to fire
- Remove dead neurons and waste products • Inhibit - Prevent other neurons from firing
• Involved in physical processes and psychological
processes
- Nourish and insulate neurons
- Form myelin and play a role in neuraltransmission of • Excess or deficiency is linked to psychological
messages disorders
- Increase with the development of the nervous system Types of Neurotransmitters
Myelin I. Acetylcholine
- Fat that insulates the axon from electrically charged II. Dopamine
atoms, or ions III. Norepinephrine
- Minimizes leakage of the electrical current IV. Serotonin
THE ANATOMY OF A NEURON V. Gammaaminobutyric acid
VI. Endorphins
Effects of Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Controls muscle contractions
• Affected by curare (a plant) and botulism (a disease)
- Cause paralysis
• Prevalent in the hippocampus
• Decrease of ACh in the brain impairs learning and
memory formation LO 1
• Dopamine
• Affects the ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary
Types of Neurons movement, and learning and memory
 Afferent neurons • Deficiencies are linked to Parkinson’s disease
- Transmit messages from sensory receptors to the • Norepinephrine: Excitatory neurotransmitter that
spinal cord and brain increases heart rate
- Known as sensory neurons • Involved in general arousal, learning and memory, and
 Efferent neurons eating
• Transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to • Excesses and deficiencies are linked to mood
muscles and glands disorders (e.g., depression) and impairment in memory
• Known as motor neurons formation
FIRING • Serotonin: Involved in emotional arousal and sleep
• Deficiencies are linked to eating disorders,
Synapse: Consists of: alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
• Axon terminal from the • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
transmitting neuron, • Inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm
dendrite, or the body of a anxiety reactions
receiving neuron • Deficiency is also linked to depression
• Fluid-filled gap • Endorphins
(synaptic cleft) between • Inhibit pain and increase sense of competence
the axon and the dendrite • Enhance the functioning of the immune system
THE DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neurotransmitters
• Chemical substances
• Present in the synaptic vesicles of axon terminals

SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023

Structures and Functions of the Brain

• Hindbrain
• Medulla- regulation of heartbeat, blood pressure,
movement, and respiration
• Pons- transmits information about body movement and
is involved in respiration, attention, and sleep and
arousal

Branches of Peripheral Nervous System • Cerebellum- muscle coordination and balance

• Somatic nervous system • Reticular formation
• Messages received from the brain and spinal cord • involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
control purposeful body movements • Lower part is within the hindbrain
• Autonomic nervous system • Sends messages to the cerebral cortex when
• Regulates the glands and muscles of internal organs stimulated
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions have • Makes one alert to sensory information
largely opposing effects • Forebrain
- Effects can be averaged out to some degree when • Thalamus: Relay station for sensory stimulation
stimulated simultaneously • Hypothalamus: Regulates body temperature,
Central Nervous System concentration of fluid, storage of nutrients, motivation,
• Brain and emotion
- True core of the nervous system - Involved in hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, caring for
- “Command center” of the nervous system offspring, and aggression
- Make • Limbic system
• Spinal cord - Amygdala: Connected with aggression, fear, vigilance,
- Transmits messages from sensory receptors to the emotions, learning, and memory
brain and from the brain to muscles and glands • Midbrain
• Spinal reflex • is the topmost part of the brainstem, the connection
- Involves only a sensory neuron and a motor neuron in central between the brain and the spinal cord
most instances (Queensland Brain Institute, n.d.)
- Neural impulse is transmitted by interneurons from the • important functions in motor movement, particularly
sensory neuron through the spinal cord to the motor movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual
neuron in some reflexes processing (Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia,
• Spinal cord and brain contain gray matter and white 2020)
matter THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
- Gray matter: Consists of non-myelinated neurons
- White matter: Consists of myelinated axons
Research on the Functions of the Brain
• Electroencephalograph (EEG)
• Helps record the natural electrical activity of the brain
• Detects brain waves that pass between the electrodes
THE PARTS OF THE BRAIN
•

Cerebrum: Responsible for thinking and language

• Cerebral cortex: Surface of the cerebrum
- Wrinkled or convoluted with ridges and valleys
(fissures)
- Connected with cognitive abilities
• Corpus callosum
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
5
Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
- Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum created - Gland is signaled to stop when the right amount of a
by fissures hormone has been secreted
The Cerebral Cortex Pituitary Gland
• Outer layer of the cerebrum • Lies below the hypothalamus
• Involved in bodily activities, sensations, and • the “master gland”
perceptions • Secretes hormones that regulate the functioning of
• Hemispheres - Left and right lobes other glands
• Occipital lobe deals with vision • Growth hormone, prolactin, vasopressin, and oxytocin
• Temporal lobe deals with hearing and auditory • Hypothalamus regulates pituitary activity
functions Pineal Gland
• Parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex • Secretes melatonin that:
• Regulates sleep-wake cycle
• May affect the onset of puberty
• Frontal lobe contains the motor cortex • Connected with aging • Acts as a mild sedative
Language Functions
• Brain hemispheres mirror and differ in function
• Left hemisphere contains language functions for nearly Thyroid Gland
all right-handed people • Produces thyroxin that affects the body’s metabolism.
• If damaged before the age of 13, speech functions can • Variation in levels can lead to:
transfer to the right hemisphere - Hypothyroidism
• Key language areas - Hyperthyroidism
• Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area - Cretinism
- Damage in either causes aphasia Adrenal Glands
Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas of the Cerebral • Located above the kidneys
Cortex • Comprise an outer layer (cortex) and an inner core
(medulla)
• Cortical steroids (corticosteroids)
• Secreted by the adrenal cortex
• Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
norepinephrine to cope with threatening situations
• Epinephrine has emotional and physical effects
Testes and Ovaries
• Testosterone
• Produced by the testes (produced in small amounts by
• Wernicke’s the adrenal gland)
area • Enables development of male sex characteristics
• Lies in the temporal lobe • Estrogen and progesterone
• Wernicke’s aphasia: Impairs the ability to • Produced by the ovaries along with small amounts of
comprehend speech and to think of words to express testosterone
one's thoughts Steroids, Behavior, and Mental Processes
Broca’s area • Steroids
• Located in the frontal lobe • Increase muscle mass
• Influences speech • Heighten resistance to stress
• Broca’s aphasia: One is able to understand language • Increase the body’s energy supply
but speaks slowly and laboriously • Anabolic steroids:
Endocrine System • Enhance athletic prowess
• Comprises ductless glands that release hormones into • Outlawed in sports
the bloodstream • Connected with self-confidence and aggressiveness
• Hormones Evolutionary Psychology
- Regulate growth, metabolism, and some behaviors • Studies the ways in which adaptation and natural
- Maintain steady bodily states selection are connected with mental processes and
- Negative feedback loop behavior

SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Behavior patterns evolve and can be transmitted - To form an inner representation of the world
genetically from generation to generation Psychophysics - Fechner
• Behavior patterns are called instinctive or species- • This is the study of the relationship between the
specific behaviors physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological
• Instinct experience of them.
• Stereotyped patterns of behavior that are triggered in a Six Major Human Senses:
specific situation • Vision
• Species-specific • Hearing
- Resists modification or results in punishment • Balance
Heredity, Genetics, and Behavioral Genetics • Taste
• Heredity • Olfaction (smell)
• Biological transmission of traits from parent to • Touch
offspring through genes Absolute Threshold
• Genetics • Weakest level of a stimulus necessary to produce a
• Subfield of biology that studies heredity • Behavioral sensation. The minimal amount of energy that can
genetics - Focuses on the contributions of genes to produce a sensation.
• Detected 50% of the time

behavior • Some people are more sensitive than others

Genes and Chromosomes • The same person might have a slightly different
• Gene response at different times
• Basic unit of heredity Absolute Threshold
• Regulates the development of specific traits • Pitch - The highness or lowness of a sound, as
• Chromosomes determined by the frequency of the sound waves
• Made up of strings of genes • Measures of absolute thresholds for human senses:
• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) • Vision - A candle flame viewed from about 30 miles
• Formed by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) on a clear, dark night
- Double helix - Contains the genetic code • Hearing - A watch ticking from about 20 feet away in
Genes and Chromosomes a quiet room
• Some traits are determined by a single pair of genes • Taste - 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved in 2 gallons of
• Other traits are polygenic water
• Genotype • Smell - About one drop of perfume diffused throughout
• Individual's genetic makeup (nature) a small house (1 part in 500 million)
• Phenotype • Touch - The pressure of the wing of a fly falling on a
• Actual appearance, based on genotype and cheek from a distance of about 0.4 inch
environmental influences (nature and nurture) Subliminal Stimulation
Chromosomes • Sensory stimulation that is below a person’s absolute
• One receives 23 chromosomes from each parent threshold for conscious perception
• 23rd pair of chromosomes are sex chromosomes • Perception is called subliminal perception
• XX - Female • Visual stimuli flashed too briefly can be processed
• XY - Male • Auditory stimuli can be played:
3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION - At a volume too low to consciously hear
Sensation and Perception - Backward
• Sensation Behaviorist John B. Watson was a pioneer in
• Stimulation of sensory receptors located in the sense associating
organs appealing stimuli with products, as auto ads frequently
• Transmission of sensory information to the central associate attractive women with cars.
nervous Difference Threshold
system • Minimum difference in magnitude of two stimuli
• Activation of one’s sense organs. required to tell them apart
• Perception • Detected 50% of the time
• Active process by which sensations are organized and • Weber’s constant
interpreted
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Fraction denoting the difference threshold for • Afterimage: Persistent sensations of color that are
perceiving followed by perception of the complementary color
differences in the intensity of energy when the first color is removed
• Just noticeable difference (jnd) Theories of Color Vision
• Minimum difference in stimuli that can be detected Trichromatic theory
Signal–Detection Theory • Three types of cones that are selectively sensitive to
• Factors that determine one’s perception of sensory red, green, and blue light help in color vision
stimuli or signals Opponent-process theory
• Signal intensity or difference between signals • Three types of color receptors that selectively respond
• Degree to which the signal can be distinguished from to red-green, blue-yellow, and difference in brightness
background noise help in color vision
Feature Detectors Color Blindness
• Neurons that respond to particular features Trichromats
• Visual - Respond to lines, color, textures, & movement • Have normal color vision
• Auditory - Respond to pitch and loudness • Sensitive to red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark
Sensory Adaptation Monochromats
• Sensitization (positive adaptation) • Are totally color-blind
• One becomes more sensitive to stimuli of low • Sensitive only to lightness and darkness
magnitude Dichromats
• Have partial color blindness
• Discriminate between two colors (red–green or blue–
• Desensitization (negative adaptation) yellow)
• One becomes less sensitive to stimuli of the same
intensity Visual Perception
Light • Process used to organize sensory impressions caused
• Spectrum of electromagnetic energy by the light that strikes one’s eyes
• Varies in wavelength • Active process
- Cosmic rays are only trillionths of an inch long • Involves knowledge, expectations, and motivations
- Radio waves can extend for miles • Sensation is a mechanical process
• Within visible light, color is determined by wavelength Perceptual Organization
- Wavelength of visible light determines its hue • Integration of bits of sensory stimulation into
Visual Acuity meaningful wholes
• Connected to the shape of the eye • Figure–ground perception
• Nearsighted people have to be close to an object to • Ambiguous relationships lead to unstable perceptions
discriminate its details Gestalt Rules for Perceptual Organization
• Farsighted people face difficulty in focusing on nearby  Proximity
objects  Similarity
• Presbyopia  Continuity
• Makes it difficult to perceive nearby visual stimuli  Common fate
Light Adaptation  Closure
• Dark adaptation: Process of adjusting to lower Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Processing
lighting Top-down processing
• Cones reach maximum adaptation in approximately 10 • Use of contextual information or knowledge of a
minutes pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern
• Rods continue to adapt up to 45 minutes Bottom-up processing
Perceptual Dimensions of Color • Organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or
• Hue (color) is determined by the wavelength of light form an image of, the pattern they compose
• Value - Degree of brightness or darkness Perception of Motion
• Saturation - Intensity of color perceived • Visual perception of motion is based on change of
• Colors have psychological associations within cultural position relative to other objects
settings • Illusions of movement have been studied by
psychologists
• Example - Stroboscopic motion
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
Depth Perception Parts of the Ear
• Monocular cues: Create the illusion of depth, • Outer ear
perceived by one eye • Funnels sound waves to the eardrum, which vibrates in
• Perspective response
• Relative size to sound waves
• Clearness • Middle ear
• Overlapping • Contains the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup
• Shadowing • Acts as an amplifier
• Texture gradient • Oval window and round window work in conjunction,
• Motion parallax which balance the pressure in the inner ear
• Binocular cues: Involve both eyes and help perceive • Inner ear
depth • Oval window transmits vibrations into the cochlea
• Types include retinal disparity and convergence - Basilar membrane lies coiled within the cochlea
Perceptual Constancies - Organ of Corti is attached to the basilar membrane
• Acquired through experience and creates stability • Neural impulses created by movement of hair cells are
• Size constancy transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve
• Color constancy Locating Sounds
• Brightness constancy • Loudness and the sequence in which sounds reach the
• Shape constancy ears provide directional cues
Sound • One may turn his or her head to locate the sound
• Sound waves require a medium, such as air Perception of Loudness and Pitch
or water, to travel • Related to number of receptor neurons on the organ of
Corti that fire and the firing frequency
• Compressing and expanding the molecules ofthe
medium create pressures or vibrations
- One cycle of compression and expansion is one wave • Sounds are perceived as louder when more sensory
of sound neurons fire
• Human ear is sensitive to sound waves with • Place theory
frequencies of 20 to 20,000 cycles per second • Pitch is sensed according to the place along the
Pitch and Loudness basilar membrane that vibrates in response
• Pitch • Frequency theory
• Determined by a sound’s frequency • Frequency of the sound waves needs to match with
- Frequency - Number of cycles per second expressed in one’s neural impulses in order to perceive lower pitches
hertz (Hz) • Volley principle
• Greater the frequency, the higher the pitch of the • Pitch is discriminated through alternate firing of
sound neurons
• Loudness Deafness
• Height (amplitude) of sound waves • Conductive deafness
- Frequency and amplitude are independent • Due to damage of the middle ear
• Expressed in decibels (dB) • Hearing aids can help
iPods and Hearing • Sensorineural deafness
• 60-60 rule • Due to damage of the structures of the inner ear or
• People should listen at no more than 60% of full auditory nerve
volume for no more than 60 minutes per day - Cochlear implants may help but cannot adopt auditory
- To prevent hearing loss nerve functions
• iPod oblivion Smell
• Listeners pay less attention to their environments when • Contributes to the flavor of foods
they are listening to music • Odors are sample molecules of substances in the air
The Ear • Trigger firing of receptor neurons in the olfactory
• Shaped and structured to: membrane
• Capture sound waves • Sensory information about odors is sent to the brain
• Vibrate in sympathy with the waves through the olfactory nerve
• Transmit auditory information to the brain Taste
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23
SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
SECTION: BS PSYCH 1-Y1-5 PREPARED BY: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Professor: MA’AM ROSAN VELASQUEZ DATE: SEPTEMBER 24, 2023
• Sensed through taste cells • Rubbing the pained areas competes for neural
• Taste cells: Receptor neurons on taste buds attention
• Taste qualities - Prevents many nerves from transmitting pain messages
• Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter to the brain
• Umami (fifth basic taste) - Savory Acupuncture
• Flavor of food depends on odor, texture, temperature, • Ancient Chinese method of pain control
and taste • Research shows it stimulates nerves to the
• Some people have superior taste sensitivity than others hypothalamus releasing endorphins and cortisol
Touch and Pressure - Endorphins are similar in structure and effect to
• Sensory receptors within the skin fire when the surface morphine
is touched Kinesthesis
• Active touching - Continuous movement of one’s hand • Kinesthesis: Informs one about the position and
along the surface of an object motion of parts of the body
- Receives information about pressure, texture, • Sensory information is sent to the brain from sensory
temperature, and organs in joints, tendons, and muscles
feedback from the muscles • Vestibular Sense
• Some areas of the body are more sensitive • Informs the brain as to whether one is physically
• Nerve endings are more densely packed upright
• More sensory cortex is devoted to the perception of • Sensory organs in the semicircular canals and other
sensations parts of ears monitor motion and position of the body in
Temperature relation to gravity
• Receptors are located beneath the skin Extrasensory Perception - ESP
• When skin temperature increases, the receptors for • Parapsychological or psi phenomena
warmth fire • Perception through means other than sensory organs
- Precognition
• When skin temperature decreases, the receptors for
cold fire
• Sensations of temperature are relative - Psychokinesis
Pain - Telepathy
• Results when nociceptors in the skin are stimulated - Clairvoyance
• Sharply felt where nerve endings are densely packed • Psi communication - Transfer of information through
• Can be felt deep within the body an irregular or unusual process
• No nerve endings for pain in the brain Existence of ESP
• Originates at the point of contact • Skepticism
• Prostaglandins • File-drawer problem- Researchers are less likely to
• Transmission of the pain message to the brain is report results showing failure
facilitated
• Circulation to injured area is heightened and causes
inflammation
• Production is inhibited by pain-relieving drugs
• Emotional response and response to stress affect the
degree of pain
Phantom Limb Pain
• Reported by two out of three combat veterans with
amputated limbs
• May involve activation of nerves in the stump of
missing limb
• May undergo reorganization of motor and
somatosensory cortex that is consistent with the pain
Gate Theory of Pain
• Nervous system can process only a limited amount of
stimulation at a time

SUBJECT: INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Prepared by: PASTORFIDE, GABRIELLA KIM V.
Date: 09/24/23