Class 10 Chemistry Book .Q, A

New Chemistry Numerical Notes Class 10 ME English Center
Chapter# 1: Chemical Equilibrium

Law of Mass action and derivation of expression for equilibrium constant
Example 1:
For the reaction of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur trioxide, the balanced reversible
reaction is:
According to low of mass action
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [SO2]2 [O2]
Rate of reversereaction: Rr= kr [SO3]2
The expression for equilibrium constant Kc is:
Equilibrium constant and its units

Numerical 01:
Equilibrium occurs when nitrogen monoxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form nitrogen
dioxide gas.
At equilibrium at 230°C, the concentrations are measured to be: [NO] = 0.0542 mol. dm³,
[O2]= 0.127 mol.dm-3, and [NO2]= 15.5mol.dm-3. Calculate the equilibrium constant at this
temperature.
Solution:
Given equilibrium concentrations of reactants and product are:
[NO]= 0.0542 mol.dm-3
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[O2]= 0.127 mol.dm-3
[NO2]= 15.5 mol.dm-3
Write equilibrium expression as:
Now put equilibrium concentration values in equilibrium constant expression
Kc= 6.44x105 mol-1 dm³
Numerical 02:
A reaction takes place between iron ion and chloride ion as:
At equilibrium, the concentrations are measured to be (Fe +3) is 0.2mol.dm-3, CI- is

0.28mol.dm-3 and FeCl-4 is 0.95x10-4 mol.dm-3. Calculate equilibrium constant Kc for given
reaction.
Solution:
Given equilibrium concentrations of reactants and product are:
[Fe+3] = 0.2 mol.dm-3
[CI-] = 0.28 mol.dm-3
[FeCl4-]= 0.95×10-4 mol.dm-3
Write equilibrium expression as:
Now put equilibrium concentration values in equilibrium constant expression
Kc= 7.72x10-2 mol-4dm12
Numerical 03:
Nitrogen oxides are air pollutants produced by the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen at high
temperature. At 2000 °C, the value of the equilibrium constant for the given reaction is
4.1 x 10-4
Find the concentration of NO in an equilibrium mixture at 1 atm pressure at 2000°C. In air,

[N2]= 0.036 mol/L and [O2] = 0.0089 mol/L
Solution:
We are given all of the equilibrium concentrations except that of NO. Thus, we can solve for the
missing equilibrium concentration by rearranging the equation for the equilibrium constant.
Taking square root on both the sides, we have
√*NO+²= √(4.1 x 10 mol/L) (0.036 mol/L) (0.0089 mol/L)
[NO]=3.6×10-4 mol/L
SECTION B. SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Define chemical equilibrium with example.
Ans) Dynamic equilibrium: When the concentrations of reactants and products become
equal, this state is called dynamic equilibrium.
Example: An example of a reaction at equilibrium is a reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a close

container to produce hydrogen iodide. At the start of the reaction there is a high concentration
of hydrogen and iodine and, after that the concentration decreases as hydrogen iodide.
The concentration of hydrogen iodide increases as the forward reaction proceeds. As hydrogen
iodide is formed, the reverse reaction is then able to occur.
Hydrogen-iodine equilibrium system
So, there is no observable changes although both forward and reverse reactions are occurring.
The reaction has not stopped but reached dynamic equilibrium.
2. Why chemical equilibrium is dynamic?
Ans) Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature because, reactants change into products and
products change into reactants even after equilibrium is achieved. But rate of forward and
backward reactions are same.
3. When writing an equation, how is a reversible reaction distinguished from irreversible

reaction?
Ans) We use single arrow in equation of irreversible reaction and use double arrow in equation
of reversible reaction.
4. Write an equilibrium equation of monoatomic carbon and a molecule of oxygen as reactant

and carbon monoxide as product.
Ans) 2C + O2 ⇌ 2CO
5. Outline the characteristics of reversible reaction.
Ans) Important characteristics of equilibrium constant expression are as follows:

1. Kc only works in equilibrium.
2. It represents the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and product in mol.dm -3.
3. Kc is independent of reactant and product concentrations.
4. Kc varies with temperature.
5. Kc is a balanced chemical equation coefficient. In a balanced chemical equation, each
reactant and product has a concentration equal to its coefficient.
6. Distinguished between reversible and irreversible reaction.
Ans)
REVERSIBLE REACTION IRREVERSIBLE REACTION
It can be reversed under suitable conditions. It cannot be reversed.
Both forward and backward reactions take It is unidirectional. It proceeds only in forward
place simultaneously. direction.
It attains equilibrium. Equilibrium is not attained.
The reactants cannot be converted completely The reactants can be completely converted
into products. into products.
It is relatively slow. It is fast.
7. State law of mass action. How is the active mass is represented?
Ans) Statement: The rate at which a substance reacts is directly proportional to its active
mass and the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the product of the active masses of
the reacting substances. The law of mass action also suggests that the ratio of the reactant
concentration and the product concentration is constant at a state of chemical equilibrium.
Representation of active mass: It is represented by square brackets.
8. Why equilibrium constant may or may not have unit? Justify with example.
Ans)
No unit: An equal number of moles on both sides of the equation has no unit in Kc.
Having unit:
For reactions when number of moles of reactants and products are not equal, Kc has a unit. Let
us consider the following reaction:
9. How direction of a reaction can be predicted if Kc is known to you?
Ans) By comparing its value with reaction quotient Qc the direction of a reaction can be
predicted.
10. Write equilibrium constant expression for the following equations:
i) N₂ +2O2 ⇌ 2NO₂
Ans)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [N₂] [O2]2
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NO2]2
Kc=
ii) N₂ +3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

Ans)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [N₂] [H2]3
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NH3]2
Kc=
iii) H₂+ Br₂ ⇌ 2HBr

Ans)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [H₂] [Br2]
Rate of reversereaction: Rr= kr [HBr]2
Kc= [ ]
SECTION-C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:

1. Describe dynamic equilibrium with two examples.
Ans) Dynamic equilibrium: When the concentrations of reactants and products become
equal, this state is called dynamic equilibrium.
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction
Explanation: In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the completion

of reaction. The rate of both forward and reverse reaction becomes equal upon reaching the
equilibrium point. The following graph which is of concentration vs. time, shows that the
concentrations of both reactants and products becomes constant at equilibrium.
Example 1: An example of a reaction at equilibrium is a reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a

close container to produce hydrogen iodide. At the start of the reaction there is a high
concentration of hydrogen and iodine and, after that the concentration decreases as hydrogen
iodide.
The concentration of hydrogen iodide increases as the forward reaction proceeds. As hydrogen
iodide is formed, the reverse reaction is then able to occur.
Hydrogen-iodine equilibrium system
So, there is no observable changes although both forward and reverse reactions are occurring.
The reaction has not stopped but reached dynamic equilibrium.
Example 2: The reaction, NaCI(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq), will be in dynamic equilibrium when the
rate of the dissolution of the NaCl equals the rate of recrystallization.
2. State law of mass action. Derive an expression for equilibrium constant.
Ans)
Law of Mass Action
Statement:
The rate at which a substance reacts is directly proportional to its active mass and the rate of a
reaction is directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the reacting substances.
The law of mass action also suggests that the ratio of the reactant concentration and the
product concentration is constant at a state of chemical equilibrium.
Derivation of expression for equilibrium constant: Let us apply law of mass action on a
hypothetical reversible reaction.
First let us discussed forward reaction, where A and B are reactants, whereas 'a' and 'b' are
number of moles needed to balance a chemical equation. The rate of forward reaction
according to law of mass action is:
Where kf is the rate constant for forward reaction.
Likewise, rate of reverse reaction is directly proportional to product of molar concentrations of

C and D whereas 'c' and 'd' are number of moles needed to balance a chemical reaction.
Where kr is the rate constant for reverse reaction. You know it equilibrium rate of forward and
reverse reaction becomes equal. So,
Putting the values of Rf and Rr, we have
By taking constants on L.H.S and variables on R.H.S, we have
Where Kc is called equilibrium constant.

Hence proven that the law of mass action describes the relation between active masses of
reactants and products with rate of reaction. All the reversible reactions can be expressed in
this form.
3. Describe the characteristics of equilibrium constant.
Ans) Characteristics of Equilibrium Constant :

Important characteristics of equilibrium constant expression are as follows:
1. Kc only works in equilibrium.
2. It represents the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and product in mol.dm -3.
3. Kc is independent of reactant and product concentrations.
4. Kc varies with temperature.
5. Kc is a balanced chemical equation coefficient. In a balanced chemical equation, each
reactant and product has a concentration equal to its coefficient.
6. Kc represents equilibrium position. If Kc is larger than 1, the reaction is forward. If Kc is
less than 1, the reaction is a reverse reaction.
7. Remember that equilibrium constant Kc is a ratio of reactant to product that is utilized
to define chemical behaviour.
4. How can you predict the following stages of a reaction by comparing the values of Kc and
Qc.
i) Net reaction proceeds in forward direction.
Ans) If Qc < Kc then there is increase in product concentration for equilibrium. So the
forward reaction occurs, forming additional products.
ii) Net reaction proceeds in reverse direction.
Ans) If Qc > Kc, there is decrease in product concentration and to achieve equilibrium.
As, the process reverses, forming more reactants.
5. Predict which system at equilibrium will contain maximum amount of product and which
system will contain maximum amount of reactant?
Ans)
a) This system at equilibrium will contain maximum amount of reactant, because value of Kc is
very small.
b) This system at equilibrium will contain maximum amount of product, because value of Kc is
very large.
SECTION D: Numerical
1. Dinitrogen tetra oxide N2O4, decomposed into nitrogen dioxide NO2 in a reversible
reaction. Derive equilibrium constant expression for the reaction of decomposition. Also
interpret unit of Kc for balanced chemical reversible reaction.
Data:
To find:
Derive equilibrium constant expression= ?
Interpret unit of Kc= ?
Solution:
Balanced chemical reversible reaction is
N2O4 ⇌ 2NO2
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [N2O4]
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NO2]2
Kc=
Unit of Kc:
Kc=
Kc= mol.dm-3
2. PCI5, PCI3, and Cl2, are at equilibrium at 500K in a closed container and their concentrations
are 0.8 x 10-3 mol dm-3, 1.2 x 10-3 mol dm-3 and 1.2 x 10-3 mol dm-3 respectively. Calculate
the value of Kc for the reaction along with unit.
Data:
Given:
[PCI5]= 0.8 x 10-3 mol dm-3
[PCI3]= 1.2 x 10-3 mol dm-3
[Cl2]= 1.2 x 10-3 mol dm-3
To find:
The value of Kc= ?
Solution:
Balanced chemical reversible reaction is
PCI5 ⇌ PCI3 + Cl2
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [PCI5]
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [PCI3] [Cl2]
Kc=
( )
Kc=
Kc= 1.8 x 10-3 mol dm-3
3. The value of Kc for the reaction is 1x10-4
At a given temperature, the molar concentration of reaction mixture is HI = 2x10 -5 mol dm-3,
H2=1x10-5 mol dm-3 and I2= 1x10-5 mol dm-3.
Predict the direction of the reaction.
Data:
Given:
Kc= 1x10-4
[HI] = 2x10-5 mol dm-3
[H2]=1x10-5 mol dm-3
[I2]= 1x10-5 mol dm-3
To find:
Predict the direction of the reaction= ?
Solution:
The expression for reaction quotient Qc is:
Qc=
( )
Qc=
Qc= 4
Since Qc > Kc
Therefore, the direction of the reaction is reverse.
Test Yourself
1. Write down forward and reverse reactions for the following.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO (g)
Ans)
Forward reaction:
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2NO (g)
Reverse reaction:
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)
2SO2 (g) + O2(g)⇌ 2SO3 (g)
Forward reaction:
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g)
Reverse reaction:
2SO2 (g) + O2(g)  2SO3 (g)
COCl2 (g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2 (g)
Forward reaction:
COCl2 (g)  CO(g) + Cl2 (g)
Reverse reaction:
COCl2 (g)  CO(g) + Cl2 (g)
Figure out coefficients for given hypothetical reaction.

9 (g)+Y3(g) ⇌ 3X3Y(g)
Ans)
Species Coefficients
X 9
Y3 1
X 3Y 3
Write down Kc equation for given reactions.
S(s)+O2(g) ⇌ SO2(g)
Ans)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [S] [O2]
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [SO2]
Kc=
SO2(g)+NO2(g) ⇌ NO(g)+SO3(g)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [SO2] [NO2]
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NO] [SO3]
Kc=
NH4Cl(s) ⇌ NH3(g) + HCl(l)
Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [NH4Cl]
Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NH3] [HCl]
Kc=
The value of Kc for the following reaction at 717 K is 48.

H2(g) +I2(g) ⇌ 2HI
At a particular instant, the concentration of H2, I2 and HI are found to be 0.2 mol L-1, 0.2 mol L-
1
and 0.6 mol L-1 respectively. Calculate reaction quotient for given reaction. Also predict
direction of reaction.
Data:
Given:
Kc= 48
[HI] = 0.6 mol L-1
[H2]= 0.2 mol L-1
[I2]= 0.2 mol L-1
To find:
Predict the direction of the reaction= ?
Solution:
The expression for reaction quotient Qc is:
Qc=
( )
Qc=
Qc= 9
Since Qc < Kc
Therefore, the direction of the reaction is forward.
Chapter#2: Acid ,Base and Salt

Concept of pH and pOH
Example 1:
A solution of HCl has pH of 2.3: calculate its pOH and [H+]?
Solution:
pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 14 –pH
pOH = 14 - 2.3,
pOH = 11.7
pH = -log [H+],
10x = [H+],
10-pH = [H+],
[H+] = 10-2.3
Example 2:
Find pH, pOH, [OH-] and [H+] of 2.46 x 10-9 M KOH solution?
Solution:
[2.46 x 10-9]
[OH-]= 2.46 x 10-9
[H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14
[H+] =
[H+]=
[H+]= 4.07 x 10-6

pH = -log [H+]
pH = -log [4.07 x 10-6]
pH= 5.39
pH+ pOH = 14
pOH = 14 – pH
pOH= 14 - 5.39
pOH = 8.61
SECTION- B: SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the properties of acid and base.
Ans)
Properties of acid:
1. Turn blue litmus red.

2. Taste sour.
3. Acids corrode metals.
4. Positively charged hydrogen ions (H+).
Properties of base:
1. Turn red litmus blue.

2. Taste bitter.
3. Negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-).
4. Feel slippery.
2. Elaborate the Arrhenius concept of acid and base with suitable example.
Ans) Arrhenius theory of acids and bases (1880s)
Statement: According to this theory, the acids are those substances that produce Hydrogen (H +)
ions when dissolved in water (e.g.HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH, HCN) and bases are those substances
that produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water (e.g. NaOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2).
Example:
Acid:
Base:
3. What is Bronsted-lowery acid-base theory?
Ans) Statement: According to this theory any substance behaves as an acid when it donates a
proton (H+) to a base and any substance which accepts a proton, it behaves like a base, so acids
are proton donor and bases are proton acceptors they both react with water to produce
hydronium ions (H3O+).
4. What are conjugate acid base pairs? Explain with examples.
Ans) Conjugate acid base pairs: Conjugate acid-base pair refers to the pair of compounds that
differ by a proton.
Example: Conjugated acid base pairs are given below.
5. Classify the following solutions as acidic, basic or neutral.
A solution that has [H+]=1x10-4 mol. dm-3
Ans) Acidic
A solution that has [H+]=1x10 -11mol. dm-3
Ans) Basic
A solution that has [OH-]=1x10-9 mol. dm-3
Ans) Acidic
A solution that has [OH-]=1x10-3 mol. dm-3
Ans) Basic
6. Elaborate the ionization equation of water.
Ans) The water is a neutral liquid which possesses equal number of hydrogen (H+) and
hydroxide ion (OH-) due to this pure water is considered as a weak electrolyte. It ionize
according to the following reaction.
The equilibrium constant Kc of water is given by,
As we know that ionization of water is very small so the concentration is approximately

unchanged and considered as constant (Kw) so, equation will be
Where Kw is ionic product constant of water and its value is 1×10-14 (mol.dm-3)2
7. Define the following terms;

(a) pH
Ans) A measurement of the concentration of Hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
(b) Indicator:
Ans) Chemical indicator is any substance that gives a visible sign, usually by a colour change,
of the presence or absence of a threshold concentration of a chemical species.
(c) Neutralization:
Ans) Neutralization is the reaction of an acid and a base, which forms water and a salt.
8. Define buffers. What is the composition of buffers? Discuss its importance in our daily life.
Ans)
Buffer
Definition: A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of acidic or basic
components. It is able to neutralize all amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining the pH
of the solution relatively stable.
Composition: Buffers do so by being composed of certain pairs of solutes: either a weak acid
plus a salt derived from that weak acid or a weak base plus a salt of that weak base.
Importance in our daily life: Buffers are important because they resist sudden changes in the
pH of body fluids of living organisms.
1. Describe salts, preparation of salts and types of salts.
Ans)
Salts
Definition: Salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation (from base) and an anion (from
acid).
Examples: NaCl,CuCl2 etc
Preparation of salts:
1. Salts are produced by the action of acids on metals, metal oxides, metal
carbonates and metal bi carbonates.
2. Salts are produced by the action of a base with an acid or a metal with the base.
Types of salts
(i) Acidic salt

Definition: Acidic salts are those salts which are distinctly acidic in nature they produce acidic
solution when dissolved in water.
Having pH: Such salt solutions have pH less than 7.
Example: NH4Cl, Ca(NO3)2, NaHSO4, NH2 PO4.
(ii) Basic salt

Definition: Basic salts are those salts which are distinctly basic in nature they produce alkaline
solution when dissolved in water.
Having pH: Such salt solutions have pH more than 7.
Example: CH3COONa, K2CO3, Na2CO3- ,KCN.
(iii) Neutral salt

Definition: Neutral salts are those salts which are formed by the complete
neutralization of a strong base and strong acid.
Having pH: Such salts are neutral with pH 7.
Example: NaCl, KCl, K2SO4, NaNO3
2. Explain in detail that how water ionization is related with pH of solution?
Ans)
Increase in pH with ionization of water: When a solution is dissolved in water, water
ionizes into H+ and OH- ions. If this solution has more negative ions, they will react with H+ ions,
resulting in deficiency of H+ and more OH- ions than H+ ions due to which water’s pH increases
and basicity increases.
Decrease in pH with ionization of water: On the other hand, if this solution has more
positive ions, they will react with OH- ions, resulting in deficiency of OH- and more H+ ions than
OH- ions due to which water’s pH decreases and acidity increases.
3. Discuss in detail how different solutions in aqueous system exhibit increase in acidity and
increase in basicity on the basis of H+ and OH-?
Ans) Increase in acidity: If the solution is acidic then it will increase the acidity in aqueous
system by releasing H+ ions.
Increase in basicity: If the solution is basic then it will increase the basicity in aqueous
system by releasing OH-ions.
4. What do you mean by balancing of neutralization reaction with the help of examples?
Ans) Balancing of neutralization reaction: The balancing of a neutralization involves the

equal consumption of H+ and OH- in aqueous solution due to this we have to look the acidity of
base and basicity of acid in balancing equation.
Examples: For example, in chemical equation of neutralization of sodium hydroxide and

hydrochloric acid is as follows.
NaOH and HCl are neutralizing each other in ratio 1:1, because one mole of
NaOH releases 1 mole of OH- and one mole of HCl releases one mole of H-.
Similarly, NaOH or KOH when reacted with HBr, HI,HNO3 shows ratio of 1:1.
5. Write down the uses of salt in daily life.
Ans)
Uses of salt in daily life:
1. Most of the chemical fertilizers used in agriculture by farmers are salts. For example:
ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, potassium chloride
and nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) fertilizers.
2. Certain salts are used as pesticides to kill or destroy insects, pests, weeds and fungi. For
example: Copper (II) sulphate, Iron (II) sulphate and mercury chloride.
3. In medical field hydrated calcium sulphate, CaSO4.2H2O is found in plaster of Paris. It is
used to make plaster casts for supporting broken bones.
4. Patients suffering from anemia use iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate, FeSO 4.7H2O is an
ingredient in 'iron pills' as food supplement.
5. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is an ingredient in anti-acids. This salt can neutralize the
excess acid secreted by the stomach.
6. Barium sulphate is used to make barium meals for patients who need to take an X-ray of
their stomach . The salt helps to make internal soft organs like intestines appear on X-
Ray films.
7. Potassium per manganate (VII) can kill bacteria and hence is suitable for use as a
disinfectant.
SECTION- D: Numerical
1. Calculate pH of 5M solution of NaOH.
Data:
Given:
Concentration of solution of NaOH= 5M
To find:
pH= ?
Solution:
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
[5]
[OH-]= 5
[H+] [OH-]= 1 x 10-14
[H+]=
[H+]=
[H+]= 2 x 10-15
pH = -log [H+]
pH = -log [2 x 10-15]
pH= 14.6989
2. A solution of H2SO4, has pH of 1.05 calculate its pOH and [H+].
Data:
Given:
pH= 1.05
To find:
pOH= ?
[H+]= ?
Solution:
pH+ pOH = 14
pOH = 14 – pH
pOH= 14 – 1.05
pOH = 12.95
pH= -log[H+]
-pH= log[H+]
Antilog -pH= [H+]
[H+]= Antilog -1.05
[H+]= 0.089
3. The hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is 1x10-8 mol. dm-3 .What is pH of the
solution?
Data:
Given:
[H+]= 1x10-8
To find:
pH= ?
Solution:
pH = -log [H+]
pH = -log [1x10-8]
pH= 8
Chapter 3: Organic Chemistry

SECTION- B SHORT QUESTIONS
(i) Define Vital Force Theory.
Ans) It states "Organic compounds can only be formed in the tissues of living
organisms (plants and animals) and cannot be synthesized from inorganic substances in the
laboratory".
(ii) Explain how petroleum is source of organic compounds?
Ans) Organic compounds are mostly derived from petroleum. It is made up of a variety of
substances, the majority of which are hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation is used to separate
these chemicals. Each fraction contains single chemical compound, rather than multiple
components.
(iii) Define the functional group. Write the functional groups which contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.
Ans) Functional group: A functional group is defined as an atom or group of atoms whose
existence in an organic compound gives distinctive qualities to that compound.
Functional groups having Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen:

(i) Alcoholic group:
(ii) Ether linkage:
(iii) Aldehydic group:
(iv) Ketonic group:
(v) Carboxyl Group:
(vi) Easter linkage:
(iv) Define the alkyl radicals with suitable examples.
Ans) Alkyl radicals: Alkyl radicals are alkane derivatives. They are created by removing one of
an alkanes hydrogen atoms.
Examples:
Methyl:
CH3 -
Ethyl:
C2H5 -
(v)What is homologous series? Name the some common homologous series.
Ans) Homologous series: A homologous series is a family of hydrocarbons with similar

chemical properties who share the same general formula.
Examples: Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
(vi) Identify the functional groups in the following compounds.
(a) CH3-CHO
Ans) Aldehydic group.
(b) CH3-CH2-CH3-OH
Ans) Alcoholic group
(c) CH3-CO-CH3
Ans) Ketonic group
(d) CH3-COOH
Ans) Carboxyl group
(e) CH2=CH-CH2
Ans) Double bond
(vii) Write the condensed and structural formulae of the pentane and octane.
Ans)
Pentane
Condensed formula:
CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 3
Structural formula:
Octane
Condensed formula:
CH3(CH2)6CH3
Structural formula:
(viii) What is catenation? Give any two examples of catenation of carbon atoms.
Ans) Catenation: Catenation is the capacity of atoms to build long chains and huge rings by
linking with other similar atoms.
Example 1:
C2H6
Example 2:
C3H8
SECTION-C: DETAILED QUESTIONS
(i) Give the important characteristics of organic compounds.
Ans)
(i) Source: Organic compounds are obtained from living things (animals and plants) and
minerals.
(ii) Composition: Carbon is the key element in all organic compound. After carbon, the most
frequently used element is hydrogen. Organic compounds may also contain halogens, oxygen,
sulphur,nitrogen, and phosphorus elements. Organic compounds contain both types of
covalent bonds-polar and non polar bonds.
(iii) Solubility: According to like dissolve like rule, organic compounds are insoluble in water
but soluble in inorganic solvents. Non-polar organic compounds are soluble in benzene, carbon
disulphide, ether etc and polar compounds are soluble in alcohols.
(iv) Melting and boiling points: As covalent bond is weaker than ionic bond, so
organic compounds have lower melting and boiling points.
(v) Rate of Reactivity: The rate of reactivity of organic compound is very slow and need
specific conditions.
(vi) Electrical Conductivity: Generally, organic compounds are nonconductors of
electricity because they consist of covalent molecules.
(vii) Combustion: All organic compounds are more combustible and burn in air due to high
percentage of carbon. The common product produced in all cases is carbon dioxide.
(viii) Stability: Organic compounds are less stable on a high temperature as compared to
inorganic compounds.
(ii) Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Ans)
Saturated hydrocarbon Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons contain carbon Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-
carbon single bond. carbon double and triple bonds.
The valancies of all carbon atoms are The valancies of all carbon atoms are
fully satisfied through single bond. fully satisfied through double and triple bond.
Saturated hydrocarbons have a less Unsaturated hydrocarbons have a less
amount of carbon and high amount of amount of hydrogen and high amount of
hydrogen. carbon as compared to saturated
hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons are less reactive. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are more
reactive.
They burn with blue and non sooty flame in They burn with yellow and sooty flame in air.
air.
The compounds of saturated hydrocarbon The compounds of unsaturated
are alkanes. hydrocarbon are alkenes and alkynes.
Alkenes are represented by general The general formula of alkenes and
formula CnH2n+2. alkynes are CnH2n and CnH2n-2.
Examples of alkanes are Examples of alkenes are ethene (CH3=CH3) and
ethane (CH3 - CH3) ethyne (CH≡CH)
propane (CH3 - CH2 - CH3)
(iii) What are the main sources of organic compound? Mention with special reference of
coal,petroleum and natural gas.
Ans) There are two main sources of organic compounds namely living things and minerals.
Coal: Coal is made up of a variety of hydrocarbons. It is an important source of solid fossil fuels
for us. Coal is said to have developed in nature 500 million years ago from the remains of trees
buried deep inside the soil. It was turned to peat as a result of bacterial and chemical processes
on the wood. Peat was then converted into coal as a result of high temperature and pressure
within the Earth's crust. Natural carbonization is the process of converting wood into coal.
Wood has a carbon content of 40%. Four varieties of coal are created depending on the degree
of carbonization.
Petroleum: Petroleum is a thick dark brownish or greenish black liquid. It's a complicated
combination of solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons, together with water, salts and earth
particles. Organic compounds are mostly derived from petroleum. It is made up of a variety of
substances, the majority of which are hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation is used to separate
these chemicals. Each fraction contains single chemical compound, rather than multiple
components.
Natural gas: It's a mixture of hydrocarbons with low molecular weight. Methane, together
with other gases such as ethane, propane, and butane, makes up around 85% of the mixture. It
has a similar origin to coal and petroleum. As a result, it is discovered with their deposits.
Natural gas is utilized as a fuel in both household and industries. Compressed natural gas (CNG)
is utilized as a fuel in cars. Carbon black and fertilizers are also made from natural gas.
(iv) Describe the uses of organic compound.
Ans)
Uses of organic compounds
1. Uses as food: The foods we eat on a daily basis, such as milk, eggs, meat, vegetables,
and so on, are all organic and contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and so
on.
2. Uses as clothing: Natural (cotton, silk, wool, etc) and synthetic (polyester, nylon, etc)
fibres are used in all forms of clothing (we wear, we use as bed sheets, etc). All of these
substances are made up of organic components.
3. Uses as a house: Wood is made mostly of cellulose (naturally synthesized organic
compound). It's used to build anything from buildings to furnishings.
4. Uses as fuel: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are the fuels we use in our cars and in
our homes. These are referred to as fossil fuels. These are all organic compounds.
5. Medical Applications: We employ a significant variety of organic compounds (naturally
generated by plants) as medications. Antibiotics (which suppress or kill bacteria that
cause infectious illness) and other life-saving medications and treatments are
manufactured in laboratories.
6. As a row material: Organic compounds are used to make a wide variety of products,
including rubber, paper, ink, pharmaceuticals, dyes, paints, varnishes, insecticides, and
more.
(v) Name the alkenes and alkynes having the following following formula.
(i) C2H4
Ans) Ethene
(ii) C3H4
Ans) Propyne
(iii) C3H6
Ans) Propene
(iv) C6H12
Ans) Hexen
(v) C5H8
Ans) Pentyne
(vi) C8H16
Ans) Octane
(vii) C7H12
Ans) Heptyne
(viii) C6H10
Ans) Hexyne
(v) Define nomenclature and describe the I.U.PA.C nomenclature rules for alkynes.
Ans) The body or system of names used in science or other discipline.
Rules for naming alkynes:
1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms, which must include both triple
bonded carbon atoms.
2. Regardless of alkyl radical, the longest chain of carbon atoms is numbered from the end
closest to the carbon-carbon triple bond.
3.The number of the carbon atom with the lowest value indicates the position of the triple
bond.
4. By changing the suffix "ane" of the matching alkane to "yne", the triple bond in the
compound is indicated.
5.When there are two or more triple bonds in the chain, the prefixes di,tri and so on are added
before the suffix "yne" with its position.
6.When both double and triple bonds are present at same locations in a chain of molecule, the
double bond is given priority in the numbering.
7. When there are both double and triple bonds at various places in a chain, the numbering
begins at the end where the double or triple bond is closest.
(vi) What do you mean by diversity and magnitude of organic compounds?
Ans)
Diversity and magnitude of organic compound
More than 10 million organic compounds exist. This amount is significantly more than the total
number of compounds formed by other elements. The following factors contribute to the
existence of such a great number of organic compounds:
1.Catenation: Catenation is the capacity of atoms to build long chains and huge rings by linking
with other similar atoms.
There are two main criteria for an element to show catenation.

1.The element should have a valancy of two or more.
2.An element's bonds with its own atoms should be stronger than the element's bonds with
other atoms, particularly oxygen. Although both silicon and carbon have comparable electronic
structures, carbon exhibits more catenation where as silicon exhibits very less. The reason for
this is that C-C bonds are substantially stronger (355 kJ mol-1) than Si-Si bonds (200 kJ mol-1).
Si-O bonds, on the other hand, a more stronger (452 kJ mol-1) than C-O bonds (351 kJ mol-1).
2. Isomerism: Isomerism is the existence of molecules that have the same numbers of the same
kinds of atoms and hence the same molecular formula but different structural formula.
 Isomerism increases the number of structures that may be expressed; for
example, the chemical formula of pentane (C5H12) can be represented by three
distinct structures.
The number of isomers increase as the number of carbon atoms in a chemical formula
increases.
3. Carbon's covalent bond strength: Because of its tiny size, carbon can make
extremely strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
halogens. This allows it to make a vast number of different compounds.
4. Multiple bonding: Carbon may form multiple bonds in order to meet its tetravalency (i.e.,
double and triple bonds). This increases the number of structures that can be built. A single
covalent bond connects two carbons in ethane, a double covalent bond connects two carbons
in ethylene, and a triple covalent bond connects two carbons in acetylene. By multiple bonding
we have three different compounds.
Chapter 4: Biochemistry
SECTION- B: SHORT QUESTIONS:
(i) What are the proteins?
Ans) The polymers of amino acids are called proteins.
(ii) Define the importance of deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA).
Ans)
The importance of deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA):

1. In the nucleus of a cell, DNA is the permanent storage side for genetic information. It
transports and stores all of the cell's genetic information.
2. It conveys these instructions on how to build certain proteins from amino acids from
generation to generation. These instructions are referred to as the "genetic code of life".
They decide whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle cell, and if an organism is a man,
a tree, or a buffalo.
3. Protein formation in new cells is determined by the sequence of nitrogenous bases in

DNA.
4. The purpose of DNA's double helix construction is to ensure that there is no disorder.
5. DNA contains genes that regulate RNA production.
(iii) Differentiate between fats and oils.
Ans)
S.No. Fats Oils

1. These are solids at ordinary room These are liquids at ordinary room
temperature. temperature.
2. They are obtained mainly from animals. They are obtained mainly from
plants.
3. These are saturated compounds. These are unsaturated compounds
4. They have high melting points. They have low melting points.
5. They increase cholesterol level in They maintain cholesterol level in body.
body
(iv) What are the polysaccharides? How monosaccharides are produced from
polysaccharides?
Ans)
Polysaccharides: These carbohydrates produce more than 10 monosaccharides on

hydrolysis, these are also called polymeric carbohydrates.
Production of monosaccharides from polysaccharides: Monosaccharides can be

produced from polysaccharides with the help of hydrolysis.
(v) What is peptide bond? How it is formed? And also explain dipeptides and tripeptides.
Ans) Peptide bond: A peptide bond, also referred to as an amide bond, is formed between
the α-nitrogen atom of one amino acid and the carbonyl carbon of a second amino acid.
Formation of peptide bond : During the condensation of amino acids, -OH (from carboxyl
group) of one amino acid and H (from amino group) of another amino acid are
combined and eliminated as water as (H2O) molecule. Thus a new linkage is formed
between two amino acid units known as peptide linkage/bond.
Dipeptide: A protein molecule is formed with two amino acids is termed as dipeptide.
Tripeptide: A protein molecule is formed with three amino acids is termed as tripeptide.
(vi) Enumerate the important uses of lipids.
Ans) Uses of lipids:
1. They act as transporter of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D,E, and K) in
body.
2. Some lipids reduce cholesterol level in body.
3. Fats and oils are used for cooking and crying of food.
4. Fats and oils are used in detergents, soaps, cosmetic, polishes and paints.
5. They activate the enzymes.
(vii) What are the amino acids and give their general structure?
Ans) Amino acids: Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. They are bi-functional
compounds and contain basic amino (-NH2) and acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) groups.
General structure: The general formula for amino acids is:
Where 'R' is the chain of carbon atoms.
(viii) What is vitamin D? Give its sources and importance
Ans)
Vitamin D
Definition: Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal
absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and many other biological effects.
Sources: Fish, milk, butter, mushrooms, and sunshine etc.
Importance: Bones, teeth (controls the metabolism of calcium and phosphorous in body).
(ix) Distinguish between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins
Ans)
Fat-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins
These are soluble in fats. These are soluble in water
These require bile salts and fats for their These are easily absorbed.
absorption.
Normally these are not excreted in urine. These have a threshold for urinary excretion.
These are generally stored in liver. These are not stored in body except
vitamin B12
These do not act as coenzymes. These act as co-enzymes.
SECTION- C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:
(i) What are the carbohydrates? Explain sources and uses of carbohydrates.
Ans)
Carbohydrates
Definition: Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living
tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose.
Sources:
Carbohydrates Sources
Monosacchrides Grapes, honey, guava, molasses, honey etc
Glucase
Fructose
Oligosacchrides Sugarcane, sugar beet, beet root, carrots,
Sucrose maple, pineapple etc
Lactose Milk
Maltose Wheat, barley etc
Raffinese Lemmes
Polysacchrides Cell wall of all land plants, cotton etc
Cellulose
Starch Cereal foods (Wheat, barley), potato,legumes,
Glycogen (also called animal starch) small amount in root vegetables
Liver, muscles etc
Uses:
1. They are required as an energy source for the survival of both plants and animals.
2. They sustain the structure of plants.
3. Carbohydrates, in the form of starch in plants and glucose in mammals, serve as energy
storage.
4. They keep our blood sugar levels in check.
5. Sucrose is a food additive. It's found in confectionaries, condensed milk, canned fruits,
jams and jellies, among other things.
6. Carbohydrate fibre helps in cholesterol reduction and blood pressure regulation.
7. Carbohydrates coexist with a variety of proteins and lipids in biosystems.
8. Celluloses provide food its bulk and fibre. It promotes peristalsis in the intestine.
9. Cellulose is used as a raw material in a variety of industries, including textiles and paper.
10. Starch is used to improve the writing characteristics of paper by coating and sizing it.
11. Starch is utilized in the production of ethanol and in laundries.
(ii) What are lipids? Write down the sources and uses of lipids.
Ans) Lipids
Definition: A group of naturally occurring heterogeneous organic compounds which
includes fats, oils, waxes and are insoluble in water but easily soluble in Bloor's reagent
(mixture of diethyl and ethyl alcohol in the ratio of 2:1) and organic solvents like ether,
benzene, acetone, carbon tetra chloride and chloroform.
Sources:
Animals: Marine animals like Salmon and whales are rich sources of lipids. Butter,
ghee, cheese are obtained from animals.
Plants: Sunflower, coconut, ground nuts, cotton seed, olive are important plant sources
of lipids.
Uses:
1. They act as transporter of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D,E, and K) in
body.
2. Some lipids reduce cholesterol level in body.
3. Fats and oils are used for cooking and crying of food.
4. Fats and oils are used in detergents, soaps, cosmetic, polishes and paints.
5. They activate the enzymes.
6. Animal fats are found in adipose tissue cells. Animals secrete milk from which butter
and ghee is obtained. Butter and ghee are used for cooking and frying of food, for
preparing bakery products and sweets.
(iii) Describe vitamins and types of vitamins.
Ans)
Vitamins
Definition: Any of a group of organic compounds which are essential for normal growth
and nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet. Because they cannot be
synthesized by the body.
Types of vitamins: On the basis of solubility, there are two types of vitamins.
1. Water soluble vitamins
2. Fat soluble vitamins
Water soluble vitamins

Definition: Those vitamins which are soluble in water are called water soluble vitamins.
Example: Generally, vitamin B (complex) and vitamin C are water soluble vitamins.
Source: These vitamins are obtained from cereals and fruits.
Properties:
1. These vitamins are not stored in body.
2. If we take these vitamins in excess, they cannot harm us.
3. These vitamins are easily excreted from our body.
Fat soluble vitamins

Definition: Those vitamins which are soluble in fats and organic solvents are called fat
soluble vitamins.
Example: Vitamins A, D (sunshine vitamin), E and K are fat soluble vitamins.
Source: These vitamins are obtained from lipids.
Properties:
1. They are stored in the body for long period of time.
2. If we take over doses of vitamins, they may harm us and cause diseases. For
example, excess of vitamin A causes irritation and headache, vitamin D calcification and
pain in bones, vitamin E fatigue and headache and vitamin K liver and kidney diseases.
(iv) Describe in detail nucleic acids, RNA and DNA.
Ans)
Nucleic acids
Definition: The macromolecules which are formed by the polymerization of nucleotides
(monomers) are called nucleic acid.
Composition: They contain elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
really phosphorus etc.
Existence: They generally occur in nuclei of the cells. But some nucleic acids are also
present in cytoplasm.
Properties: They are most important of all biomolecules because they store and
transmit hereditary information from parents to children. In living organisms, even single
fertilized egg carries the information for making the different organs like heart, liver,
eyes, kidneys, hands, legs, heads etc.
Nucleotide: It is the monomer of nucleic acid.

Each nucleotide is composed of:
(i) Pentose sugar
(ii) Phosphate group
(iii) Nitrogenous base (purines and pyrimidines)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Composition: It is made up of ribose sugar.
Structure: It's a molecule with only one strain
Structure of RNA
Function: DNA produces RNA in order to convey genetic information. The information
sent to RNA is received, read, decoded, and used to build new proteins. As a result,
RNA is in charge of guiding the production of new proteins.
Importance of Nucleic Acid:

1. Nucleic acid are the most vital, material for cell functioning.
2. Nucleic acids are the storage of genetic information.
3. Nucleic acid work for mutation to save the cells and body from threatening diseases.
4. Nucleic acids transfer heredity characters from one generation to another generation.
5. Nucleic acids serve as source of energy in the form of ATP.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Composition: It is made up of deoxyribose sugar.
Structure: It's a two-chained double-stranded molecule with a considerable length.

Sugar, phosphate, and a base make up each chain. The background of the chains is
made up of sugar and phosphate groups, and two chains are joined by bases.
Function:
1. In the nucleus of a cell, DNA is the permanent storage side for genetic information. It
transports and stores all of the cell's genetic information.
2. It conveys these instructions on how to build certain proteins from amino acids from
generation to generation. These instructions are referred to as the "genetic code of life".
They decide whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle cell, and if an organism is a man,
a tree, or a buffalo.
3. Protein formation in new cells is determined by the sequence of nitrogenous bases in
DNA.
4. The purpose of DNA's double helix construction is to ensure that there is no disorder.
5. DNA contains genes that regulate RNA production.
(v) How you can justify that deficiency of different types of vitamins causes diseases in
human beings.
Ans)
S.No. Vitamins Deficiency diseases
1. A Night blindness (on inability to see in dim
light), Xerophthalmia (tear glands cease
to function), dryness of skin etc.
2. B Beriberi (causes inflammation of nerves
(complex) and heart failure), Dermatitis (red and
swallen skin), loss of hairs, tongue
inflammation, inflammation of lips,
burning of eyes, thickening of skin etc
3. C Scurvy (swelling gums and opening of
(Ascorbic acid) healed wounds).
4. D Rickets (softening and weakening of
(Anthracitic vitamin) bones in children).
5. E Sterility, haemolysis (fragility of R.B.C) etc.
(Sometimes it is called fertility factor)
6. K Hemorrhage (increase blood clotting
time).
Chapter 5: Environmental Chemistry-1
Atmosphere
1. Enlist major air pollutants and their sources.
Ans)
Major air pollutants: There are two types of major air pollutants, which are following.
1. Primary air pollutants
2. Secondary air pollutants
Pollutant Sources
Carbon monoxide (CO) Emissions from automobiles.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) Emissions from automobiles.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Fossil- fuel burning.
Ozone (O3) NOx and VOCs from industrial and car
emissions.
Particulate matter Fires and smokestacks.
Lead (Pb) Metal processing, and garbage incineration.
2. Describe the effects of some air pollutants on human health?
Ans)
Pollutant Effects on human health

Carbon monoxide (CO) In healthy persons, it can increase symptoms
of cardiac disease, such as chest discomfort.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) Inflammation and irritation of the respiratory
tract.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Having trouble breathing, especially if you
have asthma or heart problems.
Ozone (O3) Lung function is impaired, and breathing
passageways are irritated and inflamed.
Particulate matter Breathing passage discomfort.
Lead (Pb) When young children are exposed, it can have
s in negative effects on numerous body
systems and can lead to learning problems.
3. What is the cause of acid rain?
Ans) As you know, burning fossil fuels releases sulphur and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. SO2 is converted to H2SO4 by rainwater, while NOx is converted to HNO2 and HNO3
by rainwater. Rainwater is somewhat acidic because it contains dissolved CO2 from the
atmosphere. It has a pH of 5.6 to 6. Rainwater, on the other hand, becomes increasingly acidic
as a result of dissolving air pollutants (acids) and its drops pH to 4.
4. Justify that Green house effect leads to global warming.
Ans) Despite the fact that CO2 is a harmful gas, its rising concentration as a result of the
combustion of fossil fuels in various human activities is concerning. CO2 in the atmosphere
works as a greenhouse's glass wall. It permits UV and IR radiations to pass through, but not the
other way around. Some of the infrared light released by the Earth is trapped by it.
As a result, higher CO2 concentration absorbs infrared radiation generated by the Earth's
surface, preventing heat energy from existing the atmosphere. It aids in preventing the surface
from cooling down at night. As CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere rises, less thermal energy
is lost from the Earth's surface. As a result, the surface's average temperature progressively
rises. This is known as greenhouse effect. This phenomenon is also
known as global warming because of the increased temperature.
5. List down the layers of atmosphere.
Ans) The Earth’s atmosphere is divided up into 5 major layers.

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere
6. Write down the effects of acid rain.
Ans)
Effects of acid rain:
1. Acid rain leaches heavy metals (Al, Hg, Pb, Cr,etc) from soil and rocks and
discharges them into rivers and lakes. Humans consume this water as a source of
drinking water. These metals build up to hazardous levels in the human body. The
aquatic life in lakes, on the other hand, suffers as a result of the high concentration of
these metals. The fish gills become clogged when there is a high concentration of
aluminium ions. It causes fish to suffocate and die as a result.
2. Acid rain eats away the calcium carbonate in marble and limestone, which is found in
many structures and monuments. As a result, these structures are becoming
increasingly drab and degraded.
3. Acid rain makes the soil more acidic. Many crops and plants are unable to thrive in
such conditions. It also raises the levels of hazardous metals in the soil, which damage
the plants. Because of the acidity of the soil, even elderly trees are impacted. Their
development is slowed. They wilt and perish as a result of the dryness.
4. Acid rain causes direct harm to tree and plant leaves, restricting their development.
Plant development may be impeded depending on the severity of the injury. Plants'
capacity to withstand cold or illnesses, and they eventually perish.
7. Justify that change in altitude change the temperature of atmosphere.
Ans) The higher the altitude the hotter is the atmosphere. Unlike the troposphere the
stratosphere gets its heat by the ozone layer absorbing radiation from the sun. As a result, it
gets warmer the further away you get from the Earth.
8. What are primary and secondary air pollutants?
Ans) Primary air pollutants: The waste or exhaust products produced by the burning of
fossil fuels and organic materials are referred to as primary pollutants. Sulphur oxides (SO2),
carbon oxide (CO2 and CO), nitrogen oxides (especially nitric oxide NO), hydrocarbons (CH4),
ammonia, and fluorine compounds are among them.
Secondary air pollutants: Primary pollutants create secondary pollutants through a variety
of processes. Sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ozone, and peroxy
acetyl nitrate (PAN) are secondary pollutants.
1. Define atmosphere and explain its composition.
Ans)
Atmosphere
Definition: The earth is surrounded by a layer of gases called the atmosphere.
Composition of atmosphere: It is made up of nitrogen (78.09%) and oxygen

(20.95%), with small amounts of argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), water vapour, and
other gases. There are lots of other gases like neon, helium, hydrogen that are part of the
atmosphere, but in much smaller amounts. Solid particulates including ash, dust, volcanic ash,
etc are also small parts of the atmosphere.
Composition of atmosphere
2. Differentiate between stratosphere and troposphere.
Ans)
S.No. Troposphere Stratosphere
1. It is the lowest point on the earth's It is the uppermost layer of the
surface. atmosphere after the troposphere.
2. It stands at a height of around 11 km It rises up to 50 km above sea level.
above sea level.
3. The troposphere makes up around The stratosphere has a far less
75% of the mass of the atmosphere. amount of atmosphere then the
troposphere.
4. As you climb higher in this phere the The temperature fluctuates somewhat
temperature drops steadily. It ranges in with height and usually the higher the
temperature from 15 °C to -56 °C. altitude the hotter it gets.
5. Ozone, which is found here, is a The presence of ozone hair shields the
polluting gas. planet from ultraviolet radiation.
6. There is a lot of movement of the air, and There is a lack of air movement in this
this area is part of an active weather area.
system.
7. Almost all planes pass through this layer. Airplanes are not permitted in this
layer.
8. N2,O2,CO2 and water vapours are the In this layer water vapours and gases
most essential gases in this phere. are quite low in quantity.
3. Describe that how different air pollutants effects environment and human health.
Ans)
Pollutant Environmental risks Human health risks
Carbon monoxide (CO) Causes the production of smog In healthy persons, it can
increase symptoms of cardiac
disease, such as chest
discomfort, it can also cause
visual difficulties and diminish
physical and mental skills.
Nitrogen axides (NO and It causes harm to the plants and Inflammation and irritation of
NO2) helps to the creation of pollution. the
respiratory tract.
Sulfur dioxide (SO) Key contributor to the creation Having trouble breathing,
of acid rain, which destroys flora, especially if you have asthma
buildings, and monuments; or heart problems.
interacts to generate particulate
matter.
Ozone (03) Interferes with certain plants' Lung function is impaired, and
capacity to breathe, making breathing passageways are
them more vulnerable to other irritated and inflamed.
environmental stresses (e.g..
disease, harsh weather)
Particulate matter Contributes to the creation of breathing passage discomfort,
haze and acid min, which alters asthma exacerbation,
the pH balance of streams and irregular heartbeat
harms vegetation, buildings, and
monuments
Lead (Pb) Biodiversity loss, reduced When young children are
reproduction, and neurological exposed, it can have negative
difficulties in vertebrates are all effects on numerous body
issues that need to be addressed. systems and can lead to
learning problems. Adults
cardiovascular consequences.
4. Describe Global Warming.
Ans)
Green House Effect (Global Warming): Despite the fact that CO2 is a harmful gas, its
rising concentration as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels in various human activities is
concerning. CO2 in the atmosphere works as a greenhouse's glass wall. It permits UV and IR
radiations to pass through, but not the other way around. Some of the infrared light released
by the Earth is trapped by it.
As a result, higher CO2 concentration absorbs infrared radiation generated by the Earth's
surface, preventing heat energy from existing the atmosphere. It aids in preventing the surface
from cooling down at night. As CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere rises, less thermal energy
is lost from the Earth's surface. As a result, the surface's average temperature progressively
rises. The quantity of CO2 in the air has a direct relation with this impact. The greater the
amount of CO2, the greater the heat trapping or warming. This phenomenon is also known as
global warming because of the increased temperature. Primary greenhouse gases in the earth
atmosphere are water vapours, CO2,CH4,N2O and ozone.
Effect of Global Warming:

1. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes an annual increase in
atmospheric temperature of roughly 0.05 degree Celsius.
2. It's producing significant shifts in weather patterns. Extreme weather events are
occurring more frequently and with more intensity than in the past.
3. It melts glaciers and snow caps, increasing the danger of flooding and intensifying
tropical cyclones.
4. As the sea level rises, low-lying regions are more likely to be submerged, rendering
previously populous places uninhabitable.
Chapter 6: Environmental Chemistry II
Water
1. Describe composition of water.
Ans)
Composition of water: Water molecule is made up of one atom of oxygen and two atoms
of hydrogen connected by covalent bond. Rainwater is considered the purest form of water
drinking. Drinking water contains ions necessary for our body i.e. Na+, Cl-, K+,Mg2+ etc.
2. Define hard and soft water.
Ans)
Hard water: Hard water is defined as water that does not leather with soap.
Soft water: Soft water is water that generates an excellent leather when used with soap. It
contains dissolved impurities but in small quantity.
3. Describe water pollutant.
Ans)
Water Pollutants: Pollutants are dumped directly or indirectly into water bodies without
proper treatment to eliminate dangerous substances, resulting in water pollution.
Industrial waste: Water used as a cleaning agent in industries, on the other hand, is released
immediately. This water is contaminated with a variety of harmful chemicals and detergents.
Household waste: Water contamination occurs when domestic water containing these
detergents is dumped into streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers.
Agricultural waste: The usage of fertilizers and pesticides causes water contamination owing to
agriculture waste.
4. How we can remove temporary hardness of water?
Ans)
Removal of temporary hardness
(a) Boiling water: A temporary hardness can be readily eliminated by boiling it. When calcium
bicarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2, is heated, it decomposes into insoluble calcium carbonate, which
precipitates out of the solution.
(b) Clark's method: The addition of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 is a chemical approach for removing
temporary hardness. Temporary hard water is treated using a determined amount of lime
water. As a result of the precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions, water becomes soft.
5. List down the diseases due to polluted drinking water.
Ans) Following are of the most frequent illnesses due to polluted drinking water.
1. Diarrheal diseases
2. Dysentery
3. Cholera
4. Cryptosporidium
5. Fluorosis
6. Hepatitis
7. Hookwarm
8. Jaundice
9. Typhoid
6. Differentiate between hard and soft water.
Ans)
Hard water Soft water
Hard water is water that has a high mineral Soft water is water having a less mineral
content. content.
Contains magnesium and calcium ions. Contains sodium ions.
Often has a characteristic taste. Tastes salty.
Formed when water flows through limestone Produced by passing hard water over an ion
and chalk. exchange resin.
Hard water is a water that does not leather Soft water is water that generates an excellent
with soap. leather when used with soap.
SECTION. C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:
1. Write down the methods for removal of permanent hardness of water.
Ans)
Removal of permanent hardness: Chemicals are the only way to get rid of permanent
hardness. Adding washing soda (Na2CO3) or sodium zeolite removes calcium (Ca2+) and
magnesium (Mg2+) as insoluble salts.
Using washing soda: Adding washing soda to the calcium and magnesium ions results in the
formation of insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates.
2. Describe the water pollutants in industries.
Ans)
Industrial waste: Industrial units are erected to create the needed substances. However, all
industrial units, sadly, release their waste (chemicals and solid materials) into the open land or
into waterways. The term for this is industrial wastewater. Organic compounds, inorganic salts,
heavy metals, mineral acids, oil and greases, and other very poisonous substances may be
found in industrial waste. Water used as a cleaning agent in industries, on the other hand, is
released immediately. This water is contaminated with a variety of harmful chemicals and
detergents.
The effects of industrial waste:

1. They degrade the quality of water.
2. They lower the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, which has an impact on
aquatic life and ecosystems.
3. They can also leak into the groundwater and influence the deposits. They pollute the
water reserves. When this water is used by humans, it causes significant illnesses such
as cancer and gastroenteritis. Soil, crops, plants and animals are all harmed by this filthy
water.
4. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and mercury are harmful to humans and pose a
health risk. Acute cadmium poisoning results in elevated blood pressure, renal damage,
and red blood cell disintegration. Kidney, liver, brain, central nervous system and
reproductive system malfunction are all symptoms of acute lead poisoning. Mercury
toxicity damages the nervous system.
3. Justify that "Water is solvent".
Ans)
Water as a solvent: Water can dissolve practically all minerals, water is known as the
universal solvent. Water's capacity to dissolve compounds is due to two distinct qualities of the
molecule:
1. Polar nature of water.
2. Extensive hydrogen bonding ability.
Polar nature of water: Water dissolves all other polar compounds because the positive end of
the substance is drawn to the water's negative end (Oδ−) and the negative end is attracted to
the water's positive end (Hδ+). The ion-dipole forces of attraction between ions and water
molecules overcome the electrostatic interactions among the ions. The positive and negative
ions of the compounds are separated in this manner. These oppositely charged ions are
eventually enveloped by water molecules, which keeps them separated in solution.
Most salts, such as NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, and others, are soluble in water. Water molecules, on the
other hand, are not attracted to numerous covalent compounds that lack polar ends or links,
such as benzene, ether, oil and petrol. Non-polar chemicals do not dissolve in water as a result.
Extensive hydrogen bonding ability: The oxygen and hydrogen atoms make up the water
molecule. One H2O molecule can create hydrogen bonds with maximum 4 additional H2O
molecules stacked tetrahedrally around the H2O molecule due to two O-H bonds and two lone
pairs. By establishing hydrogen bonds with various polar non-ionic molecules containing
hydroxyl groups (-OH), such as alcohols, organic acids, glucose, sugar, and so on, water is able
to dissolve them.
4. Describe disadvantages of hard water?
Ans)
Disadvantages of water hardness
1. Leather formation: When you wash your clothing in hard water, the soap generates a
white precipitate instead of leather. The scum is the white precipitate. Without the
development of leather, your garments will not be cleansed.
2. Stains: Hard water leaves stains on your clothes. They fade the colours of your
garments. Calcium scum also causes your garments to become rough.
Both tiles, glass and fixtures are also stained by hard water. Calcium deposits on bath
fittings may build a very difficult to remove coating if not cleaned frequently. The
cloud-like watermarks on the kitchenware are caused only by hard water.
3. Effects on hair: If you continue to wash your hair with hard water, you will continue to
have awful hair days. Your hair becomes dry and scratchy when you wash it with hard
water. This is due to the extra minerals found in hard water, which turn into a curd-like
material that adheres to your hair. As a consequence, you may feel compelled to wash
your hair, but this will just make it frizzier.
4. Effects on skin: Bathing with hard water causes your skin to become dry and irritated.
It's because the soap residue left behind adheres to your skin. Eczema-like symptoms
are caused by the remaining residue. Children are more likely to have such a problem.
5. Reduces the life of Appliances: If you continue to use hard water with your household
equipment, the lifespan of the appliances will be dramatically reduced. The appliances
steadily deteriorate due to the hard water, and they finally fail. In addition, the
presence of minerals in hard water affects the machine's performance. A dishwasher
has a ten-year expectancy. If you run it with hard water, though, the life expectancy
drops to seven years. A faucet should also run for nine years. With hard water, though,
it will only last five years.
6. Corrosion of pipes: Hard water deposits may corrode pipes as well as obstruct them. As
a result, the amount of water that can flow through the pipe is limited. And all that this
does is slow down the flow of water. Pipe corrosion can also cause metals to leak into
the water, making it unsafe to drink.
5. Explain in detail Water borne diseases.
Ans)
Water Borne diseases: Waterborne infectious illnesses are diseases that spread by drinking
dirty water or eating food prepared with polluted water.
Following are of the most frequent illnesses:

1. Diarrheal diseases: Intestinal illnesses that can lead to serious dehydration, such as
cholera. Viruses, bacteria, and parasites all can cause diarrhea.
2. Dysentery: Dysentery is a kind of gastrointestinal infection caused by bacteria or
parasites. It's characterized by severe diarrhea, which may include blood or mucus.
3. Cholera: The bacteria Vibrios cholerae, which may be found in water tainted by human
feces, causes cholera. Cholera is a disease that produces severe diarrhea and is potential
lethal.
4. Cryptosporidium: Cryptosporidiosis is a gastrointestinal ailment caused by a waterborne
microbe (protozoa) that causes diarrhea and vomiting. Surface water sources such as
reservoirs, lakes, and rivers contain these microscopic germs.
5. Fluorosis: Fluorosis is a condition caused by too much fluoride in the body. Fluorosis can
harm your bones and teeth.
6. Hepatitis: Hepatitis A, B,C,D, and E are the five viruses that often cause liver
inflammation. Viruses like hepatitis A and E can be spread through polluted water.
7. Hookwarm: Hookworm is a parasitic warm that lives in the small intestine and causes
disease. Anemia and slowed development in children can occur in severe situations.
Hookwarm larvae enter the body via the skin, most commonly through the feet.
Hookwarms which are spread by unsanitary settings, infect nearly one billion individuals
each year throughout the world.
8. Jaundice: An excess of bile pigments in the blood causes jaundice. The liver stops
working, and the eyes turn yellow. The patient is weak and tied.
9. Typhoid: A severe bacterial illness spreads often through polluted water or food cooked
with contaminated water.
Chapter 7: Analytical Chemistry

1. What do you think which method is faster classical or instrumental?
Ans) Instrumental method is faster.
2. How will you compare the analytical techniques to one another?
Ans) The analytical techniques will be compared to one another on the basis whether they are
qualitative or quantitative. Then, qualitative techniques are compared to one another on the
basis whether they are for organic compound or inorganic compound. Similarly, quantitative
techniques are compared to one another on the basis whether they use chemical methods or
physical methods and so on.
3. Con you give some examples of error related to your life?
Ans)
Example:
1. A thermometer, peppet, burette, analytical balance, and volumetric ware shows error in
measurement.
2. In acid base titration if pH indicator is not properly prepared then colour change will
appear before equivalence point or if burette is not properly cleaned or rinsed will cause
of systematic error.
3. Measuring a mass of a sample on analytical balance may produce different readings due
to effect of air or water on sample or analytical balance.
4. In acid base titration we are using 50 cm3 burette we can read accurately only to the
nearest 0.1 cm3.
4. What do you mean by quantitative Analysis?
Ans) Quantitative analysis: The determination of how much amount or quantity of one or more
substance present in compound or sample is called quantitative analysis. It deals with large
number of quantifying methods which are classified as physical or chemical.
5. Discriminate which of the following collected volumes of a gas in gas preparation is

accurate, precise or accurate and precise both or none of these?
Ans)
32 cm3 32 cm3
45 cm3 None of these 33 cm3 Precise
17 cm3 34 cm3
23 cm3 35 cm3
32 cm3 32 cm3
45 cm3 None of these 32 cm3 Accurate and precise
45 cm3 33 cm3 both
32 cm3 32 cm3
6. Why we use Potentiometric Analysis in advance instrumental methods?
Ans) Because we use an instrument i.e. voltmeter in Potentiometric Analysis.
7. How scientists are using Infrared spectroscopy in quality control of different industries?
Ans) Scientists are using Infrared spectroscopy as analytical tool in quality control of different
industries in such a way that infrared radiations are passed through the sample and resulted
spectrum is analysed.
8. List down the applications of Conductometry?
Ans)
1. Degree of dissociation constant can be determined.
2. Solubility of a sparingly soluble salt can be determined.
3. Rate constant of a reaction can be studied.
4. End point of titration can be determined.
SECTION- C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:
1. Distinguish between following:

(a) Quantitative Analysis and Qualitative Analysis
Ans)
Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis
The determination of how much amount or The identification of elements, ions or
quantity of one or more substance present in compounds present in sample is called
compound or sample is called quantitative qualitative analysis.
analysis.
Types of quantitative analysis: Types of qualitative analysis:
1. Physical method 1. Organic qualitative analysis
2. Chemical method 2. Inorganic qualitative analysis
Example: Titrimetric analysis Example: Chemical test and flame test.
(b)Titrimetric Analysis and Gravimetric Analysis
Ans)
Gravimetric Analysis Titrimetric Analysis
Gravimetric analysis is a technique that comes Titrimetric analysis is a type of quantitative
under quantitative analysis where we can analysis in which we can measure the amount
determine the weight of an unknown of an unknown compound using its volume
compound in a sample
Measuring the weight of the unknown Measuring the volume of the unknown
Usually kilograms (kg) Measuring the volume of the unknown
Precipitation reaction Redox reaction
Involves the formation of a solid mass known Done via a titration, in which the volume of
as a precipitate, which can be separated from analyte is determined by adding portions of a
the sample solution reagent that can react with the analyte
2. Prove that instrumental analytical methods are more effective than classical analytical
methods?
Ans) Compared to classical analytical methods, instrumental methods of analysis may give
improved:
 speed (they are quick)
 accuracy (they reliably identify elements and compounds)
 sensitivity (they can detect very small amounts of a substance in a small amount of
sample)
 Fast decisions in case of online analysis during manufacturing operations or deciding on

viability before taking commercial decisions.
3. Describe Gas Chromatography in detail?
Ans) Gas chromatography

Introduction: This method was introduced by John Potter Martin in 1950.
Definition: A gas chromatography is a technique used in analytical chemistry for the separation
of gases and volatile liquids.
Principle: This separation takes place by the exchange between a mobile gas phase and a liquid
or solid stationary phase.
Construction: The instruments of Gas chromatography consist of Gas cylinder, sample injector,
gas chromatograph detector, and data collection device.
Gas chromatography
Working: Gas is mobile phase and gas cylinder controls the gas passage up to sample injector,
which proceeds toward two columned gas chromatograph it is a stationary phase with uniform
temperature. When the compound reaches the detector it detects the elusion and sends signals
to data collection device (computer).
Uses: The gas chromatography used in analysis of inorganic compounds, carbohydrates,

proteins, lipids, vitamins, pollutants like benzene, plastic minerals and dairy products.
4. Justify that electrochemical methods depend upon Electrochemical Cells?
Ans)
Electrochemical method
Construction: The electrochemical analytical method is carried out with the help of
electrochemical cell which is shown in the following figure, generally it consists of electrodes
named as anode and cathode. Anode possesses negative sign due to liberation of electrons in
oxidation reaction and cathode possesses positive sign due to consumption of electrons in
reduction reaction.
The electrochemical cells consist of two half cells, both are connected with an electrode (anode
and cathode) and each electrode is dipped in electrolytic solution which is ZnSO4 at anode and
CuSO4 at cathode.
The half cells are connected by means of salt bridge (NaCl) which provides a platform for ionic
connectivity without mixing.
Electrochemical cell
Working: One of half cells loses electrons due to oxidation and other half gains electrons in
reduction process. Always remember that when equilibrium phase comes in both half cells the
net voltage becomes zero and production of electricity by cell will stop.
Chapter 8: Industrial Chemistry

SECTION B: SHORT QUESTIONS:
1. Define saponification process
Ans) Saponification: Saponification is the reaction of triglycerides with sodium or potassium

hydroxide to create glycerol and "soap", a fatty acid salt.
2. Describe that NaOH or KOH are used in preparation of soap.
Ans) Caustic soda (NaOH) causes saponification and is an essential ingredient in soap making.
When flakes or beads of sodium hydroxide get added to a liquid, it forms a lye solution. This
solution, when mixed with oils or fats, will lead to the chemical reaction called saponification.
Sodium hydroxide is employed as alkali for the saponification of soap nowadays. Soap may also
be manufactured with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali.
3. List down the raw material needed for sugar preparation.
Ans)
Materials needed for sugar preparation: The raw materials needed for the preparation
of sugar from sugarcane are as follows:
 Sugarcane beads
 Lime
 Water
4. Explain components of soft drinks.
Ans) Components of Soft drinks: Components of soft drinks are as follows

 Water
 Calcium and other minerals
 Colouring and flavoring agent
 Sugar for microbial growth
 Citric acid for sour taste
5. Define petroleum.
Ans) Petroleum: Petroleum is a natural substance in rocks beneath the Earth's crust. The
term "petroleum'' refers to rock oil.
6. Justify the petroleum is "Black Gold".
Ans) Petroleum is referred to as 'black gold' because when crude oil is extracted from the land
it is black in colour. People call it gold because of its oils and value.
SECTION- C: DETAILED QUESTIONS
1. Describe fractions of petroleum in detail.
Ans)
Fraction distilled Boiling Carbon chain Hydrocarbons Uses
from crude oil point range (°C) length present
Refinery gas -160 to -5 1- 4 Methane CH4 Home heating
Ethane C2H6 and cooking,
Propane C3H8 camping fuel
Butane C4H10
Gasoline (petrol) 40-110 5-8 Octane C8H18 Car fuel
Naphtha 110-180 8-10 Decane C10H22 Plastics
Kerosene 180-260 10-16 Dodecane Jet aircraft fuel
(paraffin) C12H26
Diesel 260-320 16-20 Hexadecane Fuels for buses
C16H34 and lorries
Fuel Oil 320-400 20-50 Eicosane Industrial
C20H42 heating
systems
Bitumen/Residue 400-600 >50 Surfacing rods
2. Explain the process of preparation of sugar from sugar cane.
Ans)
Preparation of sugar from sugarcane: The preparation of sugar from sugarcane
composed of following steps.
 Harvesting and delivery
 Juice extraction
 Clarification
 Concentration
 Crystallization
 Crystal separation and drying
Harvesting and delivery of sugarcane: Sugarcane is generally harvested in the cooler months of
the year, although it is harvested year-round in all over the Sindh. As much as two-thirds of the
world's cane crop is harvested by hands but in some countries this process is also done by
machines. Harvested cane is transported to the factory by many means and vehicles, such as
oxcarts, trucks, railway cars, or barges.
Juice extraction of sugarcane: After weighing, sugarcane is loaded by hand or crane onto a
moving table. The table carries that cane into one or two sets of revolving knives, which chop
the cane into chips in order to expose the tissue and open the cell structure, thus readying the
material for efficient extraction of the juice.
Clarification of extracted juice: Mixed juice from the extraction mills or diffuser is purified by
addition of heat, lime, and flocculation aids. The lime is a suspension of calcium hydroxide,
often in a sucrose solution, which forms a calcium saccharate compound. The heat and lime kill
enzymes in the juice and increase pH from a natural acid level of 5 – 6.5 to a neutral pH. Control
of pH is important throughout sugarcane manufacture.
Concentration of clarified juice: Steam is used to heat the first of a series of evaporators. The
juice is boiled and drawn to the next evaporator, which is heated by vapour from the first
evaporator. The process continues through the series until the clarified juice, which consists of
10-15% sucrose, is concentrated to evaporator syrup, consisting of 55 – 59% sucrose and 60 –
65% by weight total solids.
Crystallization of concentrated juice: Syrup from the evaporators is sent to vacuum pans,
where it is further evaporated, under vacuum, to super saturation. Fine seed crystals are added,
and the sugar "mother liquor" yields solid precipitate of about 50% by weight crystalline sugar.
Crystallization is a serial process and named as A molasses, B molasses, C molasses, and final
molasses which is 25% sucrose and 20% (glucose and fructose).
Crystal separation and drying: Crystals are separated in basket-type centrifuge machines.
These machines continuously break the crystals through continuous centrifuge process and a
fine jet of water is spread on the sugar pressed against the wall of the centrifugal basket,
reducing the syrup coating on each crystal. In modern factories, the washing process is quite
extensive in an effort to produce high-purity raw sugar.
3. Write down the importance of pharma industry.
Ans)
Importance of pharmaceutical industry: Importance of pharmaceutical industry is as
follows.
1.Treatments increase life expectancy: The pharmaceutical business has made a significant
contribution to the global increase in life expectancy for men and women. Pharmaceutical
improvements are said to have responsible for 73% of the entire increase in life expectancy
between 2000 and 2009 in 30 developing and high-income nations.
2.The industry strives to eradicate and eliminate diseases: When it comes to create remedies,
the ultimate objective is disease elimination, as this helps ecosystems on a worldwide scale.
Smallpox is the first - and so far only - human illnesses to be declared eliminated globally,
according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
3.Reduce pain and suffering: According to a research conducted by the World Health
Organization, people who live with chronic pain are four times more likely to have melancholy,
anxiety, and difficulties in work then those who do not. So pharmaceutical industry provides
medicines for reducing pain.
4.Vaccines save money: Vaccines not only serve to save millions of lives, but they also help to
save money. Vaccines are commonly regarded as a cost-effective public health intervention
that reduces health care costs and prevents lost productivity, hence limiting the economy's
overall impact.
5.Hospital stays are shorter: Many illnesses that used to necessitate invansive procedures and
surgery can now be addressed with medications. Patients' ability to be discharged more quickly
has relieved pressure on the healthcare system and personnel.
6.The industry employees millions of people: Pharmaceutical firms employ millions of people
across the world. Who labor in fields as diverse as scientific research, technological support,
and manufacture. Pharmaceutical enterprises demand highly trained and educated employees,
with positions ranging from administrative to Ph.D. scientists.
7. Pharmaceutical companies boost the global economy: The pharmaceutical business is a vital
asset to the global economy. Pharmaceutical businesses, on the whole, play an important role
in assisting patients and communities. They supply more than just possible cures and life-saving
treatments; they also give rewarding jobs and help to power the global economy.
4. Describe the soap preparation with the help of flow sheet diagram.
Ans) Soap preparation: Soap production is mainly done in four steps, saponification,
glycerin separation, soap purification and finishing.
Flow sheet diagram of soap preparation:
1. Saponification: Saponification is the reaction of triglycerides with sodium or potassium

hydroxide to create glycerol and "soap", a fatty acid salt. A hard soap is created when
sodium hydroxide is used. The use of potassium hydroxide produces a soft soap.
2. Glycerin separation: The mixture obtained after saponification is in the following
equilibrium.
RCOONa+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ RCOO- + Na+(aq)
If Na is added to the aquifer, the reaction is reversed to minimize Na+ according to the
+
Le Chatelier's principle. At this point, the density of the glycerol increases and the
density of the soap decreases. The soap then rises to the top and glycerin deposited on
the bottom. Glycerin is recovered from the bottom of the tank. Here the glycerin is
separated by a difference in density.
3. Soap Purification: The mixture obtained by removing glycerin further contains
impurities such as H2O, NaCl and NaOH. Therefore, in this step, the resulting mixture is
centrifuged. That is, the mixture is further rotated with the impurities at high speed in a
perforated vessel. It removes most of the water and salt that are the main product. But
the final soap product contains about NaCl 0.5% (w/w).
There may be further unreacted sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide can be removed
by neutralizing existing caustic soda by adding a weak acid such as citric acid.
4. Finishing: By cleaning the soap (the soap from the third step) is heated to a temperature
of about 120°C. Then, the soap is sprayed into a low-pressure chamber. Next, the water
in the soap particles evaporates. That is the temperature of the soap decrease by
absorbing the temperature of the soap particles. Then the soap is deposited. That is, dry
soap is produced. Dry soap is about 12% (w/w) water. Next, the evaporated water is
removed. Fragrances, fillers, pigments, preservatives, etc. are then added.
5. Draw stepwise preparation of soft drinks in flow sheet diagram.
Ans) Flow sheet diagram for soft drinks:

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New Chemistry Numerical Notes Class 10 ME English Center

Chapter# 1: Chemical Equilibrium

According to low of mass action

Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [SO2]2 [O2]

Rate of reversereaction: Rr= kr [SO3]2

The expression for equilibrium constant Kc is:

Equilibrium constant and its units

Given equilibrium concentrations of reactants and product are:

[NO]= 0.0542 mol.dm-3

[O2]= 0.127 mol.dm-3

[NO2]= 15.5 mol.dm-3

Write equilibrium expression as:

Now put equilibrium concentration values in equilibrium constant expression

Kc= 6.44x105 mol-1 dm³

At equilibrium, the concentrations are measured to be (Fe +3) is 0.2mol.dm-3, CI- is

Given equilibrium concentrations of reactants and product are:

[Fe+3] = 0.2 mol.dm-3

[CI-] = 0.28 mol.dm-3

[FeCl4-]= 0.95×10-4 mol.dm-3

Write equilibrium expression as:

Now put equilibrium concentration values in equilibrium constant expression

Kc= 7.72x10-2 mol-4dm12

Find the concentration of NO in an equilibrium mixture at 1 atm pressure at 2000°C. In air,

Taking square root on both the sides, we have

√*NO+²= √(4.1 x 10 mol/L) (0.036 mol/L) (0.0089 mol/L)

SECTION B. SHORT QUESTIONS

Example: An example of a reaction at equilibrium is a reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a close

Hydrogen-iodine equilibrium system

2. Why chemical equilibrium is dynamic?

3. When writing an equation, how is a reversible reaction distinguished from irreversible

4. Write an equilibrium equation of monoatomic carbon and a molecule of oxygen as reactant

5. Outline the characteristics of reversible reaction.

Ans) Important characteristics of equilibrium constant expression are as follows:

6. Distinguished between reversible and irreversible reaction.

7. State law of mass action. How is the active mass is represented?

Representation of active mass: It is represented by square brackets.

9. How direction of a reaction can be predicted if Kc is known to you?

10. Write equilibrium constant expression for the following equations:

Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [N₂] [O2]2

Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NO2]2

The expression for equilibrium constant Kc is:

ii) N₂ +3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

According to low of mass action

Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [N₂] [H2]3

Rate of reverse reaction: Rr= kr [NH3]2

The expression for equilibrium constant Kc is:

iii) H₂+ Br₂ ⇌ 2HBr

According to low of mass action

Rate of forward reaction: Rf= kf [H₂] [Br2]

Rate of reversereaction: Rr= kr [HBr]2

The expression for equilibrium constant Kc is:

SECTION-C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:

Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction

Explanation: In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the completion

Example 1: An example of a reaction at equilibrium is a reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a

Hydrogen-iodine equilibrium system

2. State law of mass action. Derive an expression for equilibrium constant.

Where kf is the rate constant for forward reaction.