Technological Advancements in Tunnels’ Control Systems

Dr. Wisam Farjow, The PBE Group, [email protected]

Dr. Xavier Fernando, Ryerson University, [email protected]
Lloyed Emmanuel, Ryerson University, [email protected]

Abstract - The control of complex systems is becoming increasingly difficult. It

has become a challenge to effectively maintain higher levels of safety and
productivity in tunneling and mining operations. Regardless of the type, number
and complexity of algorithms and regimes, all control systems rely on one
common factor - an effective and reliable transportation mechanism for data and
control information. Therefore, the communication network in confined spaces
is the most critical element in the operation of the control system. This is
especially true due to the limitations and complications of physical phenomena
affecting the wireless system and networks in the tunnel. This study presents
important research outcomes for novel theoretical analyses that provide
improved prediction techniques and wireless channel characterization for
reliable network coverage in tunnels and leaky feeder optimization.
Furthermore, this paper will present some of the recent advancements in a
number of key control systems that are important for tunnel operation. The
theories of operation of advanced responsible ventilation systems will be
demonstrated to highlight the roles of these control systems in ensuring safe and
cost effective ventilation control mechanisms. This paper will also present the
advancements in collision alerting systems in controlling applications aimed for
safe tunnel operations.

Index Terms—control systems, leaky feeder system, collision alert system, responsible
ventilation, underground tunnels, underground mines.

Introduction
In the past, most of the underground equipment was developed to operate by
means of human interaction. However, this trend is shifting quickly towards the
equipment which is operated by a centralized intelligent control system. These
control systems collect information from field devices using various data
communication technologies. The control systems make intelligent decisions by
applying more stringent rules to control the equipment which increases profitability
and safety. Further, intelligent and responsible control systems give a peace of mind
for the operators and it reduces the risk of human error.

If we look at mine ventilation systems, which are a part of mine control systems,
ventilation can account for 35-50% of an underground mine’s energy consumption
[1]. The best way to reduce the cost is to implement a Responsible Ventilation (RV)
system. The RV system tracks equipment and personnel in real time to ensure on-
demand ventilation and also to adjust air flow using advanced software and
electronically controlled hardware. The system also monitors airflow, air quality, and
on/off status of all related equipment. In section VI, intelligent and responsible
control systems, such as responsible ventilation, proximity alert, localization and
evacuation systems for mines and tunnels are provided.
 The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: varies types of data
communication networks for underground mines and tunnels are provided in section
II. Deploying reliable communication systems in mines and tunnels is a challenging
task due in part to the unique and difficult environments of the underground
structure and it is briefly explained in section III. A novel wireless channel model is
proposed to characterize the performance of the wireless systems in underground
mines. The new proposed model, called “Mine Segmenting Wireless Channels
Model”, is explained in section IV. Section V explains the leaky feeder
communication system optimization. Leaky Feeder systems have been a proven
technology for many decades to provide radio communications within complex
mining and tunneling facilities. Stability problems are among the challenges of
providing reliable leaky feeder communication in underground mines. To improve
the system stability, novel algorithms have been developed to provide automatic
gain and slope controls for the leaky feeder communication systems.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

LOS, Line-of-Sight; PLOS, Partial-Line-Of-Sight; NLOS, Non-Line-Of-Sight; NORCAT, Northern
Centre for Advanced Technology Inc.; BER, Bit Error Rate; GUI, Graphical User Interface; PDF,
Probability Density Function; RV, Responsible Ventilation; PAS, Proximity Alert System; SNR,
Signal to Noise Ratio.

Data Communication Networks in Confined Spaces

Reliable and effective communications is one of the most important tools used to
improve efficiency and to provide worker safety in underground environments. The
underground data communication system can be classified into three main groups:
high bandwidth applications, medium bandwidth applications and low bandwidth
applications.

Large video monitoring systems and real time machine control systems demand a
high bandwidth for operations. Fiber optic networks are typically used for high
bandwidth applications. Also, fiber optic networks support long distance
communication and immunity to EMI and RF interference.

Applications such as VoIP, Wi-Fi and PLC systems require a medium bandwidth.
Copper backbones (Ethernet LAN), wireless networks or CMTS systems are used for
this purpose.

General telemetry, system diagnostics, localization and environmental monitoring

require a low bandwidth to communicate with surface control and monitoring
systems. Underground leaky feeder systems are one of the best examples that are
used as a data backbone for these low bandwidth applications. The RS485 backbone
can also be utilized for this purpose.
 Limitations and Complications of Physical Phenomena
The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves in underground mines
are different from those in free space due to the harsh underground environment.
Physical phenomena, like severe reflection, scattering, and diffraction along the
mines’ rough walls will affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Channel
predictions are crucial for reliable and optimal wireless communication in an
underground environment [2]. Figure 1 below represents the simulated rays inside a
two dimensional mine segment with several rough sidewalls [3].

Figure 1 - 2D Simulated Segment with Rays

In this paper, we propose solutions for the followings major areas of concern for
the underground communication system: wireless channel modelling for
underground mines, and leaky feeder system optimization.

Improved prediction techniques and wireless channels

A new approach is proposed in wireless channel modeling in underground
mines/tunnels [2]. The model is generated by adopting a performance-based
approach rather than the classic coverage-based approach. This new model, called
‘‘Mine Segmenting Wireless Channel Model’’, divides the mine area into three main
segments: (1) Line-of-Sight (LOS), (2) Partial-Line-Of-Sight (PLOS), and (3) Non-Line-
Of-Sight (NLOS). The impact of topology on the performance of an 802.11b system
with Rician/Rayleigh fading is examined.

In this model, the areas confined between the transmitting and receiving nodes
are divided into a number of segments as shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2 - Mine Segmenting in Wireless Channel Model

The wireless channel in each segment can be described using different distribution
functions. This approach will form a combination of statistical models that act
together to characterize a general area or areas in a mine.

The Rayleigh Probability Density Function (PDF) represents the worst case of fading
with NLOS component in the signal. The Rayleigh distribution has a PDF given by [4]:
 r r2
 2 exp( − ) 0≤r≤∞ (1)
p Ray ( r ) =  σ 2σ 2
0 r<0

where r is the envelope amplitude of the received signal, σ is the rms value and σ2 is
the time-average power of the received signal before envelope detection. For the
Rayleigh distribution, the Mean can be obtained by [4, 5]:
π
rmean = E [r ] =
∞
rp ( r ) dr = σ = 1 . 2533 σ (2)
∫0 2
and the Mean Squared value by:
∞
E[r 2 ] = ∫ r 2 p ( r ) dr = 2σ 2 (3)
0

therefore,

E[r 2 ] (4)
σ2 =
2
The Rayleigh PDF with respect to the instantaneous Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) (γ) is
obtained by [5, 6]:
r γ
 exp( − ) 0≤r≤∞ (5)
p Ray ( r ) =  γ γ
0 r<0

When a dominant non-fading signal component is present, such as LOS propagation
path, the small-scale fading envelope is described by Rician fading distribution. The
Rician is given by [4]:
 r r 2 + A2  Ar 
 2 exp( − )I0  2  0≤r≤∞ (6)
p Ric ( r ) =  σ 2σ 2 σ 
0 r<0

where A denotes the peak amplitude of the dominant signal and Io (.) is the modified
Bessel function of the first kind and zero-order. The Rician distribution is often
described as K which is defined as the ratio between the deterministic signal power
and variance of the multipath.
A2 (7)
K =
2σ 2
The Rician PDF can be written with respect to γ as;

 2 (1 + K ) − K − (1+γK ) γ  4 K (1 + K )γ 
 e e I 0  
 0≤r≤∞ (8)
p Ric ( r ) =  γ  γ 
 r<0
 0
The aim is to develop a wireless channel model in a mine based on the
performance of wireless systems.
Therefore, we use the BER as a metric to measure the performance. The average
error probability in the presence of fading is obtained by averaging the conditional
error probability over one of the selected fading PDF [7]:
∞
pe = ∫ p e ( x | γ ) f (γ ) d γ (9)
0

where pe (x| γ ) is the conditional probability of bit error given by instantaneous

SNR(γ) and f(γ) is the PDF of a particular fading channel.

In our analysis, the wireless systems based on 802.11b standards have been
selected. These standards are diverse with four levels of possible data rates and
modulation schemes.

The BER performance over different fading channels was simulated with various
values of SNR and K. MATLAB was used for these analyses. The communication
performance of a realistic IEEE 802.11b signal is evaluated in a real underground
mine gallery (NORCAT Mine, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada) as shown in figure 3 below.
Table 1 shows the results of this experiment for the aforementioned three areas and
compares them with the theoretical results. The results are also presented
graphically in figure 4 below. For all three areas of the studied region, the
experimental results converge with the theoretical results.

Figure 3 - NORCAT Mine, Sudbury, Ontario

 Figure 4 - Comparison Analyses 802.11-b, 1 Mbps

Leaky Feeder System Optimization

Underground mines primarily use radiating (leaky) cables as the infrastructure
backbone to provide voice and data services. In-line amplifiers connected directly to
the radiating cables are used to compensate for the cable loss. By conditioning the
signals within the system, this enables the communication network inside the mines
to expand as needed. The head-end equipment and line amplifiers play a vital role in
the system performance. Various different types of communication systems have
been on the market that utilize radiating transmission lines. An inherent problem
experienced with all existing systems is the controlling of amplification gain levels of
the bi-directional signals that are present along the radiating transmission line.
Factors, such as the degree of RF signal longitudinal loss, RF interference, and
external noise sources add a large degree of uncertainty in the system, complicating
the gain control process within the amplifier. The influencing factors change
throughout the system, and therefore necessitate automatic gain control (AGC) of
the amplification units.

Detailed theoretical and mathematical simulation analyses were performed and

evaluated, to streamline the performance of control algorithms. These control
algorithms were developed to cater for automatic gain control (AGC), power
awareness, as well as remote diagnostics. Various iterations were performed,
whereby the optimal parameters that produced the best results under the worst
case scenarios were determined. The outcome of these iterations produced an
algorithm set that were robust, reliable, and able to successfully control the bi-
directional amplifier, even when exposed to unknown, non-linear and random
parameter changes. Figure 5 below shows the simulation results when applying the
Gain Estimation Errors (GEE) correction technique to the algorithm operation. The
trace in green shows the error free levels of the upstream data carrier at the output
of the amplifiers. The trace in red shows the levels of upstream data carrier when 5%
of GEE is introduced. The corrections of these levels are shown in blue. The levels are
clipped to maintain the output levels within the required dynamic range and to meet
the operating conditions of the system [8, 9].
 Figure 5 - Upstream Data Band Gain Estimation Errors (GEE) Corrections

Control Systems Important for Tunnel Operations

In sections IV and V, we proposed solutions to improve the communication
system. This section focuses on various control systems for tunnel operations. Once
the reliable communication backbone has been established between the control
equipment and field devices, the control equipment collects data from the field
devices (data acquisition). Based on the collected data, the control systems will able
to perform and consolidate tasks over various subsystems. A centralized control
system offers various advantages in optimizing system flow, automating tasks and
troubleshooting. Various examples and benefits of a unified control system are
presented in the next section.

PBE Vantage Software as a Unified Platform

PBE Vantage is PBE’s mine wide control and monitoring software solution, allowing
a single point of access for all of PBE’s safety and productivity systems. The overview
of the data management system is shown in figure 6 below. PBE Vantage is a full-
scale, centralized control system that tunnel/mine contractors can utilize to provide
real-time operational information that allows operators to quickly leverage
production data with more intelligence.

Figure 6 - PBE Vantage Data Management System

The PBE Vantage software suite provides data capture and historical
consolidations through the use of SQL, XML, OPC, SNMP, sockets and various
protocol drivers. PBE Vantage GUI can be seen in figure 7 below.
 Figure 7 - PBE Vantage GUI.

PBE Vantage contains an integral database management system that is designed

for future scalability and mobility. PBE Vantage monitors and controls systems such
as: environment monitoring, localization systems, leaky feeder communication
systems, fan management systems (RV) and other telemetry systems. PBE Vantage
can also relay logic and analog signals from third party products and provides audible
and visual warnings and alarms.

Localization
The localization system is sensor equipped tunnel/mining equipment that is used
in a large-scale underground environment, where GPS is not available. Such a system
would enable tunnel or mine operators to monitor their vehicles or personnel and
manage operations remotely, all of which would increase efficiency and safety.

PBE localization system is capable of providing the real time location of

underground equipment (personnel, vehicles and assets) with a man down safety
feature. The localization GUI is shown in figure 8 below.

Figure 8 - PBE Real-Time Localization System GUI

Tunnel Access (Entry/Exit) Monitoring

The tunnel access (entry/exit) monitoring system is used to determine who

entered and who exited the tunnel. During emergency situations, it is crucial to
know how many people are inside the tunnel for emergency evacuation and rescue
operations. The PBE Vantage software will provide the appropriate algorithms to
determine whether the assigned tag has entered or exited the tunnel. The software
will provide a visual display of this information and the electronic display can be seen
in figure 9 below.

Figure 9 - PBE Vantage Access Monitoring GUI.

Advanced Responsible Ventilation (RV) Systems

Eliminating the constant use of fans in unoccupied areas of the mine or tunnel
where personnel are not working will greatly reduce energy consumption by the
mine and lower operating costs.

The PBE Responsible Ventilation system is an advanced control system which

allows for the control of field equipment given the presence of assets in user defined
areas, specified conditions, manual activation, and scheduled appointments. The
system not only helps improve safety but also drastically reduces energy costs.

The following control strategies are incorporated into PBE’s RV system control
algorithms:
Localization
Regulates ventilation in accordance with predetermined personnel and equipment
location parameters.
Environmental Monitoring
Gas concentrations reported by environmental monitoring devices activate fans to
increase air flow and to help ensure safe levels.
Scheduled Events
Events may be scheduled to control equipment as a single occurrence or
reoccurrence.
Manual Override
Manual override provides the user complete manual control.

The graphical representation of the RV control system is shown in figure 10 below.

Figure 10 - PBE RV Control Policy

The typical usage breakdown reported by PBE Vantage software is shown in figure
11 below.

Figure 11 - Usage Breakdown Reporting

Evacuation Alert Systems

Every tunnel/mine has its own unique safety requirements depending on the
location, design and level of traffic. Having the presence of an early warning system
increases worker safety and allows them to reach the tunnel or mine exit safely.
Early warning systems should be capable of detecting the first signs of fire or
explosion and alerting workers so that they can evacuate through safe escape ways.

PBE offers various types of evacuation systems based on the customers’

requirements. A typical evacuation alert system consists of a master evacuation
station and a number of remote alarm units. The master evacuation station provides
a fully customizable evacuation user interface. Sample interfaces can be seen in
figure 12 below. An authorized operator can engage and disengage evacuation
alerts through the evacuation interface provided. The remote alarm units provide
audible and visual warnings and alarms for the underground personnel.

Figure 12 - An Example Master Evacuation Station GUI

Collision Alerting Systems

Advancements in collision detection and alerting technologies provide
considerable improvement in increasing safety in the work environment.

PBE’s proximity alert system (PAS) is designed to enhance workplace safety by

reducing the risk of collision through asset and personnel detection and warning.
The system incorporates overlapping detection technologies for redundancy and
safety in order to detect user defined heavy vehicles, light vehicles, personnel and
obstacles. The PAS system implements a vast amount of technology. Available
proximity detection technologies include: RFID, GPS, electromagnetic transceivers
(EM) and radar. Some of the PBE PAS system components, such as the personnel tag,
EM sensor and controller are shown in figure 13 below. Figure 14 below shows the
PAS screen display of alarm warning and video surveillance.

Figure 13 - PBE PAS Components

Figure 14 - PBE PAS Screen Examples

References

[1] Tanveer Jahir, Mohamed Mohamed, Using gas monitoring and personnel/vehicle tracking to
maximize the benefits of ventilation-on-demand in underground mining operations, Conspec
Controls Limited.
[2] Wisam Farjow, Kaamran Raahemifar, Xavier Fernando, Novel wireless channels characterization
model for underground mines, in: ELSEVIER Applied Mathematical Modelling Volume 39, Issue
19, 1 October 2015, Pages 5997–6007
[3] G.Y. Delisle, “Propagation Characteristics for Modern Wireless System Networks in Underground
Mine Galleries,” First IEEE International Workshop on Wireless Communication in Underground
and Confined Area, Val d’Or, QC, Canada, August 2005.
[4] A. Chehri, M. Hussein, W. Farjow, Indoor cooperative positioning based on fingerprinting and
support vector machines, in: Ozgur Akan (Ed.), Mobile and Ubiquitous Systems: Computing,
Networking, and Services, vol. 73, 2012, pp. 114–124.
[5] A. Abdi, C. Tepedelenlioglu, M. Kaveh, G. Giannakis, On the estimation of the K parameter for the
rice fading distribution, IEEE Commun. Lett. 5 (3) (2003) 92–94.
[6] P. Mahasukhon, M. Hempel, H. Sharif, T. Zhou S. Ci, H.H. Chen, BER Analysis of 802.11b networks
under mobility, in: IEEE International Conference on Communications, 2007, pp. 4722–4727.
[7] W. Farjow, X. Fernando, A. Chehri, H. Mouftah, An energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless
sensor networks through non-linear optimization, in: 3rd IEEE International Conference Wireless
Communications in Unusual and Confined Areas (ICWCUCA), 2012, pp. 1–4.
[8] Farjow, Wisam F., "Leaky Feeder System Optimizations In Underground Mines And Tunnels"
(2009). Ryerson University, Theses and dissertations. Paper 1132.
[9] Farjow, Wisam F., "Cross Layer Optimizations of Integrated Networks In Underground
Mines"(2013). Ryerson University, Theses and dissertations. Paper 133