1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Barangay Subah Buaya is a coastal village with the second-largest population

(PSA, 2021) in the municipality of Siasi in the Sulu province. The Lapak National
School of Fisheries (LNSF) caters to both secondary and tertiary levels situated in the
dwelling area near the intertidal mangrove. LNSF was established in 1971, providing
a solid basic education foundation and offering limited college degrees in a supportive
learning environment. However, the implementation of the K to 12 programs shows
an increase in the population of the student body. The population of the LNSF before
the start of the pioneer grade 11 is 704 students, with a 65% increase in the data of the
current academic year (LNSF, 2021). The residents pass through water channels by
crossing bridges to their respective houses and establishments.

As shown in Figure 1.1, there are two routes to the school, the concrete road
path, and the wooden board walkway. The latter route is the most used and convenient
from other villages outside Subah Buaya. The existing footbridge to the school was
constructed in 2013 to provide a platform for the citizens to pass over and reach their
destinations safely. However, the increasing population is an additional load that the
bridge must carry. The live load that the bridge carries peaks between 12 noon and 4
PM as it is the dismissal period during school days.

Furthermore, there have been replacements of destroyed wooden planks

throughout the years. The repairs were temporary patches to the hole created by
broken wooden floorboards to prevent passersby falling. However, the local health
unit records showed 23 falling accidents due to deteriorated lumbers in the last five
years (Siasi RHU, 2021). Hence, a new durable pedestrian bridge is necessary to
address the concerns of additional loads, deterioration of materials, and safety of the
end-users. Supporting the need for a new durable pedestrian bridge, the data collected
by the researchers have determined that 96% (Appendix D) of the respondents prefer a
better pathway than the present one.
 2

Figure 1.1. Routes from the Subah Buaya Main Road to LNSF.

Pedestrian bridges are essential, particularly in coastal villages, as they are the
means for people to access markets, stores, schools, houses of worship, and even their
own houses. These horizontal structures are transportation systems that execute all
activities for economic improvements and social service. Each bridge structure has its
own set of requirements, such as span clearance, traffic flow, load requirements,
geometry, environmental conditions, and the features of the construction site; as a
result, building bridges has a wide range. Codes and manuals such as the recent
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2015) and the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) set the
technical standards for the structural design of infrastructures. The study used the
Structural Analysis and Designing Program (STAAD Pro) software to analyze and
design the proposed bridge for validation.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There has been a significant increase in people crossing the wooden footbridge
to the LNSF. However, the current footbridge is in poor condition, characterized by
aging lumber, old wooden foundation piles, and the removal and replacement of
planks. Hence, there was a need for the local government of Barangay Subah Buaya
to ensure the safety of locals by providing a strong, durable, disaster-resilient, and
economic pedestrian bridge. The study aimed to design and estimate the project costs
 3

of the pedestrian bridge through manual computation and using STAAD Pro V8i for
validation following the present National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
and American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
codes and specification.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study provided a plan and specification of the pedestrian bridge to LNSF
in Barangay Subah Buaya, Siasi, Sulu that addressed the concerns about increased
loads, material deterioration, and end-user safety. The researchers conducted the
following to address the needs in accomplishing the project:

 bridge site selection;

 soil investigation;

 selection of conceptual design;

 provision of the geometric design;

 identification of the load requirements such as self-weight, live loads, seismic

provision, and wind loads;

 utilization of the load values to estimate the stresses in structural analysis

through hand calculation;

 validity check and provision of the 3D rendered model of the proposed design
through STAAD Pro;

 and calculation of the project costs to ensure that it is cost-effective.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study set out to design and provide the structural analysis of the proposed
bridge to LNSF in Subah Buaya, Siasi, Sulu. This project catered to the increasing
number of students in the said educational institution with lowered maintenance costs
and prioritized the safety of the pedestrians. Specifically, the study is significant for
the following:
 4

 Local Government. The findings of this study accommodated the request for
a pedestrian bridge design in Barangay Subah Buaya. Furthermore, the
researchers provided the estimated cost for the project.
 Contractors. The study provided the bridge design in compliance with the
NSCP 2015 and AASHTO to lay the structural plans for future
implementation of the structure.
 Students, Faculty, and Residents. The study is essential to the end-users as it
helps them to avoid commuting for a longer route without compromising their
safety.

1.5 Conceptual Framework

Structural analysis is crucial for every structural engineering project because it

predicts how the planned structure will behave. The following flowchart (Kassimali,
2011) as shown in Figure 1.2, depicts the various phases of a typical structural
engineering project. The planning phase is crucial, which usually entails determining
the proposed functional needs, general layout and size, type of structures and
materials, aesthetics, environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness. The result is a
structural system that meets the said requirements. In the preliminary structural design
phase, the sizes of the structural system are estimated based on approximate analysis,
historical experience, and code requirements. The member sizes chosen are estimated
to determine the weight in the next phase. The values of the loads are then utilized in
structural analysis to estimate the stresses in the members, including the deflections at
various points. The results are the deciding factor in determining whether the structure
meets the design standards for safety and serviceability. If so, the construction phase
begins using the design drawings and specifications. If not, sizes are adjusted and
repeat phases 3 through 5 until all are satisfactory.
 5

Planning phase

Preliminary structural design

Estimation of loads

Structural Analysis and Design

Are the
safety and Revise
serviceability No structural
requirements design
satisfied?

Yes

Construction phase

Figure 1.2 Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

1.6 Scope and Limitation

The study focused on designing a pedestrian bridge to carry loads from

pedestrians through longhand computation and STAAD Pro V8i for validation.
Hence, the project does not include the design for highway loadings. Furthermore,
due to the limited equipment available in the area and adjacent provinces, only sieve
analysis was performed to evaluate the soil strength characteristics. Therefore, the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) conducted the sieve analysis
and provided the test result. After which, the researchers estimated the project costs
and validated the estimation by an estimator has ensured that the proposed pedestrian
bridge is cost-effective and economical.
 6

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Bridge Design

Numerous bridges have been constructed over the years, even dating from
thousands of years ago. The materials and methods have improved, making bridges
cross islands and even countries across large bodies of water. Bridges overcome
obstacles without the need to find an alternative route. Bridges play a critical role in
the social and economic development of communities. They serve as a link providing
communication, allowing trade, aid in reaching desired destinations, and meeting
other people promptly as it shortens travel time (Ortiguerra, 2021). The introduction
of diverse construction materials at various points connects to creating sophisticated
and versatile bridges today.

Constructed bridges are essential in overcoming an obstacle on water or land.

Hydraulic bridges should never submerge in water. Enough space below the bridge
deck is needed for the water volume flow to pass without overflowing the bridge deck
(Gawda, 2020). Bridge structures must efficiently support a variety of loads, including
dead load, live load, wind, and seismic circumstances using the proper structural
design processes and methodologies. Bridges classify according to their lifespan,
purpose, span length and arrangement, load-carrying capacity, material, and structural
arrangement (Rakshit, K.S., 2011). Rakshit further identified the sub-classifications of
bridges under temporary bridges, construction materials, permanent bridges, and
structural arrangement.

There is no unique formula for selecting the optimum bridge concept due to
the consideration of many variables. Nevertheless, the general process comprises data,
regulations, design procedures, and output (Gonzalez et al., 2020). All information
gathered about the bridge site, materials, structural design, and personal experiences
start the procedure.

Deterioration processes like corrosion, wear, and fatigue is some causes of

disastrous failures (Gonzalez et al., 2020). Corrosion is a significant factor impacting
the durability, safety, and long-term viability of buildings and structures. Most of the
cities located along the shore have many reinforced concrete constructions subjected
 7

to harsh sea conditions. As a result, it is critical to protect buildings susceptible to

corrosion, such as effective protective coating, and provide proper repair procedures.

2.2 Conceptual Design of a Pedestrian Bridge

The selection of the suitable conceptual design for the bridge site is in the
planning phase. Factors such as the channel characteristics, soil profile, and load-
bearing capacity, hydraulic data, flood frequency, nature of traffic, economic
capacity, availability of materials and aggregates, transportation of the materials, and
presence of labor for different trades in construction are factors in choosing the right
bridge type (Rakshit, K.S., 2011).

2.2.1 Steel Bridges

Steel bridges, including footbridges, are widely utilized in various

structural shapes with varying span lengths. The strength, flexibility, ease of
fabrication, and speed of construction are the key advantages of structural steel
over other construction materials (Lin & Yoda, 2017). Steel is tensile. The
material has high strength per unit mass. According to an article by Northern
Weldarc Ltd. (2018), the production and manufacture of steel is swiftly in
large quantities. It is often precast and assembled onsite, making work more
efficient and saving time. One property of steel is that it is elastic. After
releasing an applied deforming force, it returns to its original shape. Steel is a
form of iron that is an alloy.

Steel is highly vulnerable to corrosion which affects the structural

integrity. The widely known type of corrosion happens when it is exposed to
oxygen and water, resulting in the formation of rust. Rust may corrode iron
alloys like steel. Anti-corrosion applications, such as paint, can aid in solving
this problem to some extent (Xinmao, 2019). However, this will result in a
high maintenance cost. Steel recommends painting periodically to sustain the
material. This material comes at a higher price and necessitates more caution.
Steel is not fireproof; hence there are significant fireproofing expenditures.
Steel loses its strength at high temperatures (Xinmao, 2019).
 8

2.2.1.1 Steel Beam Bridge

Figure 2.1 Concept of a Steel Beam Bridge (Tim Global Engineering, n.d.)

Joining beams bolted, riveted, or welded connectors create

extensive lengths. However, closely examining the design of the links
is a must-standard steel beam bridges composed of I-sections that are
the most effective bending. The positioning away of the cross-sectional
profile of the I-beam from the neutral axis results in a high second
moment of inertia. The standard length of an I-beam in the Philippines
is 6 meters. Unfortunately, steel I-section beams are unlikely to be
readily available in some areas, mainly rural locations; hence, this
bridge is not the first option for pedestrian bridges (Nairobi, 2004).

2.2.1.2 Steel Truss Bridge

Figure 2.2 Concept of a Steel Truss Bridge (Autodesk, 2021)

 9

A Steel Truss bridge utilizes members in an organized pattern

where forces carry loads in tension and compression. These members
are usually called chords. Top chords are usually in compression, and
bottom chords are in tension (Hsieh, 1982). In addition, steel truss
bridges have a parallel chord in which joints are reinforced by bolts,
rivets, or welded with gusset plates for better connection. The cost of
materials for a steel truss bridge is higher than a steel beam bridge,
where additional steel members for the truss frame are necessary for
the design, which the steel beam bridge does not have (Nairobi, 2004).

2.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Bridge

Reinforced concrete bridges utilizing the combination of the

compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength from steel bars are most
common. Aside from complimenting concrete, steel reinforcing bars have a
long service lifespan, are more cost-effective than pure steel, have high
material availability, are flexible, and with low maintenance costs. In addition,
the characteristics of concrete serve as a critical component in restricting the
consequences of climate change towards sustainable and resilient structures in
all communities (GCCA). Reinforced concrete bridges have at least 50 years
with low maintenance costs (I.T. Transport Ltd., 2004).

However, reinforced concrete piles are unsuitable in marine

environments due to corrosion and leaching. While composite piles made of
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are
effective alternatives to traditional piling materials as composite piles offer
total resistance to marine borer attack and corrosion (Baxter et al., 2005).
Moreover, other types of cement, such as the Portland Slag Cement (PSC),
will be considered as it is suitable for structures near seashores countering
sulfate and chloride, offering high corrosion resistance. Table 2.1 shows the
overview of the different types of Portland cement and their characteristics
and applications.
 10

Table 2.1 Different Types of Portland Cement

2.2.2.1 Simply Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge

A slab bridge is the simplest and the most common type of

bridge construction, whether single or multi-span, with a span length
reaching 9 meters. The statically determinate structures with a
uniformly thickened reinforced concrete slab require easy shuttering,
falsework, and straightforward reinforcing bars (Rakshit, K.S., 2011).
Simply reinforced concrete hollow slab bridges with a span length of 6
to 13 meters and a span length ranging from 10 to 20 meters are
economical (Lin and Yoda, 2017).
 11

Figure 2.3 Concrete Slab Bridge (Rakshit, 2011)

2.2.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Slab and Girder Bridge

Slab and girder bridges, also known as RC T-beams of the

simply supported span, are used for spans where slab bridges are
costly. The span generally ranges up to 9 to 20 meters. The T-beam is
designed as a hollow slab section to reduce dead load (Lin and Yoda).

Figure 2.4 T-Girder Bridge (Rakshit, 2011)

 12

2.2.2.3 Reinforced Concrete Box-Girder Bridge

The use of box-girder bridges in underpasses or subways in

which neglected scours are present or non-silting velocity. This type of
bridge is generally for continuous, cable-stayed bridges and
cantilevers, and its span ranges from 15 to 36 meters. It is suitable in a
bed with a low bearing capacity where the base covers the entirety of
the bridge substructure.

A box-girder bridge possesses good bending, torsion rigidity,

and better load distribution. The top and base slab resist stress while
the box-girder bears a positive and negative moment. The deck, web
and base length should be almost the same length (Lin and Yoda,
2017). The web can be narrow to decrease dead loads.

Figure 2.5 Box-Girder Bridge (Rakshit, 2011)

2.3 Support

2.3.1 Abutment

Similar to retaining walls and piers, abutments can withstand

overturning and sliding. Its primary function is to support the embankments at
the bridge ends and transmit loads from the superstructure to the foundation.
Additionally, abutment foundations must be, so that differential settlement and
excessive lateral movement are prevented (WisDOT, 2021).

Numerous abutments that can be used on depending on the type of

footbridge, availability, cost of materials, and soil conditions. From the
 13

previous section of this chapter, steel and reinforced concrete bridges are the
types of bridges considered. With these types of pedestrian bridges, the
following are the preferable material type of abutments: masonry, mass
concrete, and reinforced concrete.

Masonry and concrete abutments can last longer than timber

abutments. However, constructing these abutments is also costly as they need
the excavation of footings and the building of formwork to achieve the shape.
As a result, they will need workers with experience in this field, including
masons and carpenters (I.T. Transport Ltd., 2004).

A full-retaining abutment is a type of abutment constructed at the foot

of the embankment that must hold the whole roadway embankment. This type
is often the most expensive type of abutment. However, the overall
construction cost may decrease by lowering the span length and superstructure
cost in certain circumstances.

Figure 2.6 Full-retaining Embankment (WisDOT, 2021)

Rigid-frame constructions use a monolithic full-retaining abutment. If

fixed bearings link both abutments, an amortized expansion joint connects
them to the body, permits the body to spin about its base, and allows
temperature and shrinkage-related contraction and expansion.

A semi-retaining is another type of abutment. As depicted in Figure

2.7, constructing a semi-retaining abutment is between the bottom and top of
the highway embankment. As a result, it offers increased horizontal clearance
and viewing distance compared to a full-retaining abutment. In addition, its
location on the embankment slope poses less of a collision threat for an out-of-
control vehicle. Generally, semi-retaining abutments have a permanent base,
 14

enabling the wing walls to attach to the abutment body securely. Typically, the
wings and body of the abutment are monolithically poured (Wang, 2000).

Figure 2.7 Semi-retaining Abutment (WisDOT, 2021)

2.3.2 Pier

Piers for bridges can be concrete, stone, or metal. Concrete is the

specific construction material for piers submerged, as metal rusts in water, and
located in various locations, including waterways and drylands, where
highway systems act as overpasses. Its size and shape can vary according to
aesthetics, site, available space, and economic constraints, such as beam and V
shapes (Hamakareem, 2019).

Piers made of concrete or masonry require little or no maintenance and

have a significantly longer life. As a result, their total life-cycle cost will
almost certainly be less than timber piers. The pier's seat depth should be
between 350 and 400mm to allow for an adequate bearing area for the two
spans connecting. The recommended bearing surfaces be protected by hard
rubber pads at least 10mm thick. To avoid water accumulating on the seat,
these should be approximately 5mm smaller than the bearing area. If suitable
rubber is not available, bitumen seals the seats (I.T. Transport Ltd., 2004).

Virginia Department of Transportation (2020) states that depending on

the grade and location of the bridge, certain types of piers and details are more
cost-effective. It is advantageous to keep the capsize, column size, pile type,
and pile size the same for all piers on a project to reuse forms and avoid
ordering small quantities of material.
 15

2.3.2.1 Multi-column Piers

Column with heights less than 30 feet uses multi-column piers.

The column spacing should be 15 to 20 feet for this pier to be cost-
effective. For aesthetic purposes, the cap ends should not be round but
somewhat taper.

2.3.2.2 Hammerhead Piers

Hammerhead piers are suitable in situations where the column

lengths on multi-column piers require larger column sizes due to their
slenderness. In addition, hammerhead piers orient parallel to the
direction of the streamflow in areas where there is a current.

2.3.2.3 Wall/Solid Piers

Wall piers fit where muti-column piers are possible because

streamflow results in debris build-up between columns. Wall piers may
be more cost-effective than multi-column piers when collision force is
present. Non-reinforced walls are prohibited, and wall piers must be
parallel to flow direction.

2.3.2.4 Pile Bents

Typically, pile bents are used over wetlands or bodies of water

because they are less expensive and have a lower ecological footprint.
Additionally, pile bents are acceptable in scourable environments.

2.3.3 Spread Footing

A spread footing is a reinforced concrete footing poured into an

excavation bored by hand or machine to the desired size (Duncan, 1992). Its
principal function is to transfer vertical and horizontal loads from the structure
to the ground. Continuous footings frequently support walls, but column
footings are typically square or rectangular, and they can support single or
many columns. The architectural configuration of the columns concerning
each other and property lines or other barriers influences footing choices.

Spread footings functions as support under each column of buildings

and bridge piers in bridges (Mahajan, n.d.). As a result, these footings are cost-
 16

effective and economical in construction. In addition, it is favorable for any

soil with adequate load-bearing capacity. Structural design codes and
specifications assume linear soil pressure distribution for the design of spread
footings, making designing spread footing a much simpler task. This footing
can act as an inverted cantilever with loads provided in an upward direction.

Foundations can be of two types: shallow and deep foundations.

Isolated column footings, integrated footings, and a reinforced concrete mat
make up a shallow foundation Abdrabbo et al., 2016).

2.3.3.1 Isolated Footing

Isolated footings support solitary columns when they are wide

apart. The use of geotechnical and structural analysis ideas designs
isolated column footings. As a result, input study into isolated column
footings originates from geotechnical and structural fields (Abdrabbo
et al., 2016).

Figure 2.8 Isolated Footing (GharPedia, 2020)

2.3.3.2 Combined Footing

A combined footing is necessary when two columns are near

each other and their independent footings overlap. Combined footing
can support two columns, which distributes the stress evenly. For
example, a rectangular or trapezoidal combination footing is possible.
 17

Figure 2.9 Combined Footing (GharPedia, 2020)

2.3.3.3 Mat Foundation

Mat foundation is a big slab that supports the entire structure by

supporting multiple columns and walls. If more than one column
overlaps, a single footing is for all of them. Mat footing is the name for
this sort of footing. On non-homogeneous soils, mat foundations
reduce differential settlements.

Figure 2.10 Mat Foundation (GharPedia, 2020)

2.4 Guides and Specifications

The bridge design shall extend its functionality and serviceability through
evaluation of loads and load combinations assumptions and careful structural analysis
to run at optimal efficiency.
 18

2.4.1. Dead Loads

Weights of concrete decks, railing support, and self-weight structure

are the primary sources of dead loads of pedestrian bridges. For the
construction of the Subah Buaya pedestrian bridge, normal-weight concrete
for its deck with an average weight of 150 pounds per cubic foot (pcf)
(Constantino et al., 2009). Additional inclusion for analysis of the weight of
the beams and possible railing and fencing built on either side of the bridge.

2.4.2. Live Loads

The three types of live loads for the design of this pedestrian bridges
are pedestrian load, wind load, and service vehicle load.

From the previous edition of AASHTO LRFD Guides and

Specifications, 85 pounds per square foot (psf) is used as a pedestrian base
nominal loading and can be reduced up to 65 psf depending on the influence
area of the structure. On the first print of the Fourth Edition of AASHTO
LRFD, it was using 85 psf regardless of the structure’s influence area. It was
later revised into a uniform 90 psf of pedestrian loading to produce a
maximum loading effect. The calculation and analysis include the dynamic
load allowance. With its load factor of 1.75, 1.75(90) = 158 psf maximum
credible load. (Constantino et al., 2009).

Wind forces applied to structures can significantly affect the design

and are applied perpendicular to the structure. As for the design of wind loads,
AASHTO Signs will be utilized instead of AASHTO LRFD Guides and
Specifications (AASHTO, 2009) mainly because of the potential flexible
nature of the pedestrian bridge and also due to the possible signage on the
bridge. The wind importance factor, Ir, is 1.15. The loading will be assumed as
uniformly distributed across all exposed areas of the structure, including the
signs that are supported by the bridge. The essential wind speed, determined
from Figure 2.8, is taken from the National Structural Code of the Philippines
Seventh Edition (2015). Islands and coastal areas from figure 2.8 that are
outside the contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
Therefore, the essential wind speed of Subah Buaya is 240 m/s.
 19

The design of a pedestrian bridge must carry a moving vehicular load

aside from dead load and uniform live loads in case of emergencies, such as
when vehicles need to cross over the structure or if a maintenance vehicle
needs to access the walkway. Therefore, there shall be a designated vehicular
service in the bridge design. However, during the analysis, the vehicular load
must not be combined with the pedestrian loadings. Therefore, a single
vehicular truck is needed to produce the maximum load effect. Furthermore,
vehicular loadings shall not include dynamic load allowance. For selecting the
design of the service vehicle, the width of the clear deck will be the deciding
factor, as shown in Table 2.2.

Figure 2.11 NSCP Basic winds speeds of Category III, IV, and V Buildings and other
Structures, taken from the result of PAG-ASA.
 20

Clear Deck Width Design Vehicle

7 to 10 feet H5

Over 10 feet H10

Table 2.2 Design vehicle for pedestrian bridge for Strength I Load Combination.

Figure 2.12 Design of service vehicle.

2.4.3. Combination of Loads

Pedestrian bridge design includes the load combination and factors

shown in Table 2.3. However, the following exceptions for the usage of these
Load factors and combinations are load combinations for Strength II, Strength
IV, and Strength V because these loadings are not applicable for pedestrian
bridges. In some cases, if there is a reasonable chance of occurrence for the
excluded load combinations, then they should be included in the analysis. The
Fatigue I load combination shall be taken as 1.0, and disregard Fatigue II.
 21

Table 2.3 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification Load combination factors.

2.5 Structural Analysis and Designing Program

STAAD Pro (Structural Analysis and Designing Program), initially developed

by Research Engineers International in Yorba Linda, California, in 1997, is an
additional inquiry and outline computer application that is still in use today. STAAD
pro has cutting-edge user interfaces (UI), perception devices, robust investigation,
limited cutting-edge component (FEM), and dynamic examination capabilities, among
other features. As a result, STAAD is the first choice of professionals for
investigation, configuration, representation, and result validation (Prashanth &
Gokulnath, 2018).

In the introduction from Kulkarni et al. (2016), the researchers identified the
advantages of STAAD Pro that include the following: extremely flexible modeling
environment, a broad spectrum of design codes, international bestseller,
interoperability, and open architecture, comprehensive coverage of all aspects of
structural engineering, quality assurance, extremely scalable, and easy reports, and
documentation. In the study of Bhargavi et al. (2021), the use of STAAD Pro in
designing structures results in the acquisition of detailed information in each member,
 22

the reduction of design time, and an increase in the accuracy of the results. In
addition, utilizing STAAD Pro software to design structures enables the identification
of failed members and the provision of improved sections.
 23

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Locale

The geometric and conceptual design utilized the data collected from the
coastal village of Barangay Subah Buaya in the Municipality of Siasi in the province
of Sulu. The village is located south and near the central town of the municipality.
The total population of Barangay Subah Buaya is 3,892, making it the second-largest
next to Barangay Poblacion as of the 2020 census (PSA, 2021). The study focuses on
routes to the Lapak National School of Fisheries (LNSF) used by students and other
end-users. The trail starts from the main road of Subah Buaya to the school entrance
to safely transmit students and the faculty.

The research locale is shown in Figure 3.1. The water channel has a steady
flow without any waves or destructive currents.

Figure 3.1 Location of the study site

3.2 Research Design

The research method is primarily structural design because it involves an

iteration process from 1) input geometry of the bridge structure, 2) input loading data,
 24

2) analysis of data, 3) wind load parameters, 4) seismic load parameters, 5) structural

analysis, 6) Structural design of a) superstructure and b) substructure, 7) if the design
is inadequate, repeat steps 2 to 6. The last step is the preparation and drafting of
structural plans.

This study is a capstone project composed of two approaches: design

provision and evaluation. The Utah Valley University (n.d.) explained that a capstone
project aims to require engineering students to address an engineering challenge using
the knowledge learned in their curriculum.

The study followed the subsequent structural engineering-related subjects,

namely, Bridge Engineering (CES 145) for the process of designing a bridge,
Principles of Steel Design (CE 143) for the design of steel members if necessary,
Principles of Reinforced Concrete Design (CE 138) for the reinforced concrete design
if necessary, Foundation Engineering (CE 145) for the design of foundation of the
bridge, and Computer Software in Structural Analysis and Design (CES 143) for the
structural analysis using STAAD. The said subject descriptions and codes are from
the Commission on Higher Education Memorandum Order No. 92 under Section
11.are

The study provided the plan and specification of a suitable structural design of
a proposed pedestrian bridge to LNSF for the design approach and its estimation cost.
The evaluation approach of the study is the identification of the conceptual design to
be utilized from the literature review and the load and load combination factors for the
requirements in design and analysis through the STAAD software.

3.3 Research Procedures

The research proceeded as follows:

3.3.1 Bridge Route Selection

The following conditions are the criteria for selecting the right bridge
site:

a. The straight reach of the river;

b. Steady water flow without serious cross-currents;
 25

c. Flat waterbed without undulations;

d. Narrow channels with firm banks;
e. Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side;
f. Rock or other hard strata close to the riverbed level to reduce the
size of the supporting structure;
g. The proposed bridge will connect an existing road with the shortest
route possible;
h. Absence of sharp curves in the approaches;
i. And avoidance of excessive underwater construction.

3.3.2 Bridge Parameters

The following are the parameters collected at the selected bridge site:

a. Name of the stream, road, and identification mark;

b. Present and anticipated volume and nature of traffic on the road at
the bridge site;
c. Linear waterway and width;
d. Hydraulic data about the water
e. Soil profile along with the bridge site over the length of the bridge;
f. Availability, quality, and location of the nearest quarries for stones
for masonry and concrete aggregates;
g. And the nearest place of availability of cement, steel, and other
materials.

3.3.3 Data Collection

A 30-meter graduated tape will measure the linear waterway and width
through taping. The vertical distance will be collected using a bamboo rod
through leveling and measured by the graduated tape later on. In addition,
conducting interviews with residing locals and barangay officials accumulates
other bridge parameters that are not available in the records of the barangay
and other related agencies. The researchers will provide each participant with
informed consent before the interview.
 26

The researchers did a traffic count for three days in a single week. The
survey count took place from 7 AM to 5 PM on Monday, Friday, and Sunday
of the chosen week at the wooden board walkway.

3.3.4 Soil Investigation

3.3.4.1 Soil Sample Gathering

The collection of the substrate samples was from the chosen

bridge route. In addition, there are three soil samples taken from three
stations on the route, at the start, middle, and end of the path. The
samples were from a depth larger than 0.5 meters from the waterbed.

3.3.4.2 Grain Size Analysis

This analysis method describes soil particle size distribution by

separating the soil sample materials through a series of sieves with
progressively small size openings. The soil size particle distribution is
determined by dividing the weight of the particles retained on each
sieve by the total weight of the sample. Furthermore, adjustments to
the moisture content use dry weight as the basis. Therefore, the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) laboratory in
Zamboanga City determined the particle sizes.

3.3.4.3 Soil Bearing Capacity

Table 3.1 shows the allowable soil strength parameters

depending on the classification of soil identified in section 3.3.4.2 of
this study. The selection of presumptive load-bearing and lateral
resisting values shall comply with the NSCP 304.2.
 27

Allowable Lateral Bearing Lateral Sliding

Foundation below Natural
Classification of materials Resistance
Pressure Grade (kPa/m Coefficient
(kPa) of depth) (kPa)
1. “Intact” Tuffaceous
Sandstone 1000 300 - -
2. “Lightly Weathered”
Tuffaceous Sandstone 500 150 - -
3. Sandy Gravel and /or
Gravel (GW & GP) 100 30 0.35 -
4. Well-graded sand,
Poorly-graded Sand,
Silty Sand, Clayey
75 25 0.25 -
Sand, Silty Gravel and
Clayey (SW, SP, SM,
SC, GM and GC)
5. Clay, Sand Clay, Silty
Clay and Clayey Silt 50 5 - 7
(CL, ML, MH, and CH)

Table 3 NSCP 2015 Allowable Foundation and Lateral Pressure

3.3.5 Conceptual Design Selection

This objective selected the appropriate conceptual design of the bridge

based on the related literature and further evaluation as to what concept is
suitable for the proposed pedestrian bridge. In addition, the researchers
completed the drafting of the conceptual design of the bridge.

3.3.6 Codes and Specifications

The reference used were AASHTO LRFD and NSCP 2015 for the
structural design and specifications.

3.3.7 Structural Analysis

The structural analysis and design underwent manual computation, and

Bentley Education approved the use of STAAD Pro V8i software.
 28

3.3.7.1 Manual Computation

The manual computation was completed prior to the structural

analysis in STAAD. The conceptual design comes first due to the
different approaches to hand calculations of the bridges for different
conceptual designs. After the selection of the conceptual design, the
following references aided the researchers in performing the hand
calculations:

1. Simplified LRFD Bridge Design by Jai Kim, Robert Kim,

and Jonathan Eberle
2. Bridge Design and Evaluation LRFD and LRFR by
Gongkang Fu
3. Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition,
Superstructure Design by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan
4. Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Substructure
Design by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan
5. Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Construction
and Maintenance by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan
6. Bridge Engineering: Classifications, Design Loading, and
Analysis Methods by Weiwei Lin and Teruhiko Yoda
7. Structural Steel Design, Fifth Edition by Jack McCormac
and Stephen Csernak
8. Steel Design by William Segui
9. Principles of Structural Design: Wood, Steel, and Concrete
by Ram Gupta

3.3.7.2 STAAD Pro V8i

The structural analysis and design were validated using

STAAD Pro V8i software permitted via Bentley Education. The
structural analysis and design processes of STAAD Pro V8i determine
the performance of the structure. The use of the software to design
saves time and enables the researchers to check the safety quickly.
Using STAAD Pro V8i software to design structures also aids in the
 29

discovery of failed members and the provision of better sections

(Bhargavi et al., 2021).

STAAD Pro used in modeling and analysis with the following

steps:

1. Open the structure wizard and insert the parameters (length,

width, height, and others) based on the conceptual design.
2. Select the surface and fill the floor grid with plates.
3. Select the plates created and generate plate mesh.
4. Define and assign properties of the sections (column, beam,
and slab thickness).
5. Create supports for the bridge.
6. Define all the possible loads (dead loads, live loads, wind
loads, and seismic loads) utilizing AASHTO LRFD and NSCP
2015 as references.
7. Add load cases detail.
8. Perform analysis and print.
9. Assign design parameters and define design codes.
10. Verify result output.
3.3.7.3 Drafting of Drawings and Plans
The validated manual computations from the STAAD Pro V8i
are the plans and specifications of the pedestrian bridge. Furthermore,
AutoCAD shows the drawings and plans of the pedestrian bridge. The
detailed plans for the bridge include the following:

 General plan
o Site plan
o Dimensions
o Location of the foundations
o Crossing profile
o Sectional drawings
 Cross-section
 Estimate of quantities
 Tabulation of construction items
 30

o Quantities of materials required

o List of Reinforcing bars
 General notes
o Design loadings, working stresses, class of concrete, and
grade of steel
o Design and construction details
 Special details

3.3.7.4 Cost Estimate

Estimating cost began by listing all the items needed with all
the relevant expenditures of the materials shown in the design plan. In
addition, the identified itemized construction costs help estimate the
cost of the pedestrian bridge. Finally, the researchers computed the
quantities and checked with an estimator.
 31

Bridge Route Selection

Collection of Bridge Parameters

Soil Investigation

Conceptual Design Selection

Estimation of Loads and Load Combinations

Manual Computation

STAAD Pro V8i

Drafting of Drawings and Plans

Cost Estimate

Figure 3.2 Flowchart of the Research Procedure