Sok Notes 2

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Systems OF Knowledge Notes
science (Ġ.F. Abela Junior College)
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Module 1 Pg. 4
Module 2 Pg. 26
Module 3 Pg. 48
Module 4 Pg. 72

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Module 1: Democratic Values and

Responsible and Active Citizenship

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Module 1 – Notes
The word democracy (democratic) derives from demos, which refers to the
entire citizen body, and kratoms, meaning rule.
Democracy: A form of government where the authority to govern is derived

from the people either by referendum (direct democracy) or by means of
representatives (representative democracy).
In this system of democracy, economic relations, cultural activity & politics are
interdependent.
Democracy is a word that is used everyday but unfortunately people do not

know what it really means. Democracy started in Athens (Greece was made up
of several city states, Athens was one of these cities). In the 7th Century, Solon
defined the concept of democracy and how it should work. He referred to the
positive and negative aspects of democracy but didn’t put into practice.
In the 5th Century, Cleisthenes started putting democracy into practice. Plato
(400BC), in his book ‘The Republic’ mentions types of government to criticize
democracy. He calls democracy ‘mob-rule’ (Triarchy, Tyranny and Oligarchy).
Triarchy: government by three persons
Tyranny: cruel and oppressive government or rule.
Oligarchy: a small group of people having control of a country or organization.
It was said that ‘all the citizens’ participated in politics. However, only males who
were 18+ could vote. This has now obviously changed, with Malta having voters
as young as 16. However, there are still countries in which it is difficult or
practically impossible for women to vote.
“We alone consider a citizen who does not partake in politics not only one who
minds his own business but useless.”
The Athenians came up with the idea of a council made up of 500 citizens,
of 10 different tribes. 50 from each tribe would be elected to participate on the

board for a limited period. If they had to discuss policies and take political

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decisions, the 1500 citizens would come up with ideas and refer them to their
representatives and then these representatives would bring them forward.
Specific issues discussed in the assembly included deciding military and financial
magistracies, organising, and maintaining food supplies, initiating legislation and
political trials, deciding to send envoys, deciding whether to sign treaties, voting
to raise or spend funds, and debating military matters.
This was an organized way to do politics. This was a bigger, much better system
than the one before it; it would be more just - there would be more justice.
“Athens' constitution is called a democracy because it respects the interests not

of a minority but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling private
disputes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question of putting one
person before another in positions of public responsibility, what counts is not
membership of a particular class, but the actual ability which the man possesses.
No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to the state, is kept in political
obscurity because of poverty.” (Thuc. 2.37)
Although democracy is the best system available, it is not perfect. Not all
countries in the world are a democracy. There are only a limited number of
democratic countries. Although we define it theoretically, it is difficult to be
100% accurately democratic - there are defects.
Democracy is a system where the people generally experience a ‘feel good’

factor. Democracy must be seen as a way of life.
Pericles’ Funeral Speech
“The freedom we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life.
There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not
feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing what he likes..."
“I should say a word or two on the duties of women to those among you who
are now widowed. I can say all I have to say in a short word of advice. Your great
glory is not to be inferior to what God has made you, and the greatest glory of a
woman is to be least talked about by men, whether they are praising you or
criticizing you.”

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Demagogue: a political leader who seeks support by appealing to the desires

and prejudices of ordinary people rather than by using rational argument.
If we take the UK after 2005 and the USA after 9/11, they are not as democratic
as before. Before these dates, they thought no one would attack them on their
soil. The UK and USA are models of democracy and liberty.
According to the principles of modern democracy there must be the following:
1. Free and fair elections and referendums with honest competition.
2. Civil rights, civil liberties, and human rights.
3. There are no natural rights, and a right does not exist until it is written in a
document of international human rights.
4. The rule of law controlled by equality before the law.
5. The reality of government lies in three forces: the people, the state, and the
oligarchy.
6. A unitary form of government (federalism not allowed).
7. There should be rules, regulations, and laws against tyranny by oligarchy.
8. There should be compulsory voter registration and mandatory voting.
9. Organized groups with formal leadership for citizen participation to act in

opposition to centres of wealth and power (labour unions).
10. Liberated news media that is free and independent of corporate controls
and banking dictatorships.
11. There must be controls against unchecked oligarchy and unrestrained

majority.
12. A mature democracy must have a flexible constitution to avoid stagnation.

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Main Features of Democracy:
a) Elected representative
b) Elections are held to elect the representatives:
c) Civil liberties
d) Rule of law
e) Independent judiciary
Democratic practices:
i. Free elections
ii. Representative constitutional government
iii. Citizen participation
iv. Majority rule
v. Minority rights
In politics, representatives are the minority which lead, and

citizens/electorate are the majority which follow.
The referendum is an important issue of national interest:
1. 2014 EU Referendum
2. Divorce
3. Abortion (Forthcoming?)
If you are biased and only watch certain political parties, they will not be
deliberate in taking political decisions.
Deliberate: done consciously and intentionally.

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According to Mosca there are two classes of people -
“A minority of influential persons”; who manage public affairs (representatives)
A majority that “willingly or unwillingly” accepts these affairs (the

electorate/citizens)
Today, active citizen participation remains an ideal goal. There are many
justifications for it and include the right of those directly affected by decisions
to have a say in them. Psychologically it ought to be more beneficial if one is an
active and effective contributor rather than passive.
As a citizen we must be informed about what is happening in our country, in the

EU and our world. Democracy is based on the principle of the choice of the
citizen. It is even better when democratic participation reaches beyond formal
political bodies and becomes a way of life. The simple things that we do
everyday because we feel a sense of responsibility.
In terms of psyche the individual found the best development not in a system
that treated all the same in freedom but one which accepts differences in levels
of judgement as some are unable to determine their own good.
The political structure was displaced in favour of the education of the psyche
rather than participative politics: reason above freedom
Politically meaningful participation by the citizens means proximity to effective

decision-making powers.
If history has something to teach, the question arises how much our
representative’s system bereft of any meaningful semblance to kratos for the
demos has partaken for the Athenian model.
Democracy (Some Definitions):
In its simplest form: The rule of the people. It requires the highest development
possible, and it still makes sense today for every citizen.
1. Pericles - Highest Development Possible for every citizen who assumes direct
responsibility in deciding policy after listening to alternative policies by voting
honestly, and intelligently for that policy which will be the best for the city.

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2. Aristotle - Aristotle was Plato’s student. All these philosophers had their
school of thought.
Democracy is said to be the government of the many.
But what if the many are men of property and have the power in their hands?
(Oligarchs)
3. Joseph Schumpeter - The democratic method should not be politics but a way
of life (refer to the 6 major values of democracy). The democratic method is that
institutional (which is not necessarily parliament) arrangement that is used to
arrive at political decisions (taken by the people) which realize the common
good/social justice, by making the people itself decide the issues through the
election of individuals who are to assemble to carry out its will.
4. John Dewey - He wrote about democracy and education. Democracy creates

numerous points of shared common interest, a greater reliance upon the
recognition of mutual interests as a factor of social control. Democracy also
promotes interaction between social groups (especially in multicultural
societies). It’s continuous readjustment (ongoing/lifelong) through meeting new
situations that are created by different discussions.
Democracy as a concept is still evolving; we can never say that we have reached
its maximum potential. We need to change and update our values. Some values
may not be for our societies anymore. In conclusion, Modern day democracy
poses a challenging question at the masses that uphold it are neither informed
nor wise. Democracy appears to supply us with basic rights & yet at the same
time this ‘immaculate’(ironic) picture of democracy frequently gets tainted by
corruption & scandals of leaders & citizens alike.
“What I want to do is, in the first place, to discuss the spirit in which we faced
our trials and our constitution and the way of life which has made us great.
After that I shall speak in praise of the dead, believing that this kind of speech
is not inappropriate to the present occasion, and that this whole assembly, of
citizens and foreigners, may listen to it with advantage”
Citizen Participation

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For most citizens participating in a democracy means participating in

parliamentary elections or referenda. Many do not feel that they should form
part of a pressure group or non-governmental organization where one could
show his/her approval or disapproval of events or developments on critical
issues. It is also unfortunate that citizens feel alienated & are cynical of the
present political situations in many democracies around the world.
We, as citizens, must take part in Local, National, European or Global Discussions
(e.g., Global warming - in 1980 we started mentioning sustainability, global
villages, globalisation, green-house effect.)
The role of an active citizen in a democracy today is clearly more complicated

than before and it needs more responsibility on the part of the individual than
ever before. This puts a lot of pressure on the system of education that should
help children grow strong and prepare them to become active citizens. The fact
that young citizens are becoming more individualistic and to a certain extent
more egocentric is of concern.
All over the world, the system has been experiencing changes that were not
always made in the interest of the citizens. Education should be a catalyst of
change and a vehicle for the promotion of democratic living.
Human Rights
Aristotle describes Athenian Society in antiquity:
“The male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules, and
the other is ruled; this principle of necessity, extends to all mankind”
Some men are by nature free, and others slaved and for that this latter slavery
is both expedient and right. Aristotle witnessed thousands of slaves & how
parental, age & gender criteria disenfranchised most of the inhabitants in
democratic Athens - His reasoning shows how ideology is interchanged with
what is ‘natural qualifying the nature of things with a specific philosophical
meaning, and, in the process, serving to establish a hierarchical social structure.
Natural Rights

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‘One Humanity’ & ‘Human Rights’ are bedfellows.
The US Declaration of Independence posits as “self-evident” truth “that all men

are created equal, they are endowed. With unalienable Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty & the pursuit of happiness.
John Locke in his Second Treatise that the “law of nature stands as an internal
rule to all men, legislators as well as others” and legislation must be comfortable
to it, that is, “no human sanction can be good or valid” against the “preservation
of mankind “Arguing for consensus in political rule against the divine right of
kings, He set the foundation for a civil society and parliamentary democracy
within what was to become the bourgeois nation characterised by individualism,
liberty & property ownership - familiar political & civil rights desirables
Higher Article - some are at the top, some are at the bottom - every society is
divided by class, profession etc.
1789 - French Revolution
1690 - Foundation of political democracy
Middle Class - Individualism, liberty, and property-ownership
Positive Rights
“Right is the child of law; from real laws coe real rights, but from imaginary law,
from ‘laws of
Nature’ come imaginary rights. Natural rights are simple nonsense, - nonsense
upon stilts. ``
Contextualising the argument in post-war developments:
Following WWII, the UNO was pre-eminently set up to guarantee peace,

promote and protect human rights. In 1948, its members promulgated the
UDHR. This added social and economic rights to political and civil rights.
Rampant economic and social inequalities are as much, if not more, an attack
on human dignity as abuse of assembly rights or of freedom of expression. That
is the moral supremacy of UDHR over other right traditions.

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‘Universal Citizenship allows all to profit from political and civil rights conforming
his alignment with the ‘Rights of Man Tradition and, consequently Locke and the
liberal democratic societies of the bourgeois nation state. This tradition
promotes the right to life; freedom from torture, slavery, arbitrary arrest, and
detention; right to due process, a fair and impartial trial.
In 1950, council of Europe member states opted to trace their own path in
human rights protection, they renounced the broad scope of UDHR and framed
political & civil rights in the Convention. Social, economic & cultural rights were
inserted in a charter.
In the Cold War, liberal states concerned liberties and a multiparty system. Their
social democratic policies sugared down economic & social hardships for social
classes w/ more down to earth difficulties in life than political & civil rights.
Democratic Structures
The Main Democratic Organs of The State are established by the constitution of
Malta are legislature (the Parliament), the executive (government) and the
judiciary (courts of justice). The executive is drawn from the house of reps.,
elected by the people, and is answerable to them. Members of the legislature,
namely the PM and his Ministers, who for the executive, are both members of
the House of Reps. And the cabinet, making these two structures partially fused.
This makes our democracy a parliamentary one.
The Legislature
Parliament is the institution responsible for enacting the laws. It may

promulgate new laws piloted by the minister concerned, or by a private MP. It
may abrogate existing legislation or amend already existing ordinary legislation
(e.g., creating something which doesn’t work) A simple majority is sufficient to
carry these out, but to amend certain provisions in the constitution, there needs
to be a two-thirds qualified majority voting in favour.
The Executive
Government deals w/ the execution of laws enacted in parliament. These laws

reflect the government policy based on the electoral manifesto presented to the

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people, prior to the general elections, by the political party in power.

Government has other important functions to carry out, such as the
administration of the social security system, the health sector, and the
educational system.
“To deny people their human rights are to challenge their humanity”, said
Nelson Mandela. It is without a doubt that our human rights give us our dignity
and a sense of belonging. In 1945, The brutality of the Second World War forced
the newly constituted United Nations Organisation to take on an extensive
responsibility for human rights. Universal human rights are controversial,
excessively pretentious and without any hope of analytical proof that
establishes that they are universal and can be applied across cultures.
Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of
human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international
law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to
which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being"
and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless of their age, ethnic
origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are
applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and
they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone.
The UN supports democracy by promoting human rights. In turn, democracy

provides an environment for the protection and effective realization of human
rights. One must be aware that democracy is not just a political system, it is a
way of life and it depends on its citizens to upkeep it. Responsible and active
citizenship is one value that guarantees a healthy democratic system -
participation endows citizens with a say in the running of their country, but to
do this, citizens must be given their human rights to make use of them. The
guarantee for rights and freedoms is commonly known as the bill of rights. It is
embedded in democratic constitutions, ensuring that the government's power
is checked against the abuse of these rights.
The concepts of ‘one humanity’ and ‘human rights’ are bedfellows. Nonetheless,
the abstraction of the former wraps the latter in controversy. Natural rights
maintain that an individual enters society with certain basic rights and that no
government can deny these rights. The modern idea of natural rights grew out

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of the ancient and medieval doctrines of natural law. Political rights are the
rights that involve participation in the establishment or administration of a
government and are usually held to entitle the adult citizen to exercise of the
franchise, the holding of public office, and other political activities. Without
these rights, democracy would break down, and become more tarnished than it
already is. It is important that citizens feel free to express these rights, whether
they will eventually make a difference or not.
Supranational and International
Over the past century, many nation-state governments realised that the smooth
running of international trade, the resolution of the world’s social and economic
crises, and the maintenance of the international peace and stability require
concerned action, rather than the unilateral solutions or the implementation of
isolationist policies. Furthermore, globalisation has made the world’s nation
states more economically and politically interdependent. Consequently,
international cooperation has become practically inevitable.
Sovereignty: the claim by any country to self-government. It serves as the basis

for the exchange of mutual recognition based on legal equality.
Qualified majority - in the EU, the number of votes required IN the council of
ministers for a decision or law concerning the EU to be adopted. In most cases,
qualified majority voting is reached if: 55% of EU countries vote in favour; and if
the proposal is supporter by countries representing at least 65% of the total EU
population.
European Project - the grand design for Europe’s political and economic union,
which Euro-federalists hope would lead to the establishment of a United States
of Europe.
International Organisations
They fall under 2 categories: intergovernmental organisations and supranational

organisations.
The hallmark of any intergovernmental organisation is that the founding treaty

or statue formally recognises the principle of sovereign equality of all its
member states. This means that decision making by the majority voting is

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excluded, and in this manner each country retains complete sovereignty and
responsibility for its own decisions. The member stated of IGO’s have the right
of veto, through which each state government plays a crucial role in the
adoption of common agreements and decisions.
Individual states use IGO’s as policy instruments to legitimise their actions

and/or to constrain the behaviour of other states.
Supranational polities are organisations in which power in choses policy areas is

conferred to a higher free-standing authority by the heads of state or
government of the countries constituting such international organisations. The
essence of supranationalism is coordination rather than the hierarchy between
the national and the supranational levels of government. Supranational policies
are meant to encourage stability and mutual trust among its members.
The EU: A case study in supernationalism
The concept of supranational union is sometimes used to describe the EU, which
lies somewhere in between a confederation, and a federation. The begin with,
the EU has some clear attributes to a federal polity.
Consequently, the EU institutions exercise power in a sovereign manner in the

policy areas mentioned above. Furthermore, it exerts a substantial influence on
many domestic policies of the member states.
The Impact of Globalisation on Democracy
The impact of globalisation is felt by every country depending on the strength of

the national finances and the ability to diversify ways and means to gather
strength and move on.
Globalisation: the increasing worldwide integration of economic, cultural,

political, religious, and social systems. Economic globalisation is the process by
which the whole world becomes a single market. This means that goods and
services, capital and labour are traded on a worldwide basis, and information
and results of research flow readily between countries.

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Diversity: people are different from one another. These differences shape a
range of wats of living and thinking and generate different assumptions, values,
and beliefs.
The impact of globalisation - Then and Now
The early steps towards globalisation started in the 15th century when the
Portuguese and the Spaniards started establishing colonies in different parts of
the world. Initially it started as global economics, the annihilation of indigenous
cultures started and wars in this period showed who was the most powerful and
technologically advanced.
Up to the 1980s, globalisation was seen as a process that all nations should be
part of. This was due to the belief that it was an all-positive experience. In the
1990s, one could see that the situation had come to a state where national
economies were faced with the idea of “survival of the fittest”. The 21st century
shows that globalisation is a process that has got somewhat out of hand and
that citizens have no control over it. It is also creating a feeling of helplessness
that demands of citizens, whether living in a democratic country or not, to be
more prepared to survive in such an environment.
Developments since the industrial revolution:
Science and Technology - the earth seemed as a ‘global village’
Media technology - with the use of different means of telecommunication

where the citizen can participate by watching the news as it unfolds
Transfer of information - keeps the citizens informed and connected
Unfortunately, globalisation promotes global injustice and inequality. There are

still many countries and citizens around the world who do not have the
opportunity to share these developments, either because of economic
shortcomings or because of the political priorities held in their respective
countries. For a large part of the world population, food and shelter are still basic
needs and anything else is seen as luxury. Injustice is seen as well on an
individual level, where many families must make ends meet while they are
bombarded with adverts of products that are shown as necessary for normal
life. For these families, it is a reality they will never be part of. Poverty is still

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seen as something which will not be eradicated. This situation impacts respect
for citizen identity, culture and values, national values and those of other
civilizations, and the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society
in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of the sexes, and
friendship among all peoples.
Mass Migrations
Migration is one of the most critical issues faced by the EU because although
there is a lot of goodwill to help people who leave their war-thorn countries to
find a better life in EU countries, the latter cannot take more than they can
handle, without facing a burden that is challenging and having many
implications. Within multicultural democracies there are perceived tensions
between the need to promote (a) national unity or cohesion; and (b) the need
to accommodate and support a diverse range of cultural communities within the
nation state.
Civic and political engagement
Citizens today are expected to participate on a local, national, European, and

global level by participating in debates about important issues that will influence
citizens directly or indirectly such as problems with regards to air pollution and
environmental degradation.
Apathy is one of the ain reasons for youth deficit, when they feel they should
not participate in national or global affairs. Life as projected on the media might
force citizens to feel like they can’t cope with the demands of living such a life
and therefore they either retreat from their responsibilities or else leave the
decision making in the hands of their representatives who regrettably, are not
always equipped to do the job.
Apathy leads to a lack of tolerance towards different opinions.
Challenges of the global scenario
In this global scenario, it is very challenging to make more people interested in

global concerns even when these have local effects. It is also difficult to make
people change their way of life to safeguard natural resources such as fossil
fuels.

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Module 1: Essays
Ancient Democracy VS Modern Democracy
“No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said
that democracy is the worst form of government except for all those other forms
that have been tried from time to time”, said W. Churchill. Democracy is a form
of government where the authority to govern is derived from the people either
by direct referendum (direct democracy) or by means of representatives elected
by the people to vote (representative democracy).
Democracy seeked its origins in Athens, a city which made up, along with
hundreds of others, Greece. In the 7th century, Solon defined the concept of
democracy and how it should work but didn’t put it into practice. In the 5th
century Kleisthenes started to put it into practice. Plato, in his book, The
Republic, mentions types of governments to criticize democracy. He calls
democracy a ‘mob-rule’. He stated that all the citizens should participate in
politics but, only males who were over 18 could vote. The Athenians came up
with the idea of a council made up of 500 citizens from 10 different tribes. 50
from each tribe would be elected to participate in the board for a limited period.
If they had to discuss politics and eventually take political decisions, the 1500
citizens would come up with ideas and the representatives would bring them
forward. It was considered a democracy as it respected the interests not of a
minority but if the whole people; everyone is equal before the law.
However, the Athenian democracy proved to be oppressive. John Locke

enhanced thinking about democratic thought by writing in favour of equality
before the law, personal liberties and freedoms, and the abolishment of the
death penalty and torture. The enlightenment represented the quest for a more
democratic and constitutional authority. The legacy of enlightened thought is
that people are rational enough to think about their own welfare. In modern
democracy, democracies uphold, protect, and promote human rights. It is
believed that responsible and active citizenship is one value which guarantees a
healthy democratic system. Eventually theses ideas led to the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizens in France, & the American Declaration of
Independence.

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I prefer modern democracy as it has fundamental principles like the bill of rights,
a guarantee for citizens’ rights and freedoms; rule of law, which guarantees that
all citizens observe the law and are never above it and party pluralism which
envisaged having at least 2 contesting political parties which ensures a wider
choice and more importantly a check on the power of political parties
themselves. The choice of candidates in a democracy must be free from any
form of interference like race, gender, and age. Moreover, modern democracy
proposes the idea of equity which assures that other than treating everybody
equally, citizens are catered for on an individual basis, democratic values flourish
in a context of peace of mind and a culture of political tolerance.
In conclusion, democracy as a concept is still evolving and we can never say that
it has reached its maximum potential – we need to constantly change and
update our values. Whether we like Athenian or modern democracy better, we
give credit to those whom we put in positions of authority in the beginning.
Despite our efforts, the immaculate picture of democracy frequently gets
tainted by corruption and scandals of leaders and citizens alike.

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Non-Governmental Organisations
An NGO is a non-profit organisation that operates independently of any

government, typically one whose purpose is to address a social or political issue.
Typically, NGOs work to protect the environment, fight corruption, stop
governments misusing their powers to abuse vulnerable groups, and protect our
liberties and freedoms from government interference.
NGOs help democracy work properly. They do this by making it easier for people
to get information about how their country is being run, helping the public
communicate with politicians, and making sure that governments do not abuse
their powers. First, NGOs help to educate the public about what governments
are doing and how it can affect them. By informing the public about how
politicians and companies are using their power and influence, NGOs help the
people form opinions and take decisions based on all the relevant information.
Second, NGOs help the public talk to governments. The public is only able to
choose its representatives once every few years. Once in power, politicians take
hundreds of decisions about laws, taxes, and policies. NGOs give the people a
way of telling our political representatives what we think of their choices.
Although everyone can write to his/her political representative, expressing our
views through an NGO can be more effective, because when many people speak
with one voice, it is easier to be heard.
NGOs explain to governments the views of the people they represent, for
example, people with disabilities or older people or people who do not agree
with nuclear energy. NGOs also try to make sure that governments don’t break
the promises that they have made in their constitutions or in international
treaties, for example, to protect the environment, pay workers fairly, or allow
free speech. When NGOs are working to make sure that governments keep to
these legal obligations, they are helping to safeguard democracy and the public
interest. This is because when governments put rules into their constitution or
into a treaty, the process usually takes many years. Governments do this when
they have agreed that these rules carry great importance because they serve the
public good. Third, unfortunately, governments do break the law. When this
happens, NGOs can take the government to court. This way, NGOs make sure
that governments do not misuse their powers and break constitutional or
internationally agreed rules that have already been democratically agreed to.

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The Moviment Graffitti is a Maltese NGO set up in 1994. It is active against the
oppression and exploitation of people, the environment, and animals, with a
vision of freedom and radical democracy. It works on several issues affecting our
lives and they strive to bring positive change by fighting for justice and equality.
This is done in several ways: they carry out direct actions, organise protests and
gatherings, build coalitions between different social forces and hold awareness-
raising initiatives such as film-nights, talks and discussions. Moviment Graffitti is
autonomous from any economic power or political party, but it regularly
collaborates with other organisations that share its beliefs on specific issues.
There are no hierarchies in the organisation and everybody's voice is equal.
Moviment Graffitti strives to obtain justice for the many criminal laws
committed by the Maltese government when both under social or nationalist
command; justice for victims of racial hate crime (e.g., Lassana Cisse’s murder
by two members of the AFM in 2019) and victims of political hate crime (e.g.,
Daphne Caruana Galizia’s murder in 2017 – remains unsolved). Moviment
Graffitti views the current economic and political system as breeding huge
injustices on both the local and global levels – workers’ exploitation, inequality,
wars, environmental degradation, discrimination against several social groups
and animal cruelty. As Maltese Citizens we strive for a system that is truly
democratic in the political, social, and economic spheres; one where wealth and
power are, as much as possible, equally distributed. Moviment Graffitti believes
that a movement demanding democracy, equality and social justice can be
effective if all groups facing inequality and injustice unite to fight against greed
and exploitation.
Repubblika is a civil society movement with the aim of securing human rights
and democracy in Malta. It aims to promote civil rights, democratic life, personal
liberties, social inclusion, environmental conservation, and economical
sustainability in the national, educational, and social discussion. raise awareness
to the best of our abilities about breaches of international or domestic law and
will seek any means of legal recourse available to ordinary citizens whilst
pressuring institutions to act on reports of illegalities as is their duty.
In the light of migration they aim to seek justice for victims of illegal government
actions, firstly by pressing for the revelation of the truth of what happened and,
secondly, by insisting that responsibility for wrongful action is carried; Engage

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closely with NGOs working with migrants in Malta and international NGOs
promoting migrants’ rights to seek their wisdom and experience to inform our
actions and to provide any support they may desire and that is in our ability to
provide; With others, provide victims of human rights abuses, who have no
other means of representation, support to seek redress; Stand for fundamental
rights within our community. We will not give any quarter to racial prejudice,
xenophobia, or a neglect of human values. We will not compromise on solidarity,
compassion, embracing differences and distinctiveness without prejudice to
inalienable and universal rights; Work to the best of our ability to expose
populism, bigotry, fearmongering and untrue or misleading information,
particularly when these are used as political tools to exploit the vulnerability of
defenceless people to enhance power and authority, or to ensure they are
inoculated from facing consequences of illegal decisions they have taken.

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Deficiencies of Democracy and the Means to Minimise the Effects
Democracy is a form of government where the authority to govern is derived

from the people either by referendum or by means of representatives elected
by the people entitled to vote is Abraham Lincoln once said, “the government of
the people, by the people, and for the people”. This essay will discuss the
deficiencies and means of modern democracy that are put in place to balance
out their effects. Moreover, I aim to rule out how the means discussed further
strengthen democracy.
Over the years many Debates, and views developed regarding the strengths and
weaknesses of democratic governance. As Winston Churchill stated, “no one
pretends that democracy is perfect or wise indeed it has been said that
democracy is the worst form of government, except for all those other forms
that have been tried from time to time”. This means that it is the best available
system when compared to others so is democracy and tarnished the following
point raised raised questions on the credibility of the democratic system.
Persecution of minority - related to majority rule is the question of minority

rights. Barbara Goodwin claims that, “the problem with minorities is the
greatest threat to democracy”. To fight against this threat, modern democracy
has developed the equity principle which shows that other than treating
everybody equally regardless of the status (e.g., ethnicity, sexual orientation, or
gender), citizens are catered for on an individual basis. It also means that any
individual or group may exercise political rights without fear of being
discriminated against. Minority beliefs ought to be respected and protected.
Passive Citizenship – At times the enemy also lies within. Citizens who fail to
participate are telling their rulers that they are not interested in having a say in
politics. This often results in government getting away with decisions which may
not be in the best interest of the citizens as they find no opposition in taking
them. In attempt to encourage youths to become active citizens, the EU has
launched various educational programmes since 2005. It is trying to combat a
democratic deficiency, which is indicative of a wider global phenomenon.
Intolerance – Tolerance may lack in countries with several ethnic minorities. The
legal immigrants who are becoming the new minorities in many EU countries,
are often not shown any toleration & are often denied liberties in perfectly

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democratic countries. To treat this, democracy puts equality into action by

rendering everyone equal before the law and proving that all are valued for their
potential.
Through the means discussed, citizens are to feel more welcome in society,
hence feel a greater sense of responsibility of being involved in the
enhancement of the democracy they are rules under. All over the world the
system has been experiencing changes that were not always made in the
interest of the citizen. Education should be a catalyst of change and a vehicle for
the promotion of democratic living.

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Human RIghts
“To deny people their human rights are to challenge their humanity”, said
Nelson Mandela. It is without a doubt that our human rights give us our dignity
and a sense of belonging. In 1945, The brutality of the Second World War forced
the newly constituted United Nations Organisation to take on an extensive
responsibility for human rights. Universal human rights are controversial,
excessively pretentious and without any hope of analytical proof that
establishes that they are universal and can be applied across cultures.
Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards
of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international
law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to
which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human
being" and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless of their age,
ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are
applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and
they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone.
The UN supports democracy by promoting human rights. In turn, democracy

provides an environment for the protection and effective realization of human
rights. One must be aware that democracy is not just a political system, it is a
way of life and it depends on its citizens to upkeep it. Responsible and active
citizenship is one value that guarantees a healthy democratic system -
participation endows citizens with a say in the running of their country, but to
do this, citizens must be given their human rights to make use of them. The
guarantee for rights and freedoms is commonly known as the bill of rights. It is
embedded in democratic constitutions, ensuring that the government’s power
is checked against the abuse of these rights.
The concepts of ‘one humanity’ and ‘human rights’ are bedfellows. Nonetheless,
the abstraction of the former wraps the latter in controversy. Natural rights
maintain that an individual enters society with certain basic rights and that no
government can deny these rights. The modern idea of natural rights grew out
of the ancient and medieval doctrines of natural law. Political rights are the
rights that involve participation in the establishment or administration of a
franchise, the holding of public office, and other political activities. Without

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these rights, democracy would breakdown, and become more tarnished than it
already is. It is important that citizens feel free to express these rights, whether
they will eventually make a difference or not.

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Module 2: Culture, Art and

Aesthetic Values

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Module 2 – Notes
Art is an act of creation – there is no linear argument. Art is affected by the

society in which it develops. There are 3 theories of beauty: (1) Imitation, (2)
Structure, (3) Morality/Feelings. Art uses the emotions, it expresses, and evokes
reactions, executes feelings, and formulates attitudes. Art presents many
situations where hidden messages are infiltrated into the main message. Art
must hence be a creative effort, and idea of expression. The word art derives
from the Latin word Ars which means ‘to arrange or put together sounds, forms,
colours, letters or movements. Art is an influential aspect of human culture and
does not only address the aesthetic but also the ethic – the religious, moral, and
political realities, as well as practical issues and personal sentiments.
Art is the skill used to produce an aesthetic object to be enjoyed by others. Art
includes paintings, sculpture, architecture, literature, and music. There are also
the performing arts which include dancing, acting, and singing.
The word ‘art’ derives from the Latin word Ars which means ‘to arrange or put
together usually sounds, forms, colours, letters or movements. In this way one
creates something original which is beautiful and aesthetically pleasing and is of
interest to others.
Fine arts are appreciated for their beauty and do not have a practical function.
They are an important form of communication of feelings and ideas.
Art is a form of communication and the way an artist expresses himself and his
audience receives his ‘message’. it is difficult to define art as by its nature art is
ever-changing and it means different things to different people. Art is an
influential aspect of human culture and does not only address the aesthetic but
also the religious, morality, political realities, practical issues, and personal
sentiments.
Some people are born artists and have a natural gift and sometimes even
without formal training manage to produce beautiful art. An artist besides the
necessary skill needs to be able to produce original work, communicate and
make his audience feel emotion when exposed to his art.

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An Art Chronicle
Primitive Art
Artists during this period used prime resources i.e., natural resources at hand
like soil, coal, plants, etc. The art wasn’t elaborative or didn’t elaborate in
portraying any representation of animals or hunters. Art served a function. The
priority of their art was therefore not aesthetic quality. An example of this is the
Bison. Man began to create forms that reproduced his reality and expressed the
anguish that dominated his existence when hunting for wild animals.
Cave Paintings
These cave painting are believed to have been executed in the Palaeolithic
Period (Stone Age). One example is the painting in the Altamira Cave in Spain
drawn between 16,000 to 9,000 BC now declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Another example is the cave painting found in Lascaux in France. Many more
cave paintings have been discovered around the world. Example in Malta
(Hypogeum — Tree of Life).
The importance of man expressing himself.
What is their meaning?
• these paintings were found in caves some of which were totally

underground
• man began to create forms that reproduced his reality and expressed the
anguish and did that dominated his existence when hunting for wild animals for
his survival
• prehistoric art consists of both sculptural forms as well as pictorial forms

created, not to contemplate beautiful images, but based on the desire to express
the confusion in his mind and to create something from nothing.
The artists painted with the aid of small stone lamps (according to
archaeologists) filled with animal fat or marrow. The initial designs were
engraved on to the soft rock or thin lines of paint were blown onto the walls
through a hollow reed. The coloured paint was made of ochre (a natural mineral
crushed to powder giving a red, brown, and yellow pigment). To paint the black

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outlines probably powdered charcoal was used. Powdered pigments were either
rubbed onto the wall with the hands to give delicate gradations of tone like soft
pastel paintings or mixed with some form of binding fluid e.g., animal fat or egg
yolk and applied with crude bristle brushes or reeds.
Creativity — cave paintings are an important example of creativity – man to

express himself used what was around him: ochre, reeds, bristles, animal fat to
help him draw.
Inspiration — man was inspired by the reality of his difficult existence, the great
danger which he exposed himself when out hunting for food to survive.
Spiritual Significance — the bison himself was considered sacred, some think
that by drawing the animals so accurately, they would acquire power over them,
so it was a way of feeling in control. In fact, some of the animals are drawn with
spears inserted in their backs. There is a contrasting difference when comparing
the drawings of animals to those of man.
More Examples: Agar Qim, Malta – Religious Purposes; Venus of Willendorf:

Adoration of the fertility goddess as for the continuation of the tribe, hence her
exaggerated breasts and large belly (as though pregnant). More images of
animals may have been used to conduct rituals and ceremonies.
Antiquity:
The Greek Antiquity was built on cities, polis, whi9ch competed amongst
themselves to better themselves form one another. This competition assisted
the development of art. Each one wanted a temple; they wanted to perform.
However, art united these independent cities through the tales of the Gods at
Mount Olympus. The Pantheon is dedicated to the Goddess Athena. It presents
Mathematics, exact measurements, passage of time, the steps which means
going to a holy ground. The Pantheon has a Doric order, while the Athena Nike
follows the slender and refined ionic order.
Greek Art:
The Greeks had obtained the first type of civilisation. They had form main
periods when it came out art:
1. Geometric – architectural and geometric designs on vases etc.

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2. Archaic – the attempt to represent the human figure as followed by the

Egyptian styles – very rigid, symmetrical & basic forms.
3. Classical – high importance given to observation to obtain a naturalistic
human figure. They were obsessed with nudity. They wanted to sculpt the
human figure to the finest detail. They aimed at naturalism.
4. Hellenistic: Classical architectural orders emerged: Doric, Ionic,
Corinthian. These left a great impact on architectural design.
Example: Laocoon and His Son: Shows the great struggle of human figure
observation. There is dramatization as works within this period involved action,
drama, and expression.
Roman Art:
Within the Roman period, occurred a huge change in thought. The function of
art within this period was political. Emperors wanted to propagate their power
through art. They started commissioning artists to represent them in sculptures.
Example: Bust of Gollieus – away from naturalism, determination, and

authority. The artists were after resemblance; they sought reality.
Medieval Art:
Medieval Art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time & place, over
1000 years of art history in Europe. It includes major art movements & periods,
national & regional art, artists, crafts, & other important things. Medieval art
was produced in many media & the works that remain in large numbers, include
sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metal work, & mosaics; All of
which have had a higher survival rate that other media, like Fresco, wall
paintings, work in precious metals or textiles, including tapestry. Medieval art in
Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the roman empire, and the
iconographic of the early Christian Church. These sources were mixed with the
vigorous “barbarian” artistic culture of northern Europe, to produce a
remarkable artistic legacy. The period ended with the renaissance recovery of
the skills and values of classical art & the artistic legacy of the middle ages was
then put in bad light for some centuries.

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An Overview
At the start of the medieval period, most of the significant works of art, were
very rare and costly objects, associated with the nobility, monasteries, or major
church, or if religious they produced by monks. By the end of the middle ages,
works of considerable artistic interest, could be found in small villages & their
production, was in many places, an important local industry with artists who
were not the clergy. The impression may be that by the surviving works that
almost all medieval art was religious. This is far from the case; the church
became very wealthy and was prepared at times to spend a lot on art. There was
also much secular art of equivalent quality which has suffered from a far higher
rate of wear and tear, loss, and destruction. The Middle Ages generally lacked
the concept of preserving older works for their artistic merit as opposed to their
association, with a saint or founder figure (monastic revolution, St. Benedict -
Benedictine Order - 450-550 AD). Most luxury illuminated
manuscripts of the early Middle Ages had gold or silver book covers, and jewels
and ivory reliefs that survived in far greater numbers, while others, especially
secular ones, were destroyed, after battles (Barbarian invasions or fighting with
neighbouring noblemen and knights)
Early Christian Art:
Early Christian Art generally described as late antique art, covers the period from
about 200 until the introduction of Byzantine art in 500AD (Going back to
values). There are conflicting views to when to medieval period begins. But it is
most often placed late in the period. Greek realism changed in favour of a more
mystical style; a process that was well underway before Christianity became a
major influence. Other influences from the Eastern part of the empire, (Egypt,
Syria), contributed to this process. Figures are mostly seen frontally staring out
at the viewer, where classical art tended to show a profile view (inspired by
coins). During this period, we find ivory reliefs and sarcophagi where they buried
the dead.
Byzantine art:
Byzantine art is the art of the Greek speaking Byzantine Empire formed after the
division of the Roman Empire between Eastern & Western halves, and

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sometimes, also, of parts of Italy under Byzantine Rule. It starts from c.500AD.
During the period especially during 230-843, most sacred images were
destroyed, so little remains that today sheds new understanding about the
period, and most remaining works are in Italy (Rome & Ravenna). Byzantine art
was extremely conservative for religious and cultural reasons, but retained a
continuous tradition of Greek realism, which contended with the difficulties met
with during that time. After the resumption of icon production, in 843 - 1453,
the Byzantine art tradition continued with relatively few changes despite or
because of the slow decline of the Roman Empire. There was a notable revival
of classical style in works of the 10th century and throughout the period,
importance was given to illuminated manuscripts. Monumental sculpture with
figures was not popular in Byzantine art. Hardly any exceptions are made. At the
same time, we can say that this period produced much of the finest art of the
Middle Ages in terms of quality of material and workmanship. With production
centred on Constantinople. Byzantine art crowning achievement were the
monumental Frescos and mosaics inside domed churches, most of which have
not survived due to natural disasters and the changing of churches into mosques
(during the Islamic Conquest)
Influence of Islamic Art:
Islamic art during middle ages falls outside the main scope of this period. But it’s
influence needs mention. Islamic art covers a wide variety of media including
calligraphy (e.g., Gothic Script), illuminated manuscripts, textiles, ceramics,
metal work, and glass. It refers to the art of Muslim countries in the near East,
Islamic Spain, and Northern Africa. Though glass production remained a Jewish
speciality. Islamic rulers controlled at various points parts of Southern Italy and
most of modern Spain and Portugal as well as the Balkans (Croatia, Bosnia,
Slovakia) all of which retained large Christian populations. The Christian
crusaders equally ruled Islamic populations. Infact crusader art is a mixture of
Catholic and Byzantine stars with little Islamic influence
Romanesque Art:
A term for architecture and to some extent pictorial & portable art toward the
beginning of the 11th century. Northern European Art gradually forms part of
the movement after Christianisation as it assimilates post classical style.

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Romanesque art in the period from about 1000 to the rise of Gothic art in the
12th century, developed in conjunction with the rise of monasticism. The style
developed initially in France but spread to Christian Spain, England, Germany,
Italy, and elsewhere to become the 1st mediaeval style found all over Europe.
Though with regional differences. The arrival of the style considered with great
increase in church buildings and size of cathedrals. Many of these were rebuilt
in subsequent periods but often reached roughly their present size. In the
Romanesque period. The Romanesque architecture is dominated by thick walls,
massive structures, conceived as a single form with vaulted roofs and round
headed windows and arches. Figurative sculpture originally colourfully painted,
plays an integral and important part in these buildings. In the capitals of
columns, as well as around impressive portals, usually centred on the tympanum
above the main door as in Vezelay Abbey and St Julien de Jonzy. Reliefs are much
more common than free standing statues in stone, but Romanesque relief
became much higher with some elements fully detached from the wall behind.
Large carvings also became important especially wooden crucifixes and figures
of the virgin Mary. Romanesque sculpture and painting are often extremely
vigorous and expressive and very inventive, in terms of iconography, the
subjects chosen and their treatment. Many features absorbed from classical art
form part of the Romanesque style. Romanesque artists rarely intended to
achieve any classical effect, as art became seen by a wider section population
and because of challenges from new heresies, art became more didactic (to
teach). At the same time grotesque beasts and monsters, and fights with or
between them were popular themes to which religious meanings might be
attached.
Gothic Art:
A variable term depending on the craft, place, and time. The term originated
with the gothic architecture which developed in France from 1137, with the
rebuilding of the Abbey Church of St Danica’s with Romanesque architecture,
this included sculpture as an integral part of the style, with even larger portals
(especially for more light) & other figures on the facade of churches, the location
of the most important sculpture until the late period when large-carved alter
pieces, usually painted or gilded wood became an important focus in many
churches. Gothic painting didn’t appear until around 1200, when it diverged

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from Romanesque style. Gothic sculpture was born in France in 1144 and spread
throughout Europe. By the 13th Century, it had become the international style
replacing Romanesque though in sculpture and painting the transition was not
as sharp as in architecture. Most Romanesque cathedrals and large churches
were replaced by gothic buildings, at least in those places benefiting from the
economic growth of the period. Romanesque architecture best seen in areas
that were subsequently relatively depressed.
Renaissance values
1. Design
Drawing according to the context - Drawing for the Florentine was the
foundation of sound art. The painter achieved perfection in his finished work by
careful practise with preparatory sketches. E.g., Michelangelo - Sistine Chapel.
When he applied his paint to the wall or panel, he worked by filling up his
outlines with tints arranged in a particular way. Design was also the foundation
of fine arts in the philosophical sense. The figures he draws or carves must
reflect both what he sees and the perfect form or design existing in his mind.
Vasari insists that through art consists in the imitation of nature (Plato’s theory
of forms - art as imitation). But reproductions fall short of perfection. E.g.,
Aphrodite (La Pieta). An artist may be praised for painting a figure so that it
seems alive. Figures are commended if they seem not painted but three
dimensional in relief. The artist must bring to his copying of natural forms, a
knowledge of the great works of the past, as well as the platonic idea in his mind.
Art must improve on nature, although nature remains both a starting point and
a constant reference.
2. Grace
One of the essential qualities of a perfect work of art. It is considered as an

undefinable quality dependant on judgement and therefore on the eye. By
contrast with the dryness of the early renaissance painters and with the severity
and sublimity of Michelangelo’s style, grace is a quality suggesting softness, and
appropriateness,
3. Decorum

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The painter depicts a saint. His movements should reflect the character of a holy
man. The meaning later was extended to cover the suitability of a work of art to
its surroundings. It was used to attack the over exposure of Michelangelo’s
nudes.
4. Judgement of the eye rather than of reason
It comes into operation after an artist has observed all the rules (imitation,
measurement, proportion) and when he is executing the final work swiftly and
surely. Style and manner - this refers to an artist’s personal style or the style of
a school. Vasari talks of a new style discovered by Giotto and the students, and
a renewal of style during the second phase of the rebirth of the arts. He also
referred to a ‘true’ or ‘fine’, namely that of the ‘modern age’ which originated
with Leonardo da Vinci and reached perfection with Michelangelo.
Baroque Art:
“A rough gem” “absurd”, “grotesque” baroque style suggested grandeur,

wealth, and power. We were under the rule of the Order of St John and
secondly, after the great siege, the order decided to build a new capital city. The
style was not organised and regular as that of the renaissance. The church and
European monarchies wanted to impress and use art as propaganda. They also
used art to control the expansion Protestantism. They commissioned artworks
to mesmerise those who tried to defy them. After the renaissance, the
mannerists had tried to create a new style, but they rather copied the manner
of the renaissance. Baroque artists produced art that was completely innovative
and unique.
Ecclesiastical architecture, sculpture, and painting were intended to hypnotize

the beholder in such a way that his or her ac of faith would remain constant. The
artistic rendering of energy, dynamism, and action substituted the
contemplative character and formal balance of the renaissance.
They had the money to control the artistic output - most of the artists worked
on commission from the patrons who played them.
There was secularism - less power of the church, less inspirations from daily life
- the church was still very important in the renaissance.

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The Order of St John was a representative of the church - they had to follow the
instructions of the church, but it was a very good order, they didn’t build a city
on an old style.
Baroque art created a space in which the stunning combination of architecture,

sculptures, and painting on one hand, and the spectator on the other, meet in a
specific moment in time and space.
Next, we see the perfecting of the technique of fresco, and the introduction of
oil paints. This was used for paintings on walls and ceilings. The new fresco
technique used in Italy from the fourteenth century was a great improvement.
Its main feature was the application of a final layer of fresh plaster which the
artist painted on while it was still wet. As it dried, the plaster and the colours
became chemically bonded, so the picture would not flake. The artist had to be
quick without retouching or going into detail. It was used to create large, grand,
and dramatic effects. Frescoes were painted with pigments (coloured materials)
and water and tempera (pigments mixed with egg yolk and water).
By 1470 Italian artists started experimenting with oil. This was imported from
Flemish artists who had developed their own type of art. In this way they dried
very slowly. The artist could build the picture layer by layer, correcting mistakes
and achieving detail. Leonardo, Raphael, and Titian used this oil on canvas rather
than panels. Unlike a painting a sculpture is three-dimensional standing alone,
or a relief projecting from a background of the same material. Sculpture was
important in the Renaissance because of the influence of ancient Greek and
Roman statuary e. g. Donatello and Michelangelo. The most striking changes
were in bronze sculpture, revived from centuries of neglect.
Classicism
The influence of the classical past on the Renaissance was far stronger than on
the Middle Ages. Greco-Roman civilization set the standards by which
Renaissance people judged almost everything from literature to military tactics,
painting, sculpture, and architecture. Classical works were admired and
medieval was despised. Architects abandoned the pointed arch Gothic style and
began to build with the round arches, columns, and domes of the Romans. Most

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of the works known in the Renaissance times (by excavation) was Roman, or
Roman copies of Greek works. Classical works seemed noble, perfectly
proportioned, serene, and beautiful. These were the qualities they tried to
reproduce in their work. That is why, Renaissance art, though naturalistic i.e.,
mirroring the real world, is not entirely realistic. In their striving for beauty, and
in their revival of the idea of the nude as a subject for art.
During the Middle Ages, the body was despised, and naked human beings
included sinful Adam and Eve or shameful figures of tormented souls in hell. In
Classical art, nakedness was commonplace, and the body was shown a splendid
and beautiful. Renaissance sculptors such as Donatello and Michelangelo used
human bodies to express all sorts of effects and emotions.
Classical influence on painting was less because only a few Greek examples
survive, and Roman paintings. Renaissance painters tried to live up to the
Classical ideals. Greco-Roman sculptures provided the painters with their
subject matter. Artists admired Classical art so much, they did not simply copy
it. They worked in the spirit of their time, and the greatest among them tried to
match and even outdo the Greek and Roman artists. They had to catch up with
techniques that had been unknown or neglected for many centuries.
Religious Art
In contrast to the religious attitudes of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance has
sometimes been thought to have had a non-religious outlook. People were
certainly more interested in secular (non-religious) activities and in the world
around them, than their medieval ancestors had been. Secular subjects gave
way to the Renaissance, religion also remained vitally important, and the
majority of works of art were still religious in their subject matter. The Church
continued to be the greatest patron of the arts, reaching the peak of its influence
in this respect at Rome during the High Renaissance. Although patronage
outside the Church was becoming more common, a wealthy merchant was just
a likely to order a religious as a non-religious work of art, perhaps a sacred image
or the furnishings for a chapel. Religious attitudes were slowly changing; people
were becoming more aware of earthly beauty and the human side of religion.
Renaissance produced a huge amount of religious art, showing stories from the
Bible as taking place in the human and natural world. This more human

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approach to religious art encouraged some artists to introduce new ideas.

Medieval artists often painted a set of panels with the Virgin and Child in the
centre, isolated from the saints who flanked them in the panels.
There was also a change in the way the donor – the person who paid for the
altarpiece for a church or monastery – was represented. Although Renaissance
artists obviously enjoyed such opportunities for display in most cases, they were
able to combine the new naturalism with the strong religious feeling, creating a
fresh and distinctive kind of religious art. Dr P Caruana
Portraits
The fifth century was the first great age of portraiture since ancient times.
Renaissance patrons were extremely conscious of their own importance and
were anxious to have themselves recorded in paintings. As Christians they
hoped for a place in heaven, but like the heroes of the classical world whom they
so admired, they also longed for earthly fame during and after their life.
The first portraits were influenced by striking profiles of emperors shown in

relief on Roman coins. This gave rise to a new form of art, the portrait medal.
These were extremely popular until the beginning of the sixteenth century.
From the mid-15th century, sculptors carved the first portrait busts, (showing
head and shoulders) since classical times. The Renaissance artists developed
slightly different form shoeing more of the chest and arms. Elaborated carved
tombs were built for famous or wealthy people, they were recognisable portrait
of the person, often shown as though still alive (Medieval a dead person) e.g.,
Giuliano de Medici.
Painted portraits showed the person in profile, possibly because this was easier
to catch the likeness (e.g., the wife of Battista Sforza). Later 15th century
Antonello da Messina began to paint three quarter view portraits i.e., facing to
one side. This became the standard pose allowing the artist to paint facial
features in a way that made the sitter seem solid and three dimensional e.g.,
Giovanni Bellini’s Doge Leonardo Loredana (c. 1501). Venetian portraiture
reached its peak with Titian who produced a whole series of portraits, and at the
same time Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

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Landscape
In works of art landscape paintings and drawings are very nice. In reality love of
nature, expressed through art, has not been very common in human history.
Only the Chinese and Japanese have a long tradition in appreciating the
landscape. It was only in the 14th century that uncultivated nature began to
appear in the backgrounds of pictures. The landscapes shown were becoming
convincing enough to be enjoyed for their own sake. Landscape began to play a
more positive, mood-creating role in the paintings of Florentine painter Piero de
Cosmo. It could create mysterious sadness, that haunts the picture.
Leonardo’s Mona Lisa and the Virgin of the Rocks, the setting is sweet, soft
figures against an unexpectedly rocky background. The best were Giovanni
Bellini, Giorgione, and Titian. But they never painted landscapes for its own sake
without people or story.
The Baroque — A lush new visual language (artist wants to communicate with
the spectator) the majestic sensation given by the building one must see the
visual language.
Thrown down a period of art. Catholic ruler- Italy, France and further spread by
powerful religious orders (order of Saint John- Hospitallers- monks, take care of
the pilgrims and a military roles). Through their monasteries and convents
Brought images of religious worship to the public eye, the glorification of the
ideal. The main aim was ‘art should be easily understood and strongly felt
common people would be in affect of an awe of the church)
Baroque churches became an ex invigorated emphasis of the glory
Large central space with a dome to allow light to illuminate, medieval chapel
The union between the heavens and the earth intricate interiors,
ornamentation, elevated and sacred space. Defining characteristic- real or
implied movement, an attempt represent infinity, emphasis on light and its
effects, focus on the theatrical.
Quadro report ado (frescos that incorporated the illusion of being composed of
a series of framed paintings. bland Boundaries between painting, sculptures

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New era - richness, dramatic realism, intense emotion, and movement (Bernini)
Baroque figures and sculptures new importance spiralling outward reaching into
the surrounding space that was to be seen for multiple perspectives, tenebrism
and the use of light, the chiaroscuro, treatment of light and darkness in an
artwork. This helped to create a dramatic tension. Caravaggio fighter involved it
(tenebrism- intensification of the contrast within dark atmospheric scenes to
spotlight articular elements. Ex, saint Jerome.
Modern Art:
Remains an elastic term. It accommodates several definitions and meanings.

Constantly moving forward in time. As time passed the whole thing from Paris it
moved to New York. Art reflects wider changes taking place in society. Reflects
the outlook of the artist (what was important to him those days). Refer to
different strands.
What were the origins of modern art?
Historical background; manufacturing factories-dying out
Transport and technology (lived, worked, and travelled). Realising how small the
world is (travel to somewhere else within a day)
Module 4- urbanisation- towns and cities grew and prospered (became rich) as
people left the countryside to live in urban factories (industrial).
Another factor- cities became crowded- bad living conditions of workers hence
art become something the artist needed (inspired and felt a psychological need
to paint or sculpture). Beginning of the 20th saw the beginning of psychology,
sociology, psychoanalysis as a field of study. Yung or Freud psychoanalysis-
unconscious- the works of art are not as clear as time passed the people can’t
give the appreciation to art. Characteristics of a movement are the criteria to
appreciate the art- photography, new style of painting, artists explore before
following the rules and sometimes they invent rules, the content changed
(places, people, slums), exploitation, philosophical developments and changes
in political thought (a number of monarchs took a secondary role after the world
wars). Artists were socially conscious.

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The date- 1863- Edward manet exhibited his shocking painting le dejeuner sur
l’herbe- symbol of wider changes.
Characteristics of modern art
An entire century- different art movement from pure abstraction to hyper

realism- from antiart schools to classical painting, art nouveau. So great was the
diversity that it is difficult to. Think about a unificatory characteristic that
represent the era.
Common- the artists believed that ART mattered. Art had real value maybe more
(criticize the situation the people that are living- medium of protest- artist
criticize
In what ways modern art is different?
New types of art (collage, assemblage, kinetic art, photography, animation, land
art, performance art- music)
Use of new materials- modern painters fixed object to their canvases, sculptures
used found objects, ordinary everyday items- reusing old things
Expressive use of colour- movements of fauvism, expressionism- moods,

exploited colour in a major way
New techniques- chromatography, automatic drawing, action painting, Cilic

screen printing
How did it develop? Dominated by new impressionist style of painting?
Several pioneering strands (impressionism, realism, academic art, romantism,

amniography poster, in the last 10 years- revolts against the academies)
1900-1914: this was the most exciting period of modern art, anything was still
possible and. The machine was still viewed exclusively as a friend of man. The
war- tank- factories became deadly ornaments, not a friend to man.
German- doing their own thing, and French
Cubism- formal attributes of painting, futurism referred to emphasise the

possibilities of the machines, expressionism- individual perspective

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1914-1924: (1914-1918: the 1st war) countries and people were trying to pick
up was left of their country and life.

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Module 2 - Essays
Art, in general, changed from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance (inspiration,
techniques, values, materials) but also remained the same in other ways.
As an age period, Medieval art was grand on its’ own merits, producing religious
pieces of art and celebrating the beauty of Gothic and Romanesque styles.
Moreover, the end of the Middle Ages marked the beginning of the Renaissance.
This essay will discuss the differences between Medieval and Renaissance art
through different perspectives.
Renaissance artists primarily aimed to portray human beauty and religion. They
also had a deep sense of perspective and developed three dimensional effects.
There is no depth to the picture, and everyone in the painting has the same
expression. In Renaissance art we can see the use of shadows, the sfumato
technique, evoking movement in their paintings. The Middle Ages produced
secular art and presented their elongated figures in a rigid frontal view; the
artists of the Middle Ages used simple colours & belief to imply that art was
indeed needed to enhance faith of those the illiterate. These reasons support
the ideology of the Middle Ages being a backward age - instead of focusing on
techniques like contrapposto, to reveal precision, they sought the attention of
the viewers by simplicity, with their figures having little-to-no emotion, just as
we see in the “Madonna and the Child on a Curved Throne”.
In the “Madonna and the Child on a Curved Throne”, we can see the abstracted
style of Byzantine icons. The gold striations that define folds in clothing, the
round volume of Mary’s veiled head, and the frontal pose of Jesus - who looks
more like a miniature adult than a child - are all part of the Byzantine tradition
as children of the Medieval era had little value. We can see this difference when
we compare it with “The Virgin of the Rocks”, where the subjects look more their
age. Furthermore, the subjects of the painting are given life by their facial
expression (their eyes and mouth), and the movement evoked by the position
of their clothing.
The art produced during these two eras also had to do with the values they
sought as communities. Humanism, Individualism and Secularism. In” The Virgin
of the Rocks” Leonardo Da Vinci defies the natural in many ways that cut across
previous artistic assumptions. The result is organic rather than intellectual. They

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are embedded in the landscape. Leonardo has placed the figures in a shady
grotto, with views through the rocks to a watery landscape beyond.
Because the Medieval artist’s subject is the holy and infinite presence, their
backgrounds are dematerialized with shimmering gold, and figures appear
timeless and unchanging. The body is “bodiless” and the drapery of the clothes
Jesus the Child and the Mother Mary wear are meant to be divine signs rather
than a representation of the human form. In his painting Leonardo painted the
Virgin, an infant Saint John the Baptist – a cross under his arm – and an angel,
kneeling around Christ, a chubby cross-legged child. The three figures
communicate with each other in silence while the angel acts as a heavenly
witness. This would be very unlikely shown in the art of the Middle Ages.
The colours in “Madonna and the Child” are symbolic - red symbolizes “the
blood of sacrifice” and the blue symbolizes “the sky of truth.” The green in the
icon symbolizes the “green of Spring - of resurrection.” In Da Vinci’s work the
green suggests that the water is shallow, like a swamp. By painting the
mountains in the background blue, he tricks us into believing they are in the far
distance. He softened their edges, so they appear hazy, another technique that
mimics the effects of vision in reality. The cool blue green also contrasts directly
with the rich, warm red brown of the earth. The figures emerge softly from the
darkness of the grotto. Leonardo created this effect by painting very subtle,
rather than stark, transitions between light and dark. This created a blurry effect
around the edges of forms – a technique later called sfumato.
The definition of “Renaissance” is “awakening” or “rebirth.” With this in mind,

we can clearly see why these two eras of art differed greatly when compared.
One had a religious function, and the other was based on the study of the
anatomy of the human body - with it’s psychological and physical factors.
Moreover, materials, techniques and inspirations changed because of the
evolution of values.

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Analysis of the Mona Lisa
Despite being the most famous painting in the world, the Mona Lisa is - like all
of Leonardo's works - neither signed nor dated. Its title comes from the
biography of Leonardo written by the 16th century Mannerist painter and
biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), and published around 1550, which
reported his agreement to paint the portrait of Lisa Geraldine, wife of Francesco
del Gioconda, a Florentine dignitary and wealthy silk merchant. Vasari also
mentioned that Leonardo employed musicians and singers to keep her amused,
which might give an explanation to her well-known enigmatic smile. Her lips tilt
gently upwards at the edges, but her expression is hard to read. Among other
aspects, this gives Mona Lisa an air of remote calmness. As usual, Leonardo
procrastinated ceaselessly over the painting - notably the position of the
subject's hands and continued working on it for another 20 years.
First and foremost, the portrait shows the subject sitting upright and sideways
in a chair, with her face and chest turned slightly towards the viewer: a posture
derived from the 'pyramid' image used to depict a sitting Madonna. Her left arm
sits comfortably on the armrest of the chair and is clasped by the hand of her
right arm which crosses her front. The slightly protective position of her arms,
as well as the armrest, creates a sense of distance and a psychological
connection between sitter and spectator, an innovation in portrait painting that
was soon taken up by other artists. The background landscape behind the sitter
was created using aerial perspective, with its smoky blues and no clearly defined
vanishing point. It gives the composition significant depth, although its details
reveal a clear imbalance between the (higher) rocky horizon to the right,
compared to the (lower) flatlands stretching away on the left. This imbalance
adds to the slightly surreal atmosphere of the picture. The hazy appearance of
the landscape has been achieved via a technique called glazing in which layers
are thinned, transparent oil paint is applied over one another. The blue colour
emphasizes the dream-like effect of the landscape and help create the illusion
that the background is receding.
Another slightly surreal feature of the Mona Lisa is her lack of eyebrows and
eyelashes. This was not a deliberate act of the artist, as scans indicate that
originally, she was given both. It is possible that the colour pigment used for
these facial features has since faded or been unwittingly removed during

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cleaning. If one looks closely at Mona Lisa’s hair, a dark veil can be observed over
her head and to the side of her face, probably indicating virtuousness.
Undoubtedly, the Mona Lisa exemplifies Leonardo's contribution to the art of

oil painting, namely his mastery of sfumato. This aesthetic technique involves
the smooth, almost imperceptible, transition from one colour to another, by
means of ultra-subtle tonal gradations. Evident throughout the painting.
Leonardo's use of sfumato is particularly visible in the soft contouring of Lisa
Geraldine’s face, around the eyes and mouth. It was a technique of oil painting
that he had already demonstrated with great success in The Virgin of the Rocks
(1483-5).
Truly, the general impression created by the Mona Lisa portrait is one of great
serenity, enriched by a definite air of mystery. The serenity comes from the
muted colour scheme, the soothing sfumato tonality, and the harmony created
by the sitter's pyramid-shaped pose and understated drapery. The mystery
stems from several factors: first, her enigmatic half-smile; second, her gaze,
which seem to look straight back at the viewer and follow them around if they
move. Leonardo Da Vinci achieves this illusion by directing the left eye squarely
at the viewer and positioning the right eye slightly to one side; her hands which
have a slightly unreal, lifeless quality - almost as if they belonged to a different
body.
Created by one of the greatest Old Masters in the history of art, the Mona Lisa
is a wonderful example of High Renaissance aesthetics of the early cinquecento
and has become an unmistakable icon of Western culture. The ambiguity of the
subject’s expression, the monumentality of the composition, and the subtle
modelling of forms and atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have
contributed to the continuing fascination and study of the work. It is arguably
the most famous portrait of all time - “She has the serene countenance of a
woman, but she will remain beautiful forever”, Theophile Gautier (1898).

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Compare & Contrast of Three Statues
The Renaissance period is the revival of the Classical period. It is an

interdisciplinary era where various aspects are merged such as art with science,
and religion with mythology. There is also a renewed interest in archaeology to
revive the past.
Truly, the artists of the renaissance managed to render a more natural reality in
their artworks by using various factors. First, they portrayed realism in their
works of art most of which are considered as masterpieces. Figures are painted
and sculpted as solid bodies. An important technique which is seen in the works
of art is emotion. In fact, the faces are very realistic and helps us understand
how they are feeling or passing through. The artists also manage to give a sense
of movement to their works of art to render them more realistic. In the beautiful
statue of Michelangelo “The David”, is ready to throw a stone at Goliath.
Michelangelo described the statue as “his body is a reservoir of energy, his eyes
watchful, his hands like those of a killer, his neck like that of a bull, he stands
ready to strike”.
As a matter of fact, nudism is not considered a sin in the Renaissance since Jesus
was in fact a human and we were made on his form. Thus, this brings about
works of art portraying the anatomy of the human body. Michelangelo and
DaVinci used to steal corpses and dissect them to study how the human body
functioned. Michelangelo’s sculptures are further proof of the depth in which
such artists dealt with the human figures. The muscles are depicted perfectly
the turning and the twisting of the bodies. This was a development of the
sculptor Donatello, who had already acquired such skills as the counterpoise and
had also produced the first nude since antiquity. Donatello's technique for
carving reliefs, known as staccato, revolutionized existing relief techniques.
Staccato, or shallow relief, was a way of carving marble to give a three-
dimensional impression on a flat surface.
Michelangelo chose to depict David before the battle: alert and ready for
combat. Michelangelo used a classical pose known as contrapposto, where most
of the weight is on one leg, so that the shoulders and arms twist off-axis from
the hips and legs, giving the statue a more dynamic look. It shows the perfect

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anatomy of male figure twisted in the contrapposto. The development of linear

perspective by artists like Giotto and Brunelleschi, aerial perspective by
Leonardo, and the development of the development of oil painting techniques
by Jan van Eyck made it possible for Renaissance artists to achieve formal
perfection.
In Myron’s “Discus Thrower”, the discus thrower depicted is about to release his
throw: "by sheer intelligence", enduring pattern of athletic energy. The moment
thus captured in the statue is an example of rhythms, harmony, and balance.
embodied in this sculpture is how well the body is proportioned, the symmetric.
The potential energy expressed in this sculpture's tightly wound pose,
expressing the moment of stasis just before the release, is an example of the
advancement of Classical sculpture from Archaic. The torso shows no muscular
strain, however, even though the limbs are outflung.
All three pieces depict the growing refinement and demand for detail which led
to a greatly increased use of marble, as well as other finer types like Istrian
stone, and Paetra serena sandstone. White Carrara marble, the favourite of
Michelangelo, was used widely for monumental sculpture, its colour sometimes
softened by wax.
Throughout the ages, there is a constant when it comes to ideal beauty

standards: wealth is attractive. The physical signs that indicate that a person is
rich are what we are all supposed to consider beautiful. The soft, round bodies
of the women in these paintings, sent a clear message: this woman is healthy
and wealthy. On the other hand, the Renaissance embraced ancient Greek
philosophy, which held up intellectual and educated men as the ideal, it was
much more important than what they looked like. However, that didn’t mean
that this ideal man could let himself go and spend all day reading and debating
ideas. Not at all, he was supposed to live a balanced life, where he spent equal
amounts of time on cultivating his intellect and doing physical activity. As a
result, the ideal man we see in Greek and Renaissance art looks athletic, healthy,
and fit, not too muscular, just right, in a way that says, “this man is smart, but
he also takes care of himself.”
In conclusion, we see how the Renaissance artists paid very close attention to
the human anatomy and were inspired by it, as depicted in their works. Art and

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aesthetics were directed to the individual, feelings and emotions, personal

expression, and the realistic representation of nature and reality.

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Art as Propaganda
“Propaganda is a much maligned and often misunderstood word,” said Joseph

Goebbels in 1933. In the past, as well as in the present, humans use art as a
tactic to recruit people, whether that be for personal advancement or to further
national causes. For use in propaganda images are often paired with slogans,
sayings, and words. This adds some extra clarity to the point that the image is
trying to make. Propaganda was the subtle way to wage war during WWI, WWII,
The Cold War, Vietnam, and many more instances throughout history. The main
division during this time was between “us” and “them” and gave those people
killing and dying justification for what they were doing.
Political posters and cartoons were the easiest, most straightforward yet
unrealistic vessel to create these images in. They were used most of the time in
propaganda campaigns in many different countries over long periods of time.
Egypt was a formidable, strong, and unified civilization that had an extensive
appreciation for the arts. Pharaohs understood that to have a lasting impact on
the world, they must erect grand monuments and commission beautiful works
of art to glorify their name. Most notably, the Great Pyramids of Gizeh (Figure
3) stood tall in the Egyptian desert to commemorate various pharaohs and
provide them a palace from which to rule into their afterlife. These enormous
structures crafted with limestone by thousands of slaves were a clear
representation of the wealth and control these leaders possessed. Not just any
leader could erect such a monument. In a similar fashion, the Mortuary Temple
of Hatshepsut (Figure 4) was built to honour the pharaoh herself as well as her
connection to the sun god, Amun-Re. As a woman with unprecedented power
in her time, she sought to project her power through artwork that both idealized
and honoured her. The temple was filled with 200 statues of her, often depicting
her with the masculine features so admired in a pharaoh. Through this
propaganda, Hatshepsut was able to convince her rivals and her own people that
she was worthy to lead. The Egyptians were no fools and the clever pharaohs
manipulated artwork in their favour so that their legacy could stand the test of
time.
One example of this is Trajan’s Column in Rome. Dedicated in AD 113, it was

built to commemorate two successful campaigns that the Emperor Trajan

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waged against the Dacians, a barbarian tribe from modern-day Romania.

Constructed from 29 different blocks of marble weighing up to 77 tonnes each,
it contains 2,500 figures, which were once brightly painted. A panoply of activity
and detail (Trajan himself makes an appearance 59 times), the frieze is a potent
expression of Roman efficiency and military ruthlessness. It is also a masterpiece
of narrative art.
Fast-forward to the 20th century – the heyday of propaganda as we understand

it, according to David Welch – and we find examples of first-rate art that was co-
opted by propagandists. During the Cold War, for instance, modern art became
a weapon deployed by the American government. In 1946, the US State
Department spent almost $50,000 buying 79 paintings by Ben Shahn, Georgia
O’Keeffe and others for an international touring exhibition called Advancing
American Art, which ended up in Prague at a time when Czechoslovakia was
behind the Iron Curtain. The idea was to refute Soviet claims that America was
culturally vacuous. There are even reports that the CIA helped to fund the
Abstract Expressionist movement for similar reasons.
The use of propaganda has significantly lessened but is still utilized today. Since
it became an apparent means of influence, propaganda has evolved into
employing an approach that borders on anti-propaganda. Calling out
propaganda has become a common trend in political art. This can take on the
form of propaganda itself because it employs the same method of illustration as
its original counterpart.

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Module 3: The Environment and

Sustainable Development

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Module 3 – Notes
Sustainable Development
Since the 1970s the concept of sustainable development has received lots of
public and political attention. This is reflected in several international action
plans and strategies that promote greater harmonisation between economic
growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. These are all crucial for
the well-being and resilience of people and the environment.
The idea that developed solely on economic growth is unjust and unsustainable,
and led to greater awareness on the importance of sustainable development.
The concept of sustainable development received its first major international
recognition in 1972, at the UN conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm where it was acknowledged that the economic growth and
environmental protection should be managed concurrently rather than
addressed separately.
The concept was then popularised in 1987 through the report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development, ‘Our Common Future’
(Brundtland Report), which established the now renowned definition of
sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs”.
The nine principles of Sustainable Development:
1. Respect and care for the community of life: care should be taken to all forms
of life and physical environment so that the earth’s resources are shared fairly.
All life on Earth is interdependent, affecting all other ecosystems.
2. Improve the quality of human life: real development means that humans can
improve their lives in all ways — safe and healthy environment, education,
human rights etc.
3. Conserve the Earth’s vitality and diversity: misguided management may

destroy whole ecosystems therefore nature’s natural systems must be
preserved.

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4. Minimize the depletion of non-renewable sources: we must reuse and recycle

non-renewable resources for the coming generations.
5. Keep within the Earth’s carrying capacity: Resource’s shanty to leave these
resources for the coming generations
6. Change personal attitudes and practices: Education must be used to make

people grow into caring for the environment and improve quality of life on a
healthier planet.
7. Enable communities to care for their own environments: Inform communities

about environmental issues to make necessary changes in society.
8. Provide a national framework for integrating development and conservation:

detect problems at early stages and make laws to make sure problems are
addressed.
9. Create global alliance: sustainability could be achieved by working together.
Role of NGOs and CSOs
Sustainable development requires an integration of economic, social, and

environmental approaches towards development, NGOs are very prominent
actors in environmental governance. Since the Rio Earth Summit (1992), the
involvement of NGOs has accepted practices for environmental governance at
various local, national, international levels.
An NGO is any non-profit, voluntary citizens’ group which is organised on a local,

national, and international level. Task-oriented and driven by people with
common interests, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian
functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments, advocate and monitor policies
and encourage political participation through provision of information.
Civil society has significantly changed due to technology and geopolitics. The
latter have produced opportunities and pressures that have created millions of
CSOs. They have enabled citizen participation both online and offline and have
increased citizen interest in global governance.
The greatest challenges for the NGOs are Financing

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Green parties are those whose priority is the protection of the environment.
Green politicians are those who harbour green values without affiliating to a
green party.
In Malta the Alternative Demokratika is a green party. There are politicians in

the two main parties who have declared themselves green politicians but in fact
must follow their own party’s policies. The way our electoral systems works it is
difficult for a candidate of Alternative Demokratika to get elected.
Many times, Green Parties do not govern on their own but are part of a coalition.
The definition of coalition government is a government in which several parties

cooperate. No party on its own has a majority in Parliament. Examples of
countries which have had coalition governments are the Nordic countries, the
Benelux countries, Germany, Italy, Turkey, and Switzerland.
History of Green Parties
In Germany between 1998 and 2005 there was a socialist-green coalition under
the premiership of Chancellor Schroeder.
Hippocrates (460-377 BC) referred to ‘de aero, acquis et loci’ and may be
considered as the first work on ecology.
In the 19th century the first green movement emerged after the colonization of
Westerners in the United States.
In 1847 George Perkins Marsh called attention to the destructive Impact of

human activity on land due to deforestation. In 1872 a more conservationist
approach to management of forested lands began to be taken.
The first World’s national Park was declared in America called the Yellowstone
National Park in 1872. (Ta’ Aqil was declared as the first National Park in Malta).
The 26th President of the US Theodore Roosevelt was considered as the first
true environmentalist and he inaugurated several National Park. He loved
hunting but believed in conservation of nature for its inherent value and not the
monetary value.
Rachel Carson: Silent Spring (1962)

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This very important book was considered as a cornerstone in environmentalism.
It spoke of the side effects of the new wonder chemicals DDT used extensively
as pesticides.
Increased awareness of the harm human intervention could have on the

environment.
Other Milestones
1970 - First Earth Day
1972 – Green Peace founded
1972 – The Values Party, the World’s first Green Party was founded in New
Zealand
1980 – Beginning of International meetings resulting in several Protocols and

Conventions.
1982 – Whaling was phased out.
Environmental Politics and Public Participation: Green Parties in Coalition

Government and NGOs
• Green Movement green politician/parties respect the environment in their

policies
• Theodore Roosevelt US president, first true environmentalist, inaugurated

national parks, encouraged the preservation of lands
• Rachel Carson’s book “Silent Spring” (1962) stated the side effects of chemicals
such as pesticides
• A few years later after the book, scientists became aware of the ozone hole
due to CFCs.
• Then… o 1970 1st Earth Day o 1972 Greenpeace founded
o May 1972 1st green party o from the late 1980s international meetings about
the environment

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• Coalition government cooperation between several parties since no party has

a majority. • Malta 1 green party
• Germany where the Greens have the greatest following; Socialist-Green

coalition ruled from 1998 to 2005
• Non-Governmental Organization (NGO):
o Independent from the state
o Non-profit organization; gain a portion of their funding from private sources;

difficult access for funding possibilities. o Many NGOs now prefer the term
Private Voluntary Organization (PVO)
o Different NGOs: International, business-oriented, religious, environmental,

etc
• White Paper: o A policy or position paper, which is subjected to cabinet and

public scrutiny for the purposes of effecting any changes in it prior to it being
proposed as a new legislation
• Public participation important because:
o Empowering people individually and collectively
o Reducing social exclusion and alienation o Decisions taken through

participatory processes are stronger
• Malta ENGOs Nature Trust Malta, Birdlife Malta, Friends of the Earth, Gaia, Din
L-Art Helwa (more focused on the safeguarding of historical sites)
• Pressure/Interest Groups began when 5 local councils (Luqa, Qormi, Siggiewi,

Zebbug and Imqabba) joined forces to object to a proposed cement plant in the
limits of Luqa.
• NIMBY “Not in my backyard” issue
• NIABY “Not in anyone’s backyard” issue
A pressure Group in contrast with an NGO is a group of people which forms in

relation to a specific case and with time they die down.

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Example a group set out to protect a particular area e.g., Żonqor Point. Once the
situation resolves, one way or another the pressure group is dissolved.
Environment Development Planning Act 2016
The preliminary:
a) “environment” … the whole of the element and conditions, natural or

man-made, existing on earth, whether together or in isolation, and in
particular:
b) the air, water, and land.
c) all the layers of the atmosphere
d) all biodiversity (all organic and inorganic matters and the living organisms)
e) all ecosystems
f) the landscape and its features
It shall be the duty of every person together with the Government to protect the
environment and to assist in the taking of preventive and remedial measures to
protect the environment and manage natural resources in a sustainable manner.
It shall be the duty of the Gov. to protect the environment for the benefit of the
present and future generations and to that effect:
a) to manage the environment in a sustainable manner by integrating and

giving due consideration to environmental concerns in decisions on socio-
economic and other policies.
b) to collaborate with other governments and entities in the protection of
the global environment.
c) to disseminate information on the environment and to facilitate the
participation of the public in decisions that affect the environment.
The Malta Environment Authority is established to implement the duties of the

government with regards to the environment.
The authority should establish long and short-term objectives and strategies.
- This law aims to define the duty to promote a comprehensive

sustainable land use planning system.

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- Duty to preserve use and develop land and sea for present and future
generations taking in consideration both the economical and the social
needs.
National planning policies should be clear and accessible. Regular plans must be
delivered according to the needs of the time. Address problems and identify
shortcomings. Apply scientific and technical knowledge, resources, and
innovations to promote effective development planning. Consider costs, risks,
and public values when decisions are taken.
The planning authority
- Consists of the executive council and planning board

- Must perform the duties under this Act according to the strategies of
the government of the day
- Distinct from the Malta Environment Authority.
The spatial strategy is a document regulating the sustainable management of

land and sea.
- Based on the plans and policies under this act

- Policies, activities, and inputs must be integrated and coordinated
- Many factors must be taken into consideration e.g., leisure, recreation,
agricultural and industrial activities etc.
Fernand Braudel challenged the concept of history as an inventory of individuals

and the narrative of their deeds.
The Mediterranean
Mountain chains rising above the sea, the small plains, the sea, the rivers, and
the ease of maritime communication — have shaped the cultural progress of the
region.
Roads - became the extension of the power of the plains
Plateaux provided the setting for the easy establishment of roads and tracks
Malta’s strategic position and deep, well-sheltered harbours:

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Liability — people suffered long periods of domination, servitude, and piracy
Asset — provided for the people’s well-being.
Maltese turned to the sea — dockyards, yachting, free port, cruise liners, sea
services and sun-and-sea tourist facilities.
In ancient Greece and Genesis’s man occupied the top place above animals,
plants, and minerals. Men can sin against God, others, and themselves but they
cannot sin against the non-human natural world unless this affects other human
beings. Philosophical and religious traditions were considered a sign of
superiority of the human species over the amoral species. In past civilisations
humans have not thought it wrong to treat one as an inferior (e.g., slavery,
females used for sexual functions, the disabled used for scientific and leisure
delights, children used and abused). Self-awareness rationality, language
abilities.
Climate Change
"I want you to act as if the house is on fire, because it is.", Greta Thunberg
Fossil Fuels are made of hydrogen and carbon so when they burn the carbon
reacts with the oxygen in the air to yield carbon dioxide. The more carbon the
fossil fuel contains, the more carbon dioxide it yields.
For example, coal produces more carbon dioxide than petroleum fuels, which
produce more carbon dioxide than natural gas.
Fossil fuels supply 85% of energy consumed in the US and contribute to 98% of
emissions of carbon dioxide.
The industrial sector is the major energy consumer followed by the transport
sector and then the residential and commercial sectors.
The carbon dioxide produced acts together with other greenhouse gases to
produce and increase in the average surface temperature of the Earth.
These rising temperatures in turn produce changes in precipitation patterns,

storm severity and sea level. These are referred to as climate change.
What are Greenhouse Gases?

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Many gases found naturally in the atmosphere act as ‘greenhouse gases’
They allow sunlight to pass through them freely but when the sun’s rays hit the
Earth’s surface some of them are reflected as infrared radiation which is
absorbed by the greenhouse gases as heat.
Gases in the atmosphere which exhibit this greenhouse gas property include:
- Carbon dioxide
- Water vapour
- Methane
- Nitrous oxide
- Human-made gases
If the atmospheric concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere had to

remain stable, the amount of energy from the sun will remain the same and the
temperature at the Earth’ surface will remain constant.
The problem is that with industrialization the levels of several important

greenhouse gases have increased by more than 25%.
Carbon Dioxide
The concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are regulated by

natural processes referred to as the ‘carbon cycle’. When fossil fuels are burnt
more carbon, dioxide is emitted in the atmosphere creating a positive
imbalance.
EVERY KG OF FOSSIL FUEL BURNT RESULTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF 3KG OF

CARBON DIOXIDE.
The mass triples because each carbon atom in the fuel picks up two oxygen
atoms while burning and becoming carbon dioxide.
The knowledge of the effect of the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
led to an intense search for carbon sinks that will absorb carbon dioxide, to
prevent it from accumulating in the atmosphere.
An example of a carbon sink is the ocean which absorbs carbon dioxide taken up
by plankton. The terrestrial ecosystems can also serve as carbon sinks.

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What is the carbon footprint?
The carbon footprint is the amount of carbon dioxide that a person or a family
produces each year. It is calculated on the amount of car exhaust that is
produced, the amount of electricity used, the waste generated. Calculating the
carbon footprint makes us more aware of the problem and will hopefully
motivate us to reduce our carbon footprint.
Water Vapour
Water Vapour absorbs infrared radiation and is the most abundant greenhouse
gas. Its concentrations in the atmosphere vary greatly. It does not tend to
accumulate in the atmosphere over time (due to the hydrologic cycle). This has
its greatest effect in the tropical Pacific Ocean.
“We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors bit we borrow it from our
children.” This is the principle of sustainable development.
What do we understand by the word Environment?
Is it our surrounding?
The Environment through Politics
Environmentalism is the philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding

concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the society’s
health. Green parties, NGO’s and pressure groups all form part of this
movement.
This green movement lies on the principles of the larger ecology movement,
conservation movement and the environmental movement. Green parties base
their politics on environmental issues although politicians across different
parties can have such afflictions.
The first arguments on environmental degradations were brought about by

Hippocrates and Plate who complained that the Greece that was once blessed
with forests and trees, had degraded itself to a rocky “skeleton of a body wasted
by disease”.

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The first concrete environmentalism was observed in the 18th century by the
French and the British, even though these rulers are often kindred with the
degradation of natural spaces.
Brundtland gave birth to the concept of sustainability.
“There is enough of everybody’s need but not enough for everybody’s greed”,
Mahatma Gandhi.
The term “Sustainable Development'' has become common in mainstream

politics. However, not everyone is aware what it really and truly means because
there is no fixed definition and politicians have used the terms in various ways.
Sustainable development is more than just caring about the environment or
generating money (society + economy + environment = sustainable
development).
Sustainable development is the building of factories, industries, that can sustain

themselves (Brundtland)
“Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs”.
Sustainable development is a system where the decisions taken ensure that

every component of the system is capable of flourishing, without hindering, the
capacity of the other components to do so.
The principal is to look at everything as a whole — a holistic vision which looks

at the well-being of man and the planet together.
The approach should encompass and consider the fact that everything is
connected: across generations and across countries etc.
The golden formulas to sustainable development:
• present + future generations
• economic growth + economical conservation
• global plan of action = developed + developing countries

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3 Pillars of Sustainable Development
Economic
• opportunities for growth
• increased Gross Domestic Product and benefits
• system stability and security
• green jobs and education of the unemployed
• prevention of practices that misuse resources
• regulation of over-exploitations and harmful externalities
Social
• participation and inclusion of everyone
• education of the poor and exclusion
• food security
• equitable distributions of resources
• better life chances and opportunities
• protection from exploitation
Environmental
• protection of the living environment
• increased quality of air, water, and land
• better management of waste and pollution
• respect and protection for all species
• measures to ensure resource sustainability
Sustainable development requires the active involvement of all stakeholders:

government, NGO’s, private sectors, but also that of civil society. It’s not just

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politicians, or policy makers, who decide what sustainable development should

be like. The most important stakeholder of Sustainable Development is you.
The rights of future generations
Do we have obligations towards those who are not yet alive?
Is it possible to know what the future persons’ interests are?
Are we consuming bad actions that we inherited from the people that came
before us?
Environmental Values
1. Conservation
2. 3 R’s
3. Communication
4. Respect
5. Responsibility
6. Fairness
7. Sustainability
8. Education
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and

fauna — CITES is an international agreement among governments of states to
ensure that the international trade of wild animals and plants does not threaten
their existence.
The Montreal Project (1987) — This protocol aims at protecting the Earth’s
ozone layer from its depletion by reducing its production and consumption of
substances that can compare it.
Convention on biological diversity (1993) —CBD entered into force on 29

December 1993. Its many objectives:
1. The conservation of biological diversity by seating targets

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2. Promote the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
3. Ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilisation of genetic resources.
Kyoto Protocol (1997) — An international agreement that branched out of the

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change that commits its parties by
setting emission reduction targets. It recognises that the developed countries
are highly responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the
atmosphere and therefore they have a higher burden within the protocol. Under
the protocol, countries actual emissions must be monitored, and precise records
must be kept of the trades carried out. The UN climate change secretariat keeps
an international transaction log to verify that the transactions meet the rules.
Following Malta’s accession to the EU in May 2004 Malta became bound to

adopt and implement policies and measures under the EU environment
legislation that led to limitations on reductions of emissions of GHG in due
course, Malta had to develop a National Energy Policy with the following goals:
• Energy efficiency and affordability by reducing imported fuels.
• Reducing emissions from the energy sector
• Delivering energy economically efficiently and effectively
• Security of supply — ensuring the energy sector can deliver
• Energy and Efficiency: 9% by 2016.
• Urbanisation and Land Degradation
• Urbanisation is defined as the gradual increase in percentage of the

population living in urban areas.
• The increase is primarily due to the ever-increasing rates of internal and

international migration.
• The rate of Urbanisation differs between regions, being developed or

well-developed areas.
• Offers exposure to a variety of different cultures.

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• The mercury towers in St Julian's are the peak of construction

development. In Malta there is no space in the roads.
• Urban areas should offer:
• long term sustainable plan
• relatively easy transport of food, water, and other resources
• The increase in population density poses other challenges such as:
• an increase of pressure on natural resources
• creates pressure on agricultural products which pushes farmers to

perform at increasing demands
• Land Degradation
• Defined as the long-term loss of ecosystem function on and productivity

that is caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover
naturally.
• Land degradation is recognized as a global issue by the UNCCD.
• Desertification occurs due to the variations in climate and humans’

activities.
• Land degradation and desertification are the results of unsustainable

human activities in areas that have been made fragile due to natural and
anthropogenic disturbances.
Negative effects of Land Degradation
• Decrease in the production of local goods
• Negatively impacts the economy
• Damages ecosystems
• Affects biodiversity

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• Sustainable land management is defined as the use of land resources,

including soils, water, animals, and plants, to produce goods to meet
changing human needs while simultaneously ensuring the long-term
productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their
environmental functions.

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Module 43 – Essays
Sustainability
Sustainable development takes into consideration the needs of the future as

well as those of the present, and in the sense that the development is either
going to lead to a better quality of life, can be considered as sustainable for the
future. The Native American saying states that the Earth and its entire
environment has not been inherited from our ancestors but is being borrowed
from our children. We know what our needs are now, however, we do not know
what our children may need in the future. Our effort should be focused entirely
on the prediction and plans suggested and put into the agenda by professionals.
After all, sustainable development is a good stimulus for a better quality of life.
For this aim, the decisions may be taken on four different levels: international,
national, community and individual. These four levels are the porta voce of the
voices that haven’t yet been born: the generations of the future.
William Wordsworth once said, “To start, start!”. A proof of this is seen in the
togetherness and the friendship of many countries around the Earth that have
been working together for a main aim: that of not only discussing, but also
performing, every step required so because of sustainable development, they
better the quality of life, as well as safeguarding the future. On an international
level, the decisions that are taken are all connected, principally, to the 9
principles of sustainable development that are:
1. Respect and care for the community of life: care should be taken to all
forms of life and physical environment so that the earth’s resources are shared
fairly. All life on Earth is interdependent, affecting all other ecosystems.
2. Improve the quality of human life: real development means that humans
can improve their lives in all ways — safe and healthy environment, education,
human rights etc.
3. Conserve the Earth’s vitality and diversity: misguided management may

destroy whole ecosystems therefore nature’s natural systems must be
preserved.
4. Minimize the depletion of non-renewable sources: we must reuse and

recycle non-renewable resources for the coming generations.

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5. Keep within the Earth’s carrying capacity: Use resources gently to leave
these resources for the coming generations
6. Change personal attitudes and practices: Education must be used to make

people grow into caring for the environment and improve quality of life on a
healthier planet.
7. Enable communities to care for their own environments: Inform

communities about environmental issues to make necessary changes in society.
8. Provide a national framework for integrating development and

conservation: detect problems at early stages and make laws to make sure
problems are addressed.
9. Create global alliance: sustainability could be achieved by working

together.
It is without a doubt that all this effort rests on three important pillars — society,
economy, and environment. A living example of international effort is the Kyoto
Protocol. Everything started from the Maltese Dr Attard which created the
protocol to present the contract of several countries that promised to decrease
the number of emissions that contribute to the degradation of the environment.
The Kyoto Protocol had however failed as we are still in the same position of 30
years ago.
What is the value of a country that joins an international cause if it doesn't

perform better and ignores the decisions on a national level? We shouldn’t have
to get away from our island to enjoy the consequences of positive decisions for
a sustainable future. The Maltese government often published White Papers in
which there are many decisions and agreements that concern the general
population. A proof of this is the many incentives that are announced by the
government so that the population can collaborate in that specific cause. One
cannot forget the various incentives (helped by the European union) like the free
LED bulbs passed onto each household and the incentives for solar panels in
which everyone who bought them was given a subsidiary on the total price.
Something like this continues to encourage society to walk step by step with
positive processes instead of negative campaigns with measures such as fines.
The key to everything in education. On a national level, the population is to be

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educated so that they aren’t passive citizens but active individuals. It is here
where the community level comes into play.
On a community level, there are many decisions that can be taken. For example,
talks for residents in which they are given information about what they should
do to be the stakeholders of sustainable development. That which is announced
and taught will be performed in activities such as ‘Car Free Day’. A nice initiative
that many localities hold are the number of activities which celebrate the natural
aspects of our environment. E.g., ‘Festa Frawli’ in Imġarr and ‘L-Imnarja’, which
all celebrate agricultural practices. With these activities, not only are we offering
enjoyment of the public but also important lessons and appreciation for the
environment that we live in.
It is for this aim that the individual level comes in. The individual must be
determined to act in an active way towards the environment. One does not have
to wait for anyone else to make decisions like managing waste or instead of
driving a car, walking. One should read and research to be able to get away from
the convention and explore different and new decisions compatible with
present life.
Finally, everyone knows that these decisions of different levels are no more that
a testament of inheritance for our children and their children. Therefore, we
should make decisions as if we were making them for ourselves. As Mahatma
Gandhi started: “There is enough for everybody’s need, but not for everyone's
greed”.

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Waste Management
Waste consists of the items that individuals, offices, schools, hospitals, and
industries discard because they are not needed any longer. Waste comes in
infinite sizes and has become a major problem worldwide, but especially in
densely populated, small countries, like Malta, where the land is of limited
resource. Therefore, waste management is crucial in our everyday lives. People
who live in slums, or close to waste disposal areas are susceptible to diseases,
so to maintain a healthy lifestyle, sanitary precautions must be in place.
Waste management is the management of waste by disposal and recycling of it.

Moreover, waste management needs proper techniques. For instance, there are
various methods and techniques by which the waste is disposed of. Examples of
this are Landfills, Recycling, Composting, etc. Furthermore, these methods are
very much useful in disposing of the waste without causing any harm to the
environment. However, the EU policy states that disposing of waste in landfills
should be the last resort.
There are several different types of waste including: non-controlled waste which
includes the agricultural and radioactive wastes; Hazardous Waste which is any
waste that is considered harmful and that has a negative impact on living
organisms — this includes explosives, corrosive, and toxic substances (e.g.,
batteries), and carcinogenic substances. These must be taken to a Civic Amenity
Site; Organic Waste refers to material of animal or plant origin that is
biodegradable. Wasteserv (Malta) has introduced a programme which collects
organic wastes from Maltese households on specific days, to reduce the bulk of
general waste collected in the black bags by 50%. The idea of home composting
involves gathering several organic materials and leaving it to decompose. This
increases the level of organic matter in the soil and therefore increases soil
fertility.
Many materials can be recycled — these include paper, metal, plastic, and glass.
These materials are collected weekly in green/grey bags. There are two types of
recycling processes: the primary/closed-loop recycling — waste is recycled to
produce products of the same type as the original material e.g., paper can be
recycled to be used again as paper. This can reduce the amount of virgin material
used by 20-90% mass. The secondary/open-loop recycling — waste is converted

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into different products from the original material. This reduces the amount of
virgin materials by 25% and is less efficient than primary recycling.
The importance of waste management: Waste management is very important

to preserve the health of living beings and to create a strong environment for
the future generation. Waste Management helps in reducing pollution and by
adapting to efficient waste management techniques, emission of gases like
Carbon dioxide and Methane from wastes can be reduced to a large extent.
Waste Management helps in the prevention of contagious diseases. We saw that
recycling is a method of waste management and it has a lot of benefits. When
products are recycled, there is no need to produce new products which saves
raw materials. The energy consumption will also be much less. Waste
Management is a big industry as it contains various stages and procedures.
Human resources are required in large numbers at every stage. Thus, waste
management as an industry creates several job opportunities. People with less
education and skilled labour can also be utilized in high numbers in this sector.

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The Role of Maltese NGOs and Green Parties in the protection of Environment
An NGO is any non-profit, voluntary citizen’s group which is organised on a local,

national, or international level. Task-oriented and driven by people with a
common interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian
functions, bring citizen concerns to governments, advocate and monitor policies
and encourage political participation through provision of information.
NGOs can influence the public through campaigns and broad outreach, and they
can also vocalize the interests of persons who are not well-represented in policy
making. NGOs can have better analytical and technical skills and capacity
than government officials and can monitor government compliance to
international agreements. NGOs could also give politicians ideas from outside
the typical governmental channels. By doing so, NGOs increase the information
available to decision makers, therefore increasing the appropriateness of their
policy choices.
Malta’s accession to the EU has influenced the lobbying strategies employed by

Maltese ENGOs. Maltese ENGOs use the EU to empower their cause. Maltese
ENGO Birdlife, has conservation of nature and the protection of fauna and flora
at heart. They are committed to tackling wildlife crime and promote effective
enforcement of wildlife protection laws. Despite its controversy, Malta’s hunters
are still allowed to hunt in the spring since the Maltese Government
implemented a derogation which allows the killing of certain species, although
prohibited by EU law. Unfortunately, many other protected species are targeted
in the spring despite this being illegal. Birdlife Malta’s Spring Watch teams
undertake intensive fieldwork to monitor wildlife crime and ensure any
incidents are recorded and reported. With illegal trapping also an issue in the
spring migration period, the camp dedicates time for investigating this too.
Another NGO with the safeguarding of the environment at heart is Moviment

Graffitti, who work tirelessly against Malta’s uncontrollable development,
reforming planning, and construction in Malta. Reforming Planning and
Construction in Malta, published in October 2020, is a set of proposals aimed at
improving the quality of life of residents across Malta and Gozo besieged by
relentless onslaught of the development industry. Recent actions were those on
the 13th of February 2021, in which the activist group condemned further loss

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of arable land and historical 500-year-old reservoir to service Bonnici Brother’s

ODZ supermarket. Therefore, Moviment Graffitti expects Infrastructure Malta
to immediately and definitively withdraw plans for the proposed roundabout,
which is clearly aimed at servicing the Bonnici Brothers’ ODZ development. It
also expects the PA Board to refuse the obscene application for the ODZ
supermarket.
In conclusion, the role of NGOs is fundamental in the democratic viewing of the

environmental development that takes place, as well as the safeguarding of
several species. NGOs have the power to influence people in the way
governments can’t as they have the advantage of being like-minded, and so are
more convincing. NGOs have saved Malta years on years of issues when it comes
to the environment, but with, there are still more people to convince, and more
minds to change.
Green parties are those whose priority is the protection of the environment.
Green politicians are those who harbour green values without affiliating to a
green party. In Malta the Alternattiva Demokratika is a green party. There are
politicians in the two main parties who have declared themselves green
politicians but in fact must follow their own party’s policies. The way our
electoral systems works it is difficult for a candidate of Alternattiva Demokratika
to get elected. Many times, Green Parties do not govern on their own but are
part of a coalition. The definition of coalition government is a government in
which several parties cooperate. No party on its own has a majority in
Parliament. Examples of countries which have had coalition governments are
the Nordic countries, the Benelux countries, Germany, Italy, Turkey, and
Switzerland.

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Urbanisation and Land Degradation
The definition of urbanisation is ‘a process whereby cities grow, and societies

become more urban’. While seemingly simply defined thus, the phenomenon
involves complex processes of change affecting both people and places.
Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled growth of urban areas operating as the margins
of towns and cities. It is mostly associated with the developing world, excessive
immigration, and the spread of informal settlements. However, it also occurs
elsewhere in the world where urban expansion is planned. Here, although
population pressure may be less, there is an ever-increasing amount of space
that individuals within the city consume. The result is growth of the city
footprint. Urban sprawl has far reaching effects on environmental processes and
systems, as well as on human well-being. It is consequential to landscape
destruction and environmental degradation. Such sprawl promotes increasing
congestion, loss, and degradation of open spaces, soil compaction and surface
sealing, urban air pollution, and the impacts of these on the air, water, and soil
range in scale from that of the cities themselves through to the global scale.
The extent of urbanisation in recent times has increased to a level where urban
environments have the capability of affecting climate in significant ways. Drivers
of climate alterations are numerous and include such commonplace activities as
the laying down of tarmac on roads; the extensive use of glass; operation of
internal engines, especially those of cars, construction, and the buildings
themselves, as well as the inevitable contamination of air. Taken together, the
impacts of these produce on the climate of an area are complex and
interconnected. Such impacts may affect the amount of incoming as well as
reflected solar radiation, temperature patterns, atmospheric circulation, wind
patterns, cloud cover, and humidity levels.
One notorious effect is the burning of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas) by
the industrial, commercial, and domestic sectors. A consequence of this is the
production and release of large quantities of heat. At a local scale this is very
significant as the escaped heat increases air temperatures of the area and is
identified as the ‘urban heat island’. This phenomenon explains why
temperatures in cities and large towns are often slightly higher than the
surrounding rural areas. City surfaces have high heat absorption properties.

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Such materials absorb heat by day and release it during the night. This is in
contrast with the vegetated countryside where the plants act as an insulating
layer, lowering temperatures day and night.
Land degradation is defined as the long-term loss of ecosystem function and

productivity that is caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover
unaided. Land degradation is a long-lasting issue that adversely affects rural
people and manifests itself in many forms that reduce the area’s carrying
capacity such as, soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and soil salinisation. It is the
result of unsustainable human activities in areas that have been made fragile
due to natural (drought, flooding) and anthropogenic (land clearance, poor
farming practices) disturbances. The causes of land degradation can be thought
of a cycle linking cause and effect. The two driving forces are limited land
resources and an increase in rural population. These two primary forces
combined result in land shortage. Together, land shortage and non-sustainable
land management practices and directly cause land degradation. There are two
ways to keep the cycle of cause and effect, leading to land degradation, in check.
These are the application of technology and a reduction in the rate of population
increase. Technologies may contribute towards land improvements that reduce
the shortage of land and better land resource conservation., which reduces and
reverses land degradation.

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Module 4: Scientific Values and

Technology

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Module 4 - Notes
What is Science and What is Technology?
This unit explores the intricate relationship between science and technology as
distinct but complementary entities. While science is an ongoing voyage of
discovery in the natural world of laws and theories, technology is a creative
activity in the man-made world of artefacts and products. They can therefore be
said to be interdependent.
Science
- A particular way of understanding the natural world

- A study if physical knowledge in a systematic and organized way
- Based on objectivity
- Involves observation and experimentation
- Facts which are classified under general laws
- Knowledge is attained through study or practise
- Knowledge covers general truths
- Knowledge is tested by the scientific method and based on evidence
Technology
The application of one or more scientific concepts or designs to create an object

that is useful and is meant to improve our lifestyles.
Like everything else, sometimes technology is used to create dangerous

artefacts that may even destroy life e.g., Warfare.
Impact of Science on Technology
New scientific principle or new applications of existing scientific principles lead

to innovative idea in technology.
From scientific research, technology goes to design, then manufacture and

finally marketing of a product.
Standard research practices in science promote similar practices in technology

and new skill is used in technology.

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Scientific assessment of the impact of technology on society is also of great

importance.
Impact of Technology on Science:
Technology stimulates new scientific questions for further research
Produces more sophisticated instruments to boost research.
Key figures of the modern scientific worldview
Modern science developed in a period of tremendous scientific development,

commonly known as the scientific revolution.
Copernicus’ innovative model led to modern physics – he proposed the

heliocentric system
Johannes Kepler came up with the laws of planetary motion
Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion and the principle of universal gravitation
Charles Darwin came up with the theory of evolution
Einstein’s study of the universe culminated in the theory or relativity
Crick & Watson discovered the structure of DNA
Defining Technology
Ullman discusses several steps involved in the design process:
Identifying the problem: Research is often stimulated by a problem to be solved,

usually a human need.
Background research: Being aware of existing problems and possible solutions

in imperative to avoid past mistakes and determine customers’ wants
Specification of Requirements: Identifying design requirements ensures the

success of a new product.
Brainstorming and analysis of ideas: This crucial step can greatly influence the
design in mind.
Choosing the best solution: The solution which best fits the design requirements

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Development of a solution: The chosen solution is refined using a framework of

mathematical reasoning
Building a prototype: The first version of the selected solution
Testing and re-designing: The product is put on a trial run for testing and
necessary modifications are implemented
Communication of results: Engineers document the whole process so that the

new product can be manufactured for the market.
When studying science subjects, one focuses on the following:
- The achievements in theory building and the discovery of new facts

about nature.
- The scientific method which was used to prove the discoveries.
- The new scientific facts are then used in various applications to
improve our lives.
- These applications are referred to as technology.
Objectivity and Subjectivity
Even though values are not objective, science is still not value free.
It is the scientist himself who brings a set of values to science and the fact that
he must follow the scientific method so rigorously.
The scientific method and its application by the scientist
There is only one scientific method which is universal.
All scientists are expected to follow this method rigorously.
A subjective element is introduced by the choice of what is to be studied.
Ex. One scientist may be researching on a medication to increase the chances of

becoming pregnant whilst another will be on a contraceptive with less side
effects.
Scientists have their own beliefs and different attitudes just like other people.

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These values are reflected in the scientist’s actions and the way they think.
The case of Woo Suk Hwang
May 2005 – Discovery that embryonic stem cells ES could develop into any tissue
or organ of the body. (less problems with tissue rejection in transplants)
August 2005 – Claim that he had cloned a dog.
November 2005 – admission that results were falsified.
Woo Suk Hwang resigned from his post; credibility in his previous work and that
of his team was lost.
The case of Francis Crick and James Watson
The famous scientists won the Nobel prize for the discovering the exact
structure of the DNA molecule – the greatest scientific discovery of the last
century.
In his book, The Double Helix, James Watson describes the involvement of other
teams of scientists and of the female scientist Rosalind Franklin who had taken
the Xray diffraction photographs of the DNA fibres on which the conclusion was
drawn.
Watson’s racist comments: 17th October 2007 – During a conference James

Watson who was one of the speakers implied that Africans were less intelligent
than white people. The conference at the science Museum was cancelled.
On another occasion he commented that darker skinned people have a higher

sex drive than white people. Yet on another occasion he spoke about the right
of a woman to abort her foetus if she feels that there is a tendency that he is
born homosexual.
Conclusion
These examples illustrate that the social and personal values of the scientist may
influence him in his work.
A list of values in science

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- Precision
- Observation
- Truth
- Honesty
- Accuracy
- Reliability
- Testability
- Priority
- Avoiding Plagiarism
- Communication (Publications)
- Social Responsibility
- Control of Falsification
One cannot have a true understanding and appreciation of science without

considering the values that sustain its growth.
Science Rogues
Trofim Lysenko
In the USSR in the 1920s Lysenko claimed that exposing winter cereals like wheat
to cold and moisture it would prompt them to germinate when planted in
Spring, thus boosting crop yields.
He also claimed that the characteristic may be acquired by a parent within a

lifetime and inherited by offspring.
The results didn’t support his theory
His failures were covered up by the Government as the results clashed with
political ideals.
Lysenko’s ideas rejected conventional genetics and denounced Mendelian

ideas.
Several Society geneticists were imprisoned and executed because they rejected
his ideas and declared that they were not scientifically correct.
Malcom Pierce

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In 1994 Malcolm Pearce, a consultant obstetrician claimed he could treat an

ectopic pregnancy.
An ectopic pregnancy is when an embryo gets implanted outside the uterus

which may cause the mother to bleed to death. He said that he had done a
clinical trial of 191 women.
He also claimed that he had prevented miscarriage using hormone therapy.
But his colleagues at St George’s Hospital in London opened an inquiry about

this work.
All the cases were found to be fictional.
Pearce was found guilty of serious professional misconduct by the General

Medical Council.
Hwang Woo-Suk
South Korean biotechnologist Hwang Woo Suk wrote two papers in the journal
Science on producing stem cells and on cloning human embryos.
An investigation by Seoul National University concluded that his findings had

been faked. The papers were retracted, and the scientist was sacked.
It was discovered that he derived the stem cells from eggs donated by women
paid €850 or from members of his lab.
He was also found to have used inappropriately some of the millions of dollars
he had received in research funding.
Eventually he was convicted of embezzlement and breaching bioethics laws.
Andrew Wakefield
In 1998 The Lancet published an article about a study on the connection

between the MMR vaccine and autism in children. Wakefield called for the
suspension of the MMR injections.
Later it was found that there were no such links and that Wakefield had failed in
his duty as a responsible consultant and had acted with dishonesty.

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He was found guilty of misconduct and struck off the medical register because
the British Medical Journal found that he had falsified data.
Despite all the evidence contrary to his claims up till today some parents have
remained suspicious of the MMR jabs leading to the increase in cases of measles.
In 2008 there were ten time the cases of measles than in 1996.
Charles Dawson
In 1912, Dawson, an amateur archaeologist claimed he had found the remains

of Piltdown man, the link between man and ape.
It was only in 1953 that a chemical dating technique, the fluorine absorption
test, proved that the skull was only 600 years old while the jaw was of an
orangutan.
John Watson
John Watson, the American psychologist carried out the notorious ‘Little Albert’
experiment inspired by Pavlov’s conditioning experiment where dogs were
found to salivate on hearing the ringing of a bell.
In 1920 at the John Hopkin University, Watson attempted to teach a nine-

month-old baby played with the rat but when Watson introduced a loud noise
every time the rat appeared, the baby cried.
The baby developed a phobia of furry animals, but it is not known whether this
phobia remained.
Hendrick Schon
Between 1998 and 2001, Jan Hedrick Schon, published 70 academic papers in
physics journals.
He was supposed to have come up with new electronic circuits that did not
utilize semiconductors and used transistors made of organic molecules instead.
One could in this way ‘grow’ computers.
His colleagues noticed discrepancies in his results. Fifteen of his papers were
withdrawn.
Chen Jinn

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Chen Jinn, a computer scientist, on returning to China from the US developed

the first digital signal processing microchip.
The discovery would have made Chine stop being dependant on foreign
electronics and reduce the perception that China was always copying the west
in scientific innovations
This processor was meant for cameras and mobile phones and was capable of
200 million instruction per second and was introduced in 2003.
In 2006 an investigation showed that the chip was really one by Motorola. The
name on the chip was scratched and Hain was etched instead.
Chen Jinn was sacked for fabricating research and fraud.
Scientific Research Methods
Logic
Inductive logic starts with observation and arrives to general conclusions. It is

taking reasoning from experiences to general truths.
Deductive logic goes the reverse way. It starts with general knowledge and
predicts a specific observation.
If a problem is too complicated to solve through common sense, a mixed

inductive and deductive approach is taken. The correct program for this
interweaving is formalized as the scientific method.
The scientific method
A process by which scientists, collectively and over time, work to construct an

accurate representation of the world.
This is done by using standard procedures and minimizing personal and cultural
interpretations and influences.
The scientific method tries to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the
experimenter (the scientist) when he is testing a hypothesis.
Observation and description of a phenomenon or a group of phenomena.
Formulation of a hypothesis to try to explain the phenomena.

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Performance of controlled experimental tests by several independent

experimenters.
Formulation of a theory or a law if the results obtained prove that the hypothesis
is correct.
(If the results do not prove the hypothesis, this must be rejected or modified
and the whole procedure started from the beginning.)
Experimental verification of hypothetical predictions is necessary
Errors
Errors in experiments may have several sources.
Random errors are errors intrinsic to instruments of measurements. There is a

probability of producing an error both higher and lower numerically than the
actual value.
Non-random errors (also called systematic errors) are due to factors that bias
the result in one direction.
The main aim in science is to eliminate these errors and if this is not possible
estimate them.
When stating quantitative results, one needs to quote the measurement error
Common Mistakes
The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the scientist’s bias
The scientist must:
- Not prefer one outcome or another.

- Must not bias the results or their interpretation
- Not consider the hypothesis as an explanation of a phenomenon
- Handle all data in the same way.
- Calculate quantitatively all types of errors both random and systematic
errors

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The Scientific Method
Deductive
- Quantitative Analysis
- Objective and systematic investigation
- Identifies relationships between variables
- Starts with a hypothesis
Inductive
- Qualitative Analysis
- Exploratory and open-ended approach
- Aims to make broad generalizations
Ethics
Informed Consent
When a patient is being given treatment what amount of information is he

entitled to?
Is the patient considered competent to choose for himself after he has been
informed? Are children, the elderly or psychotic patients competent to choose?
Data Protection
Should a person have the right to refuse the use of his medical data or samples
for research if he has moral objections to such research?
How do you define a person in such a case? Is a foetus person? Is a dead body
still considered a person?
Genetic Testing
Is the storage of sample for genetic testing morally acceptable?
Genetic testing is predictive and may involve relatives who are brought into the
situation without their consent?

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The results of genetic testing may influence employment and life insurance
issues not only of the person undertaking them but of others too.
End-of-life Care
To what extent should one use technology to prolong life?
Does the patient have the right to ask for the termination of his own life?
Killing the baby to save the mother
Which prevails, the right of health of a mother or the right to life of a foetus?
Should a doctor be allowed to refuse to abort a foetus in such a case or in other

cases where he is not morally comfortable to proceed?
Should the decision lie only with the mother?
Disposing of the Dead
The body of the dead person owned by the immediate relatives. But does a dead
person still have rights to the protection of their data, their organs or sample
from the bodies?
Is cryo-preservation of relatives permissible when there is formal consent?
In Vitro Fertilization
In IVF there is no natural conjugal act. This technology is resorted to be couples

who did not manage to produce offspring in the natural way.
But can it be utilized by single persons who resort to surrogate mothers, or

egg/sperm donation?
Frozen embryos – if embryos are frozen who determines for how ling and what
happens to them when their owners pass away?
Use of embryos in stem cell research destroys the embryos completely. Should
this be permissible?
Dignitas Personae – an instruction of certain bioethical questions – a document

prepared by the church.

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Does the Church have the right to intervene?
The church feels it can intervene as it regards the situation as one that promotes
the gifts that God has given humanity, the gift of life, the gift of knowledge and
the gifts of freedom and love.
Some feel that the Church’ intervention contains too many prohibitions.
Main aims of the document:
- To declare that life is sacred at every stage of its existence.

- To condemn artificial fertilization
- To condemn embryonic stem cell research
- To condemn human cloning
- To condemn drugs which block pregnancy from taking hold
- To condemn the morning after pill
The church emphasizes the following:
Human life deserves respect from the very first stages of its existence and can
never be reduced to a group of cells.
The human embryo has the dignity to proper to a person from the very
regaining.
Techniques which consider the human embryo as just a mass of cells are not
acceptable.
Procedures morally acceptable:
Promotion of natural fertility including hormone treatment
Use of stem cells obtained from adult organisms, umbilical cord blood or
foetuses dead by natural causes
Research into the prevention of sterility
Somatic gene therapy strictly for therapeutic purposes in an individual patient.

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Science in Antiquity
Why is the sky blue? Why do people die? Questions about the nature of the
world were answered by religious authorities. Then there was the birth of a
more natural approach – Mathematics. The Greeks also relied on supernatural
mythologies.
The 1st Proto science
It was only within the Greek Civilisation that we witness the proto science. The
Ancient Greeks were the first to develop a systematic science, a systematic
understanding of the world by basing their understandings on observations and
experience rather than on the supernatural. Thales of Miletus is described as the
father of science for he was the first to give non-supernatural explanations to
earthquakes, lightning etc.
Pre-Socratic Science
Anaximander – first to theorise that life came from water and mud, a
speculation initially but it was later demonstrated by Darwin, 2400 years later.
Empedocles – discovered air using a straw and a glass of water
Democritus – was the first that theorises that matter was made up of small
atoms.
Eratosthenes – was the first to measure Earth with just 2 sticks.
Mathematics and Geometry
Through a process of abstraction, the Greeks managed to explain the main

natural phenomena through numbers.
Pythagoras of Samos – deduced the Pythagoras Theorem (a 2 + b2 = c2). He was

also the first person who ahs ever dubbed himself a philosopher. When a person
accused him of being wise, Pythagoras recipes, “I don’ know if I’m wise, but I
know that I love wisdom”. So, Pythagoras coined the term philosopher. He was
also the first person to discover the foundations of musical tuning by listening
to the sounds of four blacksmith hammers.

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Archimedes – famous for many practical inventions including the Archimedes

Screw; a device still used to draw up water from a low position to a higher one.
He discovered the principle of specific gravity and calculated the value of pi.
Euclid – came up with many mathematical theorems
Aristotle – considered to be the creator of logical reasoning and the most

notable ancient natural philosophers. He came up with the Theory of Elements,
Earth, Air, Fire, Water and Ether.
The story of the universe
The year the revolution of understanding of the universe began -> 2013
A space probe called Planck; the German physicist was launched by ESA in 2009
where a spacecraft was tasked with detecting the ‘blueprint’ of the universe.
Analysis of this ‘blueprint’ is showing that there are many anomalies which do
not fit the mathematical theories constructed by cosmologists in the past
centuries.
The Big Bang
- Considered as the moment when it all began

- The moment when space and time were formed
- The moment energy and matter came into existence
- Based on evidence from Max Planck’s telescope.
- Was believed to have occurred 13.82 billion years ago.
The universe was believed to have begun as a hot dense sea of particles and
radiation, no stars, or galaxies.
Next the space began to expand spreading matter and energy
This is partially explained by Einstein's theory of relativity.
The Large Hadron Collider
Tries to recreate the conditions thought to have been present in the universe a
fraction of a second after the Big Bang. The physics and forces which come into

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play are partially explained by Quantum Theory. Mathematical hypotheses also

explain some of the findings but not all. So far, the exact moment of the Big Bang
remains unknown.
Science, Technology, and the Economy
Economic growth is generally perceived as the goal of nation states, as well as

supranational organisations, such as the European Union. To achieve economic
growth, policy makers and economic analysts generally assume that such
economic growth is linked to scientific progress and creative technological
solutions. The strategy is based on the premise that scientific and technological
innovations will lead to competitive advantage, thereby placing the country in a
better economic position.
Historical Considerations
For most of humanity’s history, civilisations were largely dependent on

technological advancement.
The Urban Revolution began around 400BCE, resulting in the first major
civilisations, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt. To meet the needs of expanding
urbanisation, several technological advancements were necessary., amongst
which were large scale farming-based water management, the invention of
writing to keep records and the creation of bureaucratic structures involving the
ruling elite, religious officials, other state officials and warriors.
One of the most important technological advancements in the civilisations was

the development of the calendar by which annual time could be measured.
Industrial Revolution
This started in Britain in the latter half of the 18th century and marks the
watershed between a mainly agrarian society, and one based on mass
production. Significantly, the shift from water powered machines to the coal
powered steam engine, not only meant an explosion of relatively cheap mass-
produced goods, but also societal change. This shift involved the rise of the
factory system, the exploitation of such workers due to the lack of effective
legislation, and rapid colonialism by Britain and other European states of African
and Asian territories.

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Technological change is an important, if not the most important, factor

responsible for economic growth.

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Module 4 – Essays
Deductive VS Inductive Method
Thomas Huxley states, “The man of science has learned to believe in

justification, not by faith, but by verification”. In its widest defintion, “The
scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge. It involves
careful observation, applying rigorous scepticism about what is observed.” This
work aims to summarise and deduct the main and general points of a chapter
written by M. Grace Vella, and to distinguish between deductive and inductive
methods.
Firstly, the goals of research are various, but mainly aim to describe, understand,
and predict phenomena. One may take a different approach to studying science,
the researcher must deduce what method they will be using; whether they will
be testing a hypothesis or explore the creation of a new one; determine whether
they will use a qualitative or quantitative method in their inductive or deductive
approach. It is important to underline the difference between qualitative, which
is more subjective and less numerical, and quantitative research, which is
objective, generalises findings and is the systematic empirical investigation of
phenomena via mathematical or statistical techniques. Quantitative research is
done through experiments and closed questions via surveys. This increases both
reliability and replicability. It aims to establish a relationship between
independent (controlled) and dependent (affected) variables, while focusing on
testing hypothesis.
In contrast, to conduct qualitative research, one may choose to use in-depth

interviews, case studies, or focus groups. Moreover, scientists practise
reflexivity and identify the areas in which their own personal beliefs and
opinions may influence the gathering and analysis of data. Because it is
subjective, it has been marked impracticable for making claims about the
absolute truth. Conclusions derived from qualitative research are based on
inductive approaches which are also know as “bottom-up” approaches which
derive general principles from specific observations and their conclusions follow
from premises with a probability and may be weak or strong.
An example of this is:

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I break out when I eat peanuts (Patterns)
This is a symptom of being allergic (Hypothesis)
I am allergic to peanuts (Theory)
On the other hand, in the deductive method, also known as the “top-down”
method, scientists start from a known hypothesis and apply it to practical
examples to test whether this hypothesis can be confirmed or else rejected.
Scientists usually start from an abstract idea and then descend to render it
concrete and more specific. Conclusions may be valid or invalid. This method is
based on premises.
A classic example of this is:
All men are mortal (Major premise)
Socrates is a man (Minor premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal (Conclusion)
In conclusion, while deductive reasoning is the form of valid reasoning, to

deduce new information or conclusion from known related facts and
information, inductive reasoning arrives at a conclusion by the process if
generalization using specific data. Triangulation involves the combination of
these methods to help create a holistic view of phenomena, and “a constant
interplay between inductive and deductive until we get closer and closer to the
‘truth’

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Ethics
Frederick Lewis Donaldson, in his sermon, stated that one of the seven social
sins is “Science without humanity”. Even though one has his liberties, science,
the study of knowledge, both physical and materialistic, shouldn’t be turned into
liberation but must work hand in hand with various values like honesty,
perseverance, precision, persistence, and total attention. Finally, everything
comes together in an ethical way. Ethics (from the Ancient Greek "ethics",
meaning "arising from habit"; also, Morality), a major branch of Morality
philosophy, is the study of value, or morals and morality. It covers the analysis
and employment of concepts such as right vs wrong, good vs evil, and
responsibility. It is defined as an expected standard of behaviour based on what
we consider to be morally correct.
Science without ethics is like a car without wheels; even though everything
indicates that that object is a car, through its shape and form, there is nothing
which gives it its sense for its principal function. A great example of how science
should work with ethics is that of IVF; in vitro fertilisation; the most common
and unnatural way that the human being can be conceived. Because IVF is
something which is so delicate, for the simple reason that this is not the process
of creating a computer, but a real human being, scientists should be completely
aware of what is ethical. For example, the ova left from the experiment, ‘left-
over eggs’, must be cared for and cured with a lot of precision and used correctly
for experiments that aim to reach the common good. This common good is
everyone’s interest and not that of the majority. This is because if there is a
majority, there is a minority, and this is not democratic. Ethics is important
because after all there are lives of potential human beings involved but also the
emotional issues regarded with the parents’ decision. One cannot forget that
after all there would have been a valid reason for parents to proceed with IVF
and it is the responsibility of the scientist to serve his duties well with an ethical
perspective by respecting the potential outcomes of the egg/sperm beyond its
use in the process of IVF.
Another example is genetic engineering. It can occur in different organisms and

even in agricultural products. Everything is determined by the scientist and the
control they have on the DNA of the organism presented. The human being can
be severely affected if the scientist is not ethical in his doings. Let’s say a scientist

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is genetically engineering tomatoes for a particular company and commissioned

to create huge tomatoes so that the consumer is more tempted to buy it than
the normal-sized tomato. Obviously, if the scientist is not ethical and feeds
dangerous amounts of chemicals to the tomatoes, there might be serious effects
on the consumer, like making them feel ill. That is why ethics may act as a strict
guide which one must follow to avoid being served by science for his own
personal interests.
Another example is that of cloning. Even though in Malta, cloning is not yet
legalised, in countries like America, it has become a reality. Cloning, according
to ethics, is to be performed well, since after all, there is the creation of a new
organism, from the tiniest animal to human. Ethics is sacrosanct in this case
because the scientist should keep in touch with reality and not modify the
experiment for his own interest. One must keep in mind that despite having the
scientific reigns in his hands, he cannot proceed to experiment at random. In
this case it would be severely unethical to use animals for testing as it would be
reducing their quality of life. An example of when this happened is in Pavlov’s
experiment in researching classical conditioning where he surgically implanted
a saliva-catch container and tube to its muzzle. This, for many reasons, takes
away the dog’s quality of life and is obviously a clear example of when someone
breaks the law of ethics.
In conclusion, these thoughts show that we cannot really understand science

without considering the values that sustain its growth. The World Conference
on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge, in Budapest, Hungary in 1999,
declared that the ethics and social responsibility of science should be an integral
part of the education and training of all scientists.

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References
Systems of Knowledge; An Interdisciplinary Approach (Miller Publications, 2017)
Systems of Knowledge; A Multidisciplinary Approach (Agenda, 2006)

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Systems OF Knowledge Notes

science (Ġ.F. Abela Junior College)

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Module 1: Democratic Values and

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Democracy: A form of government where the authority to govern is derived

Democracy is a word that is used everyday but unfortunately people do not

Triarchy: government by three persons

Tyranny: cruel and oppressive government or rule.

Oligarchy: a small group of people having control of a country or organization.

of 10 different tribes. 50 from each tribe would be elected to participate on the

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“Athens' constitution is called a democracy because it respects the interests not

Democracy is a system where the people generally experience a ‘feel good’

Pericles’ Funeral Speech

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Demagogue: a political leader who seeks support by appealing to the desires

According to the principles of modern democracy there must be the following:

1. Free and fair elections and referendums with honest competition.

2. Civil rights, civil liberties, and human rights.

4. The rule of law controlled by equality before the law.

6. A unitary form of government (federalism not allowed).

7. There should be rules, regulations, and laws against tyranny by oligarchy.

8. There should be compulsory voter registration and mandatory voting.

9. Organized groups with formal leadership for citizen participation to act in

11. There must be controls against unchecked oligarchy and unrestrained

12. A mature democracy must have a flexible constitution to avoid stagnation.

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Main Features of Democracy:

b) Elections are held to elect the representatives:

ii. Representative constitutional government

iii. Citizen participation

iv. Majority rule

In politics, representatives are the minority which lead, and

The referendum is an important issue of national interest:

Deliberate: done consciously and intentionally.

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According to Mosca there are two classes of people -

“A minority of influential persons”; who manage public affairs (representatives)

A majority that “willingly or unwillingly” accepts these affairs (the

As a citizen we must be informed about what is happening in our country, in the

Politically meaningful participation by the citizens means proximity to effective

Democracy (Some Definitions):

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Democracy is said to be the government of the many.

4. John Dewey - He wrote about democracy and education. Democracy creates

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For most citizens participating in a democracy means participating in

The role of an active citizen in a democracy today is clearly more complicated

Aristotle describes Athenian Society in antiquity:

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‘One Humanity’ & ‘Human Rights’ are bedfellows.

The US Declaration of Independence posits as “self-evident” truth “that all men

1789 - French Revolution