1

Gujarat University
B. Sc. (Sem-IV) Mathematics
MAT-206 Practical (Based on MAT 204 Pr. 1 to 8)

Practical 1

Examples of solving an operator equation.

𝑥1 +𝑥2
Q.1: Let𝑇: ℝ5 → ℝ3 be defined by 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 ) = ( , 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 , 0). Then solve the
2

operator equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (1,1,0).

𝑥1 +𝑥2
Solution: Here we have 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 ) = ( , 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 , 0)
2

𝑥1 +𝑥2
From the homogeneous equation 𝑇(𝑥) = 0,we have = 0 , 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0 .
2

By solving them we get 𝑥1 = 𝑎 and 𝑥3 = 𝑏, 𝑥2 = −𝑎 and 𝑥4 = −𝑏.

Also, if we put 𝑥5 = 𝑐, then the 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 ) = (𝑎, −𝑎, 𝑏, −𝑏, 𝑐) for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈
ℝ is a solution of the 𝑇(𝑥) = 0.

Thus, the solution set for homogeneous equation is 𝑁(𝑇) =

[(1, −1,0,0,0), (0,0,1, −1,0), (0,0,0,0,1)]

𝑥1 +𝑥2
Now from the equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (1,1,0), we get = 1, 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 1.
2

By putting 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 1 and 𝑥4 = 𝑥5 = 0 , (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 ) = (1,1,1,0,0) is a

particular solution to the given equation.

Therefore, the solution set to the given operator equation is

𝑆 = {(1,1, 1,0, 0) + (𝑎, −𝑎, 𝑏, −𝑏, 𝑐)|𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ}

Q.2: For the linear transformation 𝑇: ℝ4 → ℝ3 defined by 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) = (𝑥1 − 𝑥4 ,

𝑥2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 ) solve the operator equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (1,2,0).
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Solution: Here the transformation is defined as

𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) = (𝑥1 − 𝑥4 , 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 ). From the homogeneous equation, we get

the system of equations 𝑥1 − 𝑥4 = 0, 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0, 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 0. To solve them if we put
𝑥1 = 𝑎, we get 𝑥2 = −𝑎, 𝑥3 = 𝑥4 = 𝑎 for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

Thus, the null space, 𝑁(𝑇) = {(𝑎, −𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑎)| 𝑎 ∈ ℝ} = [(1, −1,1,1)].

Now, from the given equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (1,2,0), we have the system of equations 𝑥1 − 𝑥4 =
1, 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 2, 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 0. By observation if we put𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥4 = 1, then the
point (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) = (2,1,1,1) is a particular solution of this system. Thus the solutions of
the given operator equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (1,2,0) is 𝑆 = (2,1,1,1) + 𝑁(𝑇).

The solution set 𝑆 = {(2,1, 1,1, 1) + (𝑎, −𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑎)|𝑎 ∈ ℝ}.

Q. 3: Let 𝑇: ℝ2 → ℝ4 be defined by 𝑇(1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1) , 𝑇(1, −1) = (−1, −1, −1, −1) .
Then solve the operator equation 𝑇(𝑥) = (5, 5, 5, 5).

Solution: Here 𝑇 is defined on {(1,1, ), (1, −1)} . Therefore, for any 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) ∈ ℝ, we
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑥1 −𝑥2
have (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (1,1) + (1, −1).
2 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
∴ 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑇(1,1) + 𝑇(1, −1)
2 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (1,1,1,1) + (−1, −1, −1, −1)
2 2

∴ 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (𝑥2 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥2 )

Now from 𝑇(𝑥) = 0, we get 𝑥2 = 0 . Thus, for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, (𝑎, 0) is a solution of

homogeneous equation. Thus, 𝑁(𝑇) = [(1,0)].

Now for 𝑇(𝑥) = (5,5,5,5), (0,5)is a particular solution.

Therefore, the solution set is 𝑆 = {(0,5) + (𝑎, 0)|𝑎 ∈ ℝ} = {(𝑎, 5)|𝑎 ∈ ℝ}.

Q.4: Let 𝒫 denote the set of real polynomials and let 𝑇: 𝒫 → 𝒫 be defined by 𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) =
𝑥𝑝′ (𝑥) . Then solve the operator equation 𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 , where 𝑝′ (𝑥) denotes the
derivative of 𝑝(𝑥).
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Solution: Here we have 𝒫, the set of all real polynomials. 𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝑥𝑝′(𝑥) is a linear
transformation on 𝒫. For the homogeneous equation 𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) = 0, That is, 𝑥𝑝′ (𝑥) =
0 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Therefore, 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎, where 𝑎 ∈ ℝ is constant.

Therefore, 𝑁(𝑇) = {𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎|𝑎 ∈ ℝ}, the solution of homogeneous equation.

𝑥2
Now, for 𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑝(𝑥) = is a particular solution as
2

′
′ (𝑥)
𝑥2 1
𝑇(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥 ( ) = 𝑥 ( 2𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
2 2

𝑥2
Thus, the solution set is 𝑆 = {𝑞(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑎 | 𝑎 ∈ ℝ} .

Practical 2

Examples of Bilinear maps.

Q. 1: Let 𝑉 be a vector space and 𝑉 ∗ be its dual space. Define map 𝑇: 𝑉 × 𝑉 ∗ → ℝ as

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑓) = 𝑓(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑉, ∀ 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 ∗ . Check whether 𝑇 is bilinear map or not.

Solution: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑉 ∗ and 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ ℝ.

i) 𝑇(𝛼𝑥 + 𝛽𝑦, 𝑓) = 𝑓(𝛼𝑥 + 𝛽𝑦) = 𝛼𝑓(𝑥) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑦)(∵ 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 ∗ )

= 𝛼𝑇(𝑥, 𝑓) + 𝛽𝑇(𝑦, 𝑓)

ii) 𝑇(𝑥, 𝛼𝑓 + 𝛽𝑔) = (𝛼𝑓 + 𝛽𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝛼𝑓(𝑥) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑥)(∵ 𝑉 ∗ is a v. sp.)

= 𝛼𝑇(𝑥, 𝑓) + 𝛽𝑇(𝑥, 𝑓)
𝑇 is linear in both the co-ordinates. Thus, 𝑇 is bilinear map.

Practical 3

Examples on inner product

𝑏
Q. 1. In a real vector space 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] define < 𝑓, 𝑔 > = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈
𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏]. Show that < , > is an inner product on 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏].
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𝑏
Sol: Given that < 𝑓, 𝑔 > = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] is a real
vector space. For any 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] and any real scalar 𝛼,

𝑏 𝑏
(IP1) < 𝑓, 𝑔 + ℎ > = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)(𝑔 + ℎ)(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)(𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫ (𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑏 𝑏
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

= < 𝑓, 𝑔 > + < 𝑓, ℎ >

𝑏
(IP2) < 𝛼𝑓, 𝑔 > = ∫𝑎 (𝛼𝑓)(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫ 𝛼𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑏
= 𝛼 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

= 𝛼 < 𝑓, 𝑔 >

𝑏
(IP3) < 𝑓, 𝑔 > = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

= < 𝑔, 𝑓 >

= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
< 𝑔, 𝑓 > (as 𝑓 and 𝑔 are real valued
functions)

𝑏 𝑏
(IP4) < 𝑓, 𝑓 > = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑡≥ 0

Therefore, ([𝑓(𝑥)])2 ≥ 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏])

𝑏
< 𝑓, 𝑓 > = 0 ⟺ ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑡 = 0

⟺ [𝑓(𝑥)]2 = 0 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
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⟺ 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

⟺𝑓=0

∴< 𝑓, 𝑓 > = 0 ⟺ 𝑓 = 0

Hence, < , > is an inner product on 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏].

Q. 2 Define < 𝐴, 𝐵 > = 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 for 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅). Show that < , >defines an inner product
on 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅).

Sol: We have < 𝐴, 𝐵 > = 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 for 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅).

For any 𝐴, 𝐵. 𝐶 ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] and any real scalar 𝛼

(IP1) < 𝐴, 𝐵 + 𝐶 > = 𝑡𝑟 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑇

= 𝑡𝑟 𝐴(𝐵 𝑇 + 𝐶 𝑇 )

= 𝑡𝑟 (𝐴𝐵 𝑇 + 𝐴 𝐶 𝑇 )

= 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐶 𝑇

= < 𝐴, 𝐵 > + < 𝐴, 𝐶 >

(IP2) < 𝛼𝐴, 𝐵 > = 𝑡𝑟 ((𝛼𝐴)𝐵𝑇 )

= 𝑡𝑟 (𝛼(𝐴𝐵 𝑇 ))

= 𝛼 𝑡𝑟 (𝐴𝐵 𝑇 )

= 𝛼 < 𝐴, 𝐵 >

(IP3) < 𝐴, 𝐵 > = 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇

= 𝑡𝑟 (𝐴𝐵 𝑇 )𝑇

= 𝑡𝑟 𝐵𝐴𝑇

= < 𝐵, 𝐴 >

(IP4) < 𝐴, 𝐴 >= 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑇 (1)

 6

If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] then 𝐴𝑇 = [𝑎𝑗𝑖 ]

𝑛×𝑛 𝑛×𝑛

And here 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = ∑𝑖,𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 2 ≥ 0 (𝑎𝑖𝑗 2 ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑗 )

From (1),< 𝐴, 𝐴 > ≥ 0 ∀ 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅)

Also < 𝐴, 𝐴 > = 0 ⟺ 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 0

⟺ ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 2 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛

𝑖,𝑗=1

⟺ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 2 = 0 ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, 𝑛

⟺ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, 𝑛

⟺ [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛 = [0]𝑛×𝑛

⟺ 𝐴 = 0𝑛×𝑛

Hence,< , >is an inner product on 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅).

Q-3 If for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2 the map <, > 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 2 → 𝑅 defined as

< 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2 is an inner product on 𝑅 2

Sol.: Let 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ), 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2 be arbitrary and 𝛼 be a real scaler

(IP1) < 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑧 > = < (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), (𝑦1 + 𝑧1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ) >

= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 + 𝑧1 ) + 𝑥1 (𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦1 + 𝑧1 ) + 5𝑥2 (𝑦2 + 𝑧2 )

= 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑧1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥1 𝑧2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑧1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2 + 5𝑥2 𝑧2

= (𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2 ) + (𝑥1 𝑧1 + 𝑥1 𝑧2 + 𝑥2 𝑧1 + 5𝑥2 𝑧2 )

< 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑧 > =< 𝑥, 𝑦 > +< 𝑥, 𝑧 > ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 2

(IP2) < 𝛼𝑥, 𝑦 > = < 𝛼(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) >

= < (𝛼𝑥1 , 𝛼𝑥2 ), (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) >

= (𝛼𝑥1 )𝑦1 + (𝛼𝑥1 )𝑦2 + (𝛼𝑥2 )𝑦1 + 5(𝛼𝑥2 )𝑦2

 7

= 𝛼(𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2 )

< 𝛼𝑥, 𝑦 > = 𝛼 < 𝑥, 𝑦 > ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 2

(IP3) < 𝑥, 𝑦 > = 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2

= 𝑦1 𝑥1 + 𝑦2 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 + 5𝑦2 𝑥2

= 𝑦1 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥1 + 5𝑦2 𝑥2

=< 𝑦, 𝑥 > (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ∈ 𝑅 2 )

(IP4) < 𝑥, 𝑥 > = 𝑥1 𝑥1 + 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 𝑥2

= 𝑥1 2 + 2𝑥1 𝑥2 + 5𝑥2 2

= 𝑥1 2 + 2𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 2 + 4𝑥2 2

< 𝑥, 𝑥 > = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )2 + (2𝑥2 )2

∴ < 𝑥, 𝑥 >≥ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 2

Now < 𝑥, 𝑥 > = 0 ⟺ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )2 + (2𝑥2 )2 = 0

⟺ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2𝑥2 )2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥 = < 𝑥, 𝑥 > =< 0, 0 >

Hence, < 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 5𝑥2 𝑦2 is an inner product on 𝑅 2 and (𝑅 2 , <, >)

is an inner product space.

Q. 4 If for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2 the map <, > defined as

< 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) then show that (𝑅 2 , <, >) is an inner product
space.

Sol.: Let 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ), 𝑧 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2 be arbitrary and 𝛼 be a real scaler

 8

(IP1) < 𝑥 + 𝑧, 𝑦 >= (𝑥1 + 𝑧1 )(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑧2 )(2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

= 𝑥1 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑦1 − 𝑧1 𝑦2 + 2𝑥2 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 2𝑧2 𝑦2 − 𝑧2 𝑦1

= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑧1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑧2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

∴< 𝑥 + 𝑧, 𝑦 >=< 𝑥, 𝑦 > +< 𝑧, 𝑦 > ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 2

(IP2) < 𝑥, 𝛼𝑦 > = < (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝛼(𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) >

= < (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), (𝛼𝑦1 , 𝛼𝑦2 ) >

= 𝑥1 (𝛼𝑦1 − 𝛼𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝛼𝑦2 − 𝛼𝑦1 )

= 𝑥1 𝛼(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 𝛼(2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

= 𝛼(𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ))

∴ < 𝑥, 𝛼𝑦 > = 𝛼 < 𝑥, 𝑦 > ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 2

(IP3) < 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

= 𝑥1 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 2𝑥2 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1

= 𝑦1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑦2 (2𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

= < 𝑦, 𝑥 > ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 2

(IP4) < 𝑥, 𝑥 >= 𝑥1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

= 𝑥1 2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 2𝑥2 2 − 𝑥2 𝑥1

= 𝑥1 2 − 2𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑥2 2

= (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + 𝑥2 2

∴ < 𝑥, 𝑥 >≥ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 2

Now < 𝑥, 𝑥 > = 0 ⟺ (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + 𝑥2 2 = 0

⟺ (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 0
 9

⟺ 𝑥1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 0

⟺ 𝑥 = < 𝑥, 𝑥 > =< 0, 0 >

Hence,< 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) is an inner product on 𝑅 2 and (𝑅 2 , <, >) is

an inner product space.

Q. 5 Suppose 𝑉is a vector space over 𝐹. Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on 𝑉 and 𝑓 be a bilinear
form on 𝑉. Suppose a function 𝑔: 𝑉 × 𝑉 → 𝐹 defined as 𝑔(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑓(𝑇𝑢, 𝑇𝑣) then prove
that 𝑔 is a bilinear form on 𝑉

Sol.: We have 𝑔( 𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛽𝑢2 , 𝑣) = 𝑓(𝑇(𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛽𝑢2 ), 𝑇𝑣)

= 𝑓(𝛼𝑇𝑢1 + 𝛽𝑇𝑢2 , 𝑇𝑣)(𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

= 𝛼𝑓(𝑇𝑢1 , 𝑇𝑣) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑇𝑢2 , 𝑇𝑣)(𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)

= 𝛼𝑔(𝑢1 , 𝑣) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑢2 , 𝑣)

Also

𝑔(𝑢, 𝛼𝑣1 + 𝛽𝑣2 ) = 𝑓(𝑇𝑢, 𝑇(𝛼𝑣1 + 𝛽𝑣2 ))

= 𝑓(𝑇𝑢, 𝛼𝑇𝑣1 + 𝛽𝑇𝑣2 )(𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

= 𝛼𝑓(𝑇𝑢, 𝑇𝑣1 ) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑇𝑢, 𝑇𝑣2 )(𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)

= 𝛼𝑔(𝑢, 𝑣1 ) + 𝛽𝑔(𝑢, 𝑣2 )

∴ 𝑔 is a bilinear form on 𝑉.

If for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2 the map <, >defined as

< 𝑥, 𝑦 >= 𝑥1 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥2 (2𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) then show that (𝑅 2 , <, >) is an inner product
space
 10

Practical 4

Examples of orthogonalization and orthonormalization of basis

through Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process

Q. 1: Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to basis B= {(-1,0,1), (1, -1,0), (0,0,1)} to

get orthogonal and orthonormal basis for R3.

Solution: We obtain orthogonal basis {𝑢𝑖 }3𝑖=1 for the basis {𝑣𝑖 }3𝑖=1 of V using Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization process as follow.

Let us suppose that 𝑣1 = (−1,0,1), 𝑣2 = (1, −1,0) and 𝑣3 = (0,0,1)

Let 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 = (−1,0,1)

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈(1,−1,0),(−1,0,1)〉
Now 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 〈𝑢2 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 = (1, −1,0) − 〈(−1,0,1),(−1,0,1)〉 (−1,0,1)
1 1

1 1 1
= (1, −1,0) + 2 (−1,0,1) = (2 , −1, 2)

1 1
Thus, we get 𝑢2 = ( , −1, )
2 2

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
Now 𝑢3 = 𝑣3 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢2 〉 𝑢2
1 1 2 2

1 1
〈(0,0,1),(−1,0,1)〉 〈(0,0,1),( ,−1, ) 〉 1 1
2 2
= (0,0,1) − 〈(−1,0,1),(−1,0,1)〉 (−1,0,1) − 1 1 1 1 (2 , −1, 2)
〈( ,−1, ) ,( ,−1, ) 〉
2 2 2 2

1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (0,0,1) − 2 (−1,0,1) − 26 (2 , −1, 2) = (0,0,1) − 2 (−1,0,1) − 3 (2 , −1, 2) = (3 , 3 , 3)
4

1 1 1
Thus, we get 𝑢3 = ( , , )
3 3 3

∴ {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is the orthogonal basis to given basis

1 1 1 1 1
i.e {((−1,0,1), (2 , −1, 2), (3 , 3 , 3)}is the orthogonal basis.

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
Let 𝑥1 = ‖𝑢1 ‖ , 𝑥2 = ‖𝑢2‖ and 𝑥3 = ‖𝑢3 ‖
1 2 3
 11

1 1 1 1
(−1,0,1) (−1,0,1) −1 1 ( ,−1, ) ( ,−1, ) 1 −2 1
2 2 2 2
𝑥1 = = =( , 0, ) , 𝑥2 = = =( , , ),
√(−1)2 +(0)2 +(1)2 √2 √2 √2 2
√(1) +(−1)2 +(1)
2
√
6 √6 √6 √6
2 2 4

1 1 1
( ,
, ) 1 1 1
3 3 3
and 𝑥3 = 2 2 2
=( , , )
√(1) +(1) +(1) √3 √3 √3
3 3 3

∴ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } is the orthonormal basis to given basis.

−1 1 1 −2 1 1 1 1
i.e. {( , 0, ), ( , , ), ( , , )} is the orthonormal basis to given basis.
√2 √2 √6 √6 √6 √3 √3 √3

Q. 2: Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to basis

B= {(-1,1,1), (1, -1,1), (1,1, -1)} to get orthogonal and the orthonormal basis for R3.

Solution: We obtain orthogonal basis {𝑢𝑖 }3𝑖=1 for the basis {𝑣𝑖 }3𝑖=1 of V using Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization process as follow.

Let us suppose that 𝑣1 = (−1,1,1), 𝑣2 = (1, −1,1) and 𝑣3 = (1,1, −1)

Let 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 = (−1,1,1)

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈(1,−1,1),(−1,1,1)〉
Now 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 〈𝑢2 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 = (1, −1,1) − 〈(−1,1,1),(−1,1,1)〉 (−1,1,1)
1 1

1 2 2 4
= (1, −1,1) + 3 (−1,1,1) = (3 , − 3 , 3)

2 2 4
Thus, we get 𝑢2 = (3 , − 3 , 3)

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
Now 𝑢3 = 𝑣3 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢2 〉 𝑢2
1 1 2 2

2 24
〈(1,1,−1),(−1,1,1)〉 〈(1,1,−1),( ,− , ) 〉 2 2 4
3 33
= (1,1, −1) − 〈(−1,1,1),(−1,1,1)〉 (−1,1,1) − 2 24 2 24 ( , − 3 , 3)
〈( ,− , ) ,( ,− , ) 〉 3
3 33 3 33

−4
1 3 2 2 4 1 1 2 2 4
= (1,1, −1) + 3 (−1,1,1) − 24 (3 , − 3 , 3) = (1,1, −1) + 3 (−1,1,1) + 2 (3 , − 3 , 3) = (1,1,0)
9

Thus, we get 𝑢3 = (1,1,0)

∴ {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is the orthogonal basis to given basis

 12

2 −2 4
i.e {(-1,1,1),( , , ),(1,1,0)} is the orthogonal basis.
3 3 3

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
Let 𝑥1 = ‖𝑢1 ‖ , 𝑥2 = ‖𝑢2‖ and 𝑥3 = ‖𝑢3 ‖
1 2 3

2 −2 4 2 −2 4
(−1,1,1) (−1,1,1) ( ,
, ) ( , , ) 2 −2 4
3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑥1 = = , 𝑥2 = = =( , , ),
√(−1)2 +(1)2 +(1)2 √3 2 2
√(2) +(−2) +(4)
2
√
24 √24 √24 √24
3 3 3 9

(1,1,0) (1,1,0)
and 𝑥3 = =
√(1)2 +(1)2 +(0)2 √2

∴ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } is the orthonoramal basis to given basis.

−1 1 1 2 −2 4 1 1
i.e. {( , ,, ,),( ,, , ), ( , , 0)} is the orthonoramal basis to given basis.
√3 √3 √3 √24 √24 √24 √2 √2

Q. 3: Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to basis

B = {(1,0,1,1), (-1,0, -1,1), (0, -1,1,1)} to get orthogonal and the orthonormal basis for R4.

Solution: We obtain orthogonal basis {𝑢𝑖 }3𝑖=1 for the basis {𝑣𝑖 }3𝑖=1 of V using Gram-Schmidt
〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
orthogonalization process 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑣𝑘 − ∑𝑘−1 𝑘 𝑖
𝑘=1 〈𝑢 ,𝑢 〉 𝑢𝑖 as follow.
𝑖 𝑖

Let us suppose that 𝑣1 = (1,0,1,1), 𝑣2 = (−1,0, −1,1) and 𝑣3 = (0, −1,1,1)

Let 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 = (1,0,1,1)

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈(−1,0,−1,1),(1,0,1,1)〉
Now 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 〈𝑢2 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 = (-1,0,-1,1)− 〈(1,0,1,1),(1,0,1,1)〉
(1,0,1,1)
1 1

1 −2 −2 4
= (−1,0, −1,1) + 3 (1,0,1,1) = ( , 0, , 3)
3 3

−2 −2 4
Thus, we get 𝑢2 = ( , 0, , 3)
3 3

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
Now 𝑢3 = 𝑣3 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢2 〉 𝑢2
1 1 2 2

−2 −2 4
〈(0,−1,1,1),(1,0,1,1)〉 〈(0,−1,1,1),(
,0, , ) 〉 −2 −2 4
3 3 3
= (0, −1,1,1) − 〈(1,0,1,1),(1,0,1,1)〉
(1,0,1,1) − −2 −2 4 −2 −2 4 ( , 0, , 3)
〈( ,0, , ),( ,0, , ) 〉 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3

2 1 −2 −2 4 −1 1
= (0, −1,1,1) − 3 (1,0,1,1) − 4 ( , 0, , 3) = ( , −1, 2 , 0)
3 3 2

−1 1
Thus, we get 𝑢3 = ( , −1, 2 , 0)
2
 13

∴ {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is the orthogonal basis to given basis

−2 −2 4 −1 1
i.e {(1, 0, 1, 1), ( , 0. , 3),( , −1, 2 , 0)}is the orthogonal basis.
3 3 2

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
Let 𝑥1 = ‖𝑢1 ‖ , 𝑥2 = ‖𝑢2‖ and 𝑥3 = ‖𝑢3 ‖
1 2 3

−2 −2 4 −2 −2 4
(1,0,1,1) (1,0,1,1) ( ,0. , ) ( ,0. , ) −1 −1 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑥1 = = , 𝑥2 = = =( , 0, , )
√(1)2 +(0)2 +(1)2 +(1) 2 √3 2 2
√(−2) +(0)2 +(−2) +(4)
2
√
24 √6 √6 √6
3 3 3 9

−1 1 −1 1
( ,−1, ,0) ( ,−1, ,0) −1 −2 1
2 2 2 2
and 𝑥3 = 2 2
= =( , , , 0)}
√(−1) +(−1)2 +(1) +(0)2 √
6 √6 √6 √6
2 2 4

∴ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } is the orthonormal basis to given basis.

−1 1 1 −1 −1 2 −1 −2 1
i.e. {( , 0, , ), ( , 0, , ), ( , , , 0)} is the orthonormal basis to given basis.
√3 √3 √3 √6 √6 √6 √6 √6 √6

Q. 4: Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to basis B={1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } of 𝑃2 [−1,1] to get

orthogonal and the orthonormal basis of 𝑃2 [−1,1] . Using inner product defined by 𝑓. 𝑔 =
1
∫−1 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

Solution: Let us suppose that 𝑣1 = 1 𝑣2 = 𝑥 and 𝑣3 = 𝑥 2

Let 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 = 1

1
𝑥2
1 [ ]
〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑥.1〉 ∫−1 𝑥.𝑑𝑥 2 −1 0
Now 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 〈𝑢2 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 = 𝑥 − 〈1.1〉 1 = 𝑥 − 1 1=𝑥− [𝑥]1−1
1 = 𝑥 −21 = 𝑥
1 1 ∫−1 1.𝑑𝑥

Thus, we get 𝑢2 = 𝑥

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
Now 𝑢3 = 𝑣3 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢2 〉 𝑢2
1 1 2 2

1 1
〈(𝑥 2 ,1〉 〈𝑥 2 ,𝑥 〉 ∫−1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ∫−1 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥2 − 〈1,1〉
1− 〈𝑥,𝑥 〉
𝑥 =𝑥 2 − 1 1− 1 𝑥
∫−1 1.𝑑𝑥 ∫−1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑥3 𝑥4 2
[ ] [ ]
3 −1 4 −1 0 1
=𝑥 2 − [𝑥]1−1
1− 1 𝑥 =𝑥 2 − 3
1− 2 𝑥 = (𝑥 2 − 3)
𝑥3 2
[ ] 3
3 −1

1
Thus, we get 𝑢3 = (𝑥 2 − 3)
 14

∴ {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is the orthogonal basis to given basis

1
i.e {1, 𝑥, (𝑥 2 − 3)} is the orthogonal basis.

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
Let 𝑥1 = ‖𝑢1 ‖ , 𝑥2 = ‖𝑢2‖ and 𝑥3 = ‖𝑢3 ‖
1 2 3

1 1
𝑥1 = = ,
1
√∫−1 1.1𝑑𝑥 √2

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 √3𝑥
𝑥2 = = = = =
1 1
√∫−1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1 2 √2
√∫−1 𝑥.𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥3 √
√[ ] 3
3 −1

1 1 1 1
(𝑥 2 − ) (𝑥 2 − ) (𝑥 2 − ) (𝑥 2 − ) 3√5 1
and 𝑥3 = 1 1 1
3
= 1
3
1
= 1 2
3
1
= 3
8
= 2√2 (𝑥 2 − 3)}
√∫−1(𝑥 2 − ).(𝑥 2 − )𝑑𝑥 √∫−1(𝑥 2 − )2 𝑑𝑥 √∫−1(𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + )𝑑𝑥 √
3 3 3 3 9 45

∴ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } is the orthonormal basis to given basis.

1 √3𝑥 3√5 1
i.e. { , , (𝑥 2 − 3)} is the orthonormal basis to given basis.
√2 √2 2√2

Q. 5: Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to basis B = {1, 1 + 𝑥, 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 }

of 𝑃2 [0,1] to get orthogonal and the orthonormal basis of 𝑃2 [0,1] . Using inner product
1
defined by 𝑓. 𝑔 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Solution: Let us suppose that 𝑣1 = 1 𝑣2 = 1 + 𝑥 and 𝑣3 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2

Let 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 = 1

1
〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈1+𝑥.1〉 ∫0 (1+𝑥).1𝑑𝑥
Now 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 〈𝑢2 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 = 1 + 𝑥 − 〈1.1〉
1=1+𝑥− 1 1
1 1 ∫0 1.1𝑑𝑥

1
𝑥2
[𝑥+ ]
2 0 3 1
=1+𝑥− [𝑥]10
1 = 1 + 𝑥 − 21 = 𝑥 − 2

1
Thus, we get 𝑢2 = (𝑥 − 2)

〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉 〈𝑣 ,𝑢 〉
Now 𝑢3 = 𝑣3 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢1 〉 𝑢1 − 〈𝑢3 ,𝑢2 〉 𝑢2
1 1 2 2

1
〈((1+𝑥+𝑥 2 ),1〉 〈(1+𝑥+𝑥 2 ),(𝑥− ) 〉 1
= (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − 〈1,1〉
1− 1 1
2
(𝑥 − 2)
〈(𝑥− ),(𝑥− ) 〉
2 2
 15

1 1𝑥 𝑥2 1
2 ∫0 (1+𝑥+𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 ∫0 2+ 2 +𝑥 3 −2𝑑𝑥 1
=(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) − 1 1− 1 1 (𝑥 − 2)
∫0 1.𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑥 2 −𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥
4

1 1
𝑥2 𝑥 3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥
[𝑥+ + ] [ + + − ]
2 3 0 4 6 4 2 0 1
=(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − [𝑥]10
1− 1 (𝑥 − 2)
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥
[ − + ]
3 2 4 0

11 1
11 1 1
=(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − 6
1− 1
6
𝑥 = (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − − 2 (𝑥 − 2) = (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)
1 6
12

1
Thus, we get 𝑢3 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)

∴ {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is the orthogonal basis to given basis

1 1
i.e {1, (𝑥 − 2), (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)} is the orthogonal basis.

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
Let 𝑥1 = ‖𝑢1 ‖ , 𝑥2 = ‖𝑢2‖ and 𝑥3 = ‖𝑢3 ‖
1 2 3

1 1 1 1
𝑥1 = = = [𝑥]1 = 1 = 1,
1 1 0
√∫0 1.1𝑑𝑥 √∫0 1.𝑑𝑥

1 1 1 1
(𝑥− ) (𝑥− ) (𝑥− ) (𝑥− )
2 2 2 2
𝑥2 = 1 1 1
= 1 1
= 1 1
=
1
√∫0 (𝑥− ).(𝑥− )𝑑𝑥 √∫0 (𝑥− )2 𝑑𝑥 √∫0 𝑥 2 −𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥 3 2
2 2 2 4 √ [𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 ]
3 2 4 0

1
(𝑥− ) 1
2
= 1
= 2√3(𝑥 − 2)
√
12

1 1
(𝑥 2 −𝑥+ ) (𝑥 2 −𝑥+ )
6 6
and 𝑥3 = 1 1 1
= 1 2 1
√∫0 (𝑥 2 −𝑥+ ).(𝑥 2 −𝑥+ )𝑑𝑥 √∫9 (𝑥 −𝑥+ )2 𝑑𝑥
6 6 6

1 1 1
(𝑥 2 −𝑥+ ) (𝑥 2 −𝑥+ ) (𝑥 2 −𝑥+ ) 1
= 6
= 6
= 6
= 6√5(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + )
1 4 𝑥 1 1 1 6
√∫0 (𝑥 4 −2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − + )𝑑𝑥 5 4 3 2 √
3 3 36 √[𝑥 −2𝑥 +4𝑥 −𝑥 + 𝑥 ] 180
5 4 9 6 36 0

∴ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } is the orthonormal basis to given basis.

1 1
i.e. {1,2√3(𝑥 − 2),6√5(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)} is the orthonormal basis to given basis.
 16

Practical 5

Examples of finding value of determinant through the properties.

𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Q. 1 Prove that |2𝑎 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 | = 𝑎3 .
3𝑎 6𝑎 + 3𝑏 10𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 3𝑐

Solution. Let

𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Δ = |2𝑎 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 |.
3𝑎 6𝑎 + 3𝑏 10𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 3𝑐

Applying operations 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 to the given determinant, we have

𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

|2𝑎 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 | = |0 𝑎 2𝑎 + 𝑏 |
3𝑎 6𝑎 + 3𝑏 10𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 3𝑐 0 3𝑎 7𝑎 + 3𝑏

Now applying 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅2 , we get

𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Δ = |0 𝑎 2𝑎 + 𝑏 |
0 0 𝑎

Now using the property that the determinant of upper triangular matrix is the product of its
diagonal entries, we get Δ = 𝑎3 .

1+𝑎 1 1
1 1 1
Q.2 Show that | 1 1+𝑏 1 | = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏.
1 1 1+𝑐

Solution. Taking out factors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 common from 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 , we get

1 1 1
+1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
1+𝑎 1 1 | 1 1 1 |
Δ=| 1 1+𝑏 1 | = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 +1
1 1 1+𝑐 | 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 |
1 1 1
+1
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 , we have
 17

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + 1+ + + 1+ + +
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
| 1 1 1 |
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 +1
| 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 |
1 1 1
+1
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 +1
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1 + + + ) ||𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 ||
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 1 1 1
+1
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Now applying 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 − 𝐶1 , 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶1 , we get

1 0 0
1
1 1 1 | 1 0|
Δ = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1 + + + ) |𝑏 |
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 1
0 1
𝑐

1 1 1
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1 + + + )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

1 𝑎 𝑎2 0 1 𝑎+𝑏
Q.3 Prove that |1 𝑏 𝑏 2 | = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑐 − 𝑎) |0 0 1 |.
1 𝑐 𝑐2 1 𝑐 𝑐2

Solution. Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 and 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅3 , we get

1 𝑎 𝑎2 0 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Δ = |1 𝑏 𝑏 2 | = |0 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 |
1 𝑐 𝑐2 1 𝑐 𝑐2

0 1 𝑎+𝑏
∴ Δ = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐) |0 1 𝑏 + 𝑐|
1 𝑐 𝑐2

Now applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 we get

0 1 𝑎+𝑏
Δ = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐) |0 0 𝑐 − 𝑎 |
1 𝑐 𝑐2

0 1 𝑎+𝑏
∴ Δ = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑐 − 𝑎) |0 0 1 |
1 𝑐 𝑐2
 18

𝑥 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥3
Q.4. If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are different and Δ = |𝑦 𝑦2 1 + 𝑦 3 | = 0, then show that 1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 0.
𝑧 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧3

𝑥 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥3
Solution. We have Δ = |𝑦 𝑦2 1 + 𝑦 3 | . From property of determinant we have
𝑧 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧3

𝑥 𝑥2 1 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
Δ = |𝑦 𝑦2 1| + |𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦3|
𝑧 𝑧2 1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3

Using 𝐶1 ↔ 𝐶2 and then 𝐶1 ↔ 𝐶2 we have,

1 𝑥 𝑥2 1 𝑥 𝑥2
Δ= (−1)2 |1 𝑦 𝑦 2 | + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 |1 𝑦 𝑦2|
1 𝑧 𝑧2 1 𝑧 𝑧2

1 𝑥 𝑥2
= |1 𝑦 𝑦 2 | (1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧)
1 𝑧 𝑧2

Using 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 we get

1 𝑥 𝑥2
(1
Δ = + 𝑥𝑦𝑧) |0 𝑦−𝑥 𝑦2 − 𝑥2|
0 𝑧−𝑥 𝑧2 − 𝑥2

Taking out common factor (𝑦 − 𝑥) from 𝑅2 and (𝑧 − 𝑥) from 𝑅3 , we get

1 𝑥 𝑥2
Δ = (1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧)(𝑦 − 𝑥)(𝑧 − 𝑥) |0 1 𝑦 + 𝑥|
0 1 𝑧+𝑥

= (1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧)(𝑦 − 𝑥)(𝑧 − 𝑥)(𝑧 − 𝑦)

Since Δ = 0 and 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are all different, we have 1 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 0.

𝑏+𝑐 𝑎 𝑎
Q.5 Prove that | 𝑏 𝑐+𝑎 𝑏 | = 4𝑎𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏

𝑏+𝑐 𝑎 𝑎
Let Δ = | 𝑏 𝑐+𝑎 𝑏 |. Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 − 𝑅3 to Δ, we get
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏
 19

0 −2𝑐 −2𝑏
Δ = |𝑏 𝑐+𝑎 𝑏 |
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏

Expanding along 𝑅1 , we obtain

𝑐+𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐+𝑎
Δ = 0| | − (−2𝑐) | | + (−2𝑏) | |
𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐 𝑐

= 2𝑐(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑏𝑐) − 2𝑏(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑐)

= 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑏 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 2 − 2𝑏 2 𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 4𝑎𝑏𝑐.

Practical 6

Examples of finding eigen values and eigen vectors of a square

matrix.

5 2
Q.1 Let 𝐴 = [ ] find Eigen value and Eigen Vector.
1 4

Ans: Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of A.

So, The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.

5−𝜆 2
⇒| | = 0.
1 4−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 3,6

Thus, 𝜆 = 3 & 6 are the eigen value of A.

𝑥1
Let, 𝑋 = [𝑥 ] be the Eigen Vector of A.
2

For 𝜆 = 3

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

5−𝜆 2 𝑥1
⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = 0
1 4−𝜆 2

2 2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ ][ ] = [ ]
1 1 𝑥2 0
 20

⇒ 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 0 & 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0

⇒ 𝑥1 = −𝑥2 = 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥1 𝑘 1
⇒ 𝑥 = [𝑥 ] = [ ] = [ ] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
2 −𝑘 −1

1
So, {[ ] 𝑘/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 3.
−1

For 𝜆 = 6

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

5−𝜆 2 𝑥1
⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = 0
1 4−𝜆 2

−1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
1 −2 2 0

⇒ −𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 0 & 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 0

⇒ 𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 = 2𝑘, 2𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥1 2𝑘 2
⇒ 𝑥 = [𝑥 ] = [ ] = [ ] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
2 𝑘 1

2
So, {[ ] 𝑘/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 6.
1

2 −1 1
Q.2. Let 𝐴 = [−1 2 1] Find Eigen value and Eigen Vector.
1 −1 2

Ans: Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of A.

So, The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.

2−𝜆 −1 1
⇒ [ −1 2−𝜆 1 ]=0
1 −1 2−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 1,2,3.

For 𝜆 = 1

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0
 21

2−𝜆 −1 1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 2−𝜆 1 ] [𝑦 ]=0
1 −1 2−𝜆 𝑧

1 −1 1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 1 1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 1 𝑧 0

⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 , −𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0.

⇒ 𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 𝑘 1
𝑦
𝑥 = [ ] = [𝑘] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 0 0

1
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 1.
0

For 𝜆 = 2

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

2−𝜆 −1 1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 2−𝜆 1 ] [𝑦] = 0
1 −1 2−𝜆 𝑧

0 −1 1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 0 1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 0 𝑧 0

⇒ −𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 , −𝑥 + 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0.

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 𝑘 1
𝑥 = [𝑦] = [𝑘] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 𝑘 1

1
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 2.
1

For 𝜆 = 3

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0
 22

2−𝜆 −1 1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 2−𝜆 1 ] [𝑦 ]=0
1 −1 2−𝜆 𝑧

−1 −1 1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 −1 1 ] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 −1 𝑧 0

⇒ −𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 , 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0.

⇒ 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑧 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 𝑘 1
𝑦
𝑥 = [ ] = [0] = [0] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 𝑘 1

1
So, {[0] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 3.
1

0 1 −1
Q. 3 Let 𝐿: 𝑅 3 → 𝑅 3 for which matrix with respect to the standard basis is [−1 4 −1]
−1 5 −2

Ans: Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of A.

So, The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.

0−𝜆 1 −1
⇒ [ −1 4−𝜆 −1 ] = 0
−1 5 −2 − 𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 0, −1,3.

For 𝜆 = 0

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

0−𝜆 1 −1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 4−𝜆 −1 ] [𝑦] = 0
−1 5 −2 − 𝜆 𝑧

0 1 −1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 4 𝑦
−1] [ ] = [0]
−1 5 −2 𝑧 0

⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 , −𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0, − 𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0.
 23

⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 3𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 3𝑘 3
𝑥 = [𝑦] = [ 𝑘 ] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 𝑘 1

3
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 0.
1

For 𝜆 = −1

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

0−𝜆 1 −1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 4−𝜆 −1 ] [𝑦] = 0
−1 5 −2 − 𝜆 𝑧

1 1 −1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 5 −1] [ 𝑦 ] = [ 0]
−1 5 −1 𝑧 0

⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 , −𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0, − 𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0.

⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝑘, 𝑦 = 𝑘, 𝑧 = 3𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 2𝑘 2
𝑥 = [𝑦] = [ 𝑘 ] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 3𝑘 3

2
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = −1.
3

For 𝜆 = 3

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

0−𝜆 1 −1 𝑥
⇒ [ −1 4−𝜆 −1 ] [𝑦] = 0
−1 5 −2 − 𝜆 𝑧

−3 1 −1 𝑥 0
⇒ [−1 1 −1] [𝑦] = [0]
−1 5 −5 𝑧 0

⇒ −3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 , − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0, −𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0.
 24

⇒ 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 0 0
𝑥 = [𝑦] = [𝑘] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 𝑘 1

0
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 3.
1

Practical 7

Examples of the verification of Caley-Hamilton Theorem

1 1 3
Q. 1 Verify Caley-Hamilton’s Theorem for the Matrix 𝐴 = [ 1 3 −3].
−2 −4 −4

Ans: The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

2−𝜆 −1 1
⇒ [ −1 2−𝜆 1 ]=0
1 −1 2−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆3 − 20𝜆 + 8 = 0 (1)

So, By Caley-Hamiton’s Theorem 𝐴3 − 20𝐴 + 8𝐼 = 0 (2)

Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴 × 𝐴

1 1 3 1 1 3
=[ 1 3 −3] × [ 1 3 −3]
−2 −4 −4 −2 −4 −4

−4 −8 −12
= [ 10 22 6 ]
2 2 22

Now, 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 × 𝐴

−4 −8 −12 1 1 3
= [ 10 22 6 ]×[ 1 3 −3]
2 2 22 −2 −4 −4
 25

12 20 60
= [ 20 52 −60]
−40 −80 −88

Putting Value of 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 in Equation (2) we get

12 20 60 20 20 60 8 0 0
𝐴3 − 20𝐴 + 8𝐼 = [ 20 52 −60] − [ 20 60 −60] + [0 8 0]
−40 −80 −88 −40 −80 −80 0 0 8

0 0 0
= [0 0 0]
0 0 0

So, Caley-Hamilton’s Theorem Verified.

Q. 2: Find the Characteristic Equations

0 −2 −2
𝐴 = [−2 −3 −2]
3 −6 5
Verify Caley-Hamilton theorem and find the matrix represent by 𝐴8 − 2𝐴7 −
25𝐴6 + 50𝐴5 + 𝐴4 − 2𝐴3 − 26 𝐴2 + 51𝐴 + 𝐼

Ans: The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

−𝜆 −2 −2
⇒ [−2 −3 − 𝜆 −2 ] = 0
3 −6 5−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆3 − 2𝜆2 − 25𝜆 + 50 = 0 (1)

So, By Caley-Hamiton’s Theorem 𝐴3 − 2𝐴2 − 25𝐴 + 50𝐼 = 0 (2)

Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴 × 𝐴

0 −2 −2 0 −2 −2
= [−2 −3 −2] × [−2 −3 −2]
3 −6 5 3 −6 5

−2 18 −6
=[ 0 25 0]
27 −18 31

Now, 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 × 𝐴
 26

−2 18 −6 0 −2 −2
=[ 0 25 0 ] × [ −2 −3 −2]
27 −18 31 3 −6 5

−54 −14 −62

= [−50 −75 −50]
129 −186 137

Putting Value of 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 in Equation (2) we get

𝐴3 − 2𝐴2 − 25𝐴 + 50𝐼

−54 −14 −62 −4 36 −12 0 −50 −50
= [−50 −75 −50] − [ 0 50 0 ] − [−50 −75 −50]
129 −186 137 54 −36 62 75 −150 125
50 0 0
+ [ 0 50 0 ]
0 0 50

0 0 0
= [0 0 0]
0 0 0

So, Caley-Hamilton’s Theorem Verified.

Now, 𝐴8 − 2𝐴7 − 25𝐴6 + 50𝐴5 + 𝐴4 − 2𝐴3 − 26 𝐴2 + 51𝐴 + 𝐼

= 𝐴5 (𝐴3 − 2𝐴2 − 25𝐴 + 50𝐼) + 𝐴(𝐴3 − 2𝐴2 − 25𝐴 + 50𝐼) − 𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐼

= 𝐴5 (0) + 𝐴(0) − 𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐼

= −𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐼

−2 18 −6 0 −2 −2 1 0 0
= −[ 0 25 0 ] + [−2 −3 −2] + [0 1 0]
27 −18 31 3 −6 5 0 0 1

3 −20 4
= [ −2 −27 −2 ]
−24 12 −25

Q. 3 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 20𝑦 = 5. Describe the conic.

Ans: Here 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) = 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 20𝑦 − 5

9 −2
The Symmetric matrix corresponding this Quadratic form is 𝐴 = [ ],
−2 6
 27

𝑘 = [−10 − 20]

Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of A.

So, The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.

9−𝜆 −2
⇒| | = 0.
−2 6−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 5,10

Thus, 𝜆 = 5 & 10 are the eigen value of A.

𝑥1
Let, 𝑋 = [𝑥 ] be the Eigen Vector of A.
2

For 𝜆 = 5

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

9−𝜆 −2 𝑥1
⇒| |[ ] = 0
−2 6 − 𝜆 𝑥2

4 −2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
−2 1 2 0

⇒ 4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 0 & −2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0

⇒ 𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 = 2𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥1 𝑘 1
⇒ 𝑥 = [𝑥 ] = [ ] = [ ] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
2 2𝑘 2

1
So, {[ ] 𝑘/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 5.
2

For 𝜆 = 10

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

9−𝜆 −2 𝑥1
⇒| |[ ] = 0
−2 6 − 𝜆 𝑥2

−1 −2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
−2 −4 2 0

⇒ −𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 0 & −2𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 = 0

 28

⇒ 𝑥1 = −2𝑥2 = −2𝑘, 2𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥1 2𝑘 2
⇒ 𝑥 = [𝑥 ] = [ ] = [ ] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
2 −𝑘 −1

2
So, {[ ] 𝑘/𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 10.
−1

Now, ‖𝑥1 ‖ = √5, ‖𝑥2 ‖ = √5

Orthogonal Matrix:

𝑃 = [𝑥̂1 𝑥̂2 ]

1 2
√5 √5
=[ 2 −1]
√5 √5

Diagonal Matrix:

5 0
𝐷=[ ]
0 10

Now, 𝑥 𝑇 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑇 𝐷𝑦

5 0 𝑦1
= [𝑦1 𝑦2 ] [ ][ ]
0 10 𝑦2

𝑥 𝑇 𝐴𝑥=5𝑦1 2 + 10𝑦2 2

Now, 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑝𝑦

1 2
𝑦1 +
𝑦2
⇒ 𝑝𝑦 = √5 √5
2 1
𝑦1 − 𝑦2
[√5 √5 ]

−50
⇒ 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑦1
√5

Canonical form is: 𝑦 𝑇 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑘𝑝𝑦 = 𝑑1

𝑢2 𝑣2
Putting all values, we get: 2 + 2 = 1 is the Equation of Ellipse.
(√6) (√3)
 29

Q. 4 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 + 4𝑥𝑧 + 4𝑦𝑧 = 4. Describe the conic.

Ans: Here 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 + 4𝑥𝑧 + 4𝑦𝑧 = 4

3 2 2
The Symmetric matrix corresponding this Quadratic form is 𝐴 = [2 3 2]
2 2 3

Let 𝜆 be the Eigen value of A.

So, The Characteristic Equation is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.

3−𝜆 2 2
⇒[ 2 3−𝜆 2 ]=0
2 2 3−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 1,1,7.

For 𝜆 = 1

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

3−𝜆 2 2 𝑥
⇒[ 2 3−𝜆 2 ] [𝑦] = 0
2 2 3−𝜆 𝑧

2 2 2 𝑥 0
⇒ [2 2 2] [𝑦] = [0]
2 2 2 𝑧 0

⇒ 2 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0.

⇒ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑘, 𝑦 = 𝑠 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = −𝑠 − 𝑘 𝑠, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

−1 −1
So, {[ 1 ] 𝑘 & [ 0 ] 𝑠/ 𝑘, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value
0 1
𝜆 = 1.

For 𝜆 = 7

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝑥) = 0

3−𝜆 2 2 𝑥
⇒[ 2 3−𝜆 2 ] [𝑦] = 0
2 2 3−𝜆 𝑧
 30

−4 2 2 𝑥 0
⇒ [ 2 −4 2 ] [𝑦] = [0]
2 2 −4 𝑧 0

⇒ −4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 , 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0,2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 0.

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑘, 𝑦 = 𝑘, 𝑧 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}

𝑥 𝑘 1
𝑥 = [𝑦] = [𝑘] = [1] 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑧 𝑘 1

1
So, {[1] 𝑘/ 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}} is Eigen vector of A corresponding to Eigen Value 𝜆 = 7.
1

Now, ‖𝑥1 ‖ = √2, ‖𝑥2 ‖ = √3, ‖𝑥3 ‖ = √6

Orthogonal Matrix:

𝑃 = [𝑥̂1 𝑥̂2 ̂𝑥3 ]

1 1 1
−
√2 √3 √6
1 1 1
=
√2 √3 √6
1 2
0 −
[ √3 √6]

1 0 0
Diagonal Matrix: 𝐷 = [0 1 0]
0 0 7

Let 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 which transform Quadratic form into canonical form then we get,

𝑥1 2 𝑦1 2 𝑧1 2
+ + 4 = 1 is Equation of an Ellipsoid.
4 4
7

Practical 8

Examples of diagonalization of square matrices

1 4
Q.1. Diagonalize the matrix A = [ ]
3 2
 31

Ans.: The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

1−𝜆 4
⇒| |=0
3 2−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 5, −2

Thus, Eigen Values are -2 and 5.

Now by Characteristic matrix:

[𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼]𝑋 = 0

1−𝜆 4 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦] = [ ]
3 2−𝜆 0

For, 𝜆 = −2

3 4 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦 ] = [ ]
3 4 0

⇒ 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0 And 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0

⇒ 3𝑥 = −4𝑦 = −4𝑘 , where 𝑘𝜖𝑅.

−4
𝑥
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ 3 ] ,where 𝑘𝜖𝑅.
1

For, 𝜆 = 5

−4 4 𝑥 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
3 −3 𝑦 0

⇒ −4𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0 And 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑘 , where 𝑘𝜖𝑅.

𝑥 1
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ ] ,where 𝑘𝜖𝑅.
1

−4
1
Now the Modal matrix 𝑃 = [ 3 ]
1 1

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑃 −7 1 −1
Also, 𝑃−1 = ,where |𝑃| = and 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑃 = [ −1 −4 ]
|𝑃| 3
3
 32

−3 3
⇒ 𝑃−1 =[ 7 7]
3 4
7 7

∴The Diagonal matrix is

𝐷 = 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃

−3 3
−4
=[ 7 7] [1 4
] [ 3 1]
3 4 3 2
1 1
7 7

−2 0
𝐷=[ ]
0 5

3 −1 1
Q.2 Find an orthogonal matrix P that Diagonalize the matrix 𝐴 = [−1 5 −1]
1 −1 3

Ans. The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

3−𝜆 −1 1
⇒ | −1 5−𝜆 −1 | = 0
1 −1 3−𝜆

⇒ 𝜆3 − 11𝜆2 + 36𝜆 − 36 = 0

⇒The Eigen values are 𝜆 = 2,3 and 6.

Now by Characteristic Matrix:

[𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼]𝑋 = 0

3−𝜆 −1 1 𝑥 0
[ −1 5−𝜆 −1 ] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 3−𝜆 𝑧 0

For, 𝜆 = 2

1 −1 1 𝑥 0
[−1 3 −1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 1 𝑧 0

⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, −𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
 33

After solving above equations,

𝑥 1
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ 0 ].
𝑧 −1

For, 𝜆 = 3

0 −1 1 𝑥 0
[−1 2 −1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 0 𝑧 0

⇒ −𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, −𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0

After solving above equations,

𝑥 1
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ 1].
𝑧 1

For, 𝜆 = 6

−3 −1 1 𝑥 0
[−1 −1 −1] [𝑦] = [0]
1 −1 −3 𝑧 0

After solving above equations,

𝑥 1
𝑦
∴ Eigen Vector is [ ] = [−2].
𝑧 1

𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3
Now the Modal matrix 𝑃 = [|| 𝑋 ]
1 || || 𝑋2 || || 𝑋3 ||

1 1 1
√2 √3 √6
1 2
= 0 −
√3 √6
−1 1 1
[ √2 √3 √6]

∴The Diagonal matrix is

𝐷 = 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃

𝐷 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐴𝑃
 34

𝑇
1 1 1 1 1 1
√2 √3 √6 √2 √3 √6
1 2 3 −1 1 1 2
= 0 − [−1 5 −1] 0 −
√3 √6 1 −1 3 √3 √6
−1 1 1 −1 1 1
[ √2 √3 √6] [ √2 √3 √6]

2 0 0
∴ 𝐷 = [0 3 0]
0 0 6

Q.3 Transform the Quadratic form 𝑄(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑥1 2 − 8𝑥1 𝑥2 − 5𝑥2 2 into a Quadratic form
with no cross product.

1 −4
Ans.: The Symmetric matrix corresponding this Quadratic form is: A = [ ]
−4 −5

The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

1−𝜆 −4
⇒| |=0
−4 −5 − 𝜆

⇒ 𝜆 = 3, −7

Thus, Eigen Values are -7 and 3.

Now by Characteristic matrix:

[𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼]𝑋 = 0

1−𝜆 −4 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦 ] = [ ]
−4 −5 − 𝜆 0

For, 𝜆 = 3

−2 −4 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦] = [ ]
−4 −8 0

⇒ −2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0 And −4𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = −2𝑦 = 2𝑘 ,where k𝜖𝑅.

𝑥 2
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ ] and || 𝑋1 || = √5
−1
 35

2
−1
𝑋1 = [ ]
√5 √5

For, 𝜆 = −7

8 −4 𝑥 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−4 2 𝑦 0

⇒ 8𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0 And −4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0

⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑘 ,where k𝜖𝑅.

𝑥 1
∴ Eigen Vector is [𝑦] = [ ] and || 𝑋2 || = √5
2

1 2
𝑋1 = [ ]
√5 √5

2 1
√5 √5
So, the Modal matrix is P=[ −1 2 ]
√5 √5

Now the Diagonal matrix is

𝐷 = 𝑃−1 𝐴 𝑃

𝐷 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐴 𝑃

2 −1 2 1

= √5 √5 [ 1 −4] √5 √5
1 2 −4 −5 −1 2
[ √5 √5] [ √5 √5]

3 0
𝐷=[ ]
0 −7

Let 𝑋 = 𝑃𝑌 ,Transforming quadratic form into canonical form, so the canonical form is

𝑄 = 𝑋 ′ 𝐴𝑋 = (𝑃𝑌)′𝐴(𝑃𝑌)

𝑦2 ] [3 0 𝑦1
Therefore, 𝑄 = 𝑌′𝐷𝑌 = [𝑦1 ] [ ] 𝑄 = 3𝑦1 2 − 7𝑦2 2
0 −7 𝑦2

Which is a Quadratic form with no cross product.